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Ties That Bind on the Northwestern Plains: Contexts for Prehistoric Trade and Travel

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University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2014 Ties that bind on the Northwestern Plains: Contexts for prehistoric trade and travel Sara Alicia Scott Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Scott, Sara Alicia, "Ties that bind on the Northwestern Plains: Contexts for prehistoric trade and travel" (2014). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 10776. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/10776 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. TIES THAT BIND ON THE NORTHWESTERN PLAINS: CONTEXTS FOR PREHISTORIC TRADE AND TRAVEL By SARA ALICIA SCOTT Master of Science, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 1983 Bachelor of Arts, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, 1979 Dissertation Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology The University of Montana Missoula, MT May 2014 Approved by: Sandy Ross, Dean of The Graduate School Graduate School Dr. Kelly J. Dixon, Chair Department of Anthropology Dr. Anna Prentiss Anthropology Department Dr. Douglas MacDonald Anthropology Department Dr. Richard Sattler Anthropology Department Dr. Hipolito Rafael Chacon School of Art UMI Number: 3624661 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI 3624661 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 © COPYRIGHT by Sara Alicia Scott 2014 All Rights Reserved ii Scott, Sara Alicia, Ph.D., May 2014 Anthropology Ties that Bind on the Northwestern Plains: Contexts for Prehistoric Trade and Travel Chairperson: Dr. Kelly J. Dixon Abstract This PhD dissertation focuses on several interrelated archaeological problems in Northwestern Plains and Intermountain prehistory. The dissertation is comprised of three articles that have been either accepted for publication in peer-reviewed regional or international archaeological journals or are in the process of being reviewed for publication. The articles focus on the following subjects: 1) radiocarbon dating and analysis of Late Prehistoric period perishable items from Pictograph and Ghost Caves in south-central Montana; 2) radiocarbon dating of lower cultural levels in Pictograph Cave to assess the accuracy of the chronology established by William Mulloy in 1958; and 3) an analysis of archaeological sites and features along the prehistoric/historic Buffalo Road Trail (commonly known as the Lewis and Clark Trail) in northwestern Montana. Results of these studies indicate perishable items were used at Pictograph Cave between 1371 and 250 years before present (B.P.) and that perishable items such as coiled basketry, show contact or trade with Eastern Great Basin people. Radiocarbon analyses on artifacts from the lowest levels of Pictograph Cave show that its earliest occupation dates to 3820 years B.P., far later in time than the cultural chronology proposed in 1958. Culturally modified trees, rock cairns, prehistoric campsites and unique stone features mark the Buffalo Road Trail and document its use for centuries by Columbia Plateau and Plains Indian groups and by later historic settlers, explorers, and missionaries. Salish and Pend d’Oreille tribal place names for the trail as it crosses the Continental Divide indicate that stone forts were built as defensive structures atop the pass for protection from warring tribes. From a landscape perspective, trails provide information relative to precontact travel, subsistence, trade, and warfare. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Montana State Parks, a division of Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, for their overall support and financial assistance with radiocarbon dating analyses of artifacts from Pictograph and Ghost Caves. The Montana Archaeological Society, Mercyhurst University, and the Montana Department of Transportation (Steve Platt) also provided financial assistance for this research. John Douglas and Bethany Hauer (University of Montana, Missoula) assisted with access to the Pictograph and Ghost Cave collections. The USDA Forest Service/Helena National Forest and the Northern Region is gratefully acknowledged for the use of information on the Buffalo Road and for allowing the author to conduct research on the trail. Former Forest Service employees, Margaret Gorski and Amy Teegarden, are thanked for their support in the documentation and interpretation of the Buffalo Road Trail. Anthony Incoshola of the Salish and Pend d’Oreille Culture Committee and Thompson Smith provided oral history information for Lewis and Clark Pass. Chaney Bell shared geographical place names in the Salish language. Tim Ryan and Dave Schwab of EthnoTech, Inc. provided the locations for traditionally used Salish Indian trails. Special gratitude goes out to my co-authors, Carl Davis, Jim Adovasio, and Tim Urbaniak. Without the help and expertise of these individuals the following dissertation would not have been possible or as interesting. I appreciate the review comments on the dissertation articles by Drs. Kelly Dixon, Marcel Kornfeld, Charles Orser, Maria Zedeño, and other anonymous reviewers. The reviewers improved the quality and organization of each manuscript. iv Dissertation Chair, Dr. Kelly Dixon and Carl Davis reviewed drafts of the dissertation manuscript and offered helpful comments and guidance. Dr. Dixon and I spent many hours discussing research topics and she provided ample encouragement and enthusiasm. Dr. Anna Prentiss also helped guide the research and offered logistical and technical support. Eric Carlson produced all graphic illustrations and was exceedingly patient. The author appreciates the review comments of her doctoral dissertation committee at the University of Montana, Department of Anthropology, including Drs. Rafael Chacon, Kelly Dixon, Douglas MacDonald, Anna Prentiss and Richard Sattler. Lastly, my sincere appreciation is extended to my friends and family, especially my husband, Carl Davis for his unwavering patience and encouragement, and to my children, Madeline and Spencer Davis, for showing both understanding and pride in my academic endeavor. v DEDICATION For the entire Davis clan, for their deep respect for education and never-ending zest for life vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Copyright ii Dissertation Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Dedication vi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Research Problems 4 Pictograph and Ghost Caves Perishables 4 Buffalo Road Trail 6 Pictograph Cave Chronology 8 Research Methods 9 References Cited 13 Chapter 2: Radiocarbon Analyses of Four Perishable Artifacts from Ghost and Pictograph Caves, Montana 21 Site Description/Background 24 Methods 27 Artifact Description, Comparisons, and Dating Results 30 Coiled Basketry-Ghost Cave 30 Paint Applicator-Pictograph Cave 40 Tinder Stick-Pictograph Cave 43 Hearth Stick-Pictograph Cave 46 vii Discussion 48 Artifact Preservation 48 Material Culture and Behavioral Inferences 50 Conclusions 52 Acknowledgements 54 References Cited 55 Chapter 3: Indian Forts and Religious Icons: The Buffalo Road (Qoq’aalx ‘Iskit) Trail Before and After the Lewis and Clark Expedition 67 Methods 71 Archaeological and Historical Background 74 Description and Interpretation of Trail Sites and Features 78 Rock Cairns 81 Scarred Trees 83 Occupation Sites 85 Stone Forts 87 Stone Cross 90 Age of the Buffalo Road 93 Rock Cairns/Hearths 95 Stone Forts/Stone Cross 97 Native Groups on the Buffalo Road Trail 98 Horses, Guns, and Warfare 100 Trade and Exchange 103 An Archaeology of Trails and Landscapes 105 viii Whose Trail is it? 109 Summary and Conclusions 111 Acknowledgements 114 References Cited 116 Chapter 4: Deciphering WPA Archaeology on the Northwestern Plains: Another Look At the History and Cultural Chronology of Pictograph Cave 130 Site Description and Setting 133 Historical Background 135 Site Stratigraphy and Cultural Chronology 139 Methods 145 Results and Interpretation of Analyses 149 Regional Comparisons/Discussion 160 Summary and Conclusions 168 Acknowledgements 170 References Cited 171 Chapter 5: Summary and Dissertation Conclusions 181 Article Summaries 181 Pictograph and Ghost Cave Perishables 181 Pictograph Cave Chronology 183 Buffalo Road Trail 185 Dissertation Conclusions: Ties That Bind 189 References Cited 191 ix List of Figures Chapter 2: Radiocarbon Analyses of Four Perishable Artifacts from Ghost and Pictograph Caves, Montana 21 Figure 2.1 Location and setting of Pictograph and Ghost Caves in Montana. 22 Figure 2.2 Photograph of Empty Gulch showing Pictograph and Ghost Caves. 25 Figure 2.3 Contour map of Empty Gulch (based on Mulloy 1958:24) showing the
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