CHAPTER 14 Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs Patricia Tricorache*, Kristin Nowell**, Günther Wirth†, Nicholas Mitchell‡,§, Lorraine K. Boast¶, Laurie Marker†† *Cheetah Conservation Fund, Islamorada, FL, United States **Cat Action Treasury and World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List Programme, Cape Neddick, ME, United States †Independent Researcher, Hargeisa, Somaliland ‡Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom §Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, NY, United States ¶Cheetah Conservation Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana ††Cheetah Conservation Fund, Otjiwarongo, Namibia
INTRODUCTION of detection, arrest, and conviction for wildlife crime are low (Akella and Cannon, 2004), and Illegal wildlife trade is the sale, purchase, or illegal wildlife trade has been associated with exchange of wildlife species, which is prohibited the decline of large carnivore species, includ- by law and, therefore, by definition, operates ing tigers (Panthera tigris) (Goodrich et al., 2015) outside government regulations (Nellemann and most recently cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) et al., 2014). It has a substantial impact on (Nowell, 2014). both global biodiversity and the economic Historically, cheetahs were kept by the aristoc- and structural growth of developing countries racy as pets or as coursing companions to hunt (Haken, 2011). It is estimated to be the fourth antelopes for sport (Chapter 2). This demand for most valuable global illegal activity after narcot- hunting pets continued in modern times, and is ics, counterfeit products, and human trafficking believed to have significantly contributed to the (Haken, 2011), and is valued at US $50–150 billion near disappearance of cheetahs in Asia by the per year (UNEP, 2014). Unfortunately, the rates mid-1980s (Divyabhanusinh, 1995; Chapter 4).
Cheetahs: Biology and Conservation http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804088-1.00014-9 191 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 192 14. Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs
FIGURE 14.1 (A) Pet cheetah in car in Kuwait. (B) Cheetah cubs at School Pet Day, International School in Sana’a, Yemen. Source: Part A, VICE Media LLC; part B, David Stanton.
Wild African cheetahs were commonly exported survival. Cheetahs are listed as Appendix I spe- from Africa for zoo exhibits; available data in- cies, meaning Parties signatory to CITES cannot dicate that 677 cheetahs were imported to sup- trade cheetahs internationally for commercial ply zoos, mostly in Europe and North America, purposes. Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Namibia between 1955 and 1975 (Marker-Kraus, 1829; since 1992 have had limited noncommercial an- Chapter 22). Cheetahs were also traded interna- nual export quotas of 5, 50, and 150 wild chee- tionally for their skins, which were popular as tahs, respectively, for live specimens or hunting clothing and ornaments in Europe and North trophies (CITES, 1992). In addition, captive-bred America, where an estimated 3000–5000 skins cheetahs may be traded for both commercial and were imported annually in the 1960s (Nowell noncommercial purposes (Chapter 21). and Jackson, 1996). Although international legal trade in wild Although knowledge of wildlife trade prior cheetahs (with the aforementioned exceptions) to the 1970s is sparse, the trade is considered to ceased for participating Parties in 1975, cheetahs have been substantial. In response to advocacy are still taken from the wild to be exploited as by conservation groups, in 1971, the International pets (Fig. 14.1A–B) or tourist attractions, entered Fur Trade Federation recommended to its mem- into illegal captive breeding operations, killed in bers to cease trade in skins from many endan- illegal trophy hunts, or their body parts sold as gered big cat species (Nowell and Jackson, 1996). ornaments, traditional medicines, and clothing In 1975, all international trades in cheetahs were (Nowell, 2014). Illegal trade, in conjunction with formally addressed by the Convention on Inter- other threats, such as habitat loss (Chapter 10) national Trade in Endangered Species of Wild and human-cheetah conflict Chapter( 13), is Fauna and Flora (CITES). This international considered a threat to the survival of the remain- agreement regulates the trade of species whose ing populations throughout their range (IUCN/ collection from the wild would endanger their SSC, 2007a,b, 2012; RWCP & IUCN/SSC, 2015).
2. Conservation threats Illegal trade overview 193
Combating illegal trade in cheetahs was first The information summarized in this chap- tabled for discussion at the CITES 16th Confer- ter is based on data collected between 2005 and ence of the Parties in 2013, and designated a 2015 from: priority at their 27th Animal Committee Meet- 1. the CITES trade database (UNEP/WCMC, ing in 2014 (CITES, 2014; Chapter 21). In 2016, 2016); the CITES 66th Standing Committee Meeting 2. a commissioned report on the trade and adopted a number of recommendations to be its impacts on wild cheetah populations taken by the Parties to improve their ability to (Nowell, 2014) which arose from the recent monitor illegal cheetah trade and enforce trade CITES initiative to address illegal cheetah restrictions. These included improving commu- trade; nications and collaboration in the areas of en- 3. a subsequent survey of all CITES Parties forcement and disposal of confiscated animals, about illegal cheetah trade (CITES, 2016c)— as well as developing public awareness cam- the survey was completed by 33 countries: paigns to reduce demand. Subsequently, two de- 16 cheetah-range countries (48%) and 17 cisions were adopted at the CITES 17th Confer- nonrange countries from Europe, North ence of the Parties (CoP17): to commission the America, and Oceania, including 6 from the development of a cheetah trade resource kit for Arabian Peninsula (18%); and law enforcement agencies (recommended best 4. records compiled by Cheetah Conservation practices, procedures, and protocols, especially Fund (CCF) of all reports of illegal cheetah concerning live cheetahs), and to assess the fea- trade based on direct observations, sibility of creating a web-based Cheetah Forum information gathered from conservationists, for all stakeholders to share information about government officials, and members of cheetah (CITES, 2016a). A third decision of the the public, as well as publicly available CITES Secretariat to engage online services to information on media articles and the address e-commerce of live cheetahs and raise Internet. awareness was adopted as part of the broader Combatting Wildlife Cybercrime decisions, CCF makes every effort to carefully estab- which apply to all CITES species (CITES, 2016b). lish the veracity of these reports, and to cross- Due to the clandestine nature of poaching reference all sources in its illegal trade database to and illegal trade, it is difficult to establish the ex- remove any duplications. It is important to note act numbers of cheetahs lost to illegal trade, or that the data contained in this chapter are limited to precisely establish the main sources and sup- to the extent to which information is available. ply routes. This chapter provides an overview of the illegal trade in cheetahs. We will discuss the drivers of the demand for cheetahs, and ILLEGAL TRADE OVERVIEW then look at how the demand is supplied from range countries, focusing on the regions which Until 2016, Parties were not required to have been identified as the major areas for ille- report annually on illegal trade to CITES gal trade, that is, the Horn of Africa and the Gulf (CITES, 2016d). As a result, data in the CITES Cooperation Council States [GCC; e.g., Kuwait, trade database cannot be viewed as compre- Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab hensive, and from 2005 to 2015, only 27 live Emirates (UAE)] (Nowell, 2014). Live animal cheetahs were reported as being confiscated or trade within southern Africa destined for the seized (Source Code I) in the database (UNEP/ South African captive cheetah export industry is WCMC, 2016). Moreover, data are not collected a secondary concern that we will also discuss. on domestic seizures because the Convention
2. Conservation threats 194 14. Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs
TABLE 14.1 The Number of Cases and Number of Cheetahs Poached or Trafficked in Cheetah-Range Countries Recorded by Cheetah Conservation Fund Between November 2005 and December 2015a
Live animals Parts and productsb
Cases No. of cheetahs Cases No. of cheetah units
Region Country Observedc Confiscated Observedc Confiscated
Asia Iran 2 1 1 0 0 0 Eastern Africa Djibouti (HOA) 2 0 6 0 0 0 incl. Horn of Ethiopia (HOA) 25 87 16 0 0 0 Africa (HOA) Kenya (HOA) 4 0 10 27 0 44 Somaliad (HOA) 7 54 26 0 0 0 Somalilande 65 192 96 1 1 0 South Sudan (HOA) 0 0 0 2 0 3 Tanzania 2 0 4 8 0 9 Uganda (HOA) 0 0 0 2 0 2 Total 105 333 158 40 1 58 Southern Africa Angola 0 0 0 3 7 0 Botswana 5 0 18 4 0 4 Namibia 4 0 20 4 0 5 South Africa 4 2 3 3 0 5 Zambia 0 0 0 1 0 1 Zimbabwe 2 0 4 0 0 0 Total 15 2 45 15 7 15 Central and West Benin 0 0 0 1 1 0 Africa Total 122 336 204 56 9 73 aData were compiled from the CITES trade database, Internet searches, personal correspondence with informants, and CITES (2016c). bOnly reports involving cheetah parts/products that are equivalent to a minimum of at least one animal are included (e.g., whole skin, whole skeleton, one skull). cObserved incidents were those where cheetahs or cheetah parts and products were not confiscated dExcluding the autonomous region of Somaliland. eAutonomous region of Somalia. covers only international wildlife trade. As a re- numbers shown in the two tables) involved live sult, the recording of illegal trade in cheetahs is animals, and these mainly consisted of young incomplete and vastly underestimated. cubs (Nowell, 2014). Most of the illegal trade Reports collected by CCF between 2005 and recorded herein was not detected or intercepted 2015 identified 280 cases of trafficking (i.e., trade by law enforcement authorities (672 cheetahs, and/or transportation) in live cheetahs or their including live cheetahs and body parts, 61%). skins and other body parts, involving a mini- Only the remaining 39% (436 cheetahs) were con- mum of 1108 individual cheetahs (Tables 14.1 fiscated, which makes up the only data for some and 14.2); the majority (89% of the total cheetah countries. The low percentage of confiscations
2. Conservation threats Illegal trade overview 195
TABLE 14.2 The Number of Cases and Number of Cheetahs Trafficked Outside Cheetah-Range Countries Recorded by Cheetah Conservation Fund Between November 2005 and December 2015a
Live animals Parts and productsb
Cases No. of cheetahs Cases No. of cheetah units
Region Country Observedc Confiscated Observedc Confiscated
Americas Mexico 1 0 4 0 0 0 USA 0 0 0 13 0 22 Total 1 0 4 13 0 22 Arabian Peninsula Iraq 1 2 0 0 0 0 incl. Gulf Kuwait (GCC) 7 11 7 1 0 3 Cooperation Council (GCC) Oman (GCC) 1 0 7 0 0 0 Qatar (GCC) 3 2 1 0 0 0 Saudi Arabia (GCC) 11 107 37 0 0 0 UAE (GCC) 30 77 52 3 0 3 Yemen 8 120 5 0 0 0 Total 61 319 109 4 0 6 Asia Afghanistan 0 0 0 4 4 0 India 0 0 0 2 0 1 Singapore 0 0 0 1 0 Unknown Total 0 0 0 7 4 1 Africa Cameroon 1 2 0 0 0 0 Egypt 1 2 0 0 0 0 Morocco 1 0 4 0 0 0 Sudan 0 0 0 1 0 1 Total 3 4 4 1 0 1 Europe France 0 0 0 1 0 Unknown Greece 1 0 1 0 0 0 The Netherlands 0 0 0 1 0 1 Portugal 0 0 0 1 0 1 Spain 0 0 0 2 0 2 Switzerland 0 0 0 1 0 3 United Kingdom 1 0 1 4 0 4 Total 2 0 2 10 0 11 Total 67 323 119 35 4 40 aData were compiled from the CITES trade database, Internet searches, personal correspondence with informants, and CITES (2016c). bOnly reports involving cheetah parts/products that are equivalent to a minimum number of animals are included (e.g., whole skin, whole skeleton, one skull). cObserved incidents were those where cheetahs or cheetah parts and products were not confiscated.
2. Conservation threats 196 14. Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs by enforcement authorities demonstrates the live cheetahs were Saudi Arabia (144 cheetahs, need for greater monitoring efforts. 34%), the UAE (129 cheetahs, 30%), and Yemen Table 14.1 summarizes illegal trade cases re- (125 cheetahs, 29%), nearly all were observed corded within cheetah-range countries, 81% (75%) rather than confiscated. (145 cases involving a minimum of 550 cheetahs) Although there is possibly some overlap of which were in eastern Africa. Within eastern between the recorded cases in the cheetah- Africa, the greatest numbers of illegally traded range and nonrange countries (e.g., a cheetah live cheetahs (288 cheetahs, 59% of the region- observed in illegal trade in the Horn of Africa al live total) were recorded in Somaliland, an may have later been confiscated in the Arabian autonomous region in northeast Somalia. As Peninsula), many more cases are likely to re- a self-declared state, Somaliland does not con- main undetected. sider itself to be part of the Federal Republic of Somalia nor is it a member of the United Nations, the African Union or a Party to CITES. THE DEMAND: DRIVERS Following Somaliland were Ethiopia (103 live AND REGULATIONS cheetahs, 21%) and the remainder of Somalia (80 live cheetahs, 16%). Kenya was the country Live Cheetahs with the greatest number of illegally trafficked cheetah parts reported in the eastern Africa Unlike other big cats, cheetahs are relatively region (44 parts; 75%), and 54% in all cheetah- docile and do not present a threat to the life of range countries. The majority of live animals adult humans, making them a highly prized pet. detected in illegal trade in southern Africa were Images of people in the Arabian Peninsula pos- in Namibia (20 cheetahs, 43%) and Botswana (18 ing with their pet cheetah are often circulated on cheetahs, 38%). In eastern and southern Africa social media (Nowell, 2014). Owning cheetahs more illegal trade was detected in live animals and other exotic pets in this region is thought than parts and skins. Data are sparse for other to convey social and economic status, in emu- cheetah-range countries: 1 cheetah skin was lation of individuals in positions of power or reported in Benin (Table 14.1). In addition, 8 leadership (Mohamed, 2016). Other motivating live animals and 1 cheetah skin were recorded factors are the intent to rescue sick-looking cubs as having been illegally trafficked in four former- kept by dealers (as revealed by direct interviews cheetah range African countries (Table 14.2). with pet cheetah owners and veterinarians), or Although there is some demand for pet chee- to protect animals from the threats they face in tahs in cheetah-range countries (as reported by their natural environment (as revealed by com- Kenya, Somalia, and South Africa in the CITES ments on social media). These purchases, al- survey on illegal cheetah trade; CITES, 2016c), though well intentioned, keep the demand up all available information points to a major ex- and the smuggling of cheetahs profitable. port trade from Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya in Cheetahs once roamed areas of the Arabian the Horn of Africa to the Gulf States, with Yemen Peninsula (Chapter 4), and were commonly serving as the transit point (Nowell, 2014). kept as pets or hunting companions (Chapter 2). Outside cheetah-range countries, 97% of the This centuries-old tradition, along with a solid live cheetahs recorded as being illegally trad- economy throughout the region, has supported ed occurred in the Arabian Peninsula (GCC a high demand for cheetahs and other exotic ani- States, Yemen and Iraq: 428 out of 442 animals; mals among the region’s affluent population. A Table 14.2). Within this region, the countries with live cheetah can be sold for up to US $15,000, the greatest numbers of known illegally traded substantially more than the average asking price
2. Conservation threats The demand: drivers and regulations 197 of US $200–300 received by dealers in the Horn illegal wildlife trade in the region. The investiga- of Africa. tion has identified 369 user accounts advertising Cheetah owners tend to have insufficient live cheetahs for sale online. Often, these deal- knowledge about cheetah care and cheetahs ers also offer other endangered species, includ- are often kept in inappropriate conditions (e.g., ing tigers, great apes, reptiles, and birds. Most of small indoor rooms without suitable exercise). these dealers are based in the Arabian Peninsu- Poor diet, in particular, has been linked to a host la: 135 in Saudi Arabia, 119 in Kuwait, 77 in the of health problems including ataxia and hind UAE, 34 in Qatar, and 1 in Bahrain. Cheetah sell- limb paralysis (Kaiser et al., 2014). As a result, ers were also found in Yemen (1) and Pakistan cheetah survivorship is low; for example, a vet- (2). Ninety-three of the dealers were identified erinarian in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, stated that as frequent sellers. Prices asked online range be- approximately 100 pet cheetah cubs had died tween US $5,000 and 15,000 for individual chee- in Jeddah and Riyadh over a 6-month period in tahs. An ongoing analysis of advertisements by 2007 (Bahrain Tribune, 2007). these sellers has recorded at least 1000 cheetahs All of the GCC States are Parties to CITES, offered for sale over a 4-year period (2012–16) all prohibit the import of CITES-listed species (CCF, unpublished data). or predators in general, and all have stated that Recently there has been a welcome trend to- captive cheetah imports are only permitted to li- ward greater restrictions and policing of exotic censed facilities, such as zoos (CITES, 2016c). The animal ownership in the GCC countries. In 2011, low numbers of cheetahs legally imported into after growing concerns for human safety, Aj- the region or born within its borders do not tally man became the first of the seven emirates in the with the apparently high numbers of cheetahs in UAE to ban the breeding and keeping of dan- private hands. It can be difficult to breed chee- gerous animals in private homes (UAE Ministry tahs in captivity, and therefore, it is unlikely that of Climate Change and Environment, 2016). In private facilities or individuals are successfully December 2014, the Sharjah emirate introduced breeding cheetahs to fulfill the demand. The In- a similar regulation banning the breeding and ternational Cheetah Studbook (ICSB) comprises private ownership of dangerous predators in approximately 250 cheetah-holding facilities residential areas (WAM, 2014). A 1-month am- worldwide, including 6 breeding facilities in 2 nesty following the implementation of this law Gulf States (UAE and Qatar). Between 2005 and resulted in hundreds of animals of various spe- 2015, these 6 facilities produced 161 viable cubs cies being handed over to zoos and sanctuaries, (217 cubs minus 56 deaths <6 months); all but 3 although many more were reported to have been were placed in facilities reporting to the ICSB. It moved to neighboring Emirates (Ali, 2014). In is therefore likely that the majority of pets in the June 2016, the Sharjah Environment and Protect- GCC were taken from the wild. Although some ed Areas Authority announced the construction cheetah owners undoubtedly operate under the of a new center to house animals handed over or assumption that their animals are captive bred, confiscated as a result of the ban (EPAA, 2016). others are well aware that their animals are il- In December 2015, the Kuwait’s National As- legally sourced (Nowell, 2014). sembly unanimously passed the Animal Rights Some GCC countries highlighted their dif- Bill that penalizes the illegal ownership and sale ficulties in policing online trade in the CITES of predators (KUNA, 2015). Subsequently, in cheetah survey (CITES, 2016c). An investigation late December 2016, the UAE enacted Federal initiated by CCF in September 2015 has shown Law No. 22/2016, which regulates the trade and that online trade, particularly on social media private possession of exotic animals, includ- (Instagram in particular), is a major facilitator for ing cheetah, nationwide, and carries jail terms
2. Conservation threats 198 14. Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs
FIGURE 14.2 (A) Confiscated cheetah skin at the Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism in Juba, South Sudan. (B) 3 cheetah cubs confiscated in Berbera, Somaliland, in 2012. The cub at the bottom had just died when this image was taken. Source: Part A, Nick Mitchell; part B, Günther Wirth. and/or penalties from 10,000 to 700,000 Emirati pardus or lion Panthera leo). Big cat skins, includ- Dirhams (US $2,700–190,000) (Mohamed, 2017). ing cheetah, are in demand as whole skins for CCF has also received email enquiries from decorative or ceremonial purposes or in piec- private individuals in eastern Europe and Asia es for garments and accessories (e.g., shoes, asking about the acquisition or care of cheetahs, bags, and garment trim). In Sudan traditional most likely sourced through illegal trade. These men’s shoes made of spotted cat fur (markoob) enquiries are answered with information about are highly prized. Big cat skin or parts are also international laws and conservation issues, in an used in traditional medicine (magie médicale, as attempt to discourage potential buyers. it is known in West Africa, or muti in southern In Africa, live cheetahs are in demand for Africa). Their use encompasses a range of prac- many of the same reasons as described earlier tices from medical (seeking to cure a physical for the Arabian Peninsula, although the volume ailment) to spiritual and mystical (Nowell, 2014; is probably lower. Cheetah pets have been ob- Chapter 2). In Benin, where cheetahs are rare, served at the homes of high-ranking officials in Sogbohossou (2006) was able to document one the Horn of Africa region (CCF, unpublished use for a cheetah part: its anus will purportedly data). In addition, they are in demand as tour- attract the man or woman of the user’s desire. ist attractions, particularly in South Africa Although some people may have had positive (Marnewick, 2012). experiences using big cat parts, real or fake, as spiritual or consumptive medicine, this is not Cheetah Parts only illegal but also potentially dangerous to the consumer if it replaces appropriate medical care. Demand for cheetah pelts and other body A complicating factor in understanding the parts is rarely specifically aimed at the species scope of the trade in cheetah skins is the preva- (Fig. 14.2A) and is instead generalized for spot- lence of fakes. Fake skins (skins of common do- ted or big cat products (such as leopard Panthera mestic animals painted with black spots) have
2. Conservation threats The supply: trafficking within and out of Africa 199 been observed in West Africa and Sudan. Some 50% of the northern Somali coastline facing of these fake examples have been mistakenly re- Yemen, and shares a border of ca. 500 miles with ported by well-intentioned observers as actual Ethiopia to the southwest. Sixty-two percent of cheetah products (Nowell, 2014); while not rep- live cheetah illegal trade cases in eastern Africa resenting loss of animals from the wild, they do were recorded in Somaliland (Table 14.1). With indicate enterprising attempts to meet demand. the fourth lowest gross domestic product per capita in the world (World Bank, 2014), ram- pant poverty is compounded by easy access to THE SUPPLY: TRAFFICKING wealthy consumer markets and a lack of under- WITHIN AND OUT OF AFRICA standing of the conservation plight of wildlife, such as the cheetah. Some cheetahs are confiscat- The Horn of Africa ed by officials, but instances of cubs being sold back to the smugglers have been encountered The Horn of Africa is the region where illegal (CCF, unpublished data). It should be noted that trade is likely having the greatest impact on wild monitoring networks are better in Somaliland cheetah populations, due to both the sheer mag- than in the rest of eastern Africa, and therefore, nitude of the trade and the threatened status of the territory’s relative importance as the main cheetah populations in the region (Nowell, 2014). cheetah trafficking area may be partially due Not much is known about the suppliers or the to underestimation in other countries. Even so, specific source populations because trade is usu- the actual number of live cheetahs smuggled ally intercepted further downstream: in transit through Somaliland could be much higher than or at the final destination. However, all avail- the recorded 288 live cheetahs between 2005 and able information indicates that cheetah cubs are 2015; informants in Somaliland estimate that up largely taken from ethnic Somali regions in parts to 300 cheetah cubs may be exported every year. of Ethiopia, possibly Kenya, and Somalia itself. The asking prices for cheetah cubs in So- Most cheetah smuggling cases across the region maliland vary greatly, from as little as US $80 are organized or supported by groups of indi- for an unhealthy cub to US $1000 for a healthy viduals from within a clan (interrelated family cub; however, most traders ask for US $200–300 groups). In addition, if cheetahs are perceived as per cub. Cubs are often inadequately cared for a threat to their livelihoods (Chapter 13), herd- (Fig. 14.2B). In the 33 Somaliland cases involv- ers may catch and sell them to passing traders, ing 142 cheetahs with known outcomes (i.e., further perpetuating the illegal trade market. where the cheetah was reported as being alive A haven for piracy, the ca. 1100-km northern at the time of confiscation or where it is known coast of Somalia is the way out of Africa for whether the cheetah lived or died in observed poached live cheetah cubs. From here, they are cases), the survival rates were 17% compared transported by boat to the coast of Yemen and to >33% across all regions. Somaliland has had on to the GCC (Nowell, 2014). A 2006 survey on some success with confiscations in recent years, illegal wildlife trade in Somalia (Amir, 2006) and confiscating 96 cheetahs (33%) of the recorded recent interviews conducted in Somaliland and 288 live cheetahs trafficked between 2005 and Kuwait (CCF, unpublished data) also indicate 2015 (Table 14.1). However, of these 96 confis- that animals and animal products are flown by cated cubs, only 21 were transferred to safety, private aircraft into the Arabian Peninsula from while the rest were reported by officials as dead private airstrips in Somalia. or missing. In general, limitations in implement- Of particular concern is the autonomous re- ing and policing government policy, largely due gion of Somaliland. Somaliland covers over to weak government institutions and lack of
2. Conservation threats 200 14. Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs resources in the territory, are allowing the chee- or modification by unauthorized persons as dif- tah trade to continue. ficult as possible” (Department of Environmen- tal Affairs, 2010). Microchips are currently used Southern Africa for this purpose, but there are concerns over the legitimacy of this method, as microchips Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe are the could also be inserted into wild-caught cheetahs only countries from which wild cheetahs may (Nowell, 2014). To improve controls on captive- be legally exported. From 2002 to 2011, their bred cheetahs, South Africa is currently making wild cheetah exports averaged 153 per year, regulatory amendments including the require- mainly from hunting trophies from Namibia ment to supply parental DNA when a cheetah is (Nowell, 2014). This trade is considered overall exported, thereby, proving its captive-bred sta- to be well regulated and sustainable, and is not tus (CITES, 2016c). thought to have had a negative impact on chee- A draft resolution tabled at CoP17 entails a re- tah populations (Nowell, 2014). view of significant trade in specimens declared The majority of legal trade in captive-bred as produced in captivity, which could reveal cheetahs also originates in southern Africa unusually high export volumes of cheetahs by (Marker, 2015). South Africa is the world’s larg- some countries. In addition, requiring that cap- est exporter of captive-bred cheetahs, and the tive breeding facilities report to a regional or in- only country to have registered commercial ternational cheetah studbook, which is currently cheetah breeding facilities (two) with the CITES not mandatory, would improve trade controls Secretariat (as is required for the commercial while also improving strategies to maintain ge- breeding of Appendix I species: Nowell, 2014). netic diversity in captive populations. A com- Between 2005 and 2015, CITES export permits parison between the CITES trade data and the were issued for 1065 live cheetahs worldwide. international studbook data for South Africa Of these, 780 (747 captive bred, 13 ranched, and for the period 2005–14 showed only 28% of the 20 wild-born) were issued in South Africa (CCF cheetahs issued export permits by CITES were unpublished analysis of CITES trade data, ad- registered in the studbook; the 72% difference justed for duplicates and reexports). The legal indicates that a vast number of cheetahs are be- trade creates a potential mechanism by which ing traded between facilities not reporting to the wild-caught cheetahs could be miscoded as international cheetah studbook, which could captive bred and illegally exported, and there be facilitating illegal trade (CCF, unpublished is anecdotal evidence that this is taking place data). (Nowell, 2014). A CITES Inter-Sessional Work- In addition, incidences of cheetahs be- ing Group investigated the causes and effects ing illegally caught and transported between of such miscoding, an issue that has been ta- Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa have been bled at various Convention meetings under the recorded (Marnewick et al., 2007) and investigat- title “Implementation of the Convention relat- ed (CITES, 2016c). Twenty-four cases of illegal ing to captive-bred and ranched specimens” trade between these countries (43 live cheetahs (CITES, 2016e). and 14 skins/skeletons) were recorded between According to the Model Law by CITES 2005 and 2015 (Table 14.1). However, the num- (CITES, 2016f) (parts of which have been ad- bers could be much higher with some conser- opted into South African law) for an Appen- vationists estimating 50–60 cheetahs being re- dix I captive-bred, live animal to be exported, moved annually for illegal trade from Botswana it must be “individually and permanently alone (Cilliers, NCMP, personal communica- marked in a manner so as to render alteration tion; Houser, CCB, personal communication;
2. Conservation threats Reducing demand 201
Klein, 2007). The trade is thought to primarily With illegal cheetah trafficking now being exist to supplement existing captive breeding recognized as a significant issue under CITES, operations in South Africa (Marnewick, 2012). In the species should receive greater attention from addition, cheetahs may be captured to feed the African regional and subregional bodies and demand for tourist attractions, trophy hunting, collaborative platforms established to focus on body parts, or the greater illegal trade of chee- transnational wildlife crime. These platforms in- tahs beyond their natural range. In Namibia, clude the Nairobi-based Lusaka Agreement Task farmers who resort to killing captured cheetahs Force, the Wildlife Enforcement Network being have been reported to sell them to the Chinese established in the Horn of Africa, the Law En- medicinal market as a substitute for tiger bones. forcement Action Plans in Southern and Central This practice could be on the rise. Africa (Nowell, 2014), and possibly the Trade in Wildlife Information Exchange in Central Africa (TRAFFIC, 2015). Programs driven by REDUCING THE SUPPLY OF non-governmental organizations in cheetah- CHEETAHS FOR ILLEGAL TRADE range countries are seen as key to help improve the capacity of governments to control domes- Poverty, corruption, weak legislation, and in- tic and transboundary poaching and trafficking adequate enforcement are considered as some in wildlife. In the Horn of Africa, organizations of the main drivers of illegal wildlife trafficking such as the Range Wide Conservation Program in supply countries (UNEP, 2014). Reducing the for Cheetahs and African Wild Dog (a project supply of cheetahs for the illegal trade market of the Wildlife Conservation Society and the may require the development of alternative Zoological Society of London), the International forms of income (Chapter 16) while also increas- Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), TRAFFIC, and ing law enforcement, prosecution, and penalties the African Wildlife Foundation work with rel- to deter individuals from capturing and selling evant government agencies and international cheetahs. Penalties for being convicted of poach- institutions to, for instance, train personnel and ing, trafficking, or illegal possession of cheetah strengthen environmental legislation. In Ethio- specimens vary across the cheetah-range states. pia, the Born Free Foundation launched the The reported maximum sentence ranges from Border Point Project in 2015 to facilitate inter- 6 months, in Somalia, to life imprisonment governmental dialogue between Ethiopia and in Kenya, and the reported maximum fines its neighbors, through cooperation between the range from US $839 in Chad to US $752,431 in Ethiopian Defense Forces, Customs, and Federal South Africa (data available from 13 countries) and Regional Police. However, lack of capacity (CITES, 2016c). However, data indicates that and funding continue to be a major issue in po- most illegal trade is undetected, let alone inves- licing wildlife trade in cheetah-range countries tigated, prosecuted, and penalized. Lack of re- (CITES, 2016c), thus deterring their ability to en- sources and funding continue to be a major issue force international treaties and conventions. in policing wildlife trafficking in cheetah-range countries (CITES, 2016c). To act as a sufficient deterrent, penalties should reflect international REDUCING DEMAND recommendations to consider wildlife crime as a serious transnational crime on par with drugs To combat the illegal trade in cheetahs, it is and human trafficking TRAFFIC,( 2013) and essential to understand who the consumers are monetary fines should be above the retail value and what drives their attitudes and motivations. of the animal on the international market. Targeted public awareness campaigns should
2. Conservation threats 202 14. Pets and Pelts: Understanding and Combating Poaching and Trafficking in Cheetahs be designed to modify behaviors by addressing learners, is being conducted by IFAW in col- the relevant drivers of demand in each region, laboration with authorities in the UAE, Kuwait, such as medicinal or ceremonial use, or an in- Bahrain, and Lebanon. Children are targeted as dividual’s need to highlight social status and anecdotal evidence suggests that the motivation personal success. In the case of pets, the keep- for an exotic pet often comes from them, and as ing of dangerous animals is increasingly being such they can be influential in communicating prohibited. However, in instances where they environmental messages to their parents. Ap- are still allowed, it is important to make poten- proximately 100,000 learners have learned about tial buyers aware that cheetahs do not do well conservation and the human costs (safety and in the same settings as domestic animals and zoonotic diseases) associated with ownership will probably perish despite well-meaning in- of exotic pets (Mohamed, 2016). However, more tentions. Thus, developing appropriate educa- work needs to be done in the region to specifi- tional messages that wild animals should not be cally research and target the motivations for ex- pets should be the priority. Demand reduction otic pet ownership. should also be addressed through social media Regarding cheetahs that are already in cap- with campaigns that publicize the conservation tivity, both as pets and in registered facilities, impacts of cheetah poaching and trafficking, CCF is working to improve their care by train- and law enforcement outcomes (CITES, 2016g). ing Emirati cheetah-holding facilities and vet- And greater efforts should be made to involve erinarians. The organization has also trained religious authorities in education efforts, as veterinarians and biologists in the collection and the public often turns to these figures for guid- viable storage of reproductive samples and initi- ance. For example, Sudan reported asking reli- ated the first Genome Resource Bank for cheetah gious figures to discourage the wearing of shoes in the country. Captive specimens in the UAE made from endangered species (CITES, 2016c). are of great genetic value as they are believed to And there have been questions on Internet sites originate mostly in areas of Ethiopia and Kenya whether the eating of meat from an animal adjacent to Somalia, where cheetah populations killed by one’s hunting cheetah is in conformity are small. Building a genetic database can assist with Islam (Nowell, 2014). Substitution can be with determining the origin of confiscated chee- an effective tool for big cat skins, such as the pro- tahs not only to ensure that they can be included vision of quality fake leopard furs to a religious in legitimate captive breeding programs, but, community in South Africa (AFP, 2014). In ad- importantly, to support enforcement investiga- dition, international opinion makers, media in tions. Therefore, a collaborative effort to collect particular, must continue to increase public en- genetic samples from confiscated cheetahs in gagement. Similarly, governments and commu- Somaliland, Ethiopia, Yemen, and the UAE has nity leaders in consumer countries must actively begun to build a database that will assist with discourage and counteract the perception that a identifying the origin of confiscated cheetahs. big cat pet is a symbol of prestige. The public The international community through global must understand not only that it is illegal to pur- programs, such as the Coalition Against Wildlife chase a cheetah cub, but also that it was likely Trafficking, the 2014 London Conference on the taken from the wild and has major impacts on Illegal Wildlife Trade (UK Government, 2014), the chances of survival of the species. and the International Consortium on Combat- Several efforts are currently underway in the ing Wildlife Crime (ICCWC)—a collaborative Gulf States to address illegal wildlife trade and effort of CITES, INTERPOL, UNODC, World exotic pet ownership. For example, the campaign Bank, and the WCO—has recognized the need “Belong to the Wild,” aimed at 10–11-year-old to deploy a broader spectrum of government
2. Conservation threats REFERENCES 203 resources to counter illegal wildlife trafficking. with ICCWC partners) could be requested to The continued goal should be to ensure that, form a multiagency team. International antipi- in addition to iconic species, such as elephants racy crews already patrolling the Indian Ocean, elephantidae spp., rhinoceros rhinocerotidae spp., particularly the Gulf of Aden, a well-known and tigers, cheetahs are consistently included in route for transporting illegal wildlife and wild- all initiatives, policies, legislation, and enforce- life products between East Africa and Yemen, ment actions, relevant to wildlife trafficking. should be able to exchange information with rel- evant stakeholders. It is generally accepted that enforcement CONCLUSIONS alone will not stop poaching and trafficking, but that interventions must also focus on the fac- Due to the very nature of illegal trade, col- tors that are driving illegal wildlife trafficking lecting detailed information on the extent of (Challender and MacMillan, 2014), along with poaching and trafficking in cheetahs is difficult. community-driven approaches in range coun- Yet available data suggest that the magnitude of tries (IUCN SULi, IIED, CEED, Austrian Ministry the trade is likely to be substantially impacting of Environment and TRAFFIC, 2015). These wild cheetah populations, particularly those in should include an evidence-based understand- Ethiopia and northern Kenya; an area with less ing of the motivations and patterns of consumer than 300 cheetahs (Durant et al., 2017). The re- behaviors in demand countries (TRAFFIC, 2016). corded loss of at least 50 cheetah cubs from the Whether as pets, shoes, rugs, or medicine, chee- Horn of Africa into the Arabian Peninsula every tahs throughout their range are being poached, year (with online research by CCF and informants captured, and traded for status, healing, or fash- in the region indicating that the actual numbers ion. The supply is largely driven both by the could be significantly higher) has the potential to low risk and high profit of the trade, along with decimate cheetahs in this region where popula- poverty and the lack of alternative livelihoods in tions are already fragmented (Chapter 10). rural Africa. Simple ignorance regarding the ori- Increased law enforcement and stricter reper- gin of cheetahs available for sale and the impact cussions for convicted traffickers are required of the poaching and trafficking in such a wide- in the primary source, transit, and demand re- ranging and thinly distributed species is also a gions to tackle the trade. In particular, countries major factor contributing to the continuation of with the greatest demand are urged to support the illegal trade in cheetahs. Focused education and assist cheetah-range states with cheetah outreach and strong, international, cooperation conservation and prevention of poaching and to enforce international treaties and conventions trafficking. to better police CITES provisions will be crucial In addition, international cooperation to to halting the poaching and trafficking of chee- detect and police illegal wildlife trafficking, in- tahs and other endangered wildlife. cluding the effective monitoring of transbound- ary activities, must be improved by encouraging the utilization of existing resources. In particu- References lar, law enforcement personal should utilize AFP, 2014. Zulu false dawn: Shembe faithful swap leopard INTERPOL’s policing capabilities, including skin for faux fur. Agence France Presse, The Guardian use of the secured information network, deploy- 19th February. Available from: https://www.theguard- ian.com/world/2014/feb/19/zulu-shembe-leopard- ment of Investigative Support Teams, and other skin-south-africa. operational support. Wildlife Incident Sup- Akella, A., Cannon, J., 2004. Strengthening the Weak- port Teams (led by INTERPOL in collaboration est Links: Strategies for Improving the Enforcement of
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2. Conservation threats