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Jin Et Al., 2009) Journal of Geodynamics 72 (2013) 1–10 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Geodynamics j ournal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jog Observing and understanding the Earth system variations from space geodesy a,∗ b c Shuanggen Jin , Tonie van Dam , Shimon Wdowinski a Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China b University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg L-1359, Luxembourg c University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149, USA a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Article history: The interaction and coupling of the Earth system components that include the atmosphere, hydrosphere, Received 4 July 2013 cryosphere, lithosphere, and other fluids in Earth’s interior, influence the Earth’s shape, gravity field and Received in revised form 5 August 2013 its rotation (the three pillars of geodesy). The effects of global climate change, such as sea level rise, Accepted 6 August 2013 glacier melting, and geoharzards, also affect these observables. However, observations and models of Available online 16 August 2013 Earth’s system change have large uncertainties due to the lack of direct high temporal–spatial mea- surements. Nowadays, space geodetic techniques, particularly GNSS, VLBI, SLR, DORIS, InSAR, satellite Keywords: gravimetry and altimetry provide a unique opportunity to monitor and, therefore, understand the pro- Space geodesy cesses and feedback mechanisms of the Earth system with high resolution and precision. In this paper, Earth system Interaction the status of current space geodetic techniques, some recent observations, and interpretations of those Climate change observations in terms of the Earth system are presented. These results include the role of space geo- detic techniques, atmospheric–ionospheric sounding, ocean monitoring, hydrologic sensing, cryosphere mapping, crustal deformation and loading displacements, gravity field, geocenter motion, Earth’s oblate- ness variations, Earth rotation and atmospheric-solid earth coupling, etc. The remaining questions and challenges regarding observing and understanding the Earth system are discussed. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction they also have a low-spatial resolution, e.g., low temporal resolu- tion radiosonde balloons that are launched twice per day (Jin and The Earth system varies continuously due to interactions and Luo, 2009; Jin et al., 2009). Another example is ionospheric mon- coupling between its main fluid components that include the atmo- itoring, in which traditional instruments are very expensive and sphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere, and the provide only low spatial sampling. Furthermore, ionosondes can- Earth’s interior. Mass redistributions driven by geodynamic pro- not measure the topside ionosphere and sometimes suffer from cesses in the Earth system affect the Earth’s shape, gravity field absorption during storms, whereas Incoherent Scatter Radar (ISR) and rotation. However, the system and components are also being has geographical limitations, and even low-Earth-orbiting satellite affected by global climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on (altitudes of 400–800 km) observations cannot provide information Climate Change (IPCC) of United Nations reported that the global on the whole ionosphere (Jin et al., 2006). climate has been warming since the middle of the 20th century Oceans have been observed by drifting buoys and tide gauges due to increases in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (TG) for almost two centuries (Barnett, 1984). Mean sea level rise (Pachauri and Reisinger, 2007). To confirm and assess the future was observed using TG through the 20th century. Sea-level rise effects of global warming, still requires additional observations. was thought to be driven by a steric component due to the thermal However, traditional meteorological sensors suffer from a number expansion of the oceans and a non-steric component due to fresh of limitations. In addition to being highly labor-intensive to deploy water input from the melting of continental ice sheets and glaciers (Holgate and Woodworth, 2004; Church and White, 2006; Feng et al., 2013), that affect our living environments, marine ecosys- tems, coasts and marshes. However, TG provides the relative sea ∗ Corresponding author at: Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese level variations with respect to the land. Furthermore, TG data Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China. Tel.: +86 21 34775292; are point measurements and are provided at low spatial resolu- fax: +86 21 64384618. tions. We cannot quantify the steric contribution to the sea level E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (S. Jin), [email protected] (T. van Dam), [email protected] (S. Wdowinski). budget due to the lack of global ocean temperature and salinity 0264-3707/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2013.08.001 2 S. Jin et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 72 (2013) 1–10 observations. In addition, detailed ocean circulation and the labor intensive. The advent of space geodesy has represented a exchange between land and ocean water on a global scale are dif- revolution for the space age and Earth exploration, e.g., VLBI, SLR, ficult to measure using traditional instruments. DORIS, GNSS, InSAR/LiDAR, and satellite radar and laser altimetry The solid-Earth’s surface and interior are changing constantly (see Fig. 1). These space geodetic techniques are capable of mea- because of mantle convection, tectonics, and surface processes. suring and precisely monitoring small changes of the parameters These activities cause displacements and deformations of the they observe with high spatial–temporal resolution. The different Earth’s surface, landslides and subsidence, mud-rock flow, and roles and uses of each space geodetic technique are summarized other phenomena. In the past, plate motion was inferred from in Table 1. In the following discussion, the main space geodetic marine magnetic anomalies located on both sides of the mid-ocean techniques are briefly introduced. ridges and from the azimuth of transform-faults (at time scales of millions of years), as well as from historic earthquake source 2.1. GNSS parameters. Another issue is that it is difficult to monitor present- day intraplate crustal deformations in sufficient details (Jin and Zhu, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a recent term used 2002). For example, current deformation in East Asia is distributed to describe the various satellite navigation systems, such as GPS, over a broad area extending from Tibet in the south to the Kuril- GLONASS, Beidou and Galileo. The Global Positioning System (GPS) Japan trench in the east with some micro-plates, such as South with its unprecedented precision, has provided great contributions China and possibly the Amurian plate, embedded in the deform- to navigation, positioning, timing and scientific questions related ing zone (Jin et al., 2007). Because of the sparse seismicity in the to precise positioning on Earth’s surface, since it became fully region and the lack of clear geographical boundaries in the broad operational in 1994 (Jin et al., 2011a). Today, a number of Earth plate deformation zones, it has been difficult to describe accurately system science questions have been successfully investigated, the tectonic kinematics and plate boundaries acting here. Earth- including the establishment of a high precision International Ter- quakes and volcanoes frequently occur worldwide, with notable restrial Reference Frame (ITRF), Earth rotation, geocenter motion, cases including: the Mw = 9.1 Sumatra Earthquake in 2004; the time-variability of the gravity field, orbit determination as well as Mw = 8.1 Wenchuan Earthquake in 2008; the Mw = 8.0 Chile Earth- remote sensing of the atmosphere, hydrology and oceans. With quake in 2010; and the Mw = 9.0 Tohoku Earthquake in 2011. These the development of the next generation of multi-frequency and earthquakes took thousands of lives and generated huge tsunamis. multi-system GNSS constellations, including the U.S.’s modernized Seismometers around the globe can estimate the nature of earth- GPS-IIF and planned GPS-III, Russia’s restored GLONASS, the coming quakes, but the details of rapid rupture are usually obscured by the European Union’s GALILEO system, and China’s Beidou/COMPASS lack of near-field near-real-time observations. In addition, observ- system, as well as a number of regional systems including Japan’s ing and modeling Earth’s interior activities are still challenging due Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) and India’s Regional Naviga- to the complex mass transport and other physical processes acting tion Satellite Systems (IRNSS), more applications and opportunities within the Earth system (Jin et al., 2010a; Jin and Feng, 2013). will be realized to explore the Earth system using ground and space Therefore, it is hard to observe and model Earth system and envi- borne GNSS. ronment changes. Today, Earth observations from space provide a unique opportunity to monitor variations in the various compo- 2.2. VLBI nents of the Earth system. Observations include data from the dense distribution of ground global positioning system (GPS) stations; Very-long-baseline interferometry, VLBI, plays a key role in high resolution space-borne GPS radio occultation; long-term Very space geodesy by receiving natural quasars signals at two or Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI); Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR); more Earth-based
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