1989 Festival of American Folklife

Smithsonian Institution/National Park Service Thierry^ Benrand, maker ot" a iviize. a ii>>\\ laic 1 icnch bagpipe, in his workshop in La Garnache, a village in the Vendee region of France. (Photo by Winifred Lambrecht)

On the front cover: Vallisa Vinhasa Tavares represents the island of Kaua'i in the Merrie Monarch parade in Hilo, Hawai'i. (Photo by Lynn Martin, courtesy State Foundation on Culture and the Arts Folk Arts Program)

On the hack cover. Una Griffiths and Cacilda Wright, traditional cooks from Santa Caiz, Jamaica, squeeze juice from grated cassava. (Photo by Heliana Portes de Roux) 1989 Festival of American Folklife

June 23-27 June 30-July 4

Smithsonian Institution National Park Service We dedicate this year's program book to the nienioiy ofJoseph Condon (1943-1988). Joe was a special assista>it to the Secretary' and a friend of the Festival for many years. Joe tanght ns a lot ahont leadership, integrity and honesty. As ivejdce both successes and crises, we will painfully miss him. Contents

Celebrating Freedom by Robert McC. Adams, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution 4

Our Shared Cultural Resources by James M. Ridenour, Director, National Park Service 6

Why We Do the Festival by Richard Kurin 8

American Indian Problems of Access and Cultural Continuity

by Thomas Vennum, Jr. 22

Hawai'i: Cosmopolitan Culture at the Crossroads of the Pacific by Richard Kennedy with Lynn Martin 36

French Traditions: Their History and Continuity in North America by Winnie Lambrecht 50

Creolization in the Caribbean by Heliana Portes de Roux 66

Festival of American Folklife

©1989 by the Smithsonian Institution Editor: Frank Proschan Coordinator: Arlene Liebenau

Designer: ]oix\ Wolbier

Assistant Designer Becky Lepkowski

Special thanks: Linda Breitag, Andras Goldinger, Nicholas Spitzer

Typesetter: Harlowe Typography

Printer: Ameriprint

Typeface: ITC Garamond Paper: Warren Patina

Insert: Simpson Sundance Felt —

Celebrating Freedom Robert McC. Adams Secretary, Smithsonian Institution

The Festival, like all Smithsonian muse- cians and craftspeople from France, Quebec,

ums, is free. No tickets or turnstyles to in- New England, Louisiana, Missouri and Nonh gather patrons and exclude the rest. The Dakota. Festival has always been free—Liy the The history of freedom in the L'nited original vision of the e\'ent's founders States has involved a continuing tension because the Festi\'al is the Smithsonian's between the rights and responsibilities of forum of living cultural ideas. The Festival indi\'iduals and corporate groups and a is a celebration of traditional beaut\', kn(n\T continuing struggle between colonizers and edge and wisdom. Participation in its colonized, between the settled and the potential for growth, delight and under- ne\\ly arri\ed. This dynamic is e\ident in standing will always be the free privilege of the history of Hawai'i as Polynesian islands, the citizens of the nation and the world. former kingdom and fiftieth state. Hawai'i

It seems especially appropriate to recall provides an Fxien-like en\ironment that has the value of open public access to our drawn ancient manners and modern immi- national cultural dialogue this year, as we grants to form a multiethnic, multicultviral celetirate the 200th anni\'ersary of the sc:)ciety. The Hawai'i program includes the French Revolution and the Declaration of descendents of immigrants, mainly from the the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (cur- Pacific rim (but also from the Atlantic), who rently on display in the Smithsonian's Arts came to the islands to work on plantations, and Industries Building). .Marking a period enduring servitude and hardship in hope of of unl^ounded potential, the e\'ents of 1789 a better life. Their story is one of immigra- were a starburst of public energy that, no tion and the search for freedom, offering matter how later aggrandized, had a pro- lessons that Americans need become aware found effect c:)n our young American repub- of as the Pacific captures our national lic and changed fore\'er the light in which attention. we view our public institutions. Indeed, our But Hawai'i is unique in our nation in that own Bill of Rights was signed within thiity its indigenous culture suffuses its society as days of the French Declaration. It is in a whole, giving nuance to the forms of commemoration of our common covenants immigrant cultures that came there. This of human rights and in recognition of our thirtieth anni\ersaiy of Hawaii's statehood common French heritage that we celebrate invites us to reflect upon human cultural the Bicentennial with Francophone musi- freedom—equity for and conservation of beyond the bounds of group, tribe or nation. The Caribbean program illustrates the historical flow of cultural and aesthetic ideas betv.'een diverse Native, European, and African populations in several island socie- ties. Despite extreme social stratification of masters and slaves and attendant racism in the Caribbean, the ideas of the French Revolution had their effect there also, inspir- ing the independence movement in Haiti, traditional cultures. For, we celebrate as which in 1801 became the first free African well the vitality and open spirit of an indige- American republic. While both African and nous Hawaiian culture that has endured European cultural forms persist, Caribbean political, ideological and commercial at- populations are characterized by the creative tempts to restrict its practice and growth. creolization of music, food, language and The continuity of culture depends upon art. Indeed, this encounter of diverse access to various natural, social and cultural peoples defined the New World that devel- resources. We bridle at unfair restrictions of oped in the wake of the Columbian voyages, such access that limit our freedom to realize whose 500th anniversary we prepare to our visions of who we are. The American commemorate in 1992. Today, despite Indian program this year examines such political antagonisms, citizens of our nation restrictions and their impact upon contem- and the world must be free to converse with poran,' tribal life. What happens when tribal one another. Scientists and scholars must rituals depend on endangered species, or talk with each other if knowledge is to be traditional means of subsistence are threat- served. Musicians, artists, writers and others ened by land and water pollution? The must hear, see and read each other if their program also illustrates attempts by various art is to live. We are therefore happy to tribes to gain freedom over their cultural host contingents of musicians from Cuba, future through the innovative management Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico so that of traditional resources. Americans may be free to hear their musics Freedom also involves the flow of ideas, and the complex historical tale they tell of knowledge, of scientific information about the making of the New World. Our Shared Cultural Resources James M. Ridenour Director, National Park Service

The National Park Sendee sei'ves the repair, but would not concern ourselves nation as more than just the custodian of with preventing problems or with revitaliz- America's national parks and historic sites. ing cultural or natural resources. Nor is We liave always had a broader mission; to stewardship simply a matter of locking away sei've as steward of the natural, cultural and our national treasures, protecting them in historical resources that are our common pristine condition and prohibiting their use legacy as citizens of America and of the or enjoyment. That too would be far easier world. This mission is one that parallels the than our real responsibilities: to balance Smithsonian Institution's obligation to present needs and future hopes, to preserve maintain its great national collections, our heritage while nurturing its perpetu- holding them in tiiist for the people of the ation, to reach some harmony between the

United States. It is thus both natural and often conflicting demands imposed by fitting that we serve together as co-sponsors nature and humanity. of the Festival of American Folklife. As new parks have come into being There are striking parallels between the during the past 15 years. Congress and the responsibilities of museum curator and park administrations of four presidents have superintendent, folklife researcher and explicitly recognized our responsibilities to historical interpreter. For all of us, steward- engage in cultural conservation efforts; ship is not simply a matter of standing established parks are increasingly involved quietly by and hoping that nothing damages in assisting in the conservation of local or destroys our precious national legacy. If cultures and groups. We recognize that that were so our jobs would be much easier histcMT is not only battlefields and old — we would be experts at maintenance and mansions, but also the stories they signal. This year's Folklife Festival offers contin- ued evidence of the shared concerns of the National Park Service and the Smithsonian Institution. The Yaqui deer dance here reminds us of Yaqui participation in the exciting Fiesta held annually for 19 years at Tumacacori National Monument in Arizona. The French American musicians you enjoy here have also performed frequently in national parks such as the Jean Lafitte National Historical Park in Louisiana, Lowell We recognize that historic sites offer a wide National Historical Park in Massachusetts, range of stories to be told: a settler's cabin in and the Jefferson National Expansion Memo- Yellowstone or a textile workers' tenement in rial park in Missouri. The Hawaiian program

Lowell is as important a part of America's lets Washington visitors experience some of heritage as a Newport mansion or the child- the traditional culture they might encounter hood home of a president. And we recog- in Hawaii's 'Volcanoes National Park or nize that culture is a process rather than a Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical relic, that it is a complex phenomenon that Park, the City of Refuge National Historical thrives in a particular environment, and that Park. We hope you will enjoy meeting the the people living in that environment often musicians and craftspeople in Washington, have vital knowledge of the local resources and that you will have the opportunity to and how they can best be managed. see them again closer to home. a

Why We Do the Festival Richard Kurin

At last year's Festival of American Folklife, 1988. "So," he said, "you do not want our Gladys Widdiss, a Wampanoag Indian from best dance academy students to come to your Gay Head on Martha's Vineyard, sat in a Festival to perform peasant dances. You rocking chair under a white tent on the Na- want the peasants themselves, the real people tional Mall of the United States. She picked who do these dances." up the microphone to speak to some of the In 1976 Ethel Mohamed from Belzoni, Mis- more than 1.5 million people who visit the sissippi made a tapestry illustrating the diver- Festival. Gladys spoke of her pottery, made sity of American and world cultures brought from the clay of the Gay Head cliffs, and of to the Bicentennial Festival. The colorful, her efforts to teach young people about the memory style tapestiy illustrates folk dancing, traditional "Wampanoag respect for the earth cooking demonstrations, musical performance and its natural environment. She spoke of and children's games on the Mall. According her own life, and with her voice cracking to Ethel, the tapestry is like the Festival— from the emotion of the moment, Gladys celebration of all of us joined together. said, 'I'm a Wampanoag Indian grand- Gladys, Danielle, Demchenko and Ethel are mother. And that's what I want to be. I each right. "We dc:) the Festival to encourage don't ever want to feel ashamed of what I grandmothers to teach their granddaughters, know and who I am. And I want to tell my to scare away public evil, to understand living grandchildren that." traditions and to celebrate our common, Two years ago, my daughter Danielle though multicultural, humanity. made a calendar for her pre-school art proj- ect. For each month she drew an accompa- This Year at the Festival nying illustration: 'Valentine hearts for Feb- This year, we hope that our programs on ruary, turkeys for November. For July, she Hawai'i, French and French American culture, drew a picture illustrating fireworks for the Caribbean musics, and American Indian cul- Fourth, along with three large human-like tural conservation issues will have an effect statues in flames. Danielle couldn't explain back home by encouraging the preservation that her picture evoked the 1985 Festival, and transmission of traditional cultural reper- when as part of the India program we toires. The knowledge and aesthetics of Ha- burned 40 ft. high paper and bamboo stat- waiian culture; the speaking of French; the ues of the evil king Ravana and his cohorts joining of African, European and Native on the Mall. Instead she recalls that "the American traditions; and the cultural practices fireworks scare away bad things." of American Indian tribes represent not only In 1987, Alexandre Nikolai Demchenko, continuity with the past, but the ability to deputy director of cultural education at the enact the future with a variety of proven ap- U.S.S.R. Ministry of Culture, was negotiating proaches and sensibilities. the terms under which Soviet folk artists and The Hawai'i program teaches us about a musicians would come to the Festival in unique multicultural state, where a long-lived Ethel Mohamed, a traditional needleworker from Belzoni, Mississippi, embroidered a tapestry for the summer-long bi- centennial Festival in 1976 depicting the range of activities at the Festival.

native culture has vitalized not only Hawai- ians, but also generations of immigrants from China, Japan, Portugal, the Philippines, Samoa and other nations. The contempo- rary panoply of Hawaiian cultures signals to us the influence of the peoples and cultures of the Pacific rim upon our national con- sciousness, in the past and increasingly now and in the future. The French and French American Bicentennial program demon- strates to us how closely bound are France and North America, both in our shared covenants of freedom and in our Franco- phone populations ever seeking to preserve their cultural heritage. The Caribbean program initiates a series of living exhibitions on the Columbus Quin- At the 1988 Festival's Soviet music program, the south- centenary. As we approach 1992, we seek ern Russian ensemble from Podserednee. Belgorod to commemorate and understand the en- Province, sings in the rural tradition. The program has the way for a series of cultural exchanges be- counters of populations—^American Indians, paved rw-een the U.S. and U.S.S.R. (Photo by Rick Vargas) Europeans, Africans and Asians—brought together in the New World. The Caribbean superficial displays of clothes, dances and foods from the old cotmtry. One has to be quite ignorant of the splendid 'cultural' past to be impressed or charmed by these insipid folkloric manifestations... And the blessing given the whole notion of cul- tural diversity in the United States by the culture movement has contributed to the intensification and legitimization of group politics, along with a corresponding decay of belief that the individual rights enunci- ated in the Declaration of Independence , are anything more than dated rhetoric. (Bloom 1987:192-3)

Accordingly, if Bloom is correct, it would

make little sense to do the Festival: folklife

should be relegated to a "traditional " mu- Hundreds of Low Country families depend on coiled seum of dead cultures, and the Smithsonian basketmaking for a substantial part of their household economy. The tradition, originating in Africa, is now should reject representations of cultural di- threatened by beachfront real estate developers. At- versity. How then to explain the Festival of tention from folklorists over the last 30 years helps to American Folklife as part of the Smithsonian support tlie basketmakers' efforts to preserve access to Institution, a "living museum" among the needed raw materials. (Photo of Queen Ellis by John National Museums of the United States? And Vlach ) how then to explain the Festival's role as an advocate for human cultural rights, for cul- exemplifies tliis encounter and provides an tural equity, for cultural diversity in the con- illustration of the creation of New World text of the Smithsonian—a national institu- musics, foodways, languages and rituals. tion founded with democratic, enlighten- The American hidian program teaches us ment ideals for the "increase and diffusion of that tribal cultures continue to offer vision, knowledge among men." beauty and a sense of community to their bearers. But the continuity of those cultures Museuming: A Conceptual Background depends upon access to natural resources, to the Festival markets, legal systems and public recogni- To understand the Festival, we must first tion. When access is denied, cultures may understand the museum context within be endangered: they may lose their way which it is set and against which it is simul- and die. taneously juxtaposed. The rapid and exten- While these programs at the Festival seem sive growth of museums in the 19th century to us both logical and valuable, for some the was largely motivated by the desire to col- Festival itself and the efforts of its organizers lect things—natural species and cultural arti- are innocuous diversions and possibly even facts—before they were no longer available. deceitful. Consider Allan Bloom's views in Curators, scholars and collectors wanted to the best-selling Tt^e Closing oftheAmerica)! make sure we had an accurate (or at least

Mind, comprehensible) record of the life forms, cultural achievements, and historical events The 'ethnic' differences we see in the that had graced our planet. Bones, stones, United States are but decaying reminis- baskets, costumes, diaries and mementos

cences of old differences that caused our were regarded as the closest things to a liv- ancestors to kill one another. The animat- ing memory of our natural and cultural heri- ing principle, their soul, has disappeared tage. from them. The ethnic festivals are just The approach of museurns to the preser-

10 —

vation of culture is instructive. In the late of Natural History, and William Wells Newell 19th and early 20th centuries, many of the lamented this rapid and extensive loss of world's cultures were disappearing or being cultures. They played key roles in the for- changed beyond recognition. The Industrial mation of the American Folklore Society Revolution, urbanization, colonialism and a (1888-89), the Bureau of American Ethnol- growing globalism in commerce and com- ogy (1880), the American Anthropological munication changed societies the world Association (1898) and other organizations over. The native cultures of the Americas, that had as their purpose the study and Asia, Africa and Oceania were being de- documentation of those cultures before they stroyed. Languages that took centuries to disappeared entirely. Much of this work fell form no longer had enough people to speak to museums that mounted expeditions and them: some 400 American Indian languages, collection efforts so that future generations for example, were lost by the 20th century. might be able to understand and appreciate Art forms developed over generations could what had been. no longer be practiced for lack of materials, Boas and his student-colleagues—Alfred knowledge, or occasions for use. Forms of Kroeber, Elsie Clews Parsons, Ruth Benedict, subsistence, of eating, of building homes Edward Sapir, Margaret Mead, Zora Neale were discouraged or became economically Hurston and others—knew what was lost impossible to realize. Social organizations when a culture died. Every culture repre- clans, tribes, castes, chiefdoms, kingdoms sents ways of living, ways of seeing the and other institutions—were superceded by world, and time-proven ways of navigating newer forms, often imposed by conquering in it. Every culture defines the world and forces. Ritual practices, beliefs, and special- characteristic ways of representing it: cogni- ized systems of knowledge were largely tively, through the knowledge, skills and swept aside, belittled, or rendered irrelevant. wisdom it inculcates in its bearers; norma- In short, cultures—deprived of their own tively, through laws and expectations of materials, knowledge and purposes—were how to behave; and aesthetically, through actively being destroyed, or were dying of the music, song, verbal arts and material disuse. forms it promotes and values. Every culture The destruction of cultures did not bother provides a code for being human, and for some, who saw in that process the weeding being human in a distinctive way. Unlike out of more "primitive," less adaptable or genetic codes, cultural codes are learned. less advanced ways of living. For some of And individuals are capable of learning and these "social evolutionists," the progress of enacting several different codes. When a mankind as a species depended upon elimi- culture dies, distinct ways of knowing, of nating beliefs and practices seen to be irra- doing, of understanding and of expressing tional and uneconomical. Museums cast in die. When the society bearing the culture this evolutionary mode typically arranged dies, we lose the means by which the cul- artifacts in order, say from the most primitive ture is enacted and practiced. And while form of spear to the most complex, from the genetic descendants may remain, they live simplest form of pottery to the most sophis- on deprived of their own culture, often mar- ticated. At the endpoint or pinnacle of this ginally associated with a new, most likely cultural evolution was the Victorian English- imposed one. In short, the death of a cul- man or European, representing the epitome ture represents a diminution in the human of civilization. Other peoples and their cul- cultural repertoire. A pattern that may have tures, both contemporary and historical, taken thousands or hundreds of years to were seen as remnants of previous stages of form is lost: there is no one to teach it, to cultural development, representing more transmit its vision of the world, the knowl- savage and barbarous lifeways. edge and wisdom reposed therein, the skills Anthropologists, folklorists, and historians of the generations of people who labored in such as John Wesley Powell at the Smith- its bounds. This loss extends beyond the sonian, Franz Boas at the American Museum present, for we never know how valuable

11 would have been the contribution of that peoples in the Americas, Africa, Asia and culture to a larger human future. Australia. Second, despite all the pro- Museums could serve to hasten the death nouncements of cultural disappearance or of cultures. The quicker cultures die, the mere vestigial sur\ival, as Bloom suggests, a more rapidly museums could cc^llect their broatl array of human cultures seem to be remains. And if museums actually promoted doing quite well and even flourishing. and participated in the death of cultures, People continue to learn their own native collecting practices could be rationalized to languages: grow in extended, joint and other a great degree. Indeed, .something like this forms of family; recognize a variety of social, occurred under the Nazis during their occu- religious and occupational groups; and con- pation of Czechoslovakia, resulting in the strue their morals and world views in ways

Central Jewish Museum of Prague ( in a story different from post-modern secular academic so well told in the 1983 Smithsonian exhibit, Americans. The world, it seems, can admit "The Precious Legacy"). to many cultural ways. And as anthropolo- What should museums do, particularly gists have pointed out, people can and do those of national and international scope, in live multicultural lives. Indeed, it has been relation to the death and destruction of cul- argued that some of the very forms that has- tures? One hundred years ago, Powell tened the destrtiction of cultures years ago wrote to the then Secretary of the Smith- (for example, government policies and new- sonian Spencer Baird, technologies) now aid them. Maintenance of the Navajo language may be enabled

Rapidly the hidians are being gathered on through its radio broadcast; widely available

resenations v^'here their original habits tape recorders make it possible for Indians and customs disappear, their languages in the Amazon Basin to record and preserve

are being modified or lost... I would re- their songs. The U.N. Charter for Human spectfully request that you forward to Rights, various international accords, and Congress this statement with an estimate other covenants encourage and enjoin gov-

for fifty thousand dollars for the purpose ernments to recognize rights to practice of continuing the ethnologic researches one's culture, speak one's language and among the North American Indians under worship freely.

the direction of the Smithsonian Institu- The Festival c:)f American Folklife, from its

tion. (BAE file 4677, National Anthropo- inception, has been conceived as part of a logical Archives) cultural conseivation strategy for the Na-

tional Museum. Underlying that strategy is And just 20 years ago at the Smithsonian the belief in cultural equity, cultural relativity the Center for the Study of Urgent Phenom- and cultural pluralism—the belief that all ena was created to study rapidly disappear- cultures have something to say and a right ing cultural expressions as well as natural to be heard, that cjuestions of cultural supe- occurrences of limited duration. riority are moot, and that a world, nation

and community vi'ith many cultures are en- The Festival and the Museum riched by that diversity. As Alan Lomax, co- When we consider the contemporaiy founder of the Archive of American Folk world, two facts seem apparent. First, cul- Song at the Library of Congress, folklorist, tures are still being destroyed or falling into Naticjnal xMedal of the Arts holder and long- disuse, both in the United States and time advisor to the Smithsonian's Festival of throughout the world. This is occurring in American Folklife has stated. major cities, as third generation yuppies re- ject even the vestiges of the cultures of their Practical men often regard these expres- immigrant grandparents. But it is also oc- sive systems as doomed and valueless. curring through acts of genocide, wholesale Yet, wherever the principle of cultural prejudice and discrimination, and the de- equity comes into play, these creative struction of ecosystems that support native wellsprings begin to flow again. ..Even in

12 )

A shared language and traditions of social interaction make ttie deaf com- munity an identifiable cultural group. This was presented at the 1981 Festi- val program, "To Hear a Hand: Folk- lore and Folklife of the Deaf" (Photo by Jeff Tinsley

The iK(.Li|i.Uii )n.il lulklilu i il iKuscnicn was IcjIlulxI as part of the Oklahoma state program in 1982 through presentations of horse breeding, training and racing.

Donations of food are given to Buddhist monks by the local Laotian community during the Lao Rocket Festi- val, an event held at the 1987 Festival program, "Cul- tural Conservation and Language: America's Many Voices." (Photo by Jeff Tinsley)

13 this indu.strial age, folk traditions can

come vigorously back to life, can raise community morale, and give birth to new

forms if they have the time and room to grow in their own communities. The work in this field must be done with ten- der and loving concern for both the folk artists and their heritages. This concern must be knowledgeable, both about the

fit of each genre to its local context and

about its roots in one or more of the great stylistic traditions of humankind. We have an overarching goal—the world of manifold civilizations animated by the vision of cultural equity. (Lomax 1977)

The Children's Pidgrani at tlie 1982 Fcstnal ga\t- As a strategy, cultural conservation sug- younger visitors an opportunity to participate in per- gests that museums conserve cultures while fonnance, craft, ritual, occupational anci dance tradi- they live rather than waiting to collect their tions. (Photo by Richard Hofmeister) remnants after they die. The role of a mu- seum can be to help empower people to W" V practice their culture, realize their aesthetic excellences, use their knowledge, transmit their wisdom, and make their culture a vital means for dealing with contemporary circumstances. In 1967, Ralph Rinzler and others, under

then-Secretary S. Dillon Ripley, developed the Festival as a means by which the Smith- sonian could help conserve culture by repre-

senting it in a national forum. The Festival was part of a compact the National Museum has with the nation, the Smithsonian has with humankind—to provide a stage from which all those peoples and cultures that have contributed to our collective cultural history could speak and be heard. The Fes-

tival would be a place where they could tell their story in their own words, in their own terms. At the Festival they could demon- strate how they built or created instalments, baskets, machines and artifacts equivalent Indian pcrtunncr.s and puppeteers from ShadipLu, a — squatter encampment outside of Delhi, participated in to the national treasures reposing in the mu- the 1985 Smithsonian programs, "Mela! An Indian Fair" seums. The Festival would bring to the at- at the Festival of American Folklife, and the three-month tention of the nation exemplary practitioners long museum exhibition. "Aditi; A Celebration of Life." of traditions, people who continually create, These programs aided their struggle to gain rights to recreate, invent and in so doing conserve land to build homes. (Photo by Daphne Shuttleworth) their culture. These people would illustrate alternative ways to live in the present, not just remind us of the past. And by doing this, the Festival would enrich the lives of an American and international public.

14 rt\ ^'t-~''^\t'

Gladys-Marie Fry (1), a presenter with the 1986 Cultural Conservation program, "Traditional Crafts in a Post-Industrial Age," holds a workshop with Alabama quilters Eloise Dickerson and Mamie McKinstry. (Photo by Dale Hrabak)

Over the past 23 years, the Festival of tures of particular groups who often do not American Folklife has presented more than appear in the nation's cultural conscious- 15,000 bearers of traditional culture—musi- ness. The Festival has been a leader in illus- cians, craftspeople, storytellers, cooks, work- trating the occupational cultures of working ers, performers and other cultural special- people—taxicab drivers, waiters, firefighters, ists—from every region of the United States, railway workers—and the cultures of deaf from scores of ethnic groups, from more people, of children and of new immigrant than 100 American Indian and Alaskan Na- groups. tive groups, from more than 60 occupational By letting cultures speak from the "bully groups and from more than 45 nations of pulpit" of the National Mall, the Festival also the world. allows us to help legitimate alternative forms of aesthetics and culture. Musical perform- Why We Do the Festival ances, crafts and foodways demonstrations, We do the Festival so that people can be and other programmatic activities meet heard. The Festival gives voice to people Smithsonian standards of authenticity, cul- and cultures not otherwise likely to be heard tural significance, excellence. Their place- in a national setting. The Festival empha- ment in a National Museum setting conveys sizes folk, tribal, ethnic and regional tradi- their value to artists, to home communities, tional culture, non-elite and non-commercial to general audiences and to specialists. The forms created in communities throughout Festival's role in legitimating Cajun and Cre- the U,S. and abroad. It is the culture of ole music, Afro-American coil basketry, Ital- people trained by word of mouth or appren- ian-American stone carving and other tradi- ticeship, doing what they do largely for tional arts provides a needed counterweight members of their own family or church, vil- to other forms of delegitimation. lage or social group. The Festival has also The Festival encourages dialogue, not been instrumental in representing the cul- didacticism. It directly reaches more than

15 — —

one million people each year and thus con- We do the Festival so that pnictitioiiers tributes to the broad educative function of »uiy he e}icoiiraged to pass on their skills the National Museums. At the Festival, visi- and knowledge. Much of popular mass cul- tors may gain in-depth knowledge of histori- ture suggests to traditional practitioners that cal processes or thematic issues, or become they are anachronisms, practicing forms of a bit more familiar with another culture or art that ha\e lost their vitalit\' and beauty. tradition. The Festival provides a neutral The Festival is a way of saying to such art- ground for approaching people different ists, "What you do is valuable, so valuable from oneself. And at the Festival, intimacy that the Smithsonian Institution would like

is possible. Visitors can participate: learn a you to show it to the nation." This recogni-

Portuguese song c;r a Greek dance, ask a tion—c)f particular crafts, musical styles, ver- Japanese scholar a question, or converse bal art, folk medical knowledge, occupa- with a river boat guide from Michigan. The tional lore—provides encouragement to the Festival provides for encounters that might practitioner and is sometimes a source of othePA'ise not take place, as for example strength back home. Some artists gain an with the extraordinaiy Soviet music program understanding or appreciation of their own

last vear. cultural contribution and may promote and

U.S. Legislation to Conserve Culture

The .American Folklife Preser\ation Act was signed crimination, denial of human rights, loss of

into law by President Ford in 1976. It established cultural and religious freedoms, or in the the American Folklife Center at the Library of Con- worst cases, cultural or physical destruction. gress, and defined a national commitment to the If current trends in many parts of the world preservation of American folklife. continue the cultural, social, and linguistic Excerptsfrom the Act: diversity of humankind will be radically and irrevocably diminished. The Congress hereby finds and declares In addition, immense, undocumented reposi- that the diversity inherent in American folklife tories biological, pharma- has contributed greatly to the cultural richness of ecological, and cological will be lost, as well as of the Nation and has fostered a sense of indi- knowledge an immeasurable wealth of cultural, social, vidualit)- and identity among the American people; religious, and artistic expression, which to- gether constitute part of the collective patri- that the histor\- of the United States effectively mony of the human species. demonstrates that building a strong nation In cases, development policy does not require the sacrifice of cultural differ- many unsound ences; that results in destruction of natural resources seriously jeopardizes indigenous and tribal that it is in the interest of the general welfare peoples' physical survival and their cultural of the Nation to preserve, support, revitalize, autonomy, frequently also undermining the and disseminate American folklife traditions possibility for long-term su.stainable economic and arts. development.

The loss of the cultural diversir\- for indige-

The International Indigenous Peoples Protection nous and tribal peoples is not an inevitable or Act, H.R. 879 is a bill introduced during the current natural process. session of Congress to help prevent the the further In light of United States concern and respect destnjction and elimination of cultures and societies for human rights and basic human freedoms, around the world. including rights to express cultural and reli- Excerpts from the bill: gious preferences, as well as the United States The Congress makes the following findings desire for sustainable economic development,

it is incumbent on the United States to take a The situation of indigenous and tribal peoples leadership role in addressing indigenous and in developing countries is deteriorating world- tribal peoples' rights to physical and cultural wide. survival. Many of these populations face severe dis-

16 In 1986 a Japanese rice padd\ wa.s recreated to pr(j\ ide a new context tor a rice planting ritual, performed by the Ha- nadaue group from Mibu village in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. (Photo by Jeff Tinsley)

transmit the tradition with greater resolve as a result of their Festival experience. They a result of Festival participation. Over the have used this training, combined with their years, the Festival has played this role in the own knowledge, to teach about their cul- revitalization of Cajun culture in Louisiana, tures in universities and to develop and run among various American Indian tribes, programs and exhibits at museums, includ- among Afro-American communities, and in ing the Smithsonian. other countries such as India where it con- ne Festival contributes to the development tributed to the effort of street performers ofscholarship and museology. Each Festival and itinerants to gain rights to practice their program is based on a considerable amount arts and to gain title to their land. of research. This research is usually mul- The Festival has also historically helped tidisciplinary, involving folklore, ethnomusi- people represent their own culture. While cology, cultural anthropology, history, cul- academic and lay scholars, signs and written tural geography, various ethnosciences, and materials help frame the presentation, there area and ethnic studies. In its methodology, are no scripts for Festival participants. Festi- our research veers away from the mono- val participants develop their own means of graphic, tending toward group efforts involv- self-presentation and interpretation as they ing academic, museum and community interact with Festival staff, experts and the scholars. For example, the Hawai'i program public. This experience often helps back this year involved 32 different researchers home, and in other exhibition contexts, as and analysts, most from Hawaiian academic some participants become spokespeople for institutions and community groups, some their cultures. In some cases culture bearers from the Smithsonian, most with Ph.D.s, have sought professional training and ad- many with years of intimate experience as vanced educational opportunities, partly as part of the community researched. Analytic

17 pora, help generate new and important scholarly understandings of cultural relation- ships. The Festival reminds museum profession-

als that living culture is a national treasure.

All of the artifacts in the art, history and technology museums—from projectile points to space craft—were made by human beings. Sometimes we fetishize the object,

overvaluing it to the detriment of its maker. The Festival helps us to celebrate the makers of our national treasures. The Festival also makes clear that unlike objects, people—the makens—have ideas, recognize complexities, feel ambivalent and talk back. Many of the people who make our national treasures would feel uncomfortable visiting a mu-

seum. This is a sad commentary on what museums have become. At the Festival we

have the opportunity to fill in the gaps, to ask—not speculate—about how and why

Dewey Balta (1), Cajun fiddler from Basile, Louisiana, something was made or a song was sung or received hi.s National Heritage Fellowship from the a ritual enacted in a certain way. The Festi- National Endowment for the Arts at a Festival program val offers museums the opportunity to illus- in 1982. At the Festival the Fellows were joined by trate culture history with the sentient par- craftspeople and musicians, such as Cajun fiddler Mi- ticipating creators of that history. chael Doucet, who were influenced by them. (Photo by Kim Nielsen) The Festival contributes to the develop- ment of methods for the representation of

culture. Folklorists, art historians, semioti- efforts focused on particular traditions are cians, exhibition designers and others are balanced by synthetic attempts to under- continually involved with exploring the vari- stand and present larger wholes. A consid- egated means by which cultures may be rep- erable amount of field work and archival resented in museum contexts. Mannequins research is accomplished in the course of and objects in glass cases provide one of the Festival program development. Research older means of museum exhibitry, now en- documentation is archived, both at the hanced by interactive computer terminals Smithsonian and in the home country or and screens, talking robots and multimedia state, for use by future scholars. Through presentations. The Festival has long served the course of Festival research, linkages are as a model for museum-based living cultural opened for scholars, community people, and exhibitions and as a laboratory for experi- institutions that have resulted in other prod- menting with new presentational formats ucts beyond the Festival. These include and theories of presentation. This has books, dissertations, radio programs, and ranged from the elaborate re-creation of documentary films such as "The Stone Canc- physical contexts—Oklahoma horse ranch ers" which, linked to a 1979 Festival pro- and race course, Indian fair grounds with gram, won an Academy Award for best bazaar, Japanese rice paddy—to forms of documentary in 1984. At a curatorial level, framing performance and creating structures just as the writing of an ethnography can of appropriation. sharpen the understanding of a culture, so The Festival encourages other forms of too does curating a Festival program aid the cultural research, presentation and conserva- process of synthesizing knowledge. Festival tion. The Festival provided the setting for programs, such as those on the African dias- public hearings on what was later enacted as

18 the Folklife Preservation Act of 1976, and helped in the formation of the Library of Congress American Folklife Center and the National Endowment of the Arts Folk Arts

Program and its Heritage Awards. State pro- grams at the Festival, most recently Michigan and Massachusetts, have served as the impe- tus for state folklife festivals on the same research-based model. The Festival has also provided a model internationally, provoking examination from Canada, Australia, the So- viet Union, India, Pakistan and Japan, among many others. A generation of aca- demic and public sector folklorists and some

600 U.S. and international scholars have John McCauley, like other volunteers at the Festival, worked in various capacities on the Festi- learns about the craftsperson and the work and skills val—as researchers, presenters, authors, con- that go into a craft, and helps convey this to visitors during a break for the participant. (Photo by Dale sultants. The Festival continues to offer a Hrabak) context for dissertation research, internships, teacher workshops and, beginning this year, a summer folklore institute bringing together as "mushroom" (tool truck) and "fudgie" academic and community scholars. (tourist), from a rich lore of Festival stories The Festival symbolizes aspects of our own to a material culture including the costuming nation and sense of community. It is of forklifts and electric carts. As Bauman through the Festival that a community of and Sawin have suggested (forthcoming), scholars, workers, community people, vol- the Festival is truly so for those who organ-

unteers and artists is created. The Festival is ize and work on it. actually built and technically served by thea- Through the Festival, new culture is ter people, musicians, teachers, architects, sometimes created. This happens at special government bureaucrats and other amateurs, moments, either on the Mall or back at the some of whom take time off every year to hotel out of public view. New experiences work on the Festival. The temporary Festi- and ways of thinking arise from the juxtapo- val staff and the hundreds of local area vol- sition of cultures at the Festival. On a large unteers include a diversity of old and young, scale, such may occur when communities female and male from a variety of cultural are brought together. Last year, for ex- and ethnic groups. People support the Fes- ample, a Saints' Day procession was recre-

tival and work on it as a labor of love and ated on the Mall by Italian and Portuguese pride. This commitment to helping the na- Americans from Massachusetts. As the pro-

tion represent itself is illustrated by volun- cession reached the Metropolitan Washing- teers returning year after year for five, ten, ton program, Salvadorans awaited with tra-

even fifteen years. It is also illustrated in the ditional sawdust drawings, which in Latin incorporation of populations previously out- America are to be trod upon by processions. side the orbit of the national museums. For The Italian and Portuguese Americans took example, in 1985 some 100 Indian-American their cues from the Salvadorans and partici- volunteers worked on the India exhibition. pated in the ritual. Similarly, Russian singers In 1986, many returned to work on the Ja- greeted the procession with songs to saints, pan exhibition; some even became Smith- and the people from Massachusetts hugged sonian employees. the singers, crying and dancing. More com- The Festival—and the sense of community monly, musical juxtapositions take place In- it has engendered—has generated its own back at the hotel where musicians from folklore traditions, from our annual Father's dia have jammed with Cajuns, Eskimos have day crepe breakfast to linguistic terms such sung with Koreans, Azerbaijanis have played

19 1988 Festival participants and \isitors join nifnibeis of three Boston-area Italian and Portuguese-American societies in a procession of Saints' statues around the National Mali (Photo by Dane Peniand)

with Greeks. Like the Festival, these types which the Festival could not occur. of meetings of cultures are ephemeral. But The Festival is a symbol of our own na- the Festival holds open the possibility of tional culture. Our formal political and legal emergent, non-predictable culttiral creation. history—as exemplified in such documents Sometimes this has been sustained among as the Declaration of Independence, the individuals. During the 198b Festival a Ten- Constitution, and cognate documents, such nessee cooper observed and started sharing as the French Declaration of the Rights of his knowledge with a sake cask maker from Man and of the Citizen that we currently Japan. He wanted to learn more about cask celebrate—establishes a context for the in- making from a Japanese perspective and tensely public display of our cultural di\er- eventually received a grant from the Na- sity and aspirations at the Festival, ^'et there tional Endc:>wment for the Ails to study in are times in our own history when the Festi- Japan with his fellow craftsman. The influ- val would be untenable. The principles ence of Japanese techniques and aesthetics enunciated in our political structures and may in the future emerge back in Tennes- laws may be subverted wJien tides of popti- see. lar fear of other cultures, intolerance of mi- The Festival is a visible symbol of the norities, the narrowing of accepted values, larger structure that enables us to mount racism, anti-Semitism and other forms of such an event. Our own public culture is cultural discrimination and hatred are en- shaped by traditions of governance, the ob- couraged. Witness the injustice done in the servance of various freedoms, and common name of the law to African Americans under understandings of how we express our- slavery and continuing to the Civil Rights era selves. The Festival simply could not be (and its consequences as depicted in the mounted under ceitain circumstances. National Museum of American History "Field There are many countries of the world in to Factory" exhibit). And witness as well the

20 incarceration of Japanese Americans in de- Citations andfurther readings tention camps in the name of freedom dur- Altshuler. David, ed. 1983. The Precious Legacy. New ing World War II (as presented in the Na- York: Summit Book.s. tional Museum of American History exhibit, Bauman, Richard and Patricia Sawin. forthcoming. "A More Perfect Union"). The Politics of Participation in Folklife Festivals In The Festival is tied to our freedom. It is The Poetics and Politics ofRepresentation, ed. h-an both a vehicle as well as an indicator of an Karp and Stephen Levine. Washington: Smithsonian open national cultural conversation. The Institution Press. Festival makes us proud: not chauvinisti- Bloom, Alan. 1987. The Closing of the American cally proud, but, as Secretary Ripley used to Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster. say, quietly proud of who we are. And it is Camp. Charles and Timothy Lloyd. 1980. Six Reasons through that understanding and appreciation Not to Produce a Folk Festival. Kentucky Folklore of who we are that we appreciate others. Record 26:67-74.

The Festival is a symbol of our ability as a Cultural Survival Quarterly. Cambridge: Cultural nation to find unity in our diversity rather Survival Inc. than insist on a homogeneous, singular na- Feintuch. Burt. ed. 1988. The Conservation of Culture: tional, or yet worse, human culture. It is no Folktonsts and the Public Sector. Lexington: The Uni- accident that the Festival was birthed during versity' Press of Kentucky. a time of national struggle, the drive for free- Kurin. Richard, forthcoming. Cultural Conservation and civil rights. It is no accident that dom through Representation. In Tlje Poetics a>id Politics of the Festival occurs on the National Mall in Representation, ed. Ivan Karp and Stephen Levine. the shadow of our national monuments as a Washington: Smithsonian In.stitution Press. platform for the nation. it is acci- And no Lomax, Alan. 1977. An Appeal for Cultural F.quity. dent that the Festival is tied in time and foumal of Communication. place to a dream, an American dream, a Rinzler, Ralph. 1976. A Festival to Cherish Our Differ- dream enunciated so clearly and human ences. In Festival ofAmerican Folklife Program Book, powerfully by Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. ed. Bess Lomax Hawes and Susanne Roschwalb. and echoed yearly by grandmothers like Washington: Smithsonian In.stitution. Gladys Widdiss. Ripley. S. Dillon. 1969. The Sacred Grove. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Singer, Milton. 1972. When a Great Tradition Mod- Richard Kurin 's Acting Director Smithsonian of the ernizes. New York: Praeger. Institution Office ofFolklife Programs and Professorial Lecturer in Social Change and Development atfohns Suggested recording Hopkins University School ofAdvanced Ititemational We Shall Overcome. Folkways Records FD 5592, 1964. Studies. He received his Ph.D. in cultural anthropology from the University of Chicago and is the author of Suggestedfilm numerous works on South Asian folk knowledge, social Vie Stone Canvrs. Produced and Directed by Marjorie structure, folk arts and cultural policy. He first worked Hunt and Paul Wagner, 1984. on the Festival ofAmerican Folklife in 1976 and cu- rated "Mela! An Indian Fair" in 1985.

21 American Indian Problems of Access and Cultural Continuity

Thomas Vennum, Jr.

That you may not destroy the [wild] rice craftspeople and performers face economic in working the timlier, also the rapids and hardship, their talents and aesthetic knowl-

falls in the streams I will lend you to saw edge are ignored or considered obsolete, your timber. Also a small tract of land to and the materials required to support their make a garden to live on while you are efforts are inaccessii^le or endangered.

working the timber. I do not make you a Traditional lifestyles throughout the world

present of this. I merely lend it to you. depend upon a myriad of factors for their

This is my answer. My Great Father is sui-vival. While we seem to take their con-

great, and out of respect for him I will not tinuation for granted, our oblivious attitude refuse him, but as an exchange of civility to environmental dangers is paralleled to a

I must see and feel the benefits of this great degree by our ignorance of the prob- loan, and the promises fulfilled. (Recol- lems threatening the equally fragile cultural lections of an Ojibivay chief regardiiig ecosystem. The healthy survival of certain negotiations with the federal goi'emnient crafts, for instance, depends upon a correct

leading to the St. Peter's treaty of 1 837) alignment of social and economic agendas with the natural environment. The Great For more than two decades visitors to the Basin basketry traditions of Nevada tribes Festival of American Folklife have been are threatened with extinction by colliding treated to a rich cross section of American interests of Indians and non-Indians. Much Indian cultures. In recontextualized settings of the Tmckee Meadows willow habitat has on the Mall, members of many tribes have already been plowed under for housing de- shared their repertoires of songs and dances; velopment. Where once the Paiute, constRicted their wigwams, tipis, and bmsh Shoshone and Washoe customarily moved arbors; coiled, glazed and fired their pottery; out early each spring to collect willow stems woven their baskets, seamless yarn bags, alongside streams where the bush grew and saddle blankets. Festival visitors do not naturally, today most remaining willow is on see these traditions in their natural con- restricted private property, fenced in for texts—on distant reservations or in pueblo cattle grazing or farming. In the arid climate plazas. Admiring the skills and enjoying the of Nevada the willow, a thirsty bush, com- presentations, we assume that they must be petes with cattle for limited water, so ranch- well and flourishing in their home comniLini- ers have attempted full-scale eradication of ties. The Festival this year addresses the the plant, weeding it out or spraying it with issue of what is required to keep such tradi- herbicides. The traditional technology of tions alive today. At home many of these basketry requires splitting the stems length- wise into splints, and the centuries-old means of doing so involves holding one end rfcc American Indian Program has been supported by teeth. basket- federal appmpriatio)is a>id Smithsonian InstitKtion of the stem between the Thus Trust l'u)uis makers, even if they can find willow, risk

22 Wuzzie George, a Northern Paiute from Stillwater. Nevada, creates splints for weft used in weaving baskets. While one end is held between the teeth, each stem is split into three sections. The pith is removed from the inside of each strip and the splints shaved with a pocketknife. (Photo by Margaret M. Wheat, courtesy University of Nevada-Reno Library)

exposing themselves to toxic chemicals in the next question: 'How much does it cost?" working with the material. The decreasing Prestige gained by the craftsperson from access to willow and well-grounded fear of his or her home community is essential in its contamination discourage Nevada hidians maintaining a tradition, and if the item has from searching it out. Many have given up some significant role in the belief systems of basketmaking as a result. the people, that too will enhance its chances In a study of traditional arts and crafts, the for survival. Concludes Graburn: "Much as anthropologist Nelson H.H. Graburn points we are nostalgic about these loved arts, out a number of factors upon which their people do not go on making them for our persistence depends. As with Nevada wil- pleasure if our society and technology have lows, the availability of traditional raw mate- destroyed the incentive to do so. They go rials is a caicial determinant. But beyond off and become bus drivers or betel-nut sell- that, notes Graburn, are the knowledge of ers..." (1976:13). skills and the aesthetics of the art, a contin- The American Indian program at this ued demand for the items—either for local year's Festival of American Folklife intends consumption or through markets outside the to address head-on the entire issue of access culture—and time for the artisan to work in in a broadly conceived interpretation of the creating the object without distraction. The term. Simply put, what are the problems question most frequently posed by Festival Indian people face maintaining their tradi- visitors to craft demonstrators is "How long tional cultures and thus their cultural identity does it take to make?" For in our consumer as tribes and as individuals? Almost always world of instant gratification, we are under- the answer will identify impediments im- standably curious about the time, skills and posed by the dominant Euro-American so- effort demanded of true artisans. Our relent- ciety, motivated by economic, political, or less search for "bargains" leads invariably to social considerations. Access to natural

23 ——

coastal forests. For them, these life-giving trees were sacred, figured prominently in their legends and belief systems, and were treated accordingly with respect rather than exploited for commercial advantage.

Access to traditional food sources is an- other problem addressed by the Festival. When American Indians were forcibly settled on reservations, the land chosen was often far removed from their traditional homelands. Foods customarily ass(K"iated with their sub- sistence economies—especially wild game were no longer available. Restricted by res- ervation boundaries, Indians found the more practical—or the only—alternative was to turn to the canned goods of the dominant society. Elders expressed a general distaste for these items, often citing their consump- Datsolalee, Washoe basketmaker, in the 1920s with tion as a cause of poor health. Complained rwo of her prize baskets. She is considered by many to have been the unsurpassed master of the craft, Josephine Clark of Leech Lake Reservation in based on the unicjueness of her designs, the perfection Minnesota: "Well, long time ago people of her shapes, and the tightness of her work. (Photo didn't get sick like they do now. you know. courtesy Nevada State Museum) Sometimes I blame the food we eat now.

Maybe it's the food that does it. ..See, the In- materials such as willows is an obvious dians all had their land. They had [wild] po- problem; others are more subtle. tatoes, they had [wild] rice, they had maple The general despoilment of the envircMi- sugar, they had deer meat, they had ducks ment and exploitation of natural resources all these wild stuff, you know, they eat. on the American continent have resulted in They never bought anything from canned the disappearance of many animal and plant stuff. And they fixed their food their own species long held sacred by Native Ameri- way." ( Lhiirersity of South Dakota, tape 2-tl, cans—species ritually required in religiou.s p. 24) ceremonies and healing, often providing the Indian access to recognition is perhaps the very basis of a tribe's material culture. most subtle of the themes considered in this Along the northwest coast, for example, the year's Festival program. Ironically, in our clear cutting of vast stands of old-growth educational system Americans are rarely re- redwood and cedar by the lumber industry minded of the great debt owed to the original has impinged on the native cultures of the inhabitants of the continent. Indian people area, who formerly used timber for canoes, began sharing their foodstuffs before the first longhotises and totemic figures, and bark for Thanksgiving at Plymouth Rock; later they medicine, clothing, dyes, baskets and musi- showed how to cultivate corn—a crop now cal instruments. Many of these clear-cut at the foundation of American agriculture and areas are being reseeded by the industry, the world economy. They taught centuries- but now with Douglas fir that grows much old technologies and never-bettered strate- faster and can be harvested earlier for profit. gies for survival in the wilderness, from mak- Meanwhile, the decline of cedar and red- ing canoes, snowshoes and toboggans to wood is hastened by their increasing value tapping maple trees for sugar and harvesting as ornamental wood for Japanese furniture pumpkins, squash and wild rice. The symbi- and rot-resistant American patio and sun- otic relationship that developed between In- deck constiTiction. Such materials are no dians and fur traders was in fact e.ssential to longer as accessible to the people who for the westward expansion and development of centuries have lived among the northwest the North American continent.

24 —

To address the question of access to rec- ognition, this year we have brought spokes- men from the Iroquois Nation. Through competition in games on the National Mall and in workshops on our narrative stage, they will remind visitors that the game of lacrosse, increasingly popular on high school and college campuses, was originally

an Indian game. It was intricately bound up with legend and ceremony and widely played throughout the eastern half of North America at the time of European contact facts little known or credited to the Indian, even by many who now play the sport. When the great Indian athlete Jim Thorpe Willows destroyed by cutting along a stream in Carson was stripped of his Olympic medals, the Valley, Nevada. (Photo by Catherine S. Fowler) action was as racially motivated as the deci- sion in 1880 by the National Lacrosse Asso- ciation to declare Indians "professionals" and them to distant territories (such as Okla- effectively exclude them from international homa, when southeastern tribes were forced competition. to march on foot in "The Trail of Tears ' in the late 1830s). In some cases outright The Collision of Cultures genocide was seen as the only solution, The problems of access, of course, began such as the attempted extermination of the with the arrival of Europeans in what Indian Apache in the southwest. Our Yaqui partici- people (and some historians) have come to pants in this years Festival are descendants refer to as "The Invasion of North America." of political refugees who fled north from In the process of colonization and increasing Sonora, Mexico, in the early 20th century, as territorial expansion, there was an inevitable soldiers deliberately attempted to kill off the collision of cultures and displacement of tribe. native peoples. Driven by economic forces The very way that reservations were cre- of the fur trade and the zeal of missionaries, ated affects current problems of access. the Ojibway living at the east end of Lake Usually land was selected that was deemed Superior at the time of contact were induced "unsuitable" for the White man's needs, to become middlemen and guides for traders which often meant barren or rocky topogra- and missionaries, and their language became phy useless for farming or lumbering. In the lingua franca of barter throughout the one of the greatest recent ironies, five of the area. Acquiring firearms from traders, they twelve sites initially selected by the U.S. De- systematically drove out less powerful partment of Energy for dumpsites to contain peoples from the area where the Ojibway radioactive waste were on Indian land, one are settled today: northern Michigan, Wis- of them belonging by treaty to the Menom- consin and Minnesota. inee. When the Menominee Reservation

Indians were viewed as inferior "savages" was plotted, it did not include Lake Sha- whose way of life and landbase simply inter- wano, traditionally the source of their wild fered with the expansion of the frontier, rice. The new reservation land was so rocky justified as it was by the theory of "Manifest that it precluded farming to substitute for the Destiny." In the 19th century, a number of loss of wild rice, their traditional subsistence expedient but drastic measures were crop. But a century later, the Wolf River adopted to solve "the Indian problem," rang- batholith on the reservation was eyed cove- ing from concentrating tribes onto reserva- tously by the Energy Department as the per- tions (thus acquiring their former lands and fect crystalline rock to contain nuclear restricting their movements) to removing waste.

25 ——

Reservations resulted from treaties entered formed with names like "Equal Rights fc^r into between the Indians and federal gov- Everyone," insisting that they should not be ernment. At the time they were negotiated affected by events more than a century ago. Indians were generally unaware of the gov- "This is 1989," they argue, "not 1854." Gain- ernment's hidden agenda. In surrendering ing access to the law and justice in redressing vast tracts of their lands, they understood wrongs has been a long and arduous struggle that Whites merely wished to extract timber for Indian people. and minerals from the areas and then per- Reservations were but one solution to "The haps move on, little realizing that the land Indian Problem." In the latter half of the 19th would be opened for settlement by non- centuiy, programs to assimilate Indians into Indians. In exchange for their concessions, the great American "melting pot" were inten- Indians were adamant and specific about sified. Ultimately the aim was to award them their continued right to practice aboriginal citizenship and suffrage rights that accompa- pursuits on ceded territories, perpetually free nied that privilege. To prepare their entry to hunt, fish, forage and gather materials. As into society, every effort was made to eradi- Chief Martin of the Ottawa Lake Ojibway cate their traditional cultures. Missionaries protested to the Governor of Wisconsin in moved onto reservations to stamp out "hea- 1843, "We have no objections to the white then" religious practices; Indian children were man's working the mines and the timber and trooped off to federal boarding schools, making farms. But we reserve the birch where they were deliberately intermixed with bark and cedar, for canoes, the [wild] rice children from other tribes, forbidden from and [maple] sugar trees and the privilege of wearing traditional dress and given uniforms, hunting without being disturbed by the punished for speaking their native tongues, whites." and otherwise forced to conform to a non-

For many reasons, Indian people never at- Indian model. tempted until recently to exercise fully these Meanwhile, the reservations themselve.s off-reservation rights. In court cases, treaty the last remaining landbase for most tribes language—never very clear—has been inter- came under siege with the Dawes Act of preted and reinterpreted, not always in the 1887, which effectively broke up the com-

Indian's favor. Still, following certain land- munally held reservation propeity by allotting mark court decisions such as the "Voigt deci- the land to individuals. Ostensibly this was sion (1983) affecting northern Wisconsin, to instill a "free-enterprise" spirit in Indians, Indian people suddenly find free access to induce them to take up farming in place of practices and resources that have gone un- traditional hunting and foraging, and encour- tapped for more than a centur>-. In newly age personal initiative over tribal decisions. attempting to exercise their old rights—be In actuality, the act was merely a ruse to fur- they salmon fishing in Washington, or out- ther divide and conquer Indian people. of-season deer hunting in Wisconsin—or Many Indians predictably sold off their allot- even to regain territories illegally taken from ments for short term gains; a period of land them such as Oneida lands in New York, grabbing by unscrupulous non-Indian entre- native peoples have engendered a new preneurs siphoned off much of the rest. The wave of resentment from their non-Indian result today is that many reservations resem- neighbors, leading to protests, demonstra- ble "checkerboards" of White, Indian land tions and even ugly physical confrontations. tracts. In some instances, tribes now own Upstate New Yorkers, outraged over Cayuga less than 10% of their original reservations. land claims, fail to understand why they should be affected by legalities they know Indian and White Attitudes to Property nothing about; northern Wisconsin sports- In addressing the history of the access fishermen are angered when Ojibway spear problem, it is important to contrast the Euro- walleyes in the traditional manner—a right American concept of land use with Indian granted in their 1854 treaty and upheld in attitudes towards land and property. De- court. Anti-treaty rights groups have been spite the fact that the majority of tribes in

26 "

The aiiLicnt Indian game ol lai-iu^^c. adopted by Whites in Canada m llie inid-lVth eeiitury and ineiea,singly popular today on campuses, continues to be the major sport of many Indian peoples. These players were featured in a game at the 1975 Festival of American Folklife. (Photo bv |im Pickerell)

the east as well as riverine peoples on the known, and transgressions by outsiders were Plains were settled agriculturalists, Europe- dealt with severely according to Indian cus- ans regarded Indians as nomadic peoples, tomary law. roaming over large areas of land at will. At the root of Europeans' consternation There were no Indian mechanisms for sur- was the failure to appreciate Indian ideas \'eying land to establish boundaries, no that land was communally and not person- maps to delineate ownership, no fences or ally owned. (This explains why Indian land walls to contain properties; indeed, the very claims in court today are pressed by sover- concept of private land was foreign to Indi- eign Indian nations, not individuals.) In fact, ans. Indians nevertheless had a very accu- an elaborate political interrelationship based rate sense of geography based on topogra- on kinship operated to ensure property in phical and other physical features. They communality. such as the marriage alliances relied on natural boundaries such as rivers, binding together the Six Nations of the Iro- mountains, lakes and other landmarks, or quois Confederacy. Oblivious to these prin- they knew special areas to contain certain ciples of ownership and sharing, Europeans species. Although land itself was not owned were used instead to systems of private sed- individually, its resources could be claimed entary agriculture. What appeared on the by a person or family. Indian people had surface to be perpetual nomadism needed to various means of indicating usufructory be checked or contained, Europeans as- rights to certain areas: the trees in a maple serted, if the continent were to be "properly sugar grove were marked with a distinguish- developed. ing slash of an axe, or wild rice on a lake To be sure, many Indian people had to was sheaved and bound using some distinc- move in pursuit of food sources, as they tive twist or colored yarn to indicate the practiced a subsistence economy. Their customary harvesting area of a particular strategy for survival developed over centu- family. Winter trapping areas were similarly ries naturally led them to change locations

27 seasonally, as each item—animal or vege- Ojibway's ability to pursue their traditional — threatened their tal "ripened." In the case of the Ojibway, subsistence economy and reservation boundaries for whom wild rice was foremost a vital food supply. When staple but later paramount in value as a were drawn, they often excluded the band's trade item, a seasonal rhythm had evolved, traditional rice lakes or sugar groves. Trap- closely synchronized with the natural envi- ping and hunting were greatly reduced, and ronment. In the summer months Ojibway increased reliance on the foodstuffs of the were concentrated in villages by lakes or dominant society was forced upon them. As failures the res- rivers, engaging in fishing, some gardening, a hedge against wild rice on and berry gathering. In late summer they ervation, and taking advantage of the fact moved to the wild rice lakes to harvest, that treaties protected foraging rights even process and store rice for their winter needs. on territories ceded to the government, Then they traveled to areas most heavily Ojibway began deliberately to sow wild rice populated with deer for their hunting. Dur- seed in rivers and lakes previously lacking ing the winter months they fanned out in stands. single family units to hunting and trapping As settlers poured into the newly ceded farmland, territories—each area large enough to en- territories, converting forests to sure a sufficient game supply for the winter. they destroyed much of the former habitat of Come spring they moved into the sugar natural species. The resulting loss of game bush to tap maple trees. With the arrival of only exacerbated the situation for Indian summer they returned to the lakeside vil- people, as they continued to be deprived of lages and the cycle began anew. the natural resources that had been the the traditional culture. Skills It should be apparent that forced settle- foundation of ment on resen'ations drastically reduced the and craft traditions became obsolete as the

Fig. 1 Generalized Annual Work Cycle of the Southwestern Ojibway

FromThomas Vennum, Jr., Wild Rice and the Ojibuiay People. (1988) Courtesy Minnesota Historical Society Press

ACnVTTY JAN. FEB. MAR. APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.

craft and guiding, fur trade transport, manufacturing equipment wage labor ^— ^^mt^^^)^^^mm^^wm^^^^^^^*^^^mm^^^mmmwmm^^^ ^

for subsistence, bear, deer, moose, rabbit, wolf beaver, muskrat, pigeon beaver, deer, duck hunting/trapping ^, p^ _i__^i_i_._^^ $ 4 »

for trade: marten, mink, muskrat, rabbit beaver beaver hunting/trapping ^ ^ ^ _^_iiM^iKaKaB^^BM^BB^aiB » ^ ^

planting harvesting agriculture ^ ^ ^ " ^^ ^ ^ beans, com, pumpkins, squash

stickers, trout, wbitefish „ , pickerel, sturgeon, fishing ,^_i_«.L — — — — ^^„ ^- ^

birch bark, cedar bark gathering, ^_ ^ ^ ^ ^ hb mJ^ materials and medicinal herbs and roots

products basstvood bark, bulrushes, cattails, nettles, spruce roots

gathering and maple sugar young shoots berries* wild rice processing wild potatoes foods 4 »^ — — — "^ ^ » < »

^^^^^^^^—^ Intensive activity "wild strawbemes, pmchemes. ra.spbemes. chokecheme.s, bluebemes, gooseberries, cranberries _ — Occasional/intermittent activity

28 The traditional Indian technique for harvesting wild rice involves one person poling a boat through the stand while another bends stems over the gunwale and thrashes them with flailing sticks to release ripe kernels into the boat. The action of the boat and harvesters ensures that sufficient amounts of seed rice falls naturally into the lake to reseed the bed. (Photo by David Noble)

natural materials disappeared; the harvesting of birch trees for pulpwood, for example, hastened the decline of canoemaking. To- day in the western Great Lakes region one can rarely find birch trees large enough to supply the bark needed for a canoe. As IilS spruce forests were cut and stumps removed to render the land tillable, Ojibway lost ac- cess to spruce roots used traditionally to sew together bark sheets for wigwams, canoes and pails. Spruce stump.s ideal for parch- — Mechanical wild rice harvester in Manitoba, 1971. ing wild rice because of their slow, steady Wild rice, an annual aquatic grass, requires that a burn—were no longer available. certain amount of the seeds fall into the water and sink One justification given in dispossessing to the bottom to reseed the beds. These machines, which collect 90% of the rice, devastated many wild Indians of their land was that they were not rice stands and were banned in Minnesota. (Photo by using it to its fullest productivity. This old Dave Bonner, courtesy Supply and Services Canada, European land-use theory continues to Photo Centre) plague the world—its application in Brazil is the driving force of genocide throughout the

Amazon rainforests. What is ignored is that business in this century, they designed ma- Indians maintained a proper balance with chinery to collect and process much larger their natural environment, practiced ecologi- volumes of rice than Indian technology had cally sound economies, and produced sus- ever accommodated. Ojibway had mainly tained yields for most of their needs. This harvested only enough of this annual grass approach is at odds with the western obses- seed for their own needs; they allowed the sion to increase crop production and to har- remainder of the kernels to shell out natu- vest every last kernel. When these methods rally into the lake, fall to the bottom, and were applied to former Indian staples, the reseed the bed for the following year's crop. result often met with disaster. For example, In fact, the traditional Indian means of har- when non-Indians first entered the wild rice vesting rice by knocking ripened kernels

29 "

Dance of the Mandan Buffalo Band, depicted h>y Kari Bodmer, an artist accompanying Prince Maximilian of Wied in his exploration of the Missouri River, 1833-3'^. Members wear buffalo headdresses. Wrote Maximilian, "The men with the buffaloes' heads always keep in the dance at the outside of the group, imitate all the motions and the voice of this animal, as it timidly and cautiously retreats, looking around in all directions.

with flails into a canoe guaranteed that a the mechanical "picker" was prohibited by good portion of the seed rice fell into the law in Minnesota in 1939. water. The Indians had always recognized Undaunted, industry-minded wild rice de- this as good resource management, but in- velopers in the late 1960s turned their atten- credibly the Minnesota Department of Natu- tions to growing wild rice in artificial pad- ral Resources described the Indian harvest- dies, where all the advantages of modern ing method as "wasteful" in that so much of agronomy—pe.sticides, fertilizers, controlled the crop was lost to the lake. water levels and mechanization for ail stages One of the first inventions to assist in the of processing—could be applied to produce development of the wild rice industry was the maximum harvest. When this technol- the mechanical harvester. A pontoon float- ogy was adopted recently by California ing apparatus that worked like a lawn- growers, it created an enormous surplus; in mower, it cut off every- stalk of rice at water 1986, more than 10 million pounds glutted level and delivered its ripened panicle to a the market. Since Minnesota paddy growers conveyor belt. These machines were so were faced with surplus rice, they began to thorough in their collecting capacity that in "dump" it at fire-sale retail prices in towns their path of devastation there was little if near Indian reservations. The price Indians any rice left to reseed the lakes naturally. need to charge for their hand-harvested,

Not only would such machinery, if widely natural lake rice is considerably higher. As a adopted, put many Indian harvesters out of result, the market has shifted against them; work, it had the potential of destroying many Ojibway have given up harvesting and many old rice stands forever. Accordingly, selling their rice for the income it formerly

30 —

Beef ibbue to Standing Rock Sioux on ration day at Ft. Yates, Nortii Dakota, 1876. Because buttalo, the traditional subsistence food, were nearly extinct, the government had to substitute cattle. Once every two weeks they were corralled, shot by police and issued to each family for butchering. (Photo courtesy National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution)

provided them. This income, though mod- before killing it, their motives were as much est, was one they have come to count on for practical as spiritual. various purchases, such as, for example, Recent ethnohistorical studies of Indian back-to-school clothing for their children in resource management suggest that Indian the fall. use of the "gifts" of nature was strategically planned for the well-being of the commu- Resource Exploitation and nity; special attention was given that the Cultural Usurpation resource not be strained or depleted, At the root of many Indian problems of thereby ensuring the same bounty for future access to resources is the prevailing non-In- generations. Today overproduction leading dian attitude towards the natural world—that to depletion of resources is but one of the it exists to be exploited by man for short- threats to the natural environment, depriving term personal wealth and pleasure. It is Indian people of traditional foods and mate- important, however, not to romanticize "the rials. Waste and pollution are equally cul- noble Indian as ecologist" as some have pable. The wanton slaughter of bison done. Indians practiced sound conservation often merely for target practice from moving for pragmatic reasons. Although their re- trains—had a devastating effect on many spect for nature was reflected in various Plains tribes whose culture was so totally rituals such as "first feast" thanksgivings, or dependent upon this animal. Once number- actions such as putting a pinch of tobacco as ing nearly fifty million, the bison were an offering in the ground when removing brought to the verge of extinction—at one some root or plant or apologizing to a bear time only several hundred survived. Often

31 the only items desired by the White man long before the "discovery" of America. were bison tongues (a table delicacy) and Early records of the Jesuits confirmed the furs for lap robes; the carcasses were simply high mortality rate of native populations left to rot. Such waste was viewed as a sac- once infected by smallpox and influenza rilege by Indians for whom nearly every part against which they had no immunity. Exotic of the animal had some use. E\'en dried plants and animals introduced to the New dung was an essential fuel on the treeless World habitat often threatened indigenous Plains. After a kill, meat that was not con- species upon which Indians relied. Russians sumed fresh on the spot was preserved for "planted" foxes throughout the western future use: sun-dried for jerky, or dried, Aleutian Islands to be harvested for their pounded and mixed with fat for pemmican. pelts. Unchecked and rapidly multiplying, Hides were sewn together for tipis or tanned the foxes became a menace to the native for moccasins and other apparel, and sinews bird populations that the Aleuts required for were converted into "Indian thread," ten- food and clothing. Wild rice plants are dons twisted together for cordage; even the threatened by the German carp that feeds on stomach paunch and heart skin were used its roots; in some beds they compete for as containers. Bones were converted into space with purple loosestrife, an exotic tools, and the buffalo skull was retained for plant. As the American frontier moved west, use in sacred ceremonies of the Sun Dance. the grazing areas of natural species such as When Plains tribes such as the Sioux were bison and elk were usurped for cattle and forced onto reservations, as part of their sheep, and where natural species were treaty rights they were promised annuities deemed to threaten the newly imported that included food supplies. Due to the ones, farmers and ranchers destroyed them near extinction of the bison, the government with poisoned bait. was forced to substitute beef cattle in their In a particulady outrageous action touch- annual rations to the Sioux. ing on the access issue, cattlemen in Wyo- Pollution of all sorts has deprived Indians ming in 1971 were found to have killed of access to traditional resources and occu- more than 500 eagles from helicopters, pations. Mineral tailings, oil spills, acid rain, claiming the birds to be predators on lambs. herbicides and pesticides have all adversely (In fact, eagles only rarely prey on live- affected the food chain and rendered ined- stock.) The irc:)ny of that event is a particu- ible foods formedy relied upon. Mercury larly bitter one to Indian people, whose ac- dumping by a paper mill in Dryden, On- cess to eagle feathers is severely hindered tario, so severely polluted the river system by laws protecting endangered species. that commercial fishing had to be banned by While law enforcement agents were slow to the government; summer resorts closed, so prosecute ranchers for wanton eagle slaugh- Indian hshing guides became imemployed. ter, federal agents in Oklahoma aggressively An Exxon mineral strike in northeastern Wis- applied the law by arresting 22 Indians and consin, if devek:)ped, could well pollute six non-Indians, bringing them to trial and Mole Lake downstream, the principal wild convicting them for possession of eagle rice resource for Sokaogan Ojibway. The feathers. The eagle is a sacred bird to Indi- establishment of canneries in the 1890s in ans, its feathers symbolizing life itself. For Alaskan areas of sea otter concentration pol- centuries eagle feathers have been incorpo- luted the environment and caused the sea rated into sacred ritual paraphernalia and otters to abandon their hauling grounds, used as badges of honor. Now, the onus of where marine mammals habitually congre- proof is on Indians to show that feathers in gate w^hen they leave the water. their possession are exclusively for religious Another form of pollution—the introduc- purposes. tion of exotic species and diseases—has also At the same time denying Indian people taken its toll. Coastal Indians in eastern access to elements of their traditional cul- Canada may have been exposed to deadly tures, the dominant society redefined "The viruses and bacteria by European fishermen Indian" according to its own dictates. We

32 Y'aqui Pascola and Deer dancers wearing strung cocoon rattles (tenevoim) around the ankles and legs. These essen- tial religious regalia for dancers are made of the cocoons of a giant mc^th of the Sonoran desert. They are not found in southwestern Arizona and must be purchased at great expense from Mexican Yaqui. (Photo taken with permission in November. 1976, by Jim Griffith)

have selected items from Indian culture to gave them Western harmonic settings in form stereotypes that have then been ex- their "Indian Suites." One Indian melody, in ploited for commercial purposes in a num- fact a sacred song of the Native American ber of ways. Concurrently, America was Church, was borrowed as a jingle-tune to expropriating what it could of Indian cul- advertise carpeting. Top-line fashion de- tural elements. The game of lacrosse has signers turn to turquoise, silver, buckskin been mentioned. Sculpted Indian figures and classic Indian patterns to combine thein einerged to hold cigars before tobacco into expensive cocktail attire. For an auto- shops; the stoic "fighting" image continues mobile we accept the name choice and sym- to be imparted to sports teams by naming bol design of "Thunderbird"—a powerful them "Braves" or "Warriors"; Indian people spirit in Indian sacred beliefs—but would cringe today watching the antics of the recoil should Detroit venture to call its latest feather war-bonneted mascot at Washington model a "Jesusmobile." Redskins football games. Indian musical themes, some of them sacred in origin, were Solutions and Challenges grist for American composers, who expropri- By raising the issue of Indian access at ated them from their usual contexts and this year's Festival, we hope to stimulate

33 further dialogue between Indian people and gether to attack common access problems. the general public. More attention needs to The Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife be paid those aspects of their culture that Association, whose membership now in- Indian people feel cut off from, through cludes eight reservations from three states, education and increased media attention. has been active on the conservation front Indians in many places have initiated their through annual meetings and a bi-monthly own solutions to these prc:)blems. publication, Masi}iaigan (the Ojibway word

Indian resource management is increas- for newspaper). They support dialogue with ingly a viable alternative to federal and state Departments of Natural Resources and enlist control over traditional resources. Success- the services of university researchers to as- ful wildlife management efforts on many res- sist in many activities: developing walleye ei^vations have demonstrated Indians' ability hatcheries to restock lakes, studying the to produce sustained annual yields without threats to wild rice beds from exotic plant succumbing to the temptations of short-term species and fish, seeding lakes with wild gains. After nearly a century of absence, rice, reintroducing a number of bird species, bison and elk herds have been reintroduced exploring pollution control and easement on Plains Indian reservations. The National possibilities along vital streams, and con- Park Service has cooperated with tribes in ducting a general education campaign moving animals from over-stocked herds, through public forums. This last item is a such as in Yellowstone Park, to establish vital one, for combating racism has become new herds on reservations under the super- an essential goal in the wake of tensions and vision of tribal wildlife managers. There are confrontations ensuing from treaty rights of course problems attendant to such efforts: decisions. ranges must be car\'ed from existing cattle Meanwhile, access issues continue to grazing areas and heavily fenced in, not only plague Indian cultures in many areas. Im- to contain the buffalo herd but to protect it proved marketing possibilities must be de- against poaching. Modern veterinary atten- veloped for craftspeople who receive but a ti(Mi must be applied to check diseases, and fraction of the retail price of their products, the herd must be culled periodically to keep given the enormous markup of middlemen it at manageable size. To assist funding for in the trade. Some solution must be found herd management. South Dakota Sioux have to marketing Indian processed natural foods implemented occasional trophy hunts, both like wild rice. And Indian sacred places, for outside game hunters as well as local from Blue Lake in New Mexico to the High residents selected through lotteries. Buffalo Country of northern California, must be pre- meat is gaining increased popularity sen'ed and protected from the threats of throughout the country as a rich protein development for ski resorts or cut off from source low in fat; many who have tried it Indian people by construction of logging prefer it to beef, and a consumer market is highways. Legislation needs to be enacted slowly developing for this resource. Mean- to stop clear-cutting of National Forests. while, as in the old days, some bison are Federal agencies must more aggressively slaughtered by tribal people for feasts; fresh prosecute environmental violations adversely bison skulls are now available for the sacred affecting Indian traditions, such as illegal

Sun Dance, which is enjoying a resurgence covert logging on Indian land and destRic- on the Plains. The general attitude ex- tion of endangered species by farmers and pressed by Dakotan people shows an appre- ranchers. In this way we can redress the ciation for this renewed contact with their many wrongs that have prevented Indian past culture; most say it makes them feel people from practicing these traditic:)ns so good "just having the buffalo around." Suc- vital to a healthy culture, for only when cess with bison reintroduction is leading to people regain control of their cultural tools similar efforts with elk and big-horn sheep. can they begin to deal effectively with the Elsewhere, Indian groups have banded to- many social problems facing them.

34 "

Thomas Vemnim.Jr., Ph.D. in musicology, is settlor ethnomiisicologist with the Office ofFolklife Programs. He has published widely on the subject ofAmerican

Indian music, inclndingThe Ojibwa Dance Daim: Its History and Construction.

Citations and suggested readings

Evers, Larry and Felipe S. Molina. 1987. Yaqui Deer Songs: MasoBwikam. Tucson: Sun Tracks and the University of Arizona Press.

Graburn, Nelson H.H., ed. 1976. Ethnic and Tourist Arts: Cultural Expressionsfrom the Fourth World. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Griffith, James S. 1988. Southern Arizona Folk Arts. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

Hauptman, Lawrence M. 1986. The Iroquois Struggle forSunnval. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.

Krech, Stephen, III, ed. 1981. Indians. Animals, and the Fur Trade: A Critique ofKeepers of the Game. Athens: University of Georgia Press.

Martin, Calvin. 1978. Keepers of the Game: Indian- Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Prucha, Francis Paul. 1973. Americanizing the Ameri- can Indians: Writings by the "Friends of the Indian 1880-1900. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Vecsey, Christopher and William A. Starna, eds. 1988. Iroquois land Claims. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.

University of South Dakota American Indian Oral His- tory Project, Part 2. New York Times Oral History Pro- gram; microfiches of typed transcripts. 1979. Sanford, N.C.: Microfilming Corporation of America.

Vennum, Thomas, Jr. 1988. Wild Rice and the Ojibway People. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press.

Wheat,, Margaret M. 1967. Sunnval Arts of the Primi- tive Paiutes. Reno: University of Nevada Press.

35 Hawai'i: Cosmopolitan Culture at the Crossroads of the Pacific Richard S. Kennedy ^vith Lynn Martin

The Hawaiian Islands are at the same time rupted these direct relationships but this one of the most isolated spots on the globe understanding has been kept alive in some and one of the most cosmopolitan. Travel of the cultural traditions of the Hawaiian guides and most authoritative studies of people. In music and dance, the presenta- Hawai'i often gloss over these critical con- tion of the lei and the reverence felt for the tours of the state's landscape. While isola- gift of a quilt, we can still discover a respect tion is becoming a less useful term to distin- for the land and aloha for one's neighbor. guish cultural characteristics in this global Both values remain as vital expressions of village of satellite relays and facsimile com- the uiiiqueness of the state of Hawai'i. munications, the geographic position of Hawai'i in the Pacific basin has shaped the history of the islands from their discovery Proverbial sayings, olelu no'eaii. learned and first settlement over 1,S00 years ago up orally and passed down from generation to to the present day. In the past himdred and generation, are important in traditional Ha- fifty years, however, the strategic location of waiian culture. By far the largest number of the islands has made Hawai'i a crossroads these sayings describe aloha aina, love or through which the people of the world have respect for the land. A similar concern for passed. Many of these people have settled; the land is rarely found in Western proverbs; together with the indigenous inhabitants this difference of focus is a striking indicator they have formed a cosmopolitan culture as of the intensity of the clash of cultures that complex and rich as any in the world. occurred once the first Europeans arrived in Before contact with "Western powers in Hawai'i in the late 18th century. the late 1 8th century the people of these When Captain Cook landed off the coast eight small islands in the vastness of the of Kauai in January of 1778 he was not Pacific Ocean lived within the limitations of aware that he had come upon one of the their precious land. Specific strategies had most isolated people on earth, inhabiting the to be devised to stay alive and even flourish last major island group in the Pacific to be within such limits. The Hawaiians devel- discovered by Europeans. Speaking to the oped a finely tuned ecological understand- first men who paddled out to his ship he ing of their land and a system of conflict must have guessed that the inhabitants of resolution necessary for living in close quar- the Hawaiian Islands were closely related to ters. Contact with the "West eventuallv dis- the people (jf Tahiti he had encountered on

The Hawai'i program has been made possible by the State of Haivai'i. fobn Waihee, Governor, with supportfrom the Of- fice of the Governor, the Haivai 'i State Foundation on Culture a)id the Arts, the Haivai 'i Visitors Bureau, and Hairai 7

coiporate sponso)'s: Duty Free Shoppers Inc.. Alexander & Baldwin bic . Aloha Airlines Inc . American Telephone &

Telegraph Inc.. Bank ofHaivai'i. First Haivaiian Bank. Frito Lay ofHaivai'i Inc.. GIF - Hawaiian Tel. Hawaiian Electric Inc.. Industries Inc . International Savings/National MoHgage & Finance Co.. fapan Travel Bureau. Oceanic Properties Pacific Resources Inc

36 Women quilt together at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu. (Photo by Lynn Martin, courtesy State Foundation on Cul- ture and the Arts Folk Arts Program)

his first two voyages in the Pacific. A cen- that another major migration of Polynesian tury passed before the details of this kinship people journeyed to islands now called the could be established, but by 1846 scholars Society Islands (Tahiti) and Marquesas. were speculating on the linguistic connec- From there, the first voyagers embarked on tions between the far-flung peoples of Poly- one of the most remarkable journeys in Pa- nesia; eventually archeological evidence cific history: without benefit of navigational would corroborate this common ancestry. instalments, people from the Marquesas The people who were to become Polyne- traveled north over 2,000 miles of open sians spread out from Indonesia over 5,000 ocean to land in the Hawaiian Islands some- years ago in the first of a series of naviga- time around 400 A.D. tional feats that populated a string of islands The first settlers to Hawai'i brought with stretching more than 5,000 miles across the them many staples of the diet and culture Pacific Ocean. The people who eventually that distinguish Hawaiians today. On their became Melanesians, Micronesians and Poly- double-hulled canoes the people of Polyne- nesians shared highly developed naviga- sia were able to transport and preserve taro, tional skills and sophisticated knowledge of breadfruit, coconuts, chickens, and pigs, currents, stars and ocean swells. Gradually foods which even today serve as the main moving to Tonga and Samoa around 1,500 components of a hi 'an (traditional Hawaiian B.C., the Polynesians of the South Pacific feast). A later migration of Tahitians arrived developed a distinct culture circumscribed in Hawai'i in the 12th century and estab- by the ocean and the plants and animals that lished a strongly hierarchical society that they carried with them from island to island. separated men from women and nobles

It was not until approximately 100 B.C. from commoners on the basis of strict kapu

37 .,. than 40,000 by the end of the 19th century. By 1883, a hundred years after Cook's arrival and after the importation of thcuisands of plantation laborers, the Hawaiians had be- come a minority in their own land.

It is critical to try to understand how Ha- waiians dealt with this massive dislocation. What were the strategies of survival that enal")led Hawaiian culture to endure two centuries of contact with outsiders? What are the elements of that tradition that remain and flourish in spite of economic and tech- nological forces far greater than any other Pacific pec^iple had encountered?

Aloha Tiina is not a romantic concept arising out of a need to reestablish roots in

the soil; it is, rather, an ecological necessity born of people who had no choice but to accommodate themselves to the islands that Chinese passengers sailed to Hawai'i in 1901 to join became their home. Hawaiians had to thousands of other sugar plantation workers from know and respect the possibilities and limits China, Japan and Portugal. (Photo courtesy Hawai'i of their land in order to live. The 6,425 State Archives) square miles of volcanically formed land could sustain them but would never provide (taboos). Nevertheless the society that Cook them with space for extensive growth. The met in 1778 was one that, for reasons as yet traditional cihiipua'a system of land division unl

500 years. The legacy of this isolation was precise understanding of its ecology. This to affect the Hawaiian people during the system took into account the potential of the subsequent decades of immigration and land to produce food, clothing and shelter conquest. and of the sea to provide fish. Except for Hawaiians today may appear to be more volcanic activity, the Hawaiian landscape acculturated, and perhaps less concerned changed little during the 500 years before with their origins than their Polynesian the arrival of Cook. The ecological change neighbors to the South, but this implies no that occurred over the subsequent years has inherent weakness in Hawaiian culture. In been massive. fact, Hawaiian cultural accommodation over Any visitor to Hawai'i today who ventures the years can be attributed to the strategic beyond the confines of Waikiki will recog- position of the islands in the center of the nize the strong identification with the land Pacific and their colonization by European that pervades the music, dance and crafts of and American powers. The European and Hawaiians. Even the music heard in Waikiki

American econc:)mic invasion of Hawai'i dur- bears this trademark: its lyrics make constant ing the first century after contact was unpar- reference to place. This attachment to place alleled in the Pacific. During a centuiy of and to home is a quality of many traditional ocean travel, exploration, trade and tourism societies, but the degree to which Hawaiians the most isolated spot on the globe became place a cultural importance on origins and a popular pott of call precisely because the on land is remarkable. That this sense of islands were the only landfall within 2,S00 place has endured throughout the century of miles. Diseases common among Westerners dislocation that followed contact with non- but not among Pacific Islanders reduced a Hawaiians is a reminder of the stability of population of more than 250,000 to fewer this long-lived Polynesian society and its

38 Newly arrived Japanese workers pose with Portuguese linias (overseers) and housing in the background. (Photo courtesy Hawai'i State Archives)

culture. The continuing focus on aloha eady apostles of the New England churches aina in contemporary Hawaiian music takes lived simply and worked for the gradual but on a particular poignancy considering how inevitable acculturation of the Hawaiian little land remains in Hawaiian hands. people into the world community. Certainly

they were the first to introduce Hawaiians to 'Apuka 'Aina: The Desire for Land European medicine, education and technol- Captain Cook arrived in Hawai'i in the ogy. 'While this introduction did enable tre- vanguard of a world-wide economic revolu- mendous economic development for the tion that soon encompassed and eventually kingdom in the 19th century, it also served dominated these strategic islands. The to destroy many of the indigenous systems opening of the western coast of the Ameri- that provided a cultural identity for the Ha- cas to trade Vvith Asia and the interest that waiian people. Europe and the United States took in the The early 19th century American world products and markets of these new lands set view was that of an unsure power only re- the scene for an inevitable confrontation cently independent. The spirit of manifest between European and Polynesian values. destiny and conquest was newly found and

The first of many waves of visitors to the the country had little experience with cul- islands included whalers and merchants who tural compromise. Within decades dance, treated Hawai'i as a rest and relaxation stop music, religion, and even the clothes and as well as their refueling depot. Hawaiians buildings of Hawaiians were for the most had little resistance to diseases borne by the part condemned, dismissed and gradually visitors or to the technologies of the Indus- replaced with creations of rural 19th century trial Revolution. Some retreated but many New England. The hula, for example, was embraced the newcomers wholeheartedly. deemed licentious and banned. The wor- Other visitors came to Hawai'i, too, in the ship of the Hawaiian gods was condemned early 19th century. Unlike whalers who for outright. Clothes made of bark cloth ikapa) the most part remained in the port towns, and houses made from local grasses were Christian missionaries who arrived in 1820 eventually displaced by Victorian dress and from New England stepped more deeply frame houses. Chants, too, were dismissed and much more profoundly into Hawaiian as pagan and replaced by hlmeni (hymn) society. Within decades many Hawaiians singing. Such transformation occurred had converted to the new religion. Many within decades.

39 development of the multi-ethnic society of massive profits made in the sugar trade. today were established in Hawai'i in the Within two years of his death in 1891 his early 19th century. In order to tame the family's rule was over. In 1881, however, cattle that had been a gift to King while his elaborate palace 'lolani was being Kamehameha from George Vancouver, built, Kalakaua became the first monarch to Spanish vaqiieros were brought from Mexico circumnavigate the globe, ostensibly in in the 1830s to work on the first Hawaiian search of laborers for the new plantations ranches. Eventually a ranching industry that were being established across his king- would develop throughout the islands to dom. He brought back treasures for his new feed the growing population and eventually palace as well as a few agreements regard- to export beef to the mainland. The clearing ing the immigration of plantation laborers. of forests necessary for this industry radically The Chinese who had been brought to altered the upland ecology of Hawai'i. More Hawai'i over several decades were joined by profound changes to the fabric of the is- several boat loads of Portuguese from the lands, however, came with the development Azores and Madeira, who were hired in part of the sugar cane industry, commencing on to work as liinas or overseers for the Asian Kaua'i in 1835. laborers.

At first Hawaiians were employed on The planters, looking for new sources of plantations to plant and harvest the cane. labor and ever afraid of labor unrest, de- As disease decimated the Hawaiian popula- cided to bring in large numbers of Japanese tion and the labor supply was found to be workers in the 1880s. By the time the inadequate for the thriving industry, other United States had annexed the islands in sources of labor were considered by the 1898, Japanese represented the largest seg- plantation owners. The first new source of ment of the islands' population. Annexation labor, the Chinese, arrived in Hawai'i in the not only continued to alter the political and 1850s. They joined a small community of economic structure of the islands but also Chinese who had come to Hawai'i earlier to served to diversify further the social fabric make their fortunes as merchants. This first by facilitating immigration from other areas. group of Chinese entrepreneurs was already For example, Puerto Ricans beginning in an integral part of the growing Hawaiian 1900 and Filipinos beginning in 1907 joined economy of the early 19th century. In fact, the ranks of plantation workers who had it is said that the first sugar cane processing been enticed to Hawai'i by scouts who trav- was probably done by Wong Tze Chun on eled to these two other new American terri- Lana'i in 1802. By 1880, 85% of Hawaii's tories, luring workers with the promise of restaurant licenses were in the hands of Chi- higher wages. Spaniards, Okinawans and nese businessmen. Much larger numbers of Koreans also came in this last wave of im- Chinese arrived in Hawai'i in the 1870s, es- ported labor and joined a work force that pecially with the expansion of the sugar had become as complex as was the late 19th industry that followed the lifting of American century industrial force on the east coast of tariffs on Hawaiian sugar in 1876. the United States. 1876 was a pivotal year in Hawaiian- For nearly a century sugar was the major

American relations. For Americans it industry and economic force in the islands. marked the centennial of their revolution but In fact, until the end of World War II, the for Hawaiians it represented the beginning sugar plantation and later the pineapple of a very different economic, social and po- plantation remained the central economic litical revolution. Plantations would irrepa- and social institutions that defined and rably alter the natural and human landscape molded the history of Hawaii. Even today a of Hawai'i and some planters themselves majority of people in Hawai'i can trace one would eventually work to depose the Ha- or more of their ancestors to the plantations waiian monarch. Over the next decade. which became another source of traditional King David Kalakaua would live in splendor culture in Hawai'i. On the plantation Japa- supported by taxes levied on some of the nese, Chinese, Filipinos, Koreans, Puerto

41 Na ivai ho'i ka'ule o ke cikamcii he cilanui i nui'ci kci hele ia e o'li man makiia?

Who could not help but be wise on a road that has been well traveled by my forefathers?

(said by King Kamehanieha II when praised for his intelligence)

Ricans, Portuguese and others learned to co- instead became settlers. Intermarriage be- exist and to work together, although their tween Hawaiians and these new immigrants camps were usually separated. They helped change the heritage of the entire brought with them what they could cany t)f population. their e^wn respective cultures and eventually Ethnic intermarriage in Hawai'i began with adapted it to life on the Hawaiian planta- liaisons between Hawaiians and the first Chi- tions. Though life was extremely difficult nese and American immigrants to the is- with little opportunity for enjoyment, some lands. Many early plantation workers were time was always found for relaxation. not able to bring wives and further intermar- Through seasonal celebrations such as the riage, especially in the 20th century, was Japanese O-hoii or the Portuguese Feast of commonplace. These marriages brought the the Three Kings, immigrant laborers main- cultures of Asia, the Pacific and Europe into tained an identity in spite of the harsh chal- intimate contact. With the migration of plan- lenges of relocation. Such celebrations, with tation workers to the cities and the break- their dances and other festivities, continue down of plantation life, people in most com- today, marking the vitality of these former munities have continued to intermariy at an immigrant communities. extraordinaiy rate. In recent years, in fact, it There were many differences between the has been difficult for censuses to calculate experiences of workers who immigrated to the size of Hawaii's ethnic communities be- Hawai'i and those who went to other parts cause many people have such a mixed an- of the United States. One obvious distinc- cestiy that they are unable to select a single tion lay in the rural nature of plantation ethnicity. If you ask someone, whether a work as compared to the industrial work secretary in an office, a laiihala hat weaver, required of laborers in factories of the urban or a constaiction worker, what his or her

Northeast. Nevertheless, the response of ethnicity is they will likely reply, "Well. ..my

Hawai'i to its ethnic complexity was mark- mom was half-Hawaiian and half-Chinese. edly different from that of its mainland My dad was Puerto Rican, Spanish and neighbor. Not only did the rural plantation Irish. ..I'm a little bit of eveiything...kind of structure allow for more interaction and chop suey." sharing among the different cultural and eth- In the wake of this massive dislocation of nic groups when compared to the urban people from their cultures as well as from residential ghettos of the mainland, but there their land, and in light of the ethnic mix that was also a solidly Polynesian cultural base has resulted, it wcnild seem that little would that still infused Hawaiian society in the 19th be left of Hawaiian or even Japanese or Por- century. The values of this society encour- tuguese identity in late 20th centuiy Hawai'i. aged acceptance and the warmth of spirit On the surface this is taie. Especially since that is referred to as aloha. Wodd War II and statehood in 1959, mass

The first half of the 20th century was a media, tourism (five million visitors a year) period during which the dozen or more eth- and the strategic position that Hawai'i holds nic groups in Hawai'i had to find a way to in the Pacific have made it difficult for the live together. The isolation that defined the islands to remain isolated from either main- cievelopment of early Polynesian society also land. However, even the casual visitor to limited the options of later immigrants. Re- the islands will observe that the people of turn to the Azores, Puerto Rico or Southern Hawai'i have learned to live with each other China was difficult even in the early 20th while retaining attitudes and (especially in century, so those who came as sojourners the past two decades) revitalizing institutions

42 Hula dancers perform at King Kalakaua's Jubilee /;/ an in 1886. This public event, calculated to shock the missionary families who had condemned the dance two generations before, symbolized the King's support for Hawaiian tradi- tions. (Photo courtesy Bishop Museum)

//z//a dancers perform at the 1987 Merrie Monarch Festival held in Hilo. The festival, begun in 1964 as a tourist event, was named in honor of King Kalakaua who publically revived the art of hula in the 1880s. By the 1970s it had be- come a competitive event and focal point for the growing Hawaiian Renaissance. (Photo by Lynn Martin, courtesy State Foundation on Culture and the Arts Folk Arts Program)

43 and traditions that reflect their ethnic identi- the plantation era. Hawaiian music and ties. At the same time, cultural borrowing in dance, maritime arts, stone work, herbal

Hawai'i has been extensive and the state's healing, lei making, foodways, quilting, rich cultural mix is a source of pride for all lanhala hat weaving and coconut basketry its citizens. are among those art forms that have Polyne- sian origins and have been affected by other Lu'au, Lei and Plate Lunch: Local cultures. Aspects of Chinese, Japanese, Oki- Culture in Hawai'i nawan, Filipino, Portuguese, Puerto Rican, Hawai'i is both geographically and cultur- Korean and Pacific Island traditions have ally at the crossroads of the Pacihc. In this also survived the tests of time and reflect the multi-ethnic society music, crafts and food pride with which these groups have main- all provide important windows into the tained the salient aspects of their cultural process of acculturation tiiat has occurred in heritages. It is this amazing array of influ-

Hawai'i. The acculturated traditions that ences that gives Hawai'i its unmistakable make up what people in Hawai'i refer to as cosmopolitan outlook, shared by every level "local" are the result of adaptation to ever- of the community - from politicians to farm- changing circumstances. At the same time ers.

Hawaii's ethnic communities have retained The cosmopolitan nature of Hawai'i is and developed their individual identities wonderfully reflected in the lei, in Hawaiian which are expressed in the vitality of their music and dance, and in the food traditions traditions. of the /// 'an and plate lunch. In these tradi- In the two centuries since contact with tions, among others, the people of Hawai'i Western culture native Hawaiian traditions transcend biases separating ethnic groups. have been subject to tremendous pressures. Together, they enjoy traditions that are suf-

Some ancient artistic expressions dwindled fused by the "host " culture of the native completely, while others continued. These Hawaiians and are shaped by the adaptabil- losses were the result of a combination of ity of the islands' people. factors including the loss of a functional or Today, music and dance are probably the ceremonial role for many goods or services. most familiar elements of Hawaiian culture For example, wood calabashes and kapa and have become symbols of this identity, cloth were supplanted by metal containers both nationally and internationally. Some and fabric. visitors to the islands may consult their The loss of art forms such as kapa, twined guide books and maps, seeking to explore a basketry from the roots of the 'ie'ie plant, remote heiau (ancient stone platform used cordage of natural fibers, feather capes, and for religious practices); fewer still may wooden images is heightened when one search out a traditional herbal healer. But, considers that the early Hawaiians had most experience some form of Hawaiian achieved a level of artistic creativity and music and dance, whether it be in the air- technical craftsmanship in these areas unsur- port lobby, a hotel dinner show, or a special passed in the rest of Polynesia. 'With impe- performance at the Bishop Museum. The tus from the "Hawaiian Renaissance" in the music and dance in the Waikiki showrooms 1970s a few dedicated artists are now work- bear only a slight resemblance to their an- ing to revive some of the "lost arts" of cient past.

Hawai'i. 'With little context for use within Prior to the mid- 1800s when Christian contemporary lifestyles, they are usually sold morality, missionary style hymn singing, and or displayed as one-of-a-kind pieces for mu- Western stringed instalments were seums, private collectors, and galleries. introduced, mele (chixni) was the basic form The temptation to mourn the past has for of musical and poetic expression. The older the most pan given way to a practical desire style of hula is now referred to as hula to accommodate, to adapt, to incorporate kahiko (ancient hula) and is done to chants what is meaningful and beautiful from the accompanied by various percussion instal- many groups that came to Hawai'i during ments, usually the pahii (ceremonial drum)

44 In the early 1900s /e( sellers await the arrival of passengers on Steamer Day. Lei have always been a symbol of esteem in Hawai'i. (Photo courtesy Hawai'i State Archives)

In 1989 lei makers sell their

flowers at the Honolulu Inter- national Airport. (Photo by Lynn Martin, courtesy State Foundation on Culture and the Arts Folk Arts Program)

45 At the turn of the century people gather at a /;( an in Honaunau on the Big Island for a traditional meal focused on large calabashes of poi. (Photo by Alonzo Gartley, courtesy Bishop Museum)

or the ipti heke (double gourd). guitar by the Spanish-Mexican vaqueros When missionaries arrived in the mid- (cowboys) and the ukulele (developed from 1800s they disapproved of the bold and the Portuguese braguiiiha) dramatically af- what they considered "licentious" nature of fected this transition. Western melodies in- the hula and its ties to ancient gods. Thus, troduced in the form of church hymiis they discouraged it and managed virtually to (hTmeii!) influenced Hawaiian mele io take ban it from public performance for at least on a more lyrical stnacture; these songs in- fifty years. Fortunately, some of Hawaii's corporated the new stringed instamients and monarchs saw that the hula was integral to provided the accompaniment for hula a Hawaiian sense of pride and identity. auana. Composers abounded, from the King David Kalakaua, often referred to as royal family to taro farmers, and their songs the "Merrie Monarch" because of his love of celebrated places, people and events. music, dance and merriment, is credited Hula ku Y ( hula that is put together) with much support for the hula. As a public formed the bridge to the modern hula or statement, he invited dancers from around hula 'auaiui {hula ihdi v^'3.ndeTs). Hula the islands to perform at his coronation in auana is less formal and stmctured in 1883 and the Jubilee Celebration of his 50th mo\ement; the dancer interacts more with birthday in 1886. the audience, while still concentrating on In the late-lBBOs and around the turn of telling his or her story with body, hands and the century, hula began to evolve into what song. This is the type of dance that one is can be considered the folk dance of Hawaii likely to enjoy at a party or local bar, where today, hula auaiui. The introduction of the a dancer might spontaneously join the

46 Friends gather on O'ahu for a In an to share food and listen to local music. (Photo by Norman Shapiro)

Hawaiian musicians for a dance, whether discipline and reverence that are part of the dressed in a lace-trimmed tnu'u mu'u (long training in a halaii hula (school for ancient dress) or a pair of blue jeans. hula) weave into the community a profound

From the 1920s to the 1950s Hawaiian strength and cohesion. Thus, it is quite pos- music was affected strongly by its popularity' sible to hear Chinese-Hawaiian, Portuguese- on the mainland. Even earlier, at the turn of English or Filipino parents proudly exclaim the century, when the first travelers came to that their daughter danced at the Merrie the islands, the "tourist industry" began to Monarch hula competition. All communities employ musicians, inevitably altering the in Hawaii participate together in this Poly- style and context of traditional music. Hapa nesian dance tradition. haole (half Hawaiian - half English) tunes Making and giving floral lei is another were composed that, though reflecting some tradition that reflects Hawaii's cosmopolitan aspects of the tradition, were part of a more nature. Lei are known throughout Polyne- commercialized popular expression of it. sia. Early Hawaiians fashioned their lei from Today, a local recording industry flourishes durable materials such as shells, seeds, alongside hotel entertainers, while urban bones and feathers as well as from ephem- and rural folk music persists in song and eral materials such as leaves, ferns and flow- highlights slack-key guitar. ers. The ecology of what is called "pre-con- Hawaiian music and dance bring together tact" Hawai'i was radically different from people of a variety of ethnic backgrounds what is seen today. Very few flowers and and ages to share in the enjoyment of good plants now found in the islands were grow- feelings for each other and their home. The ing at that time. Early Hawaiians fashioned

47 that the lei last but that the moment of giv-

ing and caring be enjoyed for what it is. As /t'Z-maker Marie McDonald has said about

the lei. "Anyone who has been born or has grown up or has come to live in Hawai'i is

influenced by the /e'/...It will survive any and

all cultural change, for there will always be

people who will enjoy and need its beauty to express regard for others and self."

Food is the substance of living and as such plays a major role in any traditional

culture. Hawai'i is no exception and the delight in one another's food traditions

shared by people in Hawai'i is yet another facet of cosmopolitan Hawai'i. In the feast

of the /// an and in the everyday "plate lunch," Hawaii's cultural and ethnic groups come together to dazzle one another's taste buds and enjoy their cultural differences.

The In an of today's Hawai'i is an out- growth of feasting around a Hawaiian More than 100 descendents including bix generations earthen pit oven - the innt. which is a tradi- of relatives joined Chong Ho Loy How on her 100th tional way of cooking throughout Polynesia. birthday. Her daughter Margaret Aki, granddatighter Yuk Ching Nakashima, great-granddaughter Karlene In pre-contact Hawai'i men and women ate Graylin, great-great-granddaughter Coreen Uilani Kauhi separately; today the In 'an is a celebration and great-great-great-grandson Justin Kauhi represent that brings together the nuclear family, the the Chinese, Japanese, Hawaiian and English heritage extended family and often the larger "family" of their family, ( l^hoto by Jimmy Chong) of the community. The word In an didn't appear until the mid- 19th century and actu- their lei from plants such as the pandanus ally refers to the tops of the young taro fruit, blossoms of the golden ilima. and leaves that are sometimes cooked with fish leaves and outer bark of the niaile \'ine. and chicken in coconut milk as one compo- Braided, twisted or stixing lei were often nent of a Hawaiian feast. The meal that is worn around the neck, head, wrist and now presented at a In an offers Hawaiian ankle. Over the last 150 years many flowers foods such as kalna pig (pig cooked in the have been introduced, including orchids, imn and then shredded), fish, opihUvaw carnations, and plumeria, but the techniques limpets), In'an stew (taro leaves, coconut of fashioning them into lei have remained milk and usually pieces of octopus or squid) typically Hawaiian. and, of course, the Hawaiian staple, poi (a

In early Hawai'i the lei was symbolic of pounded custard-like starch made from regard and esteem for gods, loved ones, and cooked taro). Characteristically, there is also oneself. Thus, important life passages an amazing array of ethnic foods including prompt a multitude of remarkably diverse chicken long rice introduced by Chinese, and spectacular lei. Even the Hawai'i state sushi by Japanese, chicken adoho by Filipi- legislature opens with representatives, sena- nos, and macaroni salad by U.S. mainlan- tors and members of the public garlanded ders. Other more exotic items considered to with thousands of lei. Lei are also given for be Hawaiian include lomi-lomi salmon more informal occasions—when visiting a (whose origins can be traced to the whalers friend, to make an apology, or to express in who came from the Pacific Northwest), Ian gesture the warmth of friendship. Regard- Ian (taro leaves wrapped around fish, pork

less of the occasion, the lei is a symbol of a or other meat and steamed or cooked in the

feeling and therefore it is not so important imn), hanpia (a coconut milk custard) and

48 —

kulolo (a taro, coconut milk and molasses fragile artistic traditions are inextricably tied

dessert). together. Preserving these arts is crucial, for

"Local" In an are huge undertakings that a community's psychic well-being is only as

may feed anywhere from one to five strong as its commitment to protecting its hundred people; they are held by a family to traditions. mark an event of great importance such as a marriage, a 50th wedding anniversary, and This article benefitedfrom the comments of especially the first birthday of a baby Dolly Strazar. State Foundation on Culture called a "first year baby lu'aii." This local and the Arts. gathering bears only slight resemblance to the lu 'au many visitors experience as part of Richard S. Kennedy is the Curator of the Hawaii Pro- their hotel package. Hotel lu an usually gram of the 1989 Festival ofAmerican Folklife. He feature only a few of the traditional food received his Ph.D. in South and Southeast Asian Studies items sprinkled among foods more appeal- from the University of California. Berkeley. On leave as ing to the mainland palate and a Polynesian Associate Director of the National Councilfor the Tradi- review floor show, more often than not tional Arts, he is also Chairperson ofSouth Asia Area Studies at the Department of State's Foreign Service made up of Tahitian tam ii re d-dnc'mg and a Institute. Samoan fire dancer.

"Plate lunch" or what is sometimes called Lynn Martin received herM.A. in Pacific Island Studies

"mixed plate" is more an everyday kind of from the University of Hawaii. Presently she is the meal and also demonstrates Hawaii's cultural Hawaii State Folklorist at the State Foundation on Culture and the Arts. diversity expressed in food. Lunch wagons park on many corners, patronized by people Suggested Reading: from all walks of life. The plate usually con- Daws, Gavin. 1974. Shoal of Time: A History of the sists of two scoops of rice, some macaroni Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii salad a or fish and meat dish from one of Press. Haraii's ethnic communities. Bento is an- Hopkins, Jerry, 1982. The Hula. Hong Kong: Apa other popular everyday lunch and its Japa- Productions. nese origin does not preclude all sorts of Kanahele, George, ed. 1979. Hawaiian Music other things appearing on the bed of rice and Musicians: An Illustrated History. Honolulu: University that forms the base. Both meals represent of Hawaii Press. some of the same processes of cultural ad- Kodama-Nishimoto, aptation as do Hawaiian music or the Michi, Warren Nishimoto and Cynthia A. Oshiro. 1984. Hanahana: An Oral History modern lu au. The meal is a successful Anthology ofHawaii's Working People. Honolulu: Uni- combination of cuisines that, like much Ha- versity of Hawaii Press. waiian culture as a whole, is inclusive in Lind. Andrew. 1955. Hawaii's People. Honolulu: spirit. University of Hawaii Press. Hawaii is a complex state that is home to Martin, Lynn, ed. 1987. Na Paniolo Hawaii. an incredible array of ethnic groups and cul- O Hon- olulu: Honolulu Academy of Arts. tures. Each of these groups has maintained its unique identity and at the same time McDonald, Marie A, 1985. Ka Lei: Tlye Lets ofHawaii. Honolulu: Topgallant. blended to create "local" traditions that are expressive of the community as a whole. Moriarry. Linda Paik. 1986. Ni'ihau Shell Leis. Hon- However, increasing pressures from foreign olulu: Llniversity of Hawaii Press. investment and mass media are today further Mullins, Joseph G. 1978. Hawaiian foumey Hon- disenfranchising native Hawaiians and olulu: Mutual. threatening the stability of several genera- Odo. Franklin and Kazuko Sinoto. 1985. A Pictorial tions of other cultures in the islands. History of theJapanese in Hawaii. 1885-1924. Hon- Hawaii's characteristic attitude of tolerance olulu: Bishop Museum Press. and acceptance, molded in part by centuries of isolation, may be compromised by such pressures. These attitudes and Hawaii's

49 Les Traditions Fran^aises: Leur Evolution et Leur Survivance en Amerique du Nord

Cette annee, nous celebrons le bicentenaire de transformations sociales et politiques internes, la Revolution Fran^~aise en analysant le patri- des influences et des pressions venues de moine franfais contemporain, ainsi que celui des I'exterieur, et des emprunts des cultures avoisi- communautes francophones en Amerique du nantes ont contribues a la formation du patri- Nord. En Bretagne, en Normandie, au Poitou, au moine dans le Nouveau Monde. Quebec, en Nouvelle Angleterre, au Dakota du Nous retrouvons cette diversite culturelle en Nord et en Louisiane, nous retrouvons des com- France. Dans les regions dont sont originaires munautes qui pailagent une souche et une lan- les ancetres des francophones d'Amerique du gue d'origine commune. Ce Festival est le Nord, la Revolution Frangaise n'a pas elimine temoignage vivant de la sui'vivance du patri- une certaine identite regionale. Chaque region a moine dans ces communautes francophones et des traditions de danse et de musique particu- revendique I'importance des droits de I'homme lieres, et un parler regional. Cette distinction qui permet I'expression d'une identite regionale. culturelle est tres marquee en Bretagne puisque La Declaration des Droits de I'Homme et du cette region est linguistiquement divisee en Citoyen, document issu le 26 aout 1789, garanti a deux. Quoique les Bretons de Basse-Bretagne

I'etre humain les droits inalienables de liberte et partagent aujourd'hui une certaine culture com- de libre expression. Ce document declare que mune a tous les Frangais, historiquement et du "Les hommes naissent et demeurent libres et point de vue de la langue, ils fiint partie du egaux en droits.... Ces droits sont la liberte, la monde celte. Leurs traditions orales et leurs propriete, la surete, et la resistance a croyances sont differentes de celles des autres I'oppression." La musique traditionnelle, les communautes frangaises. traditions orales et I'artisanat des communautes Ce qui anime la survivance du patrimoine ou francophones refletent les tensicjns entre le con- la force de le re-creer est le desir des porteurs de formisme d'une culture nationale et le droit que traditions d'affirmer leur identite, de combattre les individus et les regions revendiquent pour I'homogenization, de maintenir le droit de tous exprimer la culture regionale qui leur est propre. les etres humains de s'exprimer de la fagon dont La diversite des traditions orales de souche ce sont exprimes leurs ancetres. Dans les fran^raise en Amerique du Nord est le resultat de regions ou I'hegemonie politique a essaye de plusieurs migrations; des Fran^ais s'etablissent forcer une assimilation, comme en Acadie, au en Acadie et au Quebec, d'autres en Louisiane, Quebec, en Louisiane et en Bretagne, la determi- des Acadiens retournent en France et puis emi- nation de maintenir le droit de libre expression grent en Louisiane, des Canadiens d'origine est plus marquee et a pour resultat la survivance frangaise descendent le long du Mississippi et des traditions—telles que la langue et la mu- s'etablissent en Illinois et au Missouri, des sique—qui ser\'ent a maintenir lidentite du coureurs de bois fran^ais se marient avec des groupe. Amerindiens, des Frangais importent des esclaves Tandis que nous presentons et celebrons les africains de leurs colonies des Antilles pour aider traditions frangaises, leur sur\'ivance, leur creoli- a subvenir aux besoins agricoles, et des Quebe- zation, leur re-animation, leur futur en Amerique cois emigrent en Nouvelle Angleterre. et en France, il est utile de se rappeler que la L'evolution du patrimoine fran<:ais dans le Declaration des Droits de I'Homme et du Citoyen Nouveau Monde est le resultat de courants histo- peut etre consideree comme un decret concer- riques specifiques a chaque region. Le desir de nant la preservation culturelle. La langue, la maintenir une ceitaine identite, d'affirmer son musique, la litterature orale sont tous des instru- patrimoine ou de se differencier des autres a ments et des indices de survivance culturelle. change le mode de vie de chaque groupe. Des

50 —

French Traditions: Their History and Continuity in North America Winnie Lambrecht

This year we celebrate tlie bicentennial of between pressures toward conformity with a the French Revolution by examining con- singular national culture and the rights of in- temporary folk traditions of France and of dividuals and communities to assert their French-speaking peoples of North America. own cultural identities. This Festival of The people of Britanny, Normandy, Poitou, American Folklife program illustrates both Quebec, and the French-speaking communi- the continuity of folk culture in the Franco- ties of New England and Louisiana, North phone communities of France and America Dakota and Missouri share a common origin and the contemporary importance of human and linguistic affinity. Each of these com- cultural rights for the free expression of munities has selectively preserved and modi- communal identity. fied this French cultural heritage in a specific Francophone North America was mainly historical and geographical setting despite peopled by immigrants from the Atlantic pressures toward cultural homogenization coast of France and their descendants. The and political attempts to restrict cultural con- evolution of traditional French culture in the tinuity. Common and transformed elements new continent was the result of historical of expressive culture continue to serve each forces specific to each area. Desires to group's own internally defined needs, in- maintain self-identity, to assert one's heritage cluding that of self-identification within a or to distinguish oneself from others altered larger society. What then connects the ex- the lifestyle of each group. Internal social pressive culture—the musics, crafts and and political transformations, external influ- dance—of these communities with the politi- ences and pressures, and cultural elements cal events of distant history, and with the borrowed from neighboring communities ideas that animated those events? contributed to the traditions that took shape The Declaration of the Rights of Man and in the New World. of the Citizen, proclaimed in the first weeks Cultural diversity is no less important of the French Republic on August 26, 1789, within France. To the outside world France asserts the inalienable human rights of self- might appear as a cultural unity, but in fact determination and freedom of expression. it is a country of considerable cultural diver-

From the Bretons of Basse-Bretagne to the sity. One of the goals of the Revolution Michif of North Dakota, Manitoba and Sas- national unification—was not welcome in katchewan, today's traditional music, verbal those regions of France that were not only art and material culture reflect the tensions distant from the events in Paris, but were

Les Fete,s Chez Nous: France and North America, a program on the occasion of the Bicentennial of the French Revolu- tion and the Declaration of the Rights ofMan and of the Citizen, has been made possible by the American Committee on the French Revolution with the generous support of thefollowing corporations andfoundations: Archer-Daniels- Midland Foundation, Arthur Andersen & Co., General Electric Foundation, Gulf+ Western Foundation, ITT Corpora- tion, KPMG Peat Manvick. hazard Freres. Warner-Lambert Company and the assistance of the governments of the Republic ofFrance and the province of Quebec.

51 Missouri French speakers liavc preserved French nuisic and fnodways despite being isolated from other Francophone groups tor generations, Roy Boyer, fiddle (1.). Gene Hall, fiddle (back), Paul Dennan, guitar and Charlie Pashia. (Photo by Howard W. Marshall, Missouri Cultural Heritage Center)

also culturally and linguistically different. French settlements in the Mississippi and Ethnic minorities within France who spoke Missouri Valleys were the result of early ex- languages other than French were subject to peditions by fur traders coming from the the same kind of edicts as those that later north in search of additional bounty, and forced French speakers in Acadia, Quebec explorers h-on\ the south in search of mines and Louisiana to adopt English, the language that had already been signaled by De Soto of the culture that came to dominate North in the late l6th century. These early French America politically and economically. This settlements staited as forts or missions, and compelled cc^nformity and intolerance of most had French populations too small to cultural difference led minority communities produce enough food for their own subsis- in France to seek greater opportunity else- tence. They soon imported slaves from the where—primarily in North America. Condi- French colonies in the Caribbean—Haiti, tions in France prior to the Revolution Martinique and Guadeloupe. Indeed, in prompted disenfranchised people, especially many comimmities the African population in the rural areas, to follow earlier mariners outnumbered the French. Thus, many of the and explorers to North America. The French oral traditions in these communities reflect Revolution prompted new migrations among very strong African and Creole (Afro-Carib- its dissenters (royalists, some of the Catholic bean) influences. The French in Missouri clergy, and tenant peasants, the most no- were cut off from regular contact with other table of these ct)unter-revolutionary groups French-speaking commtmities during the being the chouans). late 18th and eady 19th centuries. English The complexities of these historical move- speakers stalled settling in the area in great ments and their results can be illustrated by numbers; political authority and mercantile the case of French settlement in Missouri. activity became their domain, and the

52 French found themselves a disenfranchised immigrated to New England. In some com- minority. As a result of these historical munities a large number of active bearers of events, French musical traditions are scarce these traditions maintain them proudly; in in Missouri and absent in neighboring Illi- other communities French-derived traditions nois. Instead, the Francophone community are scarce, and the number of active bearers maintains its distinctiveness largely through very small. In yet others, such as the Metis its foodways and oral traditions. Boiidin in North Dakota, French traditions have be- noir (blood sausage), beignets or beign come part of a new cultural complex

chauwage (puff cakes), and tart a boiiillir (a through "ethnogenesis." Ethnogenesis is the pie) are all part of the culinary tradition in conscious creation of a new cultural lifestyle current day Missouri. by a group of people who, having lost their On the other side of the Atlantic, the story cultural identity through oppression or as- is no less complex, though internal migra- similation, feel the need to reassert a sepa- tions were not as frequent in France as they rate cultural community. were in North America. Brittany is part of France, and therefore partakes of French Conjoined Cultures: France and culture. While Bretons share a number of North America. cultural elements with other French citizens, On July 14, 1789, Parisian citizens took they are historically and linguistically more the Bastille, an act that came to symbolize part of the Celtic world, especially those in the overturn of the old regime and the be- the region of Basse-Bretagne. Brittany (or ginning of the French Revolution and a new

"Amorica" as it was known) was not widely era. A few weeks later, on August 26, the evangelized until the 5th or 6th century, af- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the ter other parts of France had already been Citizen was proclaimed. It contained the Christianized. As a result, oral traditions and formative principles of the French belief systems of the area remain quite dis- Constitution of 1791. It states that "Men are tinct from those of other parts of France. In born and remain free and equal in some French areas it is topography that rights.... These rights are Liberty, Property, leads to isolation, but in the case of Brittany Safety, and Resistance to Oppression." On the isolation is cultural in origin. Many Bre- another continent, thirty days later, the Bill tons migrated to North America, but they of Rights was signed in New York as a ful- were outnumbered by those who came from fillment of the American Revolution. Two other parts of France, and their language did men on either side of the Atlantic with a not survive the cultural milieu in Acadia and shared vision of liberty contributed to these the other French Canadian areas where they events: Lafayette and Jefferson. Lafayette settled. Interestingly, however, Cajun first served in the American revolutionary

French is testimony to an early migration of army, and later played a leading part in the Acadians (including Bretons) to South Lou- French Revolution; Jeffersonian ideas were isiana and includes nautical terms and other embodied in the political movements on linguistic evidence of Celtic influence. both continents. Today's varied mosaic of French-derived The political and philosophical connec- or influenced oral traditions in North Amer- tions between France and the New World ica results from various migrations: French were never again as strong and direct as who came to Quebec or Acadia, others who during that period, but France had already settled in Louisiana, Acadians who returned established ties to the American continent to France and then migrated again to Louisi- prior to these historic events. From the early ana, French Canadians who came down the l6th century, French fishermen and mariners Mississippi and settled in Illinois and Mis- from Le Havre, Dieppe, Rouen, Honfleur, souri, French cotireiirs de bois (woodsmen) and other fishing ports explored the waters who intermarried with American Indians, off the North American coast. Initially, these slaves brought to French colonies to help mariners carried their haul back to France; meet agrarian needs, and Quebecois who soon, however, they began to dry their catch

53 Louis LeBellangtr in his home in Mangny, Normandy. Though the French played a variety of instalments, the hddie became the dominant instrument in French communities in North America. (Photo by Winnie Lambrecht) on Noith American land and established up between French fishermen and eariy set- depots in Newfoundland and the Acadian tlers seeking furs from their Indian trading peninsula (the nonhern coast of Maine, the partners. By 1630 a number of trading posts southern portion of the Gaspe peninsula, were established, and French fishermen win- Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the tered in Acadian coves; about 1636 the first Magdalen Islands). There they first came families arrived. They came mostly from the into contact with native inhabitants such as western parts of France, searching for eco- the Micmac, the Hurons, the Iroquois and nomic gain and fleeing from political and the Montagnais. religious persecution. These early immi- Curious about these new lands, explorers grants brought with them the traditions, be- supported by European courts led expedi- liefs and agricultural and maritime skills that tions to the New World: Verrazano in 1524, had been passed on to them for generations. Cartier in 1534, and Champlain, who The demands of a new environment, the founded Quebec in 1608 and was later the absence of familiar natural resources, and colony's hrst governor. These early expedi- new economic and social challenges tions led to the beginning of New France brought changes in the tool kit and habits of and the establishment of French colonies on these settlers. The new circumstances called

American soil. An active exchange sprang for both local inventiveness and borrowing

54 from indigenous populations. Yet many of the French traditions survived, particularly in the verbal arts.

When the first census of the settlement of New France was taken in 1671, many fami- lies were headed by craftsmen whose skills were essential for the survival of small com- munities: tool makers, gunsmiths, coopers, and weavers. Others listed themselves as farmers. Besides the 400 families counted, there were also coureurs de bois, fur traders who lived with Indians, and administrative officials. These founding families were seminal in shaping the nature of life in the

New World: "three-fourths of all the Acadi- ans living today, either in Louisiana or Can- ada, or Nova Scotia or Europe are de- scended from the families listed in the cen- sus of 1671" (Stacey 1979:75). Early 17th century French settlements in the New World attracted English resentment and reprisals. The English felt that these settlers and traders had intruded upon their lands and a series of conflicts ensued. The fur traders who had become the mainstay of French Canada maintained contact with the

Huron, the Algonquins, and the Montagnais. In Acadia and Quebec, the survival of musical and These contacts provoked the anger of the dance traditions was sometimes challenged by religious prohibitions. Henri Landry of Ponbriand, Quebec, at Iroquois, who were trading with the British. the home of friends. (Photo by Lisa Ornstein) Rivalries among European colonials and among American Indian groups resulted in a series of wars, culminating with the expul- place where they were welcomed, due in sion of the Acadians by the British, who had pan to the Catholic presence in Baltimore). tactical and military superiority. On August Sixty percent of these exiles died before

1, 1755, Governor Lawrence ordered all reaching a safe haven. Rejected from most French to be removed from Acadia without areas, they eventually found their way to their possessions. French colonies in the West Indies, went to Though many French settlers had already other parts of Canada, or settled in what

left Acadia after the area came under British would later become Louisiana, then under flag in 1713, Governor Lawrence's order in Spanish control. Throughout the 1760s, Ac- 1755 forced the evacuation of hundreds of adians continued to come to Louisiana from Acadians from the lands they had settled. temporary refuge in Canada, Nova Scotia Many French settlers were imprisoned and and the West Indies. many others were exiled. This period of Other exiles asked to be sent back to imprisonment and deportation, known in France. They were resettled mostly in the French Canadian and French American his- seacoast towns of Western France. With no tory as "le Grand Derangement," continued way of supporting themselves and unwilling until the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Exiles were to settle under the quasi-feudal regime of scattered, families torn apart and resettled in the French monarchy, most of these families the British colonies along the Atlantic sea- eventually migrated to Louisiana. Most of board (Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylva- the Acadians arrived in Louisiana between nia, South Carolina and Maryland—the only 1765 and 1785 and settled along the banks

55 of the Mississippi, Bayou Lafourciie, and French than their Cajun contemporaries. west of the Atchafalaya Basin on Bayou The Acadians or Cajuns (as they came to Teche. be called) also incorporated cultural items The beginning of a strong French pres- from Black Creoles from the Caribbean. ence in Louisiana dates from the late 17th Though Cajuns had few slaves, they were century. French traders in search of addi- close to large plantations and absorbed the tional sources of furs had moved west to the Afro-French Creole language. Contemporary Great Lakes and then south. Among these Cajun foods such as gumbo and Cajun mu- explorations, one of the most noteworthy sic—with its Afro-American blues and Afro- was that of La Salle, who led expeditions Caribbean rhythmic influences—show direct down the Mississippi into Louisiana in 1681. influence from slaves and free people of

In his party were the first Europeans to color. come to that area and to reach the Gulf of The movement of French-speaking immi- Mexico from the north; they claimed the grants out of French Canada did not stop in

area for France in 1682 and named it in the 18th century. During the 19th century, honor of Louis XIV. French farmers in Quebec faced many diffi- Small groups of settlers gradually came to culties: low productivity on farms, an inheri- Louisiana but since few were attracted to the tance system that led to the fragmentation of area, the early inhabitants brought Black farms, and a burgeoning population. Many slaves from the French settlements in the Quebecois migrated to New England, where

Caribbean to till the land and raise crops. a thriving textile industry offered seasonal Officials in France also tried to attract other employment to immigrants. Europeans to the area. In the 1720s, Ger- BetTA-een 1830 and 1850, the textile indus-

man colonists first arrived in Louisiana, and try in New England witnessed an extraordi- many moved "up river," north of New Or- nary' boom. The industry had first employed leans to an area that came to be known as unmarried girls from the rural areas of north- "the German Coast." Stacey (1979:111) ern New England. Newly arrived Irish immi- writes that "in the 1760s, the provisions gen- grants also provided labor for the growing erously offered by the settlers of the German indu.stry. Between the 1860s and 1900, fac- Coast saved the Acadian exiles..." tory owners turned increasingly to the hu- The French settlers selecti\ely apprc:)pri- man resources of Quebec. In 1850 the per- ated cultural items from the various groups manent French-Canadian population in New

that contributed to the social fabric of life in England was about 20,000; by the 1860s it Louisiana. Among these cultural practices had doubled. This growth in labor from were fishing techniques from the Anglo- Quebec was facilitated by "the relative prox- Americans and cooking practices from Afro- imity of New England and the availability of American slaves. Like earlier colonists, these cheap, rapid transportation by rail" (Brault settlers also came in contact with the indige- 1986:54). nous populations of Louisiana such as the The alarming rate of emigration to New Houma, the Choctaw, the Coushatta, and the England led to a repatriation campaign by Tunica-Biloxi. The new residents borrowed the Quebec government in 1875. Govern- certain agricultural practices, foodways and ment offers of inexpensive farmland, fare other traditions from the Indians. They reductions on railroad tickets, and visits to learned how to weave palmetto, build dug- mills by French Canadian clergymen were all out canoes and use local flora for medicinal part of this effort to stem emigration. As a purposes. The Houma in turn incorporated result "half of the French Canadians who elements of Acadian culture into their tradi- emigrated to New England before 1900 sub- tional lifestyle. They are said to be "among sequently returned to Quebec" (Brault the most traditional speakers of the Acadian 1986:82). dialect in the state" (Gregory 1985:106). Though many French Canadians assimi- Young Houma children today, particularly in lated to their new homeland, a greater num- Terrebonne Parish, are more likely to speak ber maintained their language, traditions,

56 )

Marie Dean, Houma palmetto weaver at her home in Dulac, Louisiana. French settlers encountered American Indians, borrowing a number of tradi- tions from them, including palmetto weaving. (Photo by Nick Spitzer)

(I) Michif musicians from the Turtle Mountain Reservation in North Da- kota, performed at the 1976 Festival of American Folklife. (Photo by James Pickerel!

57 Alphonse 'Bois Sec" Ardoin witli liis family in Eunice, Louisiana. The diatonic accordion was v.idely adopted by Louisiana musicians, including Afro-French Creoles who de\eloped their own musical style called zydeco," (Photo by Nicholas Spitzer)

and musical repeitoire, and then' Family- and many such unions took place. As many as

church-centered way of life. The immigrants 40% of French Canadians can claim some had come mostly from isolated small mral American Indian ancestry (Dickason communities along the St. Lawrence and 1985:19). Children oi French colonists and Richelieu rivers. These self-sufficient farm- American Indians often became traders and ing commimities included the parish priest cultural brokers, intermediaries between the (often the most influential figure in the two communities. Their isolation from the to adopt area), craftsmen and merchants ( Brault rest of New France caused them 1986:8). The immigrants also maintained the ways of life that differed from both their ideal of suivivance, loyalty to the French French and their American Indian ancestors, Canadian inheritance, and the duty of pre- and led to the formation of a distinctive cul-

serving its customs. The result has been a ture known as Metis—literally meaning strong sense of ethnic identity and a com- "mixed"—ctilture. Metis groups, each with mitment to preserving the use of the French its own history and traditions, are found in language, despite the discrimination that various areas c^f the Great Lakes and north French Canadians suffered in New England. and west of that region. The Michif people As the French moved west, fur traders of the Turtle Mountain Reservation in north and cuureurs de hois intermarried with central North Dakota are among those who American Indians. In spite of a desire on have retained a number of French derived the part of French settlers to maintain their traditions. separateness, marriages between Indians Marriages between the French and the and French were not limited to the western American Indians they encountered and on or more remote areas of colonization and whom they depended for survival and trade

58 also produced other elements of culture that "Je suis fort, fort bien entoure. partook of both traditions. Michif, the lan- Adieu Frangais. Adieu la France. C'est guage spoken today by the Metis of the pour toujours.

Turtle Mountain Reservation, probably de- Tous les regrets j'ai dans ce monde c'est veloped early during contact between the ma femme et mon cher enfant. French and the Cree. The complex history Adieu Fran^ais. Adieu la France. C'est of the Metis of the area, as well as that of pour toujours."

the Cree and the Chippewa, reflects all of the tragedies that characterized the treaties The flags are being lowered. Napoleon and land claims between the United States has died.

government and American Indians. It is He no longer lives.

made even more complicated by the fact We will tell of his story.

that these American Indians moved freely "I am surrounded from all sides. between what became two distinct countries Adieu Frenchmen. Adieu France. Forever separated by a boundary that was meaning- Adieu.

less to the Cree, the Chippewa and the Of all I miss in this world, it is especially Metis. my wife and my dear child. Michif has been considered alternatively Adieu Frenchmen. Adieu France. Forever as a distinct Creole language and as a dialect adieu."

of Cree. Whatever its classification, it is the (Turtle Mountain Music. 1984)

language of people on a reservation that is legally Chippewa, whose speakers have Music in the New 'World moved away from both Cree and Chippewa Mariners who came from France to ex-

languages in speech and song. Indeed, J.C. ploit the fishing banks along the Acadian Crawford (1985:233) writes that in Michif, coasts accompanied their sailing and fishing "the noun phrase is a French domain; verb efforts with work songs. The composition structure is clearly and thoroughly Cree, and of fishing crews changed over the years, syntax is Cree with French and probably with seasonal crews recruited from the farm- English influence. Minor word classes seem land interior in addition to year-round mari-

to split, some words being French and some ners. There is nevertheless a certain unity in Cree." the musical repertoire these crews brought In Metis music and dance, too, there was to the shores of the New World. Musical an exchange between French and American instruments also accompanied sailors on Indians: the Indian drum was discarded, and their journeys, as attested by Admiral Theve- music was provided by "the fiddle, some- nard in 1776: "One of the concerns that

times a genuine one but more frequently good seamen know the importance of is the one made from a hollow piece of wood entertainment provided to crews during long with cat-gut strings attached. The tunes journeys and periods without wind" (cited in were generally adaptations of old French Chants de matins traditioyuiels des cotes de folk songs while the dance itself was a lively France 1984). Horns and trumpets, bag-

number which in time became known as the pipes, hurdy-gurdies and musettes all found Red River jig" (Dusenberry 1985:121). To their way onto sailing and fishing vessels. French speakers, the songs are recognizable Even though the first settlers in the New as French, some referring to historical events World shared the same traditions, language that took place in the homeland of their and religion, the priorities of their new life, French ancestors, such as the lyrics of the the agricultural cycle, and the manner in song "Napoleon Bonaparte": which celebrations were observed moved their musical cultures in a direction different

En baissant les pavilions est mort xNa- from that of the mariners. The small, self- poleon. sufficient farms of the colonists under the Napoleon n'existerait plus. strong influence of the Church resulted in a Nous parlerons de son histoire. culture distinct from that of France. "The

59 )

The parents of these childieii weie pn>hibiiLd Inim spcjking French in public schools, but today's generation benefits from a cultural revival that encourages traditions such as this children's Mardi Gras parade in Eunice. Louisiana.

( Photo bv 'W'innie Lambrecht

Church al'ways directed and mc^lded the acts defense de les recevoir a la participation and the thoughts of colonist.s, -^ho, cut from des sacrements jusques a y avoir satisfait. their roots, had nothing in their new land to feed the beliefs and practices that had sus- We have condemned Gillette Kerguentel, tained them in their place of origin," accord- wife of Yves Le Sohier, to a three pound ing to Desdouits (1986:30). The Church contribution to the maintenance of the

undoubtedly modified tiie nature of the church of Plouaret because of her incite-

dance and music traditions that survived or ment tc:) rnusic and dance on a Sunday, developed in Quebec and Acadia. Dance and Gilles Salic also to a three pound

was viewed as frivolous if not sinful activity. charitable ccmtribution for playing on that

This state of affairs prevailed in France as same day; it is forbidden to them to par- well, where dance and music on Sunday and take of the sacraments until they fulfill this holy days were vociferously condemned, as obligation. (Becam 1989:9) an extract from a 1710 document from Plouaret indicates; In France, Church influence was lessened by the existence of other institutions and Nous avons condamne Gillette Kerguentel larger communities. There were, however, femme de Yves Le Sohier a 3 livres other reasons for the musics of the two con-

d'aumosne au profit de la fabrice de tinents to diverge. Musical traditions and

I'eglise de Plouaret pour avoir fait sonner repertoires transported from France were et danser a jour de dimanche et Gilles reshaped by contact with other cultures. Salic aussi a trois livres d'aumosne pour Musical instalment making was not a prior- avoir fait sonne le meme jour, avec ity in the colonies. Growing crops in a new

60 Hurdy-gurdy players Jean Gau?on and Joseph Quintin at home in Langueux, Britanny. The hurdy-gurdy was popular in Western France when the French first migrated to North America, but it never established itself in the New World. (Photo by Winnie Lambrecht)

environment, conflicts with some American manufacture, the immigrants made do with Indian groups and Englisli settlers, and the new instruments borrowed from other lack of skilled artisans to provide adequate peoples. Many of the tunes that the French tools all reduced the opportunity for making immigrants brought with them were easily musical instruments. Also, some of the in- transposed to violins, which were more struments that were popular in France were readily available. French settlers in Acadia not made for life in a colonial setting, such incorporated Scots-Irish reels, jigs and horn- as the hurdy-gurdy (which seems to be mak- pipes into their musical repertoires, and ing a comeback in Quebec, mostly with re- danced schottisches, mazurkas and con- vivalist musicians). tredanses. Although the original French immigrants Today these traditions continue and de- to the New World had brought with them velop in Quebec and New England. New few musical instruments, the Acadians were England communities such as Waltham, Mas- lovers of music and of dance. Where musi- sachusetts, have large populations of Ac- cal instruments were not available (or were adian and Quebecois descent with many forbidden, such as during Lent) dances were formidable musicians, especially fiddlers and accompanied by voices, hand-clapping and singers. In Quebec couple dances other foot-stamping. The musical traditions of than the waltz are now less visible, but con- western France (homeland to most of the tredanses, quadrilles, cotillons, rondes and Acadians) included brass and reed instru- set Carres (square dances) are popular in ments, as well as trumpets and the vielle a many communities. An unbroken commu- roue (hurdy-gurdy). Given the priorities of nity dance tradition thrives in places such as colonial life and limitations in instrument rile d'Orleans and the Saguenay—Lac-St-

61 )

the Anglophone world that surrounds them, an influx of immigrants who want their chil- dren's second language to be English instead of French, and the steadily dropping birth rate among Quebecois of French ancestry cause consternation among those who fear that their language and culture will disap- pear. In Louisiana, toward the end of the 19th century, resettled Acadians adopted the dia- tonic accordion that had been imported by German immigrants, and incorporated a number of fiddle tunes, ballads, square dances and hoedowns from the increasing number of Anglo-Americans to their north. The repertoire of songs and instrumental music in Louisiana was further influenced by Black musical traditions. Afro-French Cre- oles in Louisiana developed their own musi- cal style called "zydeco" by modifying Cajun tonality and adding improvisation and Afro-

Caribbean rhythm patterns. This tradition is Gilbert Henieux. luthicr, working M the Henieiix cS: particulady strong today in the musical per- Glet workshop in Le \"al, Rieux, (Photo by Winnie of people such as Canray Fon- Lambrecht formances tenot, "Bois Sec" Ardoin, John Delafosse, The Lawtell Playboys, Nathan Williams and Jean area; other social events ha\e sprung the Zydeco Cha Chas, and others playing lip recently, such as those held regiilarly in regularly in clubs in southern Louisiana. Moiitreal. \W//t%5 (musical evenings) are as The continuity, isolation, creolization likely to take place in community halls as in and—in some cases—end of musical tradi- private homes, and frequent day-long galas tions are indicators of the struggle for ethnic, showcase the talents of regional musicians. economic and cultural survival of French- During Christmas and on New Year's Day speaking peoples and those with whom they families and friends gather for song and came into contact over the last four centu- celebration; for La Fete de St-Jean-Baptiste ries. Indeed, in Louisiana until quite re- in June, people throughout the province cently, children were chastised for speaking gather for parades, bonfires and concerts of French in public schools. Recognizing the traditional music in a celebration that today persistence and importance of traditional

is more nationalistic than religious. culture and speech, the Committee for the For French speakers in Quebec and, in- Development of French in Louisiana deed, in every Canadian province, the ques- (CODOFIL) was created in 1968. French, tion of language has long been inseparable which had until then been an oral tradition, from issues of identity and access to power was offered in public schools and Cajun and self-determination. A 1980 referendum children have become literate in French. to take steps toward provincial secession As with other French-speaking communi-

from Canada v^as rejected; still, many ties in North America, an identifiably French Quebecois are adamant in demanding the musical repertoire was sustained in Louisi- right to use French in their daily lives with- ana, along with foodways and material cul- out sacrificing political and economic equal- ture that mark the state as a homeland to

ity with Fnglish speakers. In recent \'ears settlers of the French "diaspora." Today, increasing exposure to English-language re\italization of traditional music and recog- media, economic pressures to assimilate to nition for continuing and transformed tradi-

62 tions comment aesthetically on the cultural home to the ancestors of present-day Fran- health of French-speaking communities from cophone populations in North America. Quebec and New England to North Dakota, Each of these areas has distinct musical and Louisiana and Missouri. dance traditions, and a regional speech pat- tern. Though bagpipes are found through-

Regional Culture in France out France, the veuze is specific to the Ma-

In the French areas that provided the rais-Vendeen, whereas the biniou is preva-

North American continent with many of its lent in Brittany. Normans prefer to accom-

immigrants, regionalism is perhaps as strong pany wedding processions with the fiddle,

as it was at the time of the French Revolu- while in central Britanny the clarinet is a

tion. This cultural distinctiveness is most favorite. The accordion has replaced older marked in Brittany, a region di\ided in half instrtiments almost everywhere. In the linguistically, one half speaking Breton (a Sarthe region, the accordion provides the ac- Celtic language related to Welsh) and the companiment for the pas d'ete, a dance form other half classified as Gallo and speaking introduced in western France by retired mili- French. In the western part of Brittany tary masters and their apprentices. The vari-

(Basse-Bretagne) people take pride in ety of music in France is infinite; a distance speaking Breton, and one often hears par- of a few hundred kilometers may separate ents addressing their children in that lan- considerably different cultural stydes with guage, even though the official school lan- distinct musical repertoires.

guage is French. In 1982 the Ministry' of What all the areas presented at the Festi-

National Education, under parental pressure, val share is a renewed interest in traditional

opened the first bilingual classes in kinder- repertoires. In some instances, younger per- garten and primary schools in Brittany. Six formers and craftspeople are direct heirs to

years later, bilingual education is available in an unbroken tradition. Raised in a particular five of the six counties in Brittany. Teachers region and conscious of the importance and in these bilingual classes had to be self- beauty of the traditions borne by their fami-

taught, and there is strong pressure today to lies, they acquire the skills of their forefa-

make a higher degree available for the pur- thers. Such is the case, for instance, for Jean

pose of teaching in bilingual classes. It is Gaugon of Brittany, Dewey Balfa of Louisi- interesting to note parallels with Louisiana ana, and Dominique and Paul-Emile Lavallee and Quebec. of Quebec. Others, having become con-

In Brittany, there is a distinct Breton song scious of the importance of their region's repertoire, although a number of musicians heritage, deliberately decide to carry on the

sing in both Breton and French and draw tradition even though it may not have been from both traditions. What might these Bre- present in their family. In some instances, tons and Gallos have in common with the the tradition has been interaipted briefly: for petits habitants, the small farmers exiled example, though Thierry Bertrand is from a from Acadia who became the Cajuns of Lou- woodworking family, and his musical instru-

isiana? Given the centuries of separation ment making is thus in keeping with the

and the complexities of the history of each family skills, his constRiction of the Breton

region, one might speculate there is little veuze (bagpipe) is a deliberate attempt to

connection. But a well-known traditional bring back an instrument that had all but song in the repertoire of Breton musicians disappeared. Other performers and

Jean Gauij'on and Joseph Quitin is "Trois craftspeople are more clearly "revivalists"; gars partis pour I'Amerique" ("Three guys attracted by older traditions from their area

who left for America"). It was thus not only or from other areas, they consciously decide for the emigrants that America became a to recreate these traditions whether or not theme in folklore, but also for those who their own ancestors subscribed to those tra- were left behind. ditions. Though folklorists tend to be less In addition to Basse-Bretagne and Haute- interested in revivalists than in other per- Bretagne, Normandy and Poitou were also formers, revivalists have proven to be crucial

63 in the maintenance of certain traditions and Winnie Lctmbrechl, curalor of Les Fetes Chez Nous. their associated knowledge. Revivalists from received a Ph D in anthropolof^vfrom the University of the area whose traditions they represent Califomici, Berkeley. Since 1982 she has served as the often inten'iew older pet^ple to inform them- Director of the Folk Arts Program in Rhode Island. She is the author several articles on traditional arts selves about these traditions, conducting of and has consultedfor. produced or co-produced a number research and collecting information that of ducunientaiyfilms, festivals and exhibits- might othei^wise be lost. Such is the case of Yves Guillard from the Sarthe region of Nor- mandy and the character dances that he has Citations and Suggested Readi)igs the supenision of choreographed under Ancelet, Barn,- Jean, 19S4. We Make?y of Ca/un .Mu- musicians and old masters who saw them sic. Photo.s by Elemore Morgan. Austin; fnivt-rsity of being performed during their youth. Te.xas Pre.s.s.

What animates both the perpetuatit)n of Becam, Didier. 1989. Les sonneur.s et la dan.se en traditional forms and their revival is the de- Tregor au.x 17e et 18e siecles. Musique BretonneS9 (Februai>), 8-10, sire of tradition bearers, individuals or com- munities, to assert their distinct identity, to Brault, Gerard 1 1986, Tlje French-Caiuuliau Heritage fight against homogenization, to maintain in New F>tgland Hanover, N.H.: L'niversity Pres.s of New England, the right \ested in all human beings to ex- press themselves in the manner that their Carriere, Joseph Medard. 1937, Talesfrom the French Folklore Missouri. Northwestern University Studies in ancestors bequeathed to them. In those of the Humanities 1 Chicago: Northwestern University areas where the dominant society attempted Press, to enforce cultural assimilation, as in Acadia, Crawford, John C, 198S What is .Michifr': Language in Quebec, Louisiana and Brittany, determina- the Metis Tradition, In Peterson and Brown, pp, 2.M- tion to maintain the right of self-expression 241. makes itself felt most strongly and results in Dansez. Sarthois.' Daiises de caractere et pas d'ete. the perpetuation of traditional forms lan- — 1984, Special issue of Cenomane It guage and music—that serve as carriers of Desdouits, Anne-Marie, 1986, Le printemps dans la communal identity'. tradition France-Amerique, In Lepatnmoinefolklori- As we consider and celebrate the continu- que des Franco-Americains. ed, Claire Quintal, pp. 17- ity and creolization, sur\'ival and revival of 32. Quebec: Le Conseil de la vie frangaise en Ameri- French traditions in the Old and New que.

Worlds, it is useful to recall that The Decla- Dickason, Olive Patricia. 1985. From "One Nation" in ration of the Rights of Man and of the Citi- the Northeast to "New Nation" in the Northwest: A Look at the Emergence of the Metis, In Peterson and zen can be considered a statement about Brown, pp, 19-36. cultural conser\ation—the right to sing your Dusenberr>', Verne, 1985. Waiting for a Day that own song, tell your own story, enact your Never Comes: The Dispossessed Metis of Montana, In own ritual or festival. Language, music and Peterson and Brown, pp, 119-136, verbal artistry are instruments and indicators Gagne, Marc and Poulin, Monique. 1985, Chantons la of cultural sunival. Join us as Poitevins, Chanson, Quebec: Les Presses de I L'niversite La\al. Cajuns, Creoles, Houmas, Bretons, Gregory, H F, 1985, 'A Promise from the Sun": The Quebecois, Vendeens, New Englanders, Mic- Folklife Traditions of Louisiana Indians. In Louisiana hifs, Normans and Missourians sing, per- Folklife. A Guide to the State, ed. Nicholas Spitzer, pp. form, dance, think and speak in French dur- 103-112, Baton Rouge: Louisiana Folklife Program. ing this bicentennial year of the French Peterson, Jacqueline and Jennifer S.H, Brown, eds, Revolution. 1985. Tl:e New Peoples- Being and Becoming Metis in

North America. Manitoba Studies in Native History 1. Lincoln: L'ni\ersiry of Nebraska Press.

64 Rushton, William Faulkner. 1979. Voe Cajiins: From Acadia to Louisiana. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Savoy, Ann. 1984. Cajiin Music: A Reflection of a

People. Vol. 1. Eunice, L\; Bluebird Press.

Seguin, Robert-Lionel. 1986. La danse traditioiielle au Quebec. Quebec: Presses de I'Universite du Quebec.

Stacey, Truman. 1979. Louisiana's French Heritage.

In A Franco-American Overview, Vol. 1, comp. Renaud S. Albert, pp. 58-123. Cambridge. MA: National Assess- ment and Dissemination Center for Bilingual/Bicultural Education.

Thomas, Rosemary Hyde. 1981. It's Good to Tell You: French Folktalesfrom Missouri Columbia, MO; Uni- versity of Missouri Press.

Voyer, Simonne. 1986. La danse traditionelle dans Vest du Canada: Quadrilles et cotillons. Quebec: Les Presses de I'Universite Laval.

Suggested recordings

Chants de marins traditionnels des cotes de France.

Vol. 1. Produced by Bernard Cadoret, Michel Colleu, Yves DeFrance. SCOP du Chasse-Maree SCM 001. Brochure notes by Bernard Cadoret, Michel Colleu, Yves DeFrance.

Turtle Mountain Music. 1984. Produced by Nicholas Curchin Vrooman. Folkways Records FES 4140. Bro- chure notes by Nicholas Curchin Vrooman.

65 Criollizacion en el Caribe

El Festival de Culturas Tradicionales y elementos musicales de tradicion europea. Americanas ("Festival of American Folklife") Sin embargo, la importancia no recae tanto en de este ano incluye un pequefio pero la identificacion de origenes como en el hecho significative programa sobre el Caribe. En de que existe una sintesis de elementos que este Vigesimo Tercer Festival los artistas ha ocasionado la creacion de generos musi- tradicionales representan—a traves de sus cales propios. cantos, danzas, toques y arte culinario—los La recomposicion que hicieron los africanos procesos de interaccion entre las culturas traidos al Caribe de los cultos religiosos les nativas, africanas, europeas e inclusive sirvio como mecanismo de resistencia a la asiaticas que por diversos motives ocurrieron dominacion europea, y de identificacion en el Caribe. etnica. Algunas de las religiones Partiendo de una perspectiva historica y permanecieron intimamente ligadas a los cultural, habria que ver el Caribe como un modelos de los antepasados, aunque conjunto de escenarios diferentes que incorporando elementos cristianos. Este comparten elementos comunes. El Caribe fue hecho es apreciable en los panteones, los ritos

la puerta al "nuevo mundo" y constituyo el y la organizacion sacerdotal actuales. Otros trampolin desde el cual los espanoles cultos religiosos como el vodu de Haiti han

organizaron la invasion del continente, la evolucionado hasta constituir, mas que una conquista de los pueblos que lo habitaban y religion con fuerte arraigo africano, una la colonizacion posterior. Durante el siglo religion nacional. XVI el Caribe mantuvo el caracter de puente La esclavitud obligo al africano a separar su entre Espafia y los Virreinatos de Tierra Firme, religion de su entorno natural para inscribirla y entre estos y la Metropoli. En algunas zonas en un mundo desconocido, regido por un caribenas esa situacion perduro mas alia del calendario distinto—el de los amos blancos, y siglo XVI. En la medida en que otras lo impulse a realizar adaptaciones forzadas. naciones europeas—especialmente Inglaterra, Asi, por ejemplo, tuvo que ajustar sus Francia y Holanda—lograron disputarle con expresiones rituales a la cronologia religiosa exito a Espana secciones del Caribe y europea, enmascarando contenidos africanos establecieron en ellas economias de en formas cristianas.

plantacion, en especifico la de cana de azucar, La convergencia de culturas en el Caribe el Caribe adquirio relevancia economica y se afecto y transformo los habitos alimenticios. convirtio en un crisol de culturas. Las frutas tropicales, la yuca, el maiz y la En esa interaccion se fue produciendo, con calabaza rememoran la contribucion silenciosa ciertas particularidades en cada contexto y de que hicieron los pueblos indigenas. Las acuerdo a los origenes de las culturas que se esclavas africanas que sirvieron como encontraron, un proceso de criollizacion; es cocineras enriquecieron las recetas europeas decir, de una nueva y propia forma de con sazones y procesos nuevos para hacer expresion. emerger una cocina crioUa a traves del La musica ritual y social del Caribe de hoy intercambio, el prestamo y la creatividad. ilustra su proceso historico y la vigencia actual No solo la musica, las religiones y las de la sintesis cultural, la asimilacion y la comidas fueron objeto de criollizacion en el creatividad. Entre las tradiciones musicales Caribe, es decir, de adaptacion al medio que retienen elementos rituales importantes se ambiente, asimilacion y transformacion de pueden incluir el kiimina, el kromanti play y elementos en el proceso de creacion de una los cantos y toques nyabingi de Jamaica; la cultura propia; tambien el lenguaje, la musica del culto de santeria, y el abakua de literatura, el teatro, la danza, la pintura, las Cuba; y el vodu de Haiti. En las muestras de artesanias, entre otras cosas, experimentaron tradiciones musicales como la plena de Puerto procesos similares con particularidades en Rico y el son cubano, se aprecian no solo los cada caso. Lo cierto es que estas elementos musicales de origen africano que manifestaciones constituyen resultados de re-

persisten en la musica social, sino tambien el edicion y creacion que han Uegado a marcar importante papel que han venido desem- profundamente las culturas del Caribe. penando en el contexto caribefio los generos

66 Creolization in the Caribbean Heliana Portes de Roux

For most Americans the Caribbean evokes spectator or manipulator of distant Carib- an image of sunny, fine sand beaches bean transformations, but also an arena for

lapped by crystalline waters. For many, it is ongoing cultural innovation. a synonym for tropical music and fun, rest The program brings together folk musi- and relaxation, vacations and tourism. This cians, ritual practitioners, folk performers,

stereotype, however, is a commercially moti- and cooks from the islands of the Antilles to vated image that distorts the rich diversity of demonstrate the interactions between native, Caribbean cultures. The region encom- European, African and even Asian cultures passes a wealth of cultures that have that have resulted in the creation of new evolved over centuries of complex, turbu- cultural forms. In the Caribbean region lent, and profound interactions—within a people of diverse ethnicity live side by side. limited geographical area—among the in- Though they do not indiscriminately share a digenous peoples of the area, Europeans uniform common culture, their lifeways

from several countries, peoples from West crisscross and intermingle. If one is inter- Africa, and in some cases, indentured ser- ested in origins, single elements of belief vants from India and East Asia. and practices can be teased out, but in most The Caribbean program at the Festival of cases they cannot easily be attributed to any

American Folklife is but one of many ways single place or time. to present Caribbean cultural traditions. The A visitor to the Caribbean program at the program traces the creative integration and Festival might wish to listen to Puerto Ricans synthesis of new cultural traditions from singing decimas, witness a Haitian Vodoun elements of diverse origin that had been ceremony or learn how to make bammies juxtaposed or had previously coexisted inde- from cassava, a root indigenous to the New pendently. The music and ritual perform- World. Many can recognize the European ances and foodways demonstrations do not instruments played by the son musicians; merely trace the static persistence of indige- most can trace the Vodoun ceremony to an nous, African, or European culture traits in African past. Perhaps some visitors will rec- the Caribbean, but instead illustrate their ognize the Arawak indigenous presence as transmutation into a fresh cultural amalgam they observe the cassava cook. The Festival that forms the base of emergent identity. program only begins to trace some of the This emergence occurs not only in the Car- cultural traditions at the root of complex, ibbean but also in the mainland United unique and dynamic Caribbean expressions.

States, whose eastern cities have become The Caribbean region is one of the most havens for disinherited peoples of the Carib- diverse and heterogeneous in the world.

bean. The United States is no longer a mere Such are its complexities that there is no

The Caribbbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World has been made possible, in part, by the Music Performance Trust Funds, and the government ofJamaica, the government ofPuerto Rico, American Airlines, and Marazul Charters.

67 Maroon ciheiig player from Moore low n, Jamaica. This wind instrument was used during the 18th centur\- war against the British and has retained sacred meaning to this day. (Photo i^y Heliana Portes de Roux)

consensus even on its geographic definition; Basin definition and an overly narrow West this controversy is not necessarily esoteric. Indies definition there are other alternatives. The broadest prevailing geographic defini- One uses the concept of the Caribbean tion of the Caribbean is that given in the archipelago, which stretches from the Ba- Atlas of the Caribbean Basin (1984), which hama Islands at the north to Trinidad and defines the Caribbean to include "the islands Tobago. In another view the Caribbean is of the Caribbean Sea as well as the countries thought to be constituted by the islands of on its shores." This definition includes 30 the Antilles chain and by Surinam, Guyana, countries and a total population of nearly French Guiana and Belize. Common to all

400 million people since it encompasses the of these places was a plantation economy United States, Mexico, the five Central sustained by the labor of slaves of African American republics, Panama, Colombia, origin. We must not forget, however, that Venezuela, Belize, Guyana, Surinam and the social history of the Caribbean region French Guiana. A narrower definition of the shares much both with the South American Caribbean includes only the 13 independent mainland societies stretching from Brazil former British colonies of the West hidies, northward and with the Gulf Coast and At- whose total population is slightly over 6 lantic seaboard of the United States.

million. Between an cweriy broad Caribbean The Caribbean is not only a geographical

68 a

Santeria Enslaved Yoruba from southwestern Nige- ria, brought to Cuba in great numbers be- tween 1790 and 1865, carried with them numerous powerful divinities called orisha. In Cuba the Yoruba were called the Lucumi, and their worship of the oricbas (Spanish spelling) came to be known as La Regla Lu- cumi, La Regla de Ocha, or Santeria. San- teria appeared in Cuba not as a static sur- vival or retention of African practices but as a dynamic Afro-Caribbean religion shaped Domestic shrine for orichas and saints with offerings, by the needs of creole communities that Guanabacoa, Havana, Cuba, 1986. Saints' images tradi- emerged and changed in slaveiy and free- tionally stand above the porcelain .s-qperas (tureens) dom. At first Santeria was the exclusive reli- containing the deities' "secrets." (Photo by David gion of colonial Cuba's Lucumi "nation" Brown) (ethnic Yoruba and their early direct descen- dants), but it evolved as a spiritual path seen to own or control a domain of nature available to all Cubans in the 20th century. and human experience; is distinguished by Santeria also flourishes in Puerto Rico, Mi- legends, attributes, colors, and favored ami, New York, New Jersey, Illinois, and foods; and is praised with distinct drum California, in communities of Cuban mi- rhythms and chants in the Lucumi ritual lan- grants. Its adherents now include White and guage. Santeria's principal ritual goal is the Black Americans and other immigrants from effective tapping and channeling of the

the Caribbean. orichas ' power for the health and benefit of In the 19th century the emerging creole the community, within a moral context sanc- religion creatively borrowed or remade tioned by the ancestors iegun). This task Catholic elements, icons, ritual, and mythol- belongs to corps of specially initiated and ogy within an Afro-Cuban ethical context. trained priests or santeros who, as mediators

As Santeria grew up inside the larger society, of ritual power, discern the orichas ' will the Lucumi orichas came to be celebrated through sophisticated divination systems and on the feast days of their Catholic saint solicit the orichas' zid with proper tribute counterparts—a creative use of the Church and sacrifice ieho). As the onc^as' servants, calendar as an armature to reconstitute the they act as "mounts" or "horses"—mediums sacred festival cycle. Spanish military attire of spirit possession—when the gods come and courtly costumes and crowns, which down in the heat of drumming celebrations had earlier entered Afro-Cuban carnival pro- to dance, eat, and prophesy. cessions, appeared in the sacred Lucumi Santeria ritual practice centers in the initiation process called the coronation. "house of Ocha," which refers to both the

Saints' images, votive candles, and flowers place where a shrine is maintained and the appeared on altars alongide Yoruba-derived ritual family of Santeria worshippers— beadwork and sacrificial offerings. Ornate circle of "godchildren" initiated by an elder porcelain soup tureens came to contain the "godparent." The ritual family provides orichas' sieved objects—stones and cowrie mutual support to its members; godchildren shells embodying the orichas' power {ache). owe respect to their ritual elders and are Layers of European-derived materials adorn obliged to assist in house rituals such as and guard a secret, essentially African, drummings and initiations. In their homes sacred core. initiated priests establish altars for their an- The orichas are understood as so many cestors and orichas and conduct consulta- refractions of a distant, incomprehensible tions and spiritual cleansings. Supreme Being or Creator. Each oiicha is David Brown

69 unit: it is a region with a common history African slaves' and their descendants' creative rooted in the interplay of European powers use and transformation of European cultural in their efforts to gain political and eco- institutions, products and patterns (and, to a nomic control over land, sea lanes, people lesser extent, those of Asian and Native and potential resources. In the Caribbean American origin). Creolization—a process to many complex relationships developed be- which people of African heritage contributed cause of this historical experience. The Car- greatly—was a fundamental factor in deter- ibbean was the first gateway to the New mining the basic fabric of each Caribbean Wodd, from which Spaniards organized their society. invasion of the American mainland and con- The term "Creole" was used from the l6th quest of its native peoples. Throughout the to 18th centuries to denote people born in colonial period it was the bridge between Spanish America of Spanish parents, distin-

Spain and its new viceroyalties on the main- guishing them from those born in Spain itself. land. As England, France and Holland suc- It has since been used with various—often cessfully challenged Spanish domination of conflicting—meanings. In the Spanish colo- parts of the Caribbean, new plantation sys- nies, Creoles were generally excluded from tems were established, especially for grow- high office in both church and state, although ing sugar cane. The region, already signifi- by law Spaniards and Creoles were equal. cant in political terms, became important Creoles led the revolutions that achieved in- economically as well. dependence from Spain in the early 19th cen-

The history of the Caribbean is the ex- tury, and after independence, they entered pression of unique circumstances in each the Riling class. In various parts of Latin particular island nation and also the expres- America the term "Creole" has different refer- sion of a number of elements common to ents: it may denote any local-born person of all. The region is considered by anthropolo- Spanish descent, or it may refer to members gist Sidney Mintz as a "societal area" pre- of urban Europeanized classes, as contrasted cisely because it shares social structural and with rural indigenous peoples. In the An- economic characteristics, common historical tilles, the word was used to denote descen- patterns of conquest and expansion of Eu- dants of any European settlers, but now it rope, patterns of colonization, peonage or refers more generally to all the people, of slavery, development of a plantation econ- whatever class or ancestry, who share in the omy and development of multiracial and Caribbean culture. multicultural societies. Although in broad By extension, "Creole" came to refer not outline these processes were common to all, just to people but also to languages and to each Caribbean society is unique, and gener- cultures that were born in the New "World; alizing about the entire area does not ad- "creolization" refers to the process by which dress adequately the distinctive characteris- a new synthetic language or culture devel- tics of each. ops. In the Caribbean people from diverse The interactions that occurred in the Car- backgrounds, cut off from their homelands, ibbean initiated a process of creolization that made a virtue of necessity by synthesizing acquired unique characteristics within each disparate elements of their past and present context, depending on the cultures that environments to produce a new cultural came into contact. New systems of commu- manifestation, a Creole culture. The process nication, new melodies and rhythms, and of creolization is not a uniform and mono- new forms of religious expression were lithic one that follows the same course every- born. The distinctiveness of this process in where and produces the same results. In- the Caribbean region stemmed from two stead, creolization takes in a wide range of significant factors: 1) the determining role of cultural transformations and amalgamations, the creative expressions of Africans, and 2) each specific to a local area and a particular the progressive "conquest," from bottom to historical situation. Because the Caribbean top, of social, legal, and political domains by program at this year's Festival of American the subject classes. The latter often involved Folklife focuses on traditions from Puerto

70 Maize-flour drawing, or veve, for the Haitian loa Erzulie. (Illustration by Andras Goldinger)

Rico, Jamaica, Haiti and Cuba, the following spheres of life, they became mother tongues considerations of creolization will concen- or first languages, completing their transfor- trate on how that process has occurred in mation to Creole languages. those countries. During the period in which Creole lan- guages began to develop in Caribbean socie- The Creolization of Language ties—after the swift extirpation of native The Caribbean area is marked by the populations—there were sharp differences emergence of characteristic language forms between African slaves and their descen- distinct from the indigenous languages, from dants and free Europeans who assumed African languages, and from the languages themselves to be racially and culturally supe- of the colonizing European countries. This rior. The Creole languages were associated development began in the most oppressed with slavery and to make matters more com- sector of society: African slaves and their plex, the national elites began to regard descendants, who spoke a number of dis- themselves with the eyes of their metropoli- tinct languages. They needed a common tan cohorts, turning their back on the emerg- language to speak to one another, and their ing languages, customs, and beliefs as if European masters (who also spoke various they were stained. Creole languages were languages) needed to communicate with thought to be negative cultural and ethnic them. Pidgin languages arose, with simpli- expressions and considered as primitive and fied grammars and greatly attenuated vo- malformed languages. cabularies, suitable for basic communication The creolization of language did not oc- despite being artificial constructions. These cur homogeneously throughout the Carib- pidgins were second languages for everyone bean. Creolization was determined by a who spoke them. As generations passed variety of factors depending on the specific and the pidgin languages were used more history of each area. In Hispanic colonies extensively, they re-incorporated vocabulary such as Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Puerto from the parent languages and developed Rico, Spanish became the standard language complex grammars. Now used in all because these colonies were always linked

71 plantation's social milieu. These immigrants came into contact with slaves who had ar- rived earlier from various African nations who worked as domestic servants, skilled craftsmen, and field laborers. This variety of

backgrounds in the Caribbean is responsible for the birth of new language forms in vari- ous settings. As linguist Mer\1n Alleyne (1985) explains, in Guyana, Antigua,

Montserrat, Jamaica, and St. Kitts, different levels of language evolved, ranging from a Creole speech or patois to intermediate forms of standard English. In Haiti and the French West Indies, a French based Creole came to be spoken by a majority of the in-

habitants. The Creole of Surinam drew its vocabulary primarily from English during the

initial period of colonization, and was later influenced by Dutch, eventually developing into dialects such as Saramaccan and Sranan. Conditions on Barbados favored a close ap- proximation to English; thus Bajan, one of

the Barbadian Creoles, is quite similar to English. In Trinidad a dialect derived pri- marily from English, a French-based Creole and a non-standard Spanish evolved. Papia-

Tlie \odoun altar at Madame Nena's hoiiiifor in jac- mento in the three Dutch islands of Curasao, mel, Haiti, incorporates chromolithographs of Catholic ARiba and Bonaire blends Spanish and Por- deities. (Photo by Heliana Portes de Roux.) tuguese language elements. Some Creole languages, though developed to the same metropole. Tlie natufe of the by subjugated peoples, have gradually be- colonial enterprise was also different: as gun to win for themselves social and even R.W. Thompson (1957:353) explaii-is, "a legal acceptance in the societies in which more serious effort was made by the Span- they arose. Of course, the European colo- iards and Poituguese to plant their New nists not only controlled the economy but World territories with peasants of European also imposed their own forms of cultural stock. As a result, their subjects of African colonialism. Europeans considered all the descent did not greatly overwhelm in num- cultures with which they came into contact bers those who spoke a European language in the New World—the indigenous, African, in conformity with native usage." However, and Asian cultures—to be uncivilized. Since ritual languages of African origin such as Creole society primarily grew out of enslaved

Lucumi were conserved in Cuba and else- groups, it was associated by the European where, and Spanish became imbued with colonists with backwardness and lack of intonations and variations, idioms and inflec- education. Thus, the status Creole languages tions, variations of pronunciation and style, gained in the Caribbean society was op- as well as new kical terms. posed to the Eurc^pean ideal that the elites The situation was different in other areas inherited. with different patterns of colonial domina- Creole was designated the official lan- tion, including the introduction of inden- guage (along with French) in Haiti; and in tured servants, prisoners of war, and crimi- Martinique it was approved for elementary- nals who were forced to emigrate from their school education in areas where it is the countries of origin to become part of the main language. In addition to such "official"

72 Arada or Vodoun drums with painted veves. Note the variety of artistic carvings in the base of these Dahomey-st\'le drums. (Photo by Heiiana Pones de Roux)

Master drummer of Madame Nerva's houiifor pXnys the manman or hountor Aram., the largest of the ensemble, using one bare hand and one stick. (Photo by Heiiana Portes de Rou.x)

73 Jah Music: Rhythms of the Rastafari

The Rastafari are among the most Afri- held in rural areas. At these religious can-oriented members of Jamaican society, celebrations brethren and sistren gather in but they are also among its most creative thatched tabernacles to "praise Jah and synthesizers. This is illustrated by Rasta- chant down Babylon." Typically, drum- fari music, both in its "roots" form, Nyab- ming and spiritual dancing take place ingi, and its popular form, reggae. Reggae throughout the night, punctuated by for- is linked with the internationalization of mal speechifying by leading orators. Eld- the Rastafari Movement from the late ers recognized for their ritual knowledge 1960s onward and shows ongoing fusions officiate the week-long celebrations. As of local folk music with popular strains the Nyabingi traditions gained visibility in from abroad. Nyabingi, by contrast, is rural areas, younger members of the more esoteric—a drum music central for island's Maroon and Kumina groups have some four decades to the worship of Jah, come to identify with the Rasta Movement the Rastafari creator. Both reflect wide- without abandoning their own cultural ex- spread borrowings and cross-overs of mu- pressions. Their involvement with mul- sical forms. tiple traditions will no doubt make itself Eady Rasta music was largely European felt in the further cross-fertilization of mu- in form, reflecting cultural links shared sical styles. with Afro-Christian revivalism. Songs from Reggae is a complex musical fusion that the Sankey hymnal and the Book of Com- developed in the late 1960s from a combi- mon Prayer were adapted to Rasta needs nation of popular Jamaican styles (ska and and sung at street meetings to a rhythmic rock-steady) and American rhythm and accompaniment of rhumba boxes, mara- blues, with influences from other island cas, graters and scrapers. By the mid- folk traditions. Although reggae overlaps 1940s an emergent style of drumming be- more with Jamaican popular music than came increasingly important to Rasta cere- does Nyabingi, they share an emphasis on monies in the camps and yards of West African self-determination. Disaffected Kingston. This drumming style, Nyabingi, and radicalized youth (including Bob Mar- reflected the fusion of bum and kumina, ley) who entered the Movement during two African-derived recreational musical the political turmoil of the 1960s straddled styles. Early Rasta master drummers the folk and popular musical spheres and adapted the three-part bum ensemble gave reggae its cutting political edge. The (bass, funde, repeater) to suit their individ- "conscious" lyrics of many reggae compo- ual styles and needs. Throughout the sitions address the social and political cir- 1950s and 1960s Nyabingi music contin- cumstances of the masses in Jamaica and ued to be influenced by the folk musical elsewhere, and popularized Rastafari experience of the Rastas. These influ- throughout the world. Today reggae can ences grew out of the Riral-urban connec- be heard in metropolitan Black communi- tions of brethren who moved freely be- ties in the Caribbean, North America, Eu- tween country areas and the urban camps rope and Africa. Influenced both by local of Trench Town, Back O' Wall, and the folk forms and Afro-American rhythm and Dungle, as well as rural migrants who blues, reggae is now a vehicle for political joined the ranks of the Rastafari Move- commentary as well as an artistic form. ment. Since the late 1960s island-wide Nyab- ingi ceremonies have increasingly been John P. Homiak recognition, Haitian Creole has gained in form of religious expression evolved from status as an expression of traditional culture; French-influenced Catholicism together with

it is valued by nationalist movements in an a diversity of West African religious tradi-

effort to reaffirm their cultural identity as tions. Michael Laguerre (1980) refers to it as

separate from French culture. Papiamento is a folk religion that developed as a result of spoken regularly in the Dutch Antilles dur- the incorporation of West African slaves into ing the course of many daily activities and colonial Haitian plantation society. He ex-

although English is the official language of plains how Vodoun developed from house- Jamaica, local movements supporting the hold-based ritual into an extended family- Creole dialect have developed. based ritual that after independence in 1801 became and has remained the main religion The Creolization of Religion in the island. Vodoun is part of Haitian Cre- Enslaved Africans in the Caribbean re- ole culture and represents the very particular structured their ancestral religions in ways way in which African and Christian religious that reaffirmed their ethnic identity or served elements came together to form a belief sys- as vehicles for resistance to European domi- tem that permeates almost every aspect of nation, while simultaneously satisfying their Haitian life. spiritual needs. Some of these religions, Vodoun—the word itself is Dahomean in such as those of Yoruba origin (which found origin and signifies "spirit" or "deity"— is ap- in Cuban Santeria and in the Shango of plied to all the activities of religious life, from Trinidad their most important expressions in the ritual of the temple to the songs and the Caribbean) have drawn essential content dances. The Vodoun practiced in Haiti con- from their African ancestry. This is evident sists of rites, beliefs, and activities of a num- in their rites and pantheons as well as in ber of religions such as the Congo-Guinee, their priestly organization. In Haiti, where the Ibo-Kanga and others. These become there was practically no White population integrated in Haitian practice; according to after the early 19th century, Vodoun evolved Harold Courlander (I960) this integration to constitute not only an African religion, but demonstrates how Haitian Vodoun draws also a national one. from the common inheritance of all these

Slavery cut off religion from its former African faiths. place in African social and political struc- Nevertheless, whatever the content of the tures and forced Africans to separate it from beliefs brought by the slaves from Africa its original environs to fit it into an unknown might have been, when practiced in the New world governed by a different logic—that of World, they were influenced by external fac- European masters. Thus, for example, they tors: the laborers' daily activities in the plan- had to adapt their own religious expressions tation, the intermingling among people from to a European religious chronology, some- various backgrounds, a new language for times shrouding African content in Christian communication, new types of housing, new forms. The identification of African deities diet, new patterns of social organization and and Catholic saints evolved in part from the political power, and a new calendar of events slaves' need to disguise their ceremonies. that reflected Catholic feasts and the coloniz- This process yielded a number of different ers' national holidays. All these variables, collective representations. Thus, myths of added to the synthesis of African sacred be- deities such as Omolu could be related to liefs, made for the emergence of a Haitian parables of the Scriptures such as that of the belief system. Prodigal Son; popular Christian legends The songs, essential to the Vodoun ritual, could be linked to the orishas (deities) of reveal the creolization process. Sung primar- Santeria; and Biblical allegories could con- ily in Haitian Creole, some contain words tribute, as they did in Haiti, to a new my- from African languages and some are simply thology that replaced the African mythology. borrowed from the Catholic church. This is Vodoun, the religion of the Haitian not surprising, for many Vodoun practitioners

people, is a good example of how a new are baptized and attend Mass in the Catholic

75 and reinterpreted in African terms. These elements are not just fused together, they are incorporated in the creative process of forming a new religious system with new meaning. In the Protestant Caribbean this syncre- tism took on different forms. Biblical texts were imposed upon slaves to encourage passivity and acceptance (such as the narra- tive of the submission of the Israelites to Egypt and the captivity in Babylon). Mes- sianism, the expectation of a deliverer or savior, was a concept that Blacks adopted to serve their own needs. Another example is found in the reinterpretation of African trance, as occurred in many of the "Revival" religious sects in Jamaica. In the same country, churches such as the Jamaica Free Church lean towards Prophetism; in the Bongo faith, syncretic rites are celebrated in which Protestant chants and prayers take place while animals are sacrificed. These expressions often have a strong messianic sense, as does the Rastafarian movement, although the latter carries not only religious but also strongly political meaning. Playing the small riimha box or quinto, a drum-substi- tute which has been traditionalized as part of the Afro- Music: Ritual and Social Cuban percussive repertoire. (Photo by David Brown) Underlying the diversity of musical forms and styles in the Caribbean, as Kenneth Church. The following poition of the litany Bilby (1985) has pointed out, are ceitain Djo (prayer from Guinea) in Haitian Creole, basic unifying characteristics. Caribbean collected in Port-au-Prince, is important in musics, like the Creole languages spoken in showing how Roman Catholic and West Afri- the region, reflect the region's historic devel- can traditions come together in Vodoun: opment. The coming together of traditions from Europe, Africa, India, and China in the

Lang di senie di ta Marie contexts of New World plantation econo- Kel consevoa an Jezi Kri mies led to the creation of new cultures,

Letenite la choazi li new languages, and new musical forms.

II a konsi di Sintespri. The Caribbean has been and continues to be a cmcible in which new musical forms have An angel of the Lord said to Mary repeatedly been forged. That she will give birth to Jesus In the Caribbean, creolization contributed She has been chosen since the beginning to the creation of a wide array of musical of the world forms, ranging from those closely resembling She will give birth by the operation of the the European patterns, to "neo-African" Holy Spirit. [Laguerre 1980:155-156] forms. Each colony created its own music within this Euro-African array. That is why In the Caribbean, then, there exists a sort the Caribbean can be treated as a single mu- of pendular movement in which African ele- sical region despite the major variations ments were introduced into Christian prac- found locally. Musical creolization has been

tice, while Christian elements were absorbed expressed in events in which music plays a

76 key role: the fiestas ov fetes, sometimes linked to religious practices; work songs that were sung by slaves in the fields in call-and-re- sponse style; traditional carnivals that were originally related to European religious cele- brations but which little-by-little were taken over and reinterpreted by the Black popula- tion. Both Whites and Blacks danced in the carnivals, and both African and European in- struments were played. Creolization also oc- curred in European dances, as slave musi- cians tended to transform styles to corre- spond to their own aesthetic sensibilities. The key role of drums in Caribbean musi- cal forms points to their African ancestry. Also fundamental are the relationship be- tween music and dance, the call-and-re- sponse style, the music's social and collective nature, and the presence of syncopated rhythms. These elements are found in the jook dance or jumping dance of the Baha- Sifting cassava flour for making bammies. Methods mas; the Kromanti dance and Gumbe, and utensils used in the proce.ssing and cooking of Kumina, and Convince or Bongo rites of Ja- manioc or cassava derive from the indigenous Arawak maica; the ritual dances of the Rastafarians; people. (Photo by Heliana Pones de Roux) the kalinda dance of Trinidad; the Santeria and Abakua rituals of Cuba; the palos of the Dominican Republic; the Vodoun ceremonies the repertoires of music groups such as the of Haiti, and the bomba of Puerto Rico, to town bands that played European harmonies mention just a few examples. with Old World instruments. Examples in- Among the styles that more closely reflect clude the merengiie of the Dominican Re- European tradition are marches, polkas, ma- public, the son and danzon of Cuba, the zurkas, and ether dances, sometimes played mento of Jamaica, and the biguine of Martin- by small-town bands with instruments of Eu- ique. All of these arose as new styles of folk ropean origin, using the harmonic system music, and became to some extent a part of based on diatonic scales that came from Eu- those nations' respective national identities. rope. Yet, even when the diatonic system In other words what is "Creole," the new and European instalments are used, the creation, is an important part of what is au- bands modify styles and forms and insert thentic to each country'. rhythmic elements from African traditions to Along with historical changes in the Carib- free up the melodies from rigid structures. bean, including urbanization and the spread

During the first centuries of the colonial of modern communication media, music has period Europeans viewed musical forms of continued to evolve, always maintaining its African origin as a form of social control and links to its origins. Trinidad's calypso, Ja- a way to maximize labor productivity. They maica's reggae, and salsa—which unites attributed a functional meaning to such mu- Cuba, Puerto Rico, and New York—have all sic, consistent with their own interests. Afri- resulted from that ongoing process of crea- can-based music sometimes gained legitimacy tion and innovation. These creole genres in its own right. And over time African-based have become international popular musics music made its way into the sitting rooms of appealing to African, European, American Europeans. Musical styles and dances from and global audiences with a built-in diversity Europe were transformed and Africanized of style that appeals to many different aes- through the infusion of African elements in thetic systems.

77 —

Creole Caribbean Cooking survived, and those of African origin were The encounter of peoples in the Carib- not often incorporated into the diet since bean was also an encounter of food prod- slaves were given a ration and their food ucts and of transformations in the eating and taste preferences were not generally habits of those involved. With conquest considered. At first male slaves were pre- came the rewards: gold, silver and precious ferred to females, who had traditionally stones, spices, faiits and cassava, cotton, been the ones who prepared food. Also, in indigo and tobacco. The Arawaks and the initial stages of forced labor in the plan-

Tainos, indigenous to the Caribbean, had tations there was little opportunity for culi- knowledge of tropical faiits, corn, cassava, nary creations. For this reason, Europeans seafood and spices. These products, among were the leaders in the early development of others, provided the base from which new Caribbean cooking, adapting condiments culinary processes evolved and represent and seasonings to newfound products. today the silent contributions of the thou- As was the case in music and languages, sands of native peoples who died during the conditions in the Caribbean nevertheless conquest and colonization of the islands. encouraged the development of creole Over centuries many food products were foods. Fugitive slaves (Cinianxmes or Ma- introduced to the regions ack.ee from Af- roons), pressed by need, created a stew or rica, oranges and lemons from Spain, bread- puchero that contained anything they could faiit from the Pacific, bananas, ginger, obtain. The "jerked pork" tradition of Ma- cloves, turmeric and nutmeg from Asia. The roons in Jamaica comes from the early days fertile soil of the Caribbean produced an of their freedom when they hunted wild abundance of useful plants, both native and pigs. The abundance of sugar facilitated the introduced: cocoa and coconuts, avocadoes creation of original desserts topped with and eddoes, plantains and bananas, pine- fresh tropical fruit. The cooks, generally apples and pawpaw; soursops, sweetsops, Black women, served as liaisons between guavas, mangoes, cassava and sweet pota- the Afro-Caribbean population and slave toes; coffee, ginger, limes, grapefruits and owners, taking dishes prepared in their other citrus fruits; and with much sorrow, kitchen to the master's table and diffusing sugar cane. Sugar cane has played a key newly learned European recipes among the role in the fortunes and misfortunes of the Afro-Caribbean population. From this proc-

Caribbean. It was introduced in 1493 by ess of exchanging, borrowing and mixing,

Columbus and it was because of sugar cane Creole foods were created, based on local that the slave trade flourished in the Carib- food products or those that were brought bean plantations. from other regions of the world and assimi- Many European crops such as wheat were lated into Caribbean cuisine. not prominent in the Caribbean since they Today as in the past food is often pre- could not be successfully cultivated in a pared in the open air on a charcoal barbe- tropical climate. On the other hand, pork cue, giving the dishes the characteristic Car- and beef were quickly incorporated into the ibbean flavor. Many islands claim specialties

Caribbean diet. Few of the traditional dishes of their own—in Jamaica there is ackee and of the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean saltfish, the traditional cassava tammies, and

78 "jerked pork"; ajiaco and lechon asado in Citations and Suggested Readings rognongs in Haiti. cooking has Cuba; Creole Aileyne, Mervin. 1985. A Preliminary Survey of the a unique flavor, with an immense number of Spanish Dialects of Trinidad. In Mintz and Price, pp. dishes: curried goat and curried mutton, 155-179. cristianos crabs and lobsters; moros y made Atlas of the Caribbean Basin. 1984. Washington: with black beans and rice; fish cooked in United States Department of State. coconut cream, stuffed avocadoes; pine- Bastide, Roger. 1967. Les Ameriques Noires. Paris: apples filled with shellfish. In the end is Payot. Creole cookery that combines the flavors Bilby, Kenneth. 1985. The Caribbean as a Musical and ingredients of many peoples. Region. In Mintz and Price, pp. 181-218.

Conclusion Cabrera, Lydia. 1983. El Monte: Igbo-Finda, Ewe Orisha-Vititi Nfinda; notas sobre las religiones, la Music, language, religion and food prod- magia, las superstitiones. y elfolklore de los negros ucts were not the only results of Caribbean criollosy el pueblo de Cuba. Miami: Coleccion del creolization. Similar processes of adapta- Chichereku. tion, assimilation and transformation are Courlander, Harold. 1960. The Drum and the Hoe. evident in literature, theater, dance, painting Berkeley: University of California Press. and crafts. These expressions constitute the Crahan, Margaret E. and Franklin W. Knight. 1979. results of re-creation and fe-edition, accom- Africa and the Caribbean. Baltimore: The Johns plished by all those who willingly or by Hopkins University Press. force populated the Caribbean (and their Laguerre, Michael S. 1980. Voodoo Heritage. Beverly descendants); they have left a profound Hills: Sage Library of Social Research. mark on the cultures of the region. As we Mintz, Sidney W. 1974. Caribbean Transformations. approach 1992 and the Quincentenary of Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Columbus' voyages to the Caribbean, we Mintz, Sidney W. and Sally Price, eds. 1985. Carib- consider the encounter in the New World of bean Contours. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins people from several different continents. Univerisry Press. The consequences of that encounter—both Murphy, Joseph M. 1988. Santeria. An African Reli- good and bad—continue to unfold, shaping gion in America. Boston: Beacon Press. contemporary life in the Americas. The Cre- Thompson, Robert Wallace. 1957. ole traditions of the Caribbean invite us to A Preliminary Survey of the Spanish Dialects of Trinidad. Orbis 6, think not only about our complex past, but 342-359. our cultural future as well.

Heliana Fortes de Roux is afolklorist and ethnomusi- cologist in the Smithsonian 's Office ofFolklife Programs and a Professor of Ethnomusicologv at the Univenidad del Valle in Call, Colombia. She specializes in the study of culture in Peru, and Afro-Caribbean and Afro- American music. She is the author ofseveral articles, the compiler of a record album and director of numer- ous documentaty videos.

79

1989 Festival of American Folklife

June 23-27 June 30-July 4

Smithsonian Institution National Park Service Rest Rooms Services for General There are outdoor facilities for Disabled Visitors the public and disabled visitors Three sign-language interpret- Information located near all of the program ers are on site every day at the areas on the Mall. Additional rest Festival. Check the printed room facilities are available in Festival Hours schedule and signs for interpreted each of the museum buildings programs. Oral interpreters are Opening ceremonies for the Festi- during visiting hours. available val will be held on the Main for individuals if a re- quest is made three full days in Hawai'i Music Stage at 11;00 a.m. Telephones advance. Friday, June 23rd. Thereafter, Call (202) 357-1697 Public telephones are available (voice) or Festival hours will be 11:00 a.m. (202) 357-1696 (TDD). on the site, opposite the Muse- audio loop amplication to 5:30 p.m. daily, with dance An system ums of American History and for people who are hard of hear- parties every evening, except July Natural History, and inside the ing is installed 4th, 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. at the Music Stage Museums. of the French area. Food Sales Large-print copies of the daily Lost and Found/Lost Traditional food from Hawai'i, schedule and audiocassette ver- Children sions of the program France and Jamaica will be sold. and Parents book and Lost items be turned in or re- schedule are available free of See the site map for locations. may trieved at the Volunteer tent in charge at Festival information Sales the Administration area. Lost kiosks and the volunteer tent. family members may be claimed Wheelchairs are available at the A variety of crafts, books and Smithsonian Folkways Records at the Volunteer tent also. We Festival volunteer tent. Volun- advise putting teers are on call to assist relating to the 1989 Festival pro- a name tag on wheel- youngsters. chair users and to guide visually grams will be sold in the Museum handicapped visitors. There are a Shops tent on the Festival site. Bicycle Racks few designated parking spaces for Press Racks for bicycles are located at disabled visitors along both Mall Visiting members of the press the entrances to each of the drives. These spaces have three Smithsonian hour time restrictions. should register at the Festival Museums. Press tent on Madison Drive at - 12th Street. Metro Stations Evening Dance Parties Metro trains will be running every 5:30 to 7:00 p.m. First Aid day of the Festival. The Festival Musical groups playing traditional An American Red Cross mobile site is easily accessible to either dance music will perform every the Smithsonian or unit will be set up in a tent near Federal Tri- evening, except July 4th, at the the Administration area near 12th angle stations on the Blue and Music Stage in the French area. Street on Madison Drive. The Orange lines. On June 30 the dance party will Health Units in the Museums of be held at the O'bon tower in the American History and Natural Hawai'i area. History are open from 10:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Program Book Background information on cul- tural traditions of Hawai'i, the Caribbean, France and French

America, and American Indians is available in the Festival of Ameri- can Folklife Program Book, on sale for $2.00 at the Festival site or by mail from the Office of Folklife Programs, Smithsonian Institution, 955 L'Enfant Plaza, S.W., Suite 2600, Washington, D.C. 20560. facilidades para las personas im- Se ofreceran copias de los pro- Informacion pedidas. Ademas, podra utilizar gramas diarios con letras ampliadas los banos de los museos durante para aquellas personas con proble- General horas de visita. mas visuales, y cintas grabadas con informacion sobre los programas y Telefonos con los horarios de cada dia. Horario del Festival Habra telefonos publicos en el Podra obtener su copia o cinta La ceremonia de apertura al Festi- lugar del Festival y en los gratis en los centros de informa- val se celebrara en el escenario museos. cion del Festival y en la carpa para del Programa de Hawai'i, el 23 de voluntaries.

junio a las 11:00 A.M. . A partir Personas y objetos Habra sillas de ruedas dis- de ese dia, las horas del Festival extraviados ponibles en la carpa de volunta- seran de 11:00 A.M. a 5:30 P.M. Las personas que hayan perdido rios, y estos podran ayudar a diariamente; con baile cada no- a sus ninos o a familiares pueden aquellas personas que necesiten che, excepto el 4 de julio, de 5:30 pasar por la carpa para voluntar- silla de ruedas o a las que nece- P.M. a 7:00 P.M. . ies, en el area de la Administra- siten un guia debido a problemas visuales. Los visitantes impedidos Venta de comida cion, para pedir informacion sobre ellos. Recomendamos que podran estacionarse en los lugares Habra comida tipica de Hawai'i, los niiios Ueven puestas tarjetas de estacionamiento designados Francia y Jamaica a la venta. con sus nombres. Los objetos para estos casos, localizados a am- Consulte el mapa del Festival encontrados o extraviados podran bos lados del Paseo Nacional. para localizar los puestos de entregarse Estos estacionamientos tienen un comida. o reclamarse en dicha carpa. limite de uso de tres horas.

Objetos a la venta Actividades bailables Se podran comprar piezas de Enrejado para bicicletas Los enrejados para bicicletas nocturnas - 5:30 a 7:00 P.M. artesania, libros y discos rela- estan localizados a la entrada Todas las noches actuaran grupos cionados con los programas del de cada museo del Smithsonian. que interpretaran musica bailable Festival de 1989 en la carpa de- tradicional, con la excepcion del 4 signada Tienda del Museo, locali- de julio. Estas presentaciones se zada en el Paseo Nacional. Estaciones de Metro Los trenes del Metro estaran en llevaran a cabo en el escenario del Prensa funcionamiento diariamente du- Programa Frances. El 30 de junio rante el Festival. Puede llegar la actividad bailable se efectuara en Los miembros de la prensa que facilmente al Paseo Nacional la torre O'bon, en el area del Pro- visiten el Festival deberan in- muy si toma la linea azul naranja del grama de Hawai'i. scribirse en la carpa destinada o Metro se baja en las estaciones para la prensa en el Festival, lo- y Smithsonian o Federal Triangle. Catalogo calizada en Madison Drive y 12th El catalogo del programa del Festi- Street. Servicios para los val de Culturas Tradicionales Americanas estara a la venta por Primeros auxilios visitantes impedidos un valor de $2.00. Dicho catalogo Una unidad de la Cruz Roja Todos los dias se encontraran en ofrecera informacion sobre las cul- Americana se instalara en una el lugar del Festival tres interpre- turas tradicionales de Hawai'i, del carpa cerca del area de la Admin- tes que conocen el "American Caribe, de Francia los franco- Sign Language." Consulte el ho- y de istracion, en Madison Drive y americanos, y de los indo-ameri- 12th Street. Las unidades de sa- rario y los letreros en cada area canos; y se puede comprar en el lud en los museos de Historia para ver su localizacion. Los lugar del Festival o por correo, Norteamericana y de Historia "oral interpreters" estaran dis- escribiendo a la siguiente di- Natural estaran abiertos desde las ponibles individualmente solo si reccion: Office of Folklife Pro- Ud. solicita este servicio con tres 10:00 A.M. hasta las 5:30 P.M. . grams, Smithsonian Institution, dias de anterioridad. Llame al 955 L'Enfant Plaza, S.W., Suite 2600, Servicios higienicos telefono (202) 357-1697 (voz) o al Washington, D.C. 20560. Habra banos o excusados para (202) 357-1696 (TDD). Tambien se instalara sistema uso del publico en las areas de un especial de los diferentes programas, con amplificacion de sonido en el es- cenario del Programa Frances. Telephones Information Des telephones publics sont dis- ponibles sur le site du Festival en Generale face des Musees de I'Histoire Americaine et d'Histoire Horaire du Festival Naturelle, ainsi qu'a I'interieur des Les ceremonies d'ouverture du Musees. Festival auront lieu sur la scene musicale principale de Hawai'i, a Objets perdus/Personnes llh., vendredi, le 23 juin. Apres perdues cela, les heures du Festival seront Les objets trouves ou perdus peu- de llh. a 17h.30 chaque jour, vent etre remis ou reclames a la avec des soirees dansantes de tente des volontaires. Si un 17h.30 a 19h., sauf le 4 juillet. membre de famille est perdu, veuillez vous adresser a la tente d'information et a la tente des vo- Vente d'aliments des volontaires. Nous vous con- lontaires. Des mets regionaux d'Hawai'i, de seillons de pourvoir vos enfants Des chaises roulantes peuvent France et de la Jamai'que seront avec une etiquette portant leur s'obtenir a la tente des volontaires en vente. Veuillez consulter le nom. du Festival. Des volontaires sont plan du Festival pour I'emplace- prets a aider ceux qui necessitent ment de ces stands. Bicyclettes une chaise roulante et a guider Des tretaux pour bicyclettes sont les handicapes visuels. Les han- Ventes situes a I'entree de chacun des dicapes peuvent garer leur voi- Une variete d'objets d'artisanat, musees du Smithsonian. ture le long des allees du Mall. des livres, des enregistrements de Ces places ont une limite de trois "Smithsonian Folkways" ayant Stations de Metro heures. rapport aux presentations du Fes- Les metros sont en service tival de 1989, seront en vente sur chaque jour du Festival. Le site Soirees dansantes: le site sous la tente des magasins du Festival est accessible aux de 17h.30 a 19h des musees. arrets "Smithsonian" et "Federal Des groupes de musiciens tradi- Triangle" du reseau Bleu ou Or- tionnels accompagneront les Corps de presse ange. soirees dansantes chaque soir, Les attaches de presse sont pries sauf le 4 juillet; ces soirees au- de s'inscrire a la tente de la Services d'aide pour les ront lieu sur la scene musicale du Presse sur Madison Drive et la handicapes programme fran^ais. Le 30 juin, 12e rue. Trois interpretes pour "American la soiree dansante aura lieu pres Sign Language" seront sur le site de la tour O'bon du programme Postes de secours chaque jour du Festival. Veuillez hawaiien. Une unite mobile de la CroLx consulter les horaires imprimes Rouge sera situee sous une tente ou les affiches pour les represen- Programme a cote de I'Administration pres de tations interpretees. Des inter- Des informations concemant les la 12e rue sur Madison Drive. Les pretes oraux seront disponibles traditions cullurelles de Hawaii, services de sante des Musees de sur demande faite trois jours a des Antilles, de la France et de la I'Histoire Americaine et d'Histoire I'avance. Veuillez telephoner au francophonie americaine, et des Naturelle sont ouverts de lOh. a (202) 357-1697 (voix) ou au (202) Indiens de I'Amerique, sont 17h.30. 357-1696 (TDD). Un systeme presentees dans le catalogue du d'audio-amplification est dis- Festival ofAmerican Folklife (Fes- Toilettes ponible pour ceux qui ont des tival du Patrimoine Americain), en

Des toilettes sont disponibles au difficultes auditives; il est installe vente pour $2.00 sur le site du

public et aux visiteurs handicapes pres de la scene musicale du pro- Festival; il obtenu par courrier en sur I'emplacement de chaque gramme fran^ais. ecrivant a I'adresse suivante: Of- progamme sur le Mall. D'autres Des horaires en grand imprime fice of Folklife Programs, Smith- toilettes sont disponibles dans et des audio-cassettes des pro- sonian Institution, 955 L'Enfant tous les musees avoisinants grammes et des horaires sont dis- Plaza, S'W, Suite 2600, 'Washing- durant les heures d'ouverture. ponibles gratuitement aux kioskes ton, DC 20560. Family Camarillo - Filipino Richard Ho'opi'i, falsetto Participants in the Banduria band singer, 'ukulele player - Davin Mario Camarillo, Kahakuloa, Maui 1989 Festival of banduria, bajo, guitar, Solomon Ho'opi'i, falsetto 'ukulele player - Hilo, singer, 'ukulele player - Hawai'i Makawao, Maui

American Folklife George O. Camarillo, Jr., Barney Issacs, steel guitarist banduria, piano, guitar, - Honolulu, O'ahu bass, trumpet player - Ledward Ka'apana, slack Kenichi Tasaka, buUrush Hawai'i Hilo, Hawai'i key guitarist - Kaneohe, sandalmaker - Hanalei, George O. Camarillo, Sr., O'ahu Crafts Kaua'i tenor guitar, bajo, sax, Elodia Kane, singer - Sherlin Beniamina, shell lei Wah Chan Thorn, calligra- - - Makaweli, Kaua'i clarinet, flute player Waianae, O'ahu maker pher - Honolulu, O'ahu Hilo, Hawai'i Raymond Kane, slack key Wright Bowman, Jr., koa Thomas K. Yoshida, - guitarist - Waianae, canoe builder bullrush sandalmaker - Halla Pai Huhm Dancers - O'ahu Honolulu, O'ahu Honolulu, O'ahu Violet William Char, flower lei Korean Dance Pahu Liliko'i, bass - maker - Honolulu, O'ahu Halla Pai Huhm, dancer and guitarist Honolulu, Traditions Michael Ilipuakea Dunne, Performance teacher - Honolulu, O'ahu O'ahu Kelfred Chang, lion dancer - woodworker - Honolulu, Jennifer Cho, dancer Clyde "Kindy" Sproat, O'ahu - Honolulu, O'ahu Honolulu, O'ahu singer, ukulele player, story- - Alapai Hanapi, woodworker Pearl Ulu Garmon, Remie Choi, dancer storyteller - Kapa'au, teller - Kamuela, Hawai'i - Kea'au, Hawai'i Honolulu, O'ahu Hawai'i Clement Lum, lion dancer - - Lisa Hiroe, paper doll So Jin Chong, dancer Kaneohe, O'ahu maker - Honolulu, Honolulu, O'ahu Iwakuni Group - O Bon - Yeon Hi "Mu Sun Pai" O'ahu Japanese music and Calvin Hoe, hula instrument Harajiri, dancer - Camoes Players - Portuguese dance maker - Kaneohe, O'ahu Honolulu, O'ahu music Elaine Kaneko, dancer, - Tsugi Kaiama, feather lei Christine Won, dancer Josephine C. Carriera, teacher - Eleele, Kaua'i maker - Kamuela, Honolulu, O'ahu 'ukulele player, singer - Katsuichi Funamura, singer Hawai'i Honolulu, O'ahu - Koloa, Kaua'i - Deborah Kakalia, Halau O Kekuhi Hawaiian - Mary L. Carvalho, singer - Robert S. Kato, drummer quiltmaker - Honolulu, Hula Dance Honolulu, O'ahu Eleele, Kauai O'ahu Pualani Kanaka'ole Alfred Castro, guitar, Ken K. Morita, singer - Meali'i N. Kaiama, Kanahele, kumu bula, 'ukulele player - Kapaa, Kaua'i quiltmaker - Kailua, chanter - Hilo, Hawai'i Honolulu, O'ahu Itsue Okada, drummer - O'ahu Nalani Kanaka'ole, kumu Marilyn Domingo, 'ukulele Waimea, Kaua'i Samuel Kamaka, stringed bula, chanter - Hilo, player - Honolulu, O'ahu instrument maker - Hawai'i Harold Teves, guitarist, Ku 'ulei 's Own - Hawaiian Kaneohe, O'ahu Kau'ilani Almeida, dancer - mandolinist - Kaneohe, family band Alfred Yama Kina, textile Hilo, Hawai'i O'ahu Faith Ku'ulei Kekiwi, singer, - weaver - Honolulu, T. Kamuela Chun, dancer 'ukulele player - Hilo, Hawai'i O'ahu Ulupalakua, Maui Esther Makua'ole, lauhala El Conjunto Boricua - Kaipo Frias, dancer - Hilo, Merton Kekiwi, bass guitar- weaver - Waimea, Kaua'i Puerto Rican Kacbi- Hawai'i ist - Ulupalakua, Maui Emilia Mau'ia, fine mat Kacbi band Hokulani Kaikaina, dancer - Francis Po'ouahi, Sr., guitar- weaver - Honolulu, Marcial Ayala III, bongo, Hilo, Hawai'i ist - Hana, Maui - guiro player - Waianae, 'O'ilipua Kaikaina, dancer O'ahu Melva Po'ouahi, singer - O'ahu Hilo, Hawai'i Duane J.L. Pang, Taoist Hana, Maui - priest - Honolulu, O'ahu Charles Figueroa, Punahele Lerma, dancer

Irmalee Pomroy, flower lei accordion, guiro player - Hilo, Hawai'i - - maker, floral designer - Honolulu, O'ahu Kika Keith Nohara, dancer Na Hula 'O La 'i Kealoha Kapa'a, Kaua'i August M. Rodrigues, guitar, 'Aiea, O'ahu Hawaiian Hula Dance - Leodegario Reyno, coconut quatro player - Pearl Keonaona Trask, dancer Elaine Kaopuiki, kumu

weaver - Pepe'ekeo, City, O'ahu Kurtistown, Hawai'i bula, chanter - Lana'i

Hawai'i Julio Rodrigues, Jr., quatro City, Lana'i

- Music Pearl Ah Ho, dancer - Lana'i Robert J. Ruiz, saddlemaker player Waianae, O'ahu Hawaiian - Waimea, Kaua'i Julio Deleon Rodrigues III, S. Haunani Apoliona, singer, City, Lana'i Henry Silva, rawhide guitarist - Kaneohe, songwriter, guitarist - Juliet Bayez, dancer - Lana'i

braider - Kula, Maui O'ahu Honolulu, O'ahu Ciry, Lana'i Lynette C. Kaopuiki, Doveline Ka'aloalaikini Occupational Traditions Doris Mary Rodrigues

dancer - Lana'i City, Borges - Honolulu, Henry A. Auwae, herbalist, Correia, Portuguese Lana'i O'ahu healer - Hilo, Hawai'i cooking - Honolulu,

Rita Moon, dancer - Lana'i Shidey Kukana Brenner - Thomas Kamaka Emmsley, Hawai'i - City, Lana'i Pead City, O'ahu lava rock wall builder Manuel Correia, Portuguese Sandra Lehua Pate, dancer Tracy Lokelani Hana, Maui fomo builder - Honolulu,

- Lana'i City, Lana'i Keali'iho'omalu - Kailua, James Keolaokalani Hu'eu, O'ahu Heather K. "Kaihi Lani" O'ahu taro famier - Haiku, Maui Ah Wan Goo, Hawaiian - Romero, dancer - Lana'i Corine Puanani Mata - Eric Ono, herbalist imu cooking - Anahola, City, Lana'i Kailua, O'ahu Honolulu, O'ahu Kaua'i Chauncey Pa, throw net Jane E. Goo, Hawaiian imu Samoan Music Ensemble fishing - Kilauea, Kaua'i cooking, quiltmaker - Nakasone Seifu Kai - Anahola, Kaua'i Lusia Ma'afala, dancer, Okinawan Music and Kay Kimie Hokama, musician - Honolulu, - Dance O'ahu Foodways Okinawan cooking Harry Nakasone, uta Camarillo, Filipino Honolulu, O'ahu Gloria Mane, dancer - Connie - sanshin player Honolulu, O'ahu cooking, singer - Hilo, June Tong, Chinese cooking Honolulu, O'ahu Hawai'i - Honolulu, O'ahu Pita Sala, dancer, musician Raelene Balidoy-Noda, - Honolulu, O'ahu dancer - Honolulu, Mataitusi Tauala, orator, O'ahu dancer, storyteller - Issac Ken Hokama, Honolulu, O'ahu drummer - Honolulu, O'ahu Waimea Hawaiian Church Tammi Sachiyo Hokama, Choir - Himeni Choral dancer - Honolulu, Music O'ahu Alina Kauinohea Kanahele, Norman Kaneshiro, lion singer - Makaweli, dancer - Honolulu, Kauai O'ahu Elama Kanahele, singer - James Maeda, sanshin Makaweli, Kaua'i player - Honolulu, Issac Kaahamana Ka- American ^^ Inez Chase, hide tanner - O'ahu nahele, singer - New Town, North Scot Moriyama, lion dancer Makaweli, Kaua'i Indian Program Dakota - Honolulu, O'ahu Kaui O Kalome Kanahele, Great Basin Basketry Virgil F. Chase, headdress Karen Nakasone, dancer - singer - Makaweli, Florine Conway, basket- maker, buffalo dancer - Honolulu, O'ahu Kaua'i maker - Schurz, Nevada New Town, North Kooko E. Nakasone, Malaki Kanahele, singer - Bernadine DeLorme, Dakota dancer - Honolulu, Makaweli, Kaua'i basketmaker - Reno, Naomi Foolishbear, hide O'ahu Lama Kaohelauli'i, singer - Nevada tanner - New Town, Mayuri Lily Nakasone, Makaweli, Kaua'i Norm DeLorme, basket- North Dakota - dancer Honolulu, - Rama Kaohelauli'i, singer maker - Reno, Nevada Dean Peter "Good Eagle" O'ahu Makaweli, Kaua'i Becky Eagle, basketmaker - Fox, buffalo manager, Yoshino Majikina William Kaohelauli'i, singer Wadsworth. Nevada singer, buffalo dancer - Nakasone, dancer and - Makaweli, Kaua'i Theresa Jackson, basket- Mandaree, North Dakota teacher - Honolulu, Miriam Kaleipua maker - Gardnerville, Marty Good Bear, buffalo O'ahu Pahulehua, singer - Nevada dancer - New Town, Phyllis Sumiko Makaweli, Kaua'i Joann Martinez, basket- North Dakota Shimabukuro, dancer - maker - Gardnerville, Honolulu, O'ahu Zuttermeister Family - Nevada Katsuko Teruya, koto Hawaiian Hula Dance Lily Sanchez, basketmaker - Yaqui Pascola and Deer player - Honolulu, Emily Kau'i Zuttermeister, Fallon, Nevada Dances O'ahu - kumu hula, chanter - Ignacio Alvarez, fiddler Kaneohe, O'ahu Plains Indian Buffalo Tucson, Arizona Pa u Riders Noenoelani Zuttermeister Traditions Steve C. Armadillo, - Carol Ann Kamila Grace Lewis, hula dancer - Keith Bear, buffalo dancer - drummer, deer singer

Anana - Waimanalo, Kaneohe, O'ahu Mandaree, North Dakota Tucson, Arizona O'ahu Hauolionalani Lewis, hula William Bell, Sr., singer, Steven Armadillo, Jr., - Tucson, Novelene Mahealani Asing dancer - Kaneohe, storyteller - New Town, Pascola dancer

- Honolulu, O'ahu O'ahu North Dakota Arizona - Timothy Cruz, moro Ojibway Wild Rice Philippe Gleises, fiddler, Marcel Messervier, Jr., Marana, Arizona Technology dancer - Bourgebus pianist - Montmagny Angel Duarte, deer dancer - Charles W. Ackley, wild rice Baptiste Guillard, dancer, Normand Miron, singer, Marana, Arizona harvester - Crandon, accordionist - Le Mans accordionist, harmonica

Felipe Garcia, deer singer, Wisconsin Yves Guillard, dancer, player - Ste-Beatrix rasper - Tucson, Arizona Naomi Ackley, wild rice accordionist - Le Mans Raynald Ouellet, Alberto Gonzalez, harp harvester - Crandon, Regis Launay, dancer - accordionist - player - Sonora, Mexico Wisconsin Le Mans Montmagny Mateo Gonzalez, drummer, Neena Anne Ackley, ,wild Louis LeBellanger, singer, Francine Rebel, pianist - flute player - Sonora, rice harvester - Crandon, dance caller, fiddler, Montreal Mexico Wisconsin storyteller - Marigny Hermas Rebel, fiddler,

Benjamin Lucero, rasper, Victoria Ann Ackley, wild Jean-Philippe Peccate, stepdancer - Brossard deer singer - Marana, rice harvester - Crandon, dancer - Le Mans Bernard Simard, guitarist - Arizona Wisconsin Anne Piraud, clarinetist, Quebec Felipe Molina, rasper, deer Earl Nyholm, wild rice fiddler, dancer - singer - Marana, Arizona harvester - Crystal Falls, Bourgebus Glaciro Perez, deer dancer - Michigan United States Marana, Arizona Poitou, Christine Balfa, triangle Sara Valencia, altar maker - France player - Breaux Bridge, Marana, Arizona Thierry Bertrand, veuze Louisiana maker and player - La Gamache Dewey Balfa, fiddler, singer Iroquois Lacrosse - Basile, Louisiana Bemadene Bidault, singer, Frank Benedict, stickmaker Edmond Boudreau, storyteller - Saint-Benoit- - Akwesasne Mohawk - sur-Mer guitarist, mandolinist Reserve Waltham, Massachusetts David Cousineau, fiddler, Owen Benedict, stickmaker Pierre Boyer, storyteller, accordionist - Vouille - Akwesasne Mohawk - Jean-Loec LeQuellec, fiddler Potosi, Missouri Reserve Delton Broussard, Les Fetes Chez fiddler, accordionist - Averill K. Bucktooth, player Saint-Benoit-sur-Mer accordionist - Opelousas, - Nedrow, New York Louisiana Nous: France Michel Raballand, dancer - Drew Bucktooth, player - Challans Gerald Broussard, Nedrow, New York and North accordionist - Opelousas, Yvette Raballand, dancer - Freeman Bucktooth, Jr., Challans Louisiana coach - Nedrow, New America Calvin Carriere, fiddler - York Brittany, France Lawtell, Louisiana Calvin Hill, player - Gilbert Bourdin, singer, Quebec, Canada Phillip Carriere, drummer - Nedrow, New York accordionist - Rennes Irene Berthiaume, singer - Lawtell, Louisiana Dustin Wayne Hill, player - Christian Dautel, singer - Ste-Marie-de-Beauce Inez Catalan, ballad singer - Nedrow, New York Point Aven Emmanuel Cloutier, singer - Kaplan, Louisiana Brendon LaForme, player - Jean Gau^on, hurdy-gurdy St-Jules-de-Beauce Marie Dean, basketmaker,

Sanborn, New York player - Langueux Marie-Rose Cloutier, singer doUmaker - Dulac, Aaron Patterson, player - Olivier Glet, instrument St-Jules-de-Beauce Louisiana

Sanborn, New York maker, biniou & Lorraine Fortin, weaver - J.C. Gallow, /roffojr player - Jeffrey Powless, player - bombarde player - Clermont, Charlevoix Opelousas, Louisiana Nedrow, New York Rieux Adela Imbault, rugmaker - Ben Guillemette, fiddler - Emmett Printup, coach - Gilbert Hervieux, instru- St-Simion, Charlevoix Sanford, Maine Sanborn, New York ment maker, biniou & Dominique Lavallee, wood- Dudley Hebert, guitarist - Tony Printup, player - bombarde player - carver - Charlesbourg Basile, Louisiana Sanborn, New York Rieux Paul-Emile Lavallee, wood- Robert Jardell, accordionist - Clayton Smith, player Eric Marchand, singer, carver - Levis - Crowley, Louisiana Sanborn, New York clarinetist - Poullaouen Normand Legault, step- John Keplin, guitarist, - Louis Stone, player Albert Poulain, singer, dancer, caller, bones dancer - Belcourt, North Niagara Falls, New York storyteller - Pipriac player - Breakeyville Dakota Murray Stout, player - Joseph Quintin, hurdy- Jean-Paul Loyer, guitarist - Lawrence Keplin, fiddler - Nedrow, New York gurdy player, singer - Joliette Belcourt, North Dakota Clyde Van Every, player - Tregueux Noella Marquis, pianist - Ryan Keplin, fiddler - Sanborn, New York Beauce Belcourt, North Dakota Melvin White, stickmaker - Normandy, France Marcel Messervier, Marcelle Lacouture, story-

- - Akwesasne Mohawk Pierre Boissel, fiddler accordionist teller - Lafayette, Reserve Caen Montmagny Louisiana Robert LaRoche, singer, Grupo Changiii de Jennifer Brown, chanter -

stepdancer - Alfred, Guantdnamo Trelawny Maine Carlos Barromeo Planchet, Pamela Bent, chanter - Adrien Morin, guitarist - percussionist - Clarendon Sanford, Maine Guantanamo Fritz Dudley Elliott, Anna Mae Parfait, storyteller Andres Fisto, percussionist, drummer - Clarendon

- Dulac, Louisiana bongo player - Shephan Eraser, fundeh Roy A. Parfait, palmetto Guantanamo drummer, chanter -

weaver - Dulac, Arsenio Martinez, percus- St. Andrew Louisiana sionist - Guantanamo Terrance Joel Gordon, Maria Perrault, singer - Saturnino Mendoza, string fundeh drummer -

Rochester, New Hamp- musician - Guantanamo Clarendon shire Evelia Noblet, dancer - Pedman W. Golding, dub Mitchell Reed, bass guitarist Guantanamo poet, bass drummer -

- Lafayette, Louisiana Jose Oliveras, percussionist, St. Andrew Arcade Richard, harmonica tres player - Guantanamo Ruben Drio Gennan,

player, stepdancer - Le- Antonio Tijeros, drummer - Clarendon Myrtle Bailey, dancer, ominster, Massachusetts percussionist, maracas Donovan Gilmore, drummer singer - Kingston Gerry Robichaud, fiddler - player - Guantanamo - Clarendon James Jonothan, percus- Waltham, Massachusetts Theresa Graham, chanter - sionist - Kingston Jeanne Trepanier, step- Son Traditional Rural Bull Bay Bertram Kelly, drummer, - dancer, singer - Roches- Felix Varela Miranda, Winston Jenkins, drummer drummaker, singer - ter, New Hampshire - St. Andrew drummaker, guitarist La Kingston Errol Verret, accordion Habana Victor Emmanuel Reid, Clinton Kennedy, maker and player - drummer - Clarendon percussionist - Kingston Catahou, Louisiana Lucena Williams, chanter - Cuarteto Patria y Compay Imogene "Queenie" St. Andrew Segundo Kennedy, singer, dancer, Frank Worrell, drummer - Armando Machado Casaco, healer, Ki Congo speaker Clarendon The Caribbean: bass guitarist - Provincia - Kingston de Oriente Cultural Crafts and Foodways Bustamente, Eliades Ochoa Maroons Maurice Fabian Clarke, singer - Encounters in guitarist, Charles Aarons, daimmer, thatch builder - Provincia de Oriente drum maker, singer - Clarendon the New World Francisco Repilado Munoz, Moore Town Cassilda Findley, cassava guitarist, singer - Cuba Hermine Daure, dancer, cook, singer - St. Eliza- Provincia de Oriente Grupo Afro Cuba de singer - Moore Town beth Emilio Solorzano Matanzas Joaquin Martha Downer, dancer, Una Griffiths, cassava cook, Benitez, percussionist - Francisco "Minini" Zamora, singer - Moore Town singer - St. Elizabeth Oriente director, singer - Provincia de C.L.G. Harris, Colonel of Matanzas Benito Suarez Magana, Windward Maroons, Puerto Rico guitarist - Provincia de Pedro "Regalao" Aballi, leader, Twi speaker, Marcial Reyes y Sus Pleneros Oriente percussionist - Matanzas cook - Moore Town Marcial Reyes, leader, Barbara Aldazabal, percus- George Harris, drummaker, percussionist, singer -

sionist - Matanzas Familia Oviedo drummer, singer, abeng Bayamon Hortensio "Virulilla" Isaac Oviedo, percussionist blower - Moore Town Antonio Juan Bones, Alfonso, singer - - Matanzas Phyllis Myers, dancer, percussionist, singer -

Matanzas Ernesto Oviedo, percus- singer, cook - Moore Bayamon Reinaldo "Buchichi" sionist - Matanzas Town Jose Calderon, dancer - Alfonso, percussionist - Julio Oviedo, guitarist, Sydney McDonald, dancer, Bayamon Matanzas singer - Matanzas singer, Twi speaker - Eva Hernandez, singer - Bertina Aranda, singer - Ernesto Oviedo Jr., guitarist, Moore Town Bayamon Matanzas singer - Matanzas Enrique Martinez, Ramon "Sandy" Garcia, Nyabingi Rastas percussionist - Bayamon percussionist - Matanzas Jamaica George S. Bent, master Milagros Mojita, dancer - Reinaldo "Nardo" Goves, Kumina Band ketay drummer - Bayamon percussionist - Matanzas Elijah Alexander, drummer, Clarendon Jose Ramirez Rivera, Sara Goves Villamil, singer - drummaker, singer - Lynda Bailey, chanter - percussionist - Bayamon Matanzas Kingston Clarendon Jose "Frankie" Sepulveda Pedro "Pello" Tapalnes, Aaron Bailey, dancer - Eadley Bailey, bass drum- Hernandez, percussionist

percussionist - Matanzas Kingston mer - St. Thomas - Bayamon -

Ricardo Sepulveda Marie Guerda Simplice, Folklore Summer Institute Hernandez, percussionist dancer - Jacmel

- - Bayamon Jaques Simplice, drummer An innovative new project of the Office of Folklife Pro- Eduardo Walker, percussion- Jacmel grams overlaps with this year's Festival: a Folklore Summer

ist, singer - Bayamon Institute (June 29 - July 13). Important folklore research Foodways and presentation in the United States are carried out by Maria Gina Cesar, cook - local researchers and community-based scholars, many Cuerdas de Borinquen Jacmel without formal academic training. The Institute is intended Anibal Alvarado Negron, to recognize and encourage these local folklorists, to en- giiiro player - Ponce Community Concert hance their skills, and to establish contact with folklore Caraballo, trovador, Edicelio Son de la Lama scholars and professionals. Twelve community-based singer - Guanico Frankie Acevedo, singer, scholars have been invited to the Smithsonian to interact Edwin Hernandez Ro- giiiro player - New York, with members of the Office of Folklife Programs staff and driguez, bass guitarist - New York other folklorists, ethnomusicologists, anthropologists and Ponce Jose Chichi, trumpeter - museum specialists, and to take part in discussions, work- Victor Rafael Hernandez New York, New York shops and field trips. The scholars will be introduced to trovador Figueroa, Tito Contreras, maracas resources for folklore research, documentation and Ponce national player, singer - New presentation. They will be able to share their experience, Juan Montalvo Cruz, cuatro York, New York ideas and concerns as local researchers, archivists, present- - Penuelas player Leo Flemming, bass guitarist ers and cultural advocates with one another and with distin- Elvin Perez Matos, cuatro - New York, New York guished faculty members drawn from several universities player - Penuelas Joe Gonzales, bongo player and institutions. We hope that the Institute will aid the de- Martin de Jesus Rodriguez, - New York, New York velopment of local resources and talent available to study, giiiro bongo singer, and Helio Garcia, trumpeter - present and conserve the Nation's folklife. For more infor- player - Villalba New York, New York mation about future Institutes and other outreach programs, Torres, Conrado Albino Marcelino Guerra, singer, please write to the Office of Folklife Programs. guitarist - Penuelas claves player - New York, New York This program is made possible by supportfrom the Smith- Lourdes Lopez, chekere Foodways sonian Educational Outreach Fund, the American Folklore - player - New York, New Susan Llequis Garcia, cook Society, the Ohio Arts Council, Indiana University, Rutgers York Santurce University and Pan-Am World Airways, Inc. Albertina Marquez, guitarist - New York, New York Haiti Irene Perez, tres player - Betty Belanus, Director Participants Voudoun Group de Madame New York, New York Hanna Griff, Assistant Patricia Ashford - Cleveland Nerva Armando Sanchez, conga Constant Delfine Heights, Ohio "Madame player - New York, New Faculty - Nerva," Mambo, leader, York Carolyn Banks Herman- dancer, singer - Jacmel Charles Camp - Maryland ville, Mississippi Madili Charles, dancer - Masterful Arts Council Walter A. Bolton - Prine-

Jacmel Pierre Belony, guitarist, Gerald Davis - Rutgers ville, Oregon

Terzilia Celestin, dancer - singer - Washington, University William D. Chin - New Jacmel DC. Susan Dyal - Santa Monica, York, New York Celanie Constant, dancer - Serge Bellegarde, California Patricia Crosby - Lorman, Jacmel keyboardist - Elaine Eff - Baltimore Mississippi Denise Caulin, drummer - Washington, D.C. Traditions Gordon G. Kellenberger - Jacmel Pierre Richard Content, Sharon King - Southern Arts Amana, Iowa Genilia Collin, dancer - drummer, percussionist - Federation Daniel Lopez - Sells, Jacmel Washington, D.C. Michael Licht - Washington Arizona Seymour Janvier, dancer - Carlo Camille, percussionist D.C. Commission on the Von Martin - Seabrook,

Jacmel - Washington, D.C. Arts Maryland - Herby Lindor, dancer - Gertie Gatson, singer, Jack Tchen - Queens Pang Xiong Sirirathasuk Jacmel percussionist - College, Asian-American Upper Darby, Guerda Malique, dancer - Washington, D.C. Center Pennsylvania Jacmel Delroy Headley, bass Ricardo Trimillos - Vanessa Thaxton - St.

St. Etienne Mardi, laplace - guitarist - Washington, University of Hawai'i at Helena Island, South Jacmel D.C. Manoa Carolina Charlene Sanon Polone, Marco Limus, trombonist - Ruth Thomasian - Water- dancer - Jacmel Washington, DC. town, Massachusetts Louis Roosevelt, master Pierre Pen, conga player - Kathy Vargas - San Antonio, drummer - Jacmel Washington, D.C. Texas Friday, June 23

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music Stage Hula Stage Foodways Music Stage Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00

Surrounding the O'bon Opening Tower:

Oremonv paper doll making,

calligraphy. "Show me how- TaoisI worship. to do the bull rush 12:00 Chinese Hula' Okinawan sandalmaking, Music from CcHjking Music & Dance: lauhala Normandy Halau Kekuhi Traditions Nakasone Y'*H/!e/e Styles weaving. Music & Dance Hawaiian Seifu Kai Workshop coconut from Poitou Stories & weaving. Legends herbal Quebecois medicine. Filipino Music: Singing & *a$«n wearing 1:00 Family Accordion Micbif Music Waimea Hawaiian Caniaiillo Church Choir Portuguese Maritime area: Performance Journeys to Cooking koa canoe of Puerto Rican Hawaii in the building. Character Korean Dance Breton Stones Music: Fnrno throw net Dances from

El Conjunto fishing Sarthc. Boricua Na Hula Lai Normandy

Kealoha Occupational 2:00 New England

area: Songs Herbal Healing taro farming. Hawaiian Gaspe Style lava rock ^ The wall building Games Fiddling Hawaiian Music Filipino Declaration of Samoan Cooking the RighLsofMan Music & Dance Paniolo Traditions Hawaiian tack shed: Renaissance saddlemaking, 3:00 Zydeco Music: rawhide French "^ Kaui The Lawlell braiding Make a lei Songs & Ballads Korean Dance: Zuttermeister Playboys & Halla Pai Huhm Family Near the Origami Paper Dancers Portuguese in Wuij stage Folding Hawaii Hawaiian shell, floral Harmonica Waimea Hawaiian Cooking and leather Dance from Filipino Music: Church Choir in the lei making, 4:00 Normandy Family Imu instrument Camarillo making, Hurdy-Curdy Hawaiian quiltmaking Music Portuguese Quiltmakjng Music: '0 Na Hula Lai Near the New England Camoes Plavers Kealoha Narrative Fiddle Houma Crafts Okinawan stage: woodworking. 5:00 Ohana Cooking photo exhibit Hawaiian Music Families in Traditions of plantation •Music from Hawaiian Chant Hawaii Storytelling life Poitou-Vendee

1 :00- 1 :45 - Vt'oochvorking Techniques 3:00 3:'i5 - Canoe Building in the Maritime Area 4:00-5:00 - Ohon Dance Dance Caribbean Party Dance Marcial Reyes & Changui

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs.

each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will interpreted be are marked with the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative MainSt^e Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Booth Stage 11:00 11:00

P Iroquois 12:00 12:00 Ojibway Lacrosse: Bufialo Problems of Onondaga Culture: Cuban Access to ('«'eWorkshop; vs Tribal Arts Cuban Son. Kumina Tumhandera Cuban Ritual Wild Rice Making Sacred Tuscarora Familia Oviedo Bands Drummaking Cooking Vbdoun Drawings Workshop Yaqui Bison in Problems Plains Culture: Great Basin .Acquiring 1:00 1:00 Ft Berthold Basketn' Workshop: Ceremonial Cuban Son: Herd Management Making a Needs Cuarteto Patria Vodoun Altar

Access Cuban to Yaqui Pascola Recognition: .\rara & Deer Dances The Case of Maroon Ceremony Jamaican Wild Rice Camp Cuban Son: Lacrosse Drumming Preparation 2:00 Gnipo Changili 2:00 & Dance of Cassava

Iroquois Great Basin Lacrosse: Problems Onondaga Acquiring Puerto Rican Puerto Rican Vodoun Puerto Rican vs Bu^o Willow for Bomba & Plena: Jiharo Music: Ceremony Cooking with Tuscarora Culture: Basketry- Marcial Reyes Cuerdas de in Honor of Cassava & Tribal Arts y sus pleneros Borinquen Legba, Ghede Tropical Fruits Indian 3:00 3:00 Bison in & Baron Language: Plains Culture: Cultural Ft Berthold Maroon Cooking Continuity Cuban Son: Herd .Management Great Basin with Coco Root & Identitv Familia 0\iedo Basketr\' & Coconut Resource Management: Reintroducing 4:00 4:00 Yaqui Pascola Kumina Bands Buffalo to Cuban Son: Ritual Dance Rice in & Deer Dances Drumming Reservations Cuartelo Palria Workshop Haitian Cooking Workshop WUd Rice Camp

^-^ Indian Problems Marketing "The Talking Workshop on Iroquois Crafts & Foods Drum:" Cultivating Puerto Rican 5:00 Cuban Rumba: 5:00 Lacrosse: Workshop with the Gourd Cooking with Onondaga Buffalo Grupo Afro-Cuba the Maroon & Making Cassava vs Culture: The Decline Bands the Giiiro Tuscarora Tribal Arts of Natural Materials

On-going craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction, Yaqui raniada

construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice priKessing,

lacrosse stick making, buffalo hide tanning. Great Basin basket making, b\ifblo headdress making, bullboat making , Saturday, June 24

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Foodways Music Stage Music St^e Hula Stage St^e Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00 11:00 Surrounding I'lirtuguese Quebecois the O'bon Coconut Music; Fiddle & Tower; Toymaking & .New England Camoes Plavers Halau Kekhui Island Stories Accordion Hawaiian paper doll Origami Paper Fiddle Gioking making. Folding ^ MichifS Okinawan in the calligraphy, French Ballads Music & Dance; Imii Taoist worship, 12:00 Nakasone bullrush 12.00 SeifuKai Na Hula '0 Lai Religion in sandalmaking, Songs from Kealoha Hawai'i tauhala Brittanv Music from weaving, Brittany Korean Dance coconut weaving, j-^Do We StiU herbal Hawaiian Music Okinawan ?P Speak the Waimea Hawaiian medicine, Music & Dance Roots in Asia Cooking Same Language 1:00 Church Choir kasiiri weaving 1:00 from Poitou Traditions

Maritime area; Sings Play Foodways koa canoe a Hawaiian Puerto Rican building, Htilii Music: Samoan throw net Gaspe Style Hawaiian Crafts French El Conjunto Music S Dance Fiddling fishing .\merican Boricua Indians 2:00 Occupational 2:00 Portuguese Cooking area: Celebrations taro fanning, Character French Filipino Music; Fa II I'arade Traditions in Hawai'i lava rock Dances from Storytelling Family wall building Sarthe Camarillo Normandy Kau'i Paniolo New England Zuttemicister Harmonica Comparative tack shed; Family Boat Building 3:00 3:00 saddlemaking, Hurdy-Gurdy Hawaiian Music; rawhide Music from Ku'ulei's OwTi braiding New England Chinese Hawaiian Brittanv Samoan Singers Cooking Stories & Music S Dance Near the Traditions Legends Plantation Hulii stage; French Tales Life shell, floral Korean Dance; Missouri and feather from Halla Pai Huhm French Songs 4:00 lei making, 4:00 Dancers Ho'opi'i instrument Brothers Journeys to making, Breton Hawai'i quiltmaking Bagpipes Puerto Rican Music;

El Conjunto Filipino from Near the Music Boricua Portuguese Cooking Narrative Normandy Quebecois Music: Traditions Singing stage; Camoes Players 5:00 Okinawan Guitar Styles woodworking, 5:00 Music S Dance; Workshop photo exhibit Kau'i Nakasone of plantation .Music & Dance Zutlermeister Cajun Ballads Seifii Kai from Poitou Faniih

Special Event: Pa u Parade, staning at 2:00 near the Hula Stage l:00-l:4S - Floral, Shell and Feather Lei making Dance 3:00-3:45 - Medicinal Herbs 4:(K)S;00 - Ohon Dance Party Zydcco Dance: The Lawlell Playboys

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs. each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be

interpreted are marked with the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative Main Stage Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Stage Booth 11:00

Cuban Tumbandera International Bison in Ji'baro Music: V'CT'eWorkshop: Drummaking Boundaries: Cuban Ritual Plains Culture: Great Basin Cuerdas de Making Sacred Workshop Problems Rastaferian Cooking Ft Berthold Basketry Borinquen Vodoun Drawings Maintaining Drumming Herd Management Cultural Ties

Cuban Son: Iroquois Resource Cuarteto Patria 12:00 Lacrosse: Management: Cuban Son Haitian Soups Onondaga WUd Rice Camp Reintroducing Familia Oviedo vs Bufiido to Tuscarora Reservations

Great Basin Ritual Dance Maroon Problems Cuban Son: Workshop: Preparation of Buffiilo .\cquiring Gnipo Changiii 1.00 Yaqui Pascola Hawaiians, Pork— "Jerk" Culture: WiUow for & Deer Dances Haitians. Cuban Tribal Arts Basketry & Yaqui Indians Santeria Ceremony Puerto Rican Ojibway Jamaican Bomba& Plena: Kumina Problems of Preparation Marcial Reyes Drumming Bison in Access to of Cassava y sus pleneros Plains Culture: Great Basin Wild Rice

2:00 Ft, Berthold Basketry Herd Management Yaqui Jibaro Music; Puerto Rican Problems Vodoun Cuerdas de Cooking with Iroquois Acquiring Ceremony Borinquen Tropical Fruits Lacrosse: Ceremonial in Honor of Onondaga Wild Rice Camp Needs Erzulie vs Jamaican Tuscarora Treaty RighLs: Cuban Son: 3:00 Maroom Cassava Indian vs Familia Oviedo ^ Drumming Cooking & European & Dance WatUe Fence Concepts of

Workshop Bufialo Land I'se Yaqui Pascola Culture: Cuban Son: & Deer Dances Tribal Arts Traditional Cuarteto Patria Initiation & Puerto Rican Native Cuban Son: Purification Cooking with Subsistence Changiii 4:00 Workshop Cassava Root Foods &. Their Preparation Bison in Cuban Rumba: Plains Culture: Great Basin Grupo Afro-Cuba Ft Berthold Basketry Access to Herd Management Recognition: The Case of Maroon Kumina Lacrosse Roasting of Iroquois Puerto Rican Bands 5:00 Pork — "Jerk" Lacrosse: Bomba & Plena: Onondaga Wild Rice Camp The Decline Marcial Reyes vs of Naural y sus pleneros Tuscarora Materials

Ongoing craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instniaion, Yaqui ramada construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing,

lacrosse stick making, bu&lo hide tanning, Great Basin basket making, buSalo headdress making, buUboat making Sunday, June 25

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Hula Stage Foodways Music Stage Music St^e Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00

Surrounding

the O'bon Cajun Songs Korean Dance: Michif Music Hawaiian Instrument Tower: Hawaiian Games Waimea from Halla Paj Huhm Choir Making Okinawan & Lassoing Church paper doll North Dakota Dancers New Year making, Hurdy-Gurdy Cooking calligraphy, Music Traditions Taoist worship, Portuguese Kaui bullrush 12:00 Music: Zuttermcister sandalmaking, Gaspe Style Family Canioes Players Fiddling Nationalism /*Hfe/f Styles lauhala "Show me how Workshop weaving, it Regionalism to do the coconut Hul(f Hawaiian Music: weaving, Na Hula Lai Kuuieis Own Chinese herbal Kealoha New Year medicine, Quebecois Song Cooking 1.00 toan weaving Singing Styles Haw-aiian Traditions

Okinawan Renaissance Maritime area: Island Stories Music it Dance: Samoan koa canoe Music Dance building, & Legends Nakasone & Zydeco Music: throw net Seifii Kai The Lawtell Louisiana & fishing Playboys Houma Crafts Hulii Training Puerto Rican Ponuguese Occupational 2:00 Holiday Music: Waimea Hawaiian area: Character Cooking El Conjunto Church Choir taro farming, Hurdy-Gurdy Dances from Traditions Boricua lava rock Korean Dance Music from Normandy wall building Brittany Tourism in Hawai'i Paniolo Storylelling tack shed: Hawaiian Music Halau Kekhui saddiemaking, 3:00 rawhide Music & Dance Filipino from Poitou braiding Chinese & Hawaiian Holiday Okinawan Okinawan Stories Cooking Near the Lion Dancers Fiddle Styles Music S Dance: Samoan Traditions HuUt stage: Nakasone Music & Dance shell, floral New England Seihi Kai and feather 4:00 Call & Response lei making, Singing Puerto Ricans instrument Filipino Music: Kaui in Hawai'i making, Harmonica Famih Zuttermcister quiltmakjng Camarillo Family Hawaiian Lu au Cooking Songs from Near the Traditions Brittany Narrative

stage: NaHula'OUi 5:00 Reading woodworking, Celebrations Hawaiian Music Kealoha the Sea photo exhibit Cajun Music: of plantation Dewey Balfa life & Friends

Special Event: Kahui Pig in the Imu - 1 :00- 1 :45 Paniolo Crafts at the Tack Shed Dance 3:00-3:45 - Hawaiian Quiltmaking irOO^:-!^ - Ohon Dance Party Caribbean Dance Cuerdes de Boriquen Groupo.\fi'o-Cuba

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs. each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be

interpreted are marked with the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New Worid American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Main Stage Hounfor Dancing Stage Booth 11:00

Brule 2in Yaqui Bison in Workshop: Drumming Problems Cuban Son: Cuban Plains Culture: Great Basin Building the Workshop: Acquiring Cuarteto Patria Ritual Foods Ft. Berthold Basketry Hearths Kumina & Maroon Ceremonial Herd Management Lighting the Fire Needs

Traditional Puerto Rican 12:00 Iroquois ^^ Native Botnba & Plena: Lacrosse: Practices Marcial Reyes Cuban Rumba: Onondaga Wild Rice Camp Maintaining sus pleneros Grupo Afro-Cuba y vs Sustained Yields Tuscarora Maroon Cooking Indian

Jibaro Music: with Coco Root & Language: Cuerdas de Cuban Tumbandera Coconut & Cultural Kumina 1:00 Borinquen Drummaking W attic Fence Buffalo Continuity Bands Workshop Workshop Culture: & Identity Yaqui Pascola Tribal Arts & Deer Dances Jamaican & Ojibway Cuban Son: Vodoun Puerto Rican Problems of Familia Oviedo Ceremony Cooking with Access to

in Honor of Cassava Great Basin Wild Rice Damballah 2:00 Bison in Basketry Plains Culture:

Ft. Berthold Indian Puerto Rican Sweet Potato Cuban Son: Cuban Son: Herd Management Problems tfu/ro-making & Grupo Changiii Cuarteto Patria Marketing Workshop Haitian Candies Buffido Crafts & Foods Iroquois Culture:

Lacrosse: Tribal Arts Onondaga Resource Puerto Rican 3:00 VCorlishop: Maroon vs Management: Botnba &. Plena: Jamaican Uses Malunga Drumming Tuscarora Reintroducing Marcial Reyes of Cassava Vodoun Altar & Dance Bufialo to sus pleneros Great Basin y Reser\'ations Basketr>'

Conlroversias Great Basin Puerto Rican Workshop: Cuban Problems Cuban Son: Fruits as Yaqui Pascola Puerto Rican Abakua Acquiring Familia Oviedo Food and 4:00 & Deer Dances Cuerdas de Ceremony Buftdo Willow for Medicine Borinquen Culture: Basketry Tribal Arts

Aaess 10 Recognition: The Case of

Comparsa: A carnival procession through the Caribbean area led by the Abakua masked Bison in Lacrosse

dancers. Join participants in this festive celebration. 5:00 Plains Culture: Wild Rice Camp Ft. Berthold The Decline Herd Management ofNaural Materials

On going craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction. Yaqui ramada construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing,

lacrosse stick making, bufialo hide tanning. Great Basin basket making. bulMo headdress making, buUboat making Monday, June 26

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music Stage Hula Stage Foodways Music Stage Stage Demonstrations Area Sti^e 11:00 11:00 Surrounding £p Preserving Puerto Rican the O'hon Make a Lei French Identity Music: Na Hula Lai Tower: Roots in Asia & Breton Music & Heritage El Conjunto Kealoha paper doll Cx)conut Toys Boricua Filipino making,

Cascarone calligraphy, French Tales Taoisl worship. from Missouri 12:00 Okinawan 12:00 bull rush New England Music & Dance: Waimea Hatt-aiian Hawaiian sandahnaking, Music & Step Nakasone Church Choir Stories laiihala Performance Dancing Seifu Kai weaving, of coconut Music & Dance Korean Dancing weaving, from Poitou herbal Character Plantation Portuguese medicine, Halau Kekuhi Dances from 1:00 life MaUisadas *as«n weaving 1.00 Hawaiian Music Normandy

Maritime area: "Show me how Cajun Songs koa canoe to do the Pa 11 building, Hulti" Samoan Demonstration throw net Music from Filipino Music: Music & Dance fishing Normandy Family Woodcaning Camarillo 2:00 Occupational 2:00

Hawaiian Chinese area: Kau'i Language Gin Dot taro farming. Music from Korean Dance: Zuttermeister Island Zydeco Music: lava rock Britanny Halla Paj Huhm Family Stories & The Lawtell wall building Dancers Legends Playboys

Paniolo Stringed Musical Waimea Hawaiian tack shed: Portuguese Instrument Instrument 3:00 Church Choir saddlemaking, 3:00 Music: Workshop Making rawhide Canioes Plavers Quebecois Song braiding Hawaiian Hawaiian

Kbelepaiau Near the Games Puerto Rican Music: Hawaiian Chant Okinawans Hula st^e: El Conjunto Storytelling in Hawaii shell, floral Boricua and feather Gaspe Style 4:00 ki making, 4:00 Fiddling instrument Filipino Music: Halau Kekuhi making, Michif Family Musics quiltmaking Music & Song Camarillo Tourism Cajun Music: Okinawan Near the Dewey Balfa Undagi Narrative & Friends stage: Stereotypes: 5:00 Hawaiian Music: Samoan woodworking, 5:00 How We Ku'ulei's Own Music & Dance Percussion See Each photo exhibit Hurdy-Gurdy Workshop of plantation Other .Music from life Brittany

:()() Lava 1 \A=,- Rock Wall Building ^

3:00-3:-!') - Throw Net Fishing in the Maritime Area \ 4:00-S:00 - Obon Dance Dance Party Veillee: Dance Music from Quebec S New England

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs. each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be

interpreted are marked with the symbol S^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Main Stage Hounfor Stage Booth 11:00

International Cuban Bison in Jibaro Music: I'CT'eWorkshop; Drumming Boundaries: Tumbandera Cuban Ritual Plains Culture: Cuerdas de Making Sacred Workshop: Wild Rice Camp Problems Drummaking Cooking Ft Berthold Borinquen Vodoun Drawings Kumina & Maroon Maintaining Workshop Herd Management Cultural Ties

12:00 Iroquois Resource Jamaican Lacrosse: Management: Cuban Son: Great Basin Cuban Preparation Onondaga Reintroducing Cuarteto Patria Basketry Palo Monte of Cassava vs But^o to Ceremony Tuscarora Reservations

Water Rights: Puerto Rican Cuban Son: Government Cooking with Bufialo Grupo Changui 1:00 Yaqui Pascola PohcyS Puerto Rican Cassava Culture: & Deer Dances Regulation Jibaro &. Bomba Tribal Arts Workshop

Access to Cuban Son: Recognition: Familia Oviedo Bison in The Case of Vodoun Plains Culture: Lacrosse Wild Rice Camp Ceremony 2:00 Ft. Berthold

in Honor of Herd Management ^ Indian Puerto Rican Ghede Puerto Rican Maroon Cooking Language: Bomha & Plena: Kumina Herbs with Coco Root Iroquois Cultural Marcial Reyes Bands Workshop & Coconut Lacrosse: Continuity y sus pleneros Great Basin Onond^a & Identity Basketry vs 3:00 Tuscarora Great Basin Problems Cuban Son: iOfl-Selection Thatching Jamaican Acquiring Cuarteto Patria Workshop Workshop Cassava Cooking Buffalo Willow for Culture: Basketry Yaqui Pascola Buffalo Dancing & Deer Dances & Yaqui Tribal Arts Problems Cuban Son: Acquiring Grupo Changui 4:00 Ceremonial Needs Bi.siin in

Plains Culture: Wild Rice Camp Cuban Son: Ft Berthold Ojibway Familia Oviedo Herd Man^ement Problems of Making Access to Maroon Puerto Rican WUd Rice Drumming Iroquois & Haitian 5:00 & Dance Lacrosse: Cuban Rumba: Candy Great Basin Onondaga Resource Grupo Afro-Cuba Basketry vs Management: Tuscarora Reintroducing Bu^o

On-going craft demonstrations: iastnimenl making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction, Yaqui ramada construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing,

lacrosse stick making, bulblo hide tanning, Great Basin basket making, buffido headdress making, buUboat making ) Tuesday, June 27

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music Stage Hula Stage Foodways Music Stage Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00 Surrounding Portuguese Kau'i ^-^ Pan the O'bon Coconut Harmonica Music: Zuttermeister Character Demonstration Tower: Toymaking & & Fiddle Camoes Players Family Dances from paper doll Origanii Paper Chinese Normandy making. Folding Cooking calligraphy, Filipino Music: Hawaiian Traditions Storytelling Na Hula Lai Taoist worship, Family Heritage Award Kealoha bullrush 12:00 Camarillo Recipients Cajun Music: sandalmaking, Dewey Bal& lauhala Chinese & & Friends Woodcarving weaving, Okinawan Lion coconut Dancing Waimea Hawaiian weaving, Herbal Healing Church Choir Staples: herbal Hawaiian Music Hurdy-Gurdy Cajun Songs Taro medicine, Music from Cassava kasuri weaving 1:00 Brittany Wild Rice

Maritime area: Michif Music Samoan koa canoe Hula Training Korean Dance Okinawan Music & Dance building, Music & Dance: throw net New England

Nakasone fishing Fiddle Songs from SeifiiKai Brittany

Occupational 2:00 Filipino Ho'opi'i Japanese in Cooking area: Puerto Rican Brothers Hawaii taro farming, Quebec & Traditions "Show me how Ballads Music: lava rock New England to do the El Conjunto Call & Response wall building Huki" Boricua Singing Paniolo Music & Dance Access tack shed: from Normandy Portuguese Halau Kekuhi to Natural saddlemaking, 3:00 Music: Resources rawtide .Music & Dance Camoes Players Portuguese braiding from Poitou Hawaiian Cooking Stories & in the Near the Korean Dance: Hawaiian Legends Fiddle Styles Waimea Hawaiian Fonio Hula st^e: Halla Pai Huhm Paniolo Church Choi.- shell, floral Dancers ( Cowboys Zydeco Music: and feather The Lawlell lei making, 4:00 Playboys instrument Okinawan Hardwood in making, Music & Dance Music & Dance: Samoan Hawaii quiltmaking from Poitou Nakasone Music & Dance Okinawan Seifi] Kai Near Gaspe Style Cooking the Narrative Fiddling Traditions stage: Slack Key Language woodworking, 5:00 Guitar Styles .\s a Form Hawaiian Music: photo exhibit Halau Kekuhi Workshop of Identitv Ku'ulei's Own of plantation Music from

hfe Noimandv

1:00-1:4S - Instrument Making 3:00-3:45 - Taoist Worship in the Chinese Cralits Tent 4:00-5:00 - Obon Dance Dance Party French Music X Dance

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs.

each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be

interpreted are marked with the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative Main Stage Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Stage Booth 11:00 11:00

^-^ Bison in Access to I'W'e Workshop; Jamaican Cuban S

12:00 Puerto Rican Drumming 12:00 Indian Maroon Bufialo Bumba & Plena: Workshop: Yaqui Pascola Problems Ginger Beer Culture: Marcial Reyes Jamaican & Deer Dances Marketing Making Tribal .\rts y sus pleneros & Cuban Crafts & Foods

Indian Bison in yiftaro .Music: Thatching Language: Vodoun Plains Culture: Cuerdas de & Waltling Cuban Tumbandera Cultural 1:00 Ceremony 1:00 Ft Berthold Great Basin Bnrinquen Workshop Drummaking Continuily in Honor of Herd Management Basketry g W orkshop & Identity Ghede

|p Resource Maroon .Management: (^uban Sort: Cuban Son: Drumming Reintroducing Familia Oviedo Cuartelo Patria Yaqui Pascola & Dance Bufialo to & Deer Dances 2:00 2:00 Wild Rice Camp Reservations Flj^ Dance Yaqui Workshop Problems Cuban Son: Kumina Cuban Iroquois Acquiring Grupo Changiii Bands Ritual Cooking Lacrosse: Bufialo Ceremonial Onondaga Culture: Needs

vs Tribal .\rts Tuscarora Traditional 3:00 Puerto RIcan 3:00 Jibaro .Music: Puerto Rican Native Bomba & Plena: Cuerdas de Cooking with Practices Marcial Reyes Borinquen Coconut Maintaining y sus pleneros Sustained Yields Yaqui Pascola Great Basin & Deer Dances Basketry Ojibway

Cuban Son: Ritual Dance Problems of Haitian Soups 4:00 Familia Oxiedo Workshop: 4:00 Access to Kumina WUd Rice & Haitian Bison in Plains Culture: Wild Rice Camp Great Basin Ft Berthold Problems Herd .Management Acquiring

Willow for Cuban Rumba: Iroquois Basketry 5:00 Grupo Afro-Cuba 5:00 Lacrosse: Bufialo Onondaga Culture: The Decline vs Tribal Arts of Natural

Tuscarora .Materials

On-going craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction. > aqui ramada construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice priKessing,

lacrosse stick making. bufiEdo hide tanning, Great Basin basket making, buffalo headdress making, bullboat making -Festival Site Map

Madison Drive Les Fetes Chez Nous:- France and North America

Wild Rice Camp Narrative Stage Crafts :''•. / c6 Music Instrument Stage Makers

I ^ Narrative Stage Lacrosse "V^ i Basketry <^ e o O Crafts -American- L J i_ Indian Program qO CD 0@ pFTI

Museum Sales Folkways Records Lacrosse Field Ramada

Hawai'i Cowboy Tack Shed Narrative Stage Hawai'i

Asian Crafts Weaving^ « Maritime! D ; Q q Shave Ice Area ,' Making Lei ^— .—^ Plantation Exhibit /I / > Herbal Woodworking ['-bfobon Tower ^••' Insi rument Making /\ /\ Medicine Foodways ^^^^^ ^^„ g^ild.ildmg ^/ \A> Music Stage Hula Stage Immigration Exhibit Quilting ~l \y\. '^— I ^ I Children's Asian Crafts Agriculture I )_ _ _^ _j I Area

Jefferson Drive The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World

"Dancing Haiti -^

Administration Solar ' ) n / I C3 ..'^- J^-_- (^ Foodways Cuba 2^ Volunteers K \l o Hounfor Main Stage M ® Disabled Services ^ Press

CD

Festival Site Map

Madison Drive Les Fetes Chez Nous:. France and North America

^ • -• Wild Rice""Camp Narratise Stage . u Crafts ,

I I © ^ ^' O^ - ^^^^ Music ,o Instrument ©. Makers " ^^

Narrative Stage I Lacrosse ^V^ i <^ Basketry5ketry \? ^ ^ I Crafts -American L. I Indian Program qO Friday, June 30

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music St^e Hula St^e Foodways Music Stage Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00

Surrounding The Declaration Plantation the O'hon "Show me how of the RighLs Hawaiian Music: Samoan Life Tower: Quebecois to do the of Man Ku'ulei's Own Music S Dance paper doll Harmonica Chinese Hula" making, Islands in Transition: Cooking calligraphy, NiihauS Traditions Taoist worship, Music from Kaho'oiawe buUrush 12:00 Brittany Okinawan sandalmaking, New England Musics Dance: lauhala Fiddling Halau Kekuhi Hawaiian Nakasone weaving, Stories & Seihi Kai {*«/<>/< Styles coconut Legends Workshop weaving, Songs from Portuguese herhal Louisiana Cooking medicine, Songs from Filipino Music: 1:00 in the jta.?«n weaving Brittany Family Waimea Hawaiian Fomo Camarillo Church Choir Maritime area: New England Journeys to koa canoe Harmonica Korean Dance Puerto Rican Hawaii building, Quebecois Music: throw net Accordion & El Conjunto fishing Step Dance Storytelling Boricua Na Hula La'i Kealoha Occupational 2:00 Filipino area: Herbal Healing Cooking taro farming, Michif Traditions Cajun Music: lava rock Hawaiian Music & Song Dewey Balfa wall building Games Hawaiian Music & Friends Samoan Music & Dance Paniolo Revival & tack shed: Folklore 3:00 Mu,sic from saddlemaking, Hurdy-Gurdy rawhide Normandy Kau'i Music from Hawaiian braiding Korean Dance: Zuttermeister ic( makings Brittany Cooking Halla Pai Huhni Family Origami Paper in the Near the Dancers Folding Chinese in Imu Hula stage:

Hawaii shell, floral Storytelling Waimea Hawaiian and feather Songs from Filipino Music: 4:00 Church Choir lei making, Quebec Family instrument Camarillo New England making, Harmonicas Hawaiian quilunaking Portuguese Fiddle Quiltmaking Music: Okinawan NaHulaOU'i Near the Music & Dance Camoes Players Cooking Kealoha Narrative from Poitou Traditions Cajun Songs stage: Okinawan woodworking. 5:00 Ohatut: Music & Dance: photo exhibit Families in Zydeco Music. Nakasone of plantation Hawaiian Chant Hawaii The Lawtell Houma Crafts Seifu Kai life Playboys

1 :00- 1:45- Wootlworking Techniques 3:00-3:'45 - Canoe Building in the Maritime Area Dance Party O'hon Dance:

at the O'hon Tower

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs.

each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be interpreted are with marked the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New Worid American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative Main Stage Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Booth Stage 11:00 11:00

Instrument Great Basin l«'f Workshop: Making Iroquois Bu&lo Problems Cuban Son. Kumina Cuban Ritual Maldng Sacred Workshop: Lacrosse: Culture: Acquiring Familia Oviedo Bands Cooking Vodoun Drawings Tumhandera Onondaga BuUboat Making Willow for

& Guiro vs & Basketrj' Tuscarora Tribal Arts

12:00 12:00 Ojibway Workshop: Cuban Son: Thatching Problems of Making a Cuban Cuarteto Palria Workshop Bison in Access to Vodoun Altar Arara Plains Culture: Great Basin WUd Rice Ceremony Ft Berthoid Basketry Herd Management Problems of Maroon Jamaican Cuban Son: Access to Drumming Preparation 1:00 Crupo Changiii 1:00 Traditional & Dance of Cassava Yaqui Pascola Resources Wild Rice Camp & Deer Dances

Yaqui Puerto Rican Jibaro Music: Problems Cooking with Cuerdas de Iroquois Acquiring Cassava & Borinquen Vodoun Lacrosse: Bu&lo Ceremonial Tropical Fruits 2:00 Ceremony 2:00 Onondaga Culture: Needs in Honor of vs Tribal Arts l*gba, Ghede Tuscarora Indian Puerto Rican & Baron Maroon Language: Bomba & Pletia: Ginger Beer Cultural Marcial Reyes Bison in Making Continuity y sus pleneros Plains Culture: Great Basin & Identity Ft. Berthoid Basketry Herd Man:^ement 3:00 Wattle Fence 3:00 Resource Cuban Son: Cuban Son: Workshop: Management: Familia Oviedo Grupo Changiii Defining the Reintroducing Home Space Bu&lo to Yaqui Pascola Wild Rice Camp Reservations & Deer Dances

Jibaro Music: Rice Cuban Son: Cuerdas de in Haitian 4:00 Cuarteto Patria 4:00 Bt)rinquen Cooking Indian Iroquois Problems Lacrosse: Buffalo Marketing Onondaga Culture: Crafts & Foods Cuban Rumba & vs Tribal Arts Puerto Rican Tuscarora Drumming Jamaican & Bomba & Plena: Workshop: Puerto Rican Grupo Afro-Cuba 5:00 Maroons Cooking with 5:00 & Bison in Access to & Kumina Cassava Plains Culture: Great Basin Recognition: Marcial Reyes Ft. Berthoid Basketry The Case of y sus pleneros Herd Management Lacrosse

Ongoing craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction, Yaqui ramada

construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing,

lacrosse stick making, buflalo hide tanning. Great Basin basket making, bui^o headdress making, bullboat making Saturday, July 1

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music Stage Hula Stage Foodways Music Stage Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00

Surrounding Portujjuese the O'bon Coconut Music: Dance Music Cajun Songs Island Tower: Toymaking & Camoes Players Halau Kekhui firom Stories Hawaiian paper doll Origami Paper New England Cooking making, Folding Okinawan in the calligraphy, Musics Dance: Imu Taoist worship, .Accordion Nakasone bull rush 12:00 Seihi Kai Na Hula Lai Religion in sandalmaking, Quebecois Styles Kealoha Hawaii lauhala Harmonica weaving, Korean Dance coconut weaving, herbal Louisiana Hawaiian Music Okinawan Waimea Hawaiian medicine, Social Dance Crafts Roou in Asia Cooking Church Choir town weaving 1:00 Movement Traditions

Maritime area: Sing & Play Quebec Crafts koa canoe a Hawaiian Puerto Rican building, HuUi Music: Samoan throw net Call & Response Hawaiian Crafts Zydeco & Cajun El Conjunto Music & Dance fishing Singing Music: Similarities Boricua & Differences Occupational 2:00 Portuguese area: Kau'i Cooking England Celebrations taro farming, New Filipino Music: Zuttermeister Traditions Chinese & in Hawaii lava rock Fiddle Family Family Okinawan Michif Music waU building Camarillo Lion Dancers

Paniolo Songs from Brittany Haoles tack shed; Halau Kekhui in Hawaii 3:00 saddlemaking, Quebecois Hawaiian Music: rawhide Accordion & Kuulei s Own braiding Chinese Hawaiian Step Dance Cooking Stories & Vfaimea Hawaiian Near the Traditions Legends Celebrations Church Choir Plantation Hula stage

Life shell, floral Korean Dance: and feather Music from Halla Pai Huhm 4:00 lei making, Normandy Dancers Samoan instrument Music & Dance Journeys to making, Storytelling Hawaii quiltmaking Pueno Rican Music:

El Conjunto Filipino Zydeco Music: Near the Boricua Cooking The Lawtell Ho'opi'i Narrative Traditions Playboys Brothers stage: Okinawan Guitar Styles 5:00 woodworking, Fiddle Styles Music & Dance: Workshop photo exhibit Kau'i Nakasone of plantation Zuttermeister Dance Styles Seifu Kai hfe Family _L Special Event: Samoan Cricket Game in the Lacrosse Field at 2:00. 1:00- 1:45 - Floral, Shell and Feather Lei making ^^ Dance 3:00-3:45 - Medicinal Herbs 4:00-5:00 - 04x}n Dance Party Cajun Dance: Dewey Balfa & Friends

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs.

each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol ^

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative MainSt£^e Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Booth Stage 11:00 11:00

Bnile zin Cuban Tumbandera International Cooking in the Bison in Jibaro Music: Workshop: Drummaking Boundaries: Rastafarian Caribbean Plains Culture: Great Basin Cuerdas de Building the Workshop Problems Drumming with Ft Berthold Basketry Borinquen Hearth S Maintaining Rice & Beans Herd Management Lighting the Fire Cultural Ties

Cuban Son: Resource 12:00 Cuarteto Patria 12:00 Rastafarian Management: Cuban Son: Samoan Cricket Drumming laitian Soups Wild Rice Camp Reintroducing Familia Oviedo Game Workshop Buffalo to Reservations

^ Buffalo Workshop: Maroon Great Basin Cuban Son: Culture: Making a Preparation of Problems 1:00 Grupo Changiii 1:00 Yaqui Pascola Buffiilo Vodoun Altar Pork— "Jerk" Acquiring & Deer Dances Headdress Cuban Willow for Makings Santeria Basketry Tribal Arts Ceremony Puerto Rican Jiharo Music: Kumina Cooking with Cuerdas de Drumming Tropical Fruits Bison in Borinquen Workshop Traditional SRice Plains Culture: Great Basin Native 2:00 2:00 Ft. Berihold Basketry Subsistence Herd Management Foods & Their Puerto Rican Preparation Bomba & Plena: Vodoun Jamaican Marcial Reyes Ceremony Cassava Cooking y sus pleneros in Honor of Samoan Cricket Wild Rice Camp Erzulie Game Native Architectural 3:00 Cuban Son: Puerto Rican 3:00 Maroon Strategies Familia Oviedo Cooking with Drumming for Survival Com& & Dance Coconut Buffalo Yaqui Pascola Access to Culture: Cuban Son: & Deer Dances Recognition: Tribal Arts Grupo Changiii The Case of Initiation & I Cuban Son: Lacrosse Purification 4:00 Grupo Changiii 4:00 Workshop

Bison in Ojibway Cuban Son: Plains Culture: Great Basin Problems of Maroon Cuartelo Patria Ft. Berthold Basketry Access to Roasting of Herd Management WUd Rice Pork— "Jerk"

Kumina Yaqui 5:00 Bands 5:00 Problems Cuban Rumba: Samoan Cricket Wild Rice Camp Acquiring Grupo Afro-Cuba Game Ceremonial Needs

On-going craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction, Yaqui ramada

Special Event: Caribbean Dance Party on the Main Stage, 7:30-9:30 p.m., featuring "Masterfiir' construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing, (Haitian compa direct) and "Son de la Loma ' (New York son). lacrosse stick making, buMo hide tanning. Great Basin basket making, bu&lo headdress making, bullboat making Sunday, July 2

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music Stage Hula Stage Foodways Music Stage Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00

Surrounding French llie O'bon Korean Dance: Hawaiian .taordion & Wainiea Hawaiian Pan Tower: Call & Response Halla Pai Huhm Games & Fiddle Styles Church Choir Demonstration Okinawan paper doll Singing Dancers Lassoing New Year making, Cooking calligraphy. Storytelling Traditions Taoist worship, Portuguese ?P Kau'i bull rush 12:00 Music: Zuttermeister sandalmaking, S<:ings from Canioes Players Family ^'*K/<'/<' Styles Brittany .New England Uitthala "Show me how Workshop weaying, Harmonica to do the ccxonut Hula" Hawaiian Music: Na Hula "0 Lai weaving,

Ku'ulei's Chvn Kealoha Chinese herbal French Language New Year medicine. Quebecois Cooking town weaving 1:00 Harmonica Hawaiian Traditions French Tales Okinawan Renaissance Maritime area: ^ from Music & Dance: Samoan koa canoe Island Stories Missoun Nakasone Music & Dance building, & Legends

SeifiiKai throw net Breton

fishing Bagpipes Cajun Songs Wuii Training Puerto Rican Portuguese Occupational 2:00

Music: Waimea Hawaiian Holiday area:

El Conjunto Church Choir Cooking laro farming, French Bagpipes Boricua Traditions lava rock Music S Dance Korean Dance wall building from Normandy

Tounsm in Hawaii Paniolo

tack shed: Hawaiian Music Halau '0 Kekuhi saddlemaking, 3:00 Celebrations rawhide New England Filipino Fiddling braiding Chinese S Hawaiian Holiday Okinawan Okinawan Stories Cooking Near the Lion Dancers Music & Dance: Samoan Traditions Hula stage:

Nakasone Music & Dance sheU, floral Hurdy-Gurdy SeiiiiKai and feather Music S Dance .Music

lei making, 4:00 from Poitou Puerto Ricans instrument Filipino Music: Kau'i in Hawai'i making, Songs from Familx Zuttermeister quiltmaking Brittany Camarillo Family Hawaiian iu uu Cooking Zydeco Music Near the Traditions The Lawtell -^ Narrative Michif Playboys st^e: Songs & Music Na Hula Lai Reading woodworking. 5:00 Hawaiian Music Kealoha the Sea photo exhibit of plantation New England Houma Crafts life Fiddle

Special Event: Kaliia Pig in the limi

1 :00- 1:45- Paniolo Oafts at the Tack Shed Dance .S:00-3:4'> - Hawaiian Quiltmaking 4:00-4:45 - O-bon Dance Party Hawaiian Dance: Ku'uleis Own Halau

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs.

each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be interpreted are with marked the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative Main Stage Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Booth St^e 11:00 11:00

Yaqui Puerto Rican Drumming Bison in Problems Bomba & Plena: Workshop: Worlohop: Cuban Plains Culture: Great Basin I Acquiring Marciai Reyes Making an Altar Kumina& Ritual Foods Ft. Berthold Basketr)- Ceremonial y sus pleneros Maroon Herd Management Needs

12:00 12:00 Traditional Iroquois Native Cuban Son: Cuban Rumba: Ijcrosse: Practices Cuarteto Patria Gnipo Afro-Cuba Onondaga Wild Rice Camp Maintaining vs Sustained Yields Tuscan) ra

Indian Sweet Potato Cuban Son: Kumina Problems I Cuban Tumhandera & 1:00 Familia (h'iedo Ceremony 1:00 Marketing Drummaking Haitian Candies BufEilo Crafts & Foods Workshop Culture: Yaqui Pa.scola Tribal Arts & Deer Dances Maroon Cooking Bomba Ojibway Jibaro Music: with Ox:o Root & Workshop Problems of Cuerdas de Coconut & Marciai Reyes Access to Borinquen Wattle Fence y sus pleneros Great Basin WUd Rice I Workshop 2:00 2:00 Bison in Basketry Plains Culture: Indian Problems Ft. Berthold Puerto Rican Puerto Rican Marketing Cuban Son: Cuban Son: Herd Management Cu/'ro-making Cooking with Crafts & Foods Grupo Changui Cuarteto Patria Workshop Cassava BufEjlo

Iroquois Culture: Water Rights: Lacrosse: Tribal Arts Government Onondaga 3:00 3:00 Policy & vs Cuban Son: Vodoun Jamaican Uses Regulation Tuscarora Familia O\'iedo Ceremony of Cassava in Honor of Great Basin Native Use of Damballah Basketry Natural Materials Controt'ersias Puerto Rican & Adaptation Workshop: Cuban y & Haitian to Water Cuban Son: Yaqui Pascola Puerto Rican Abakua Fruits as Environments 4:00 Cuarteto Patria 4:00 & Deer Dances Cuerdas de Ceremony Food and Buffido Borinquen Medicine Culture: .Access to Tribal Arts Recognition: The Case of Lacrosse

Comparsa: A carnival procession through the Caribbean area led by the Abakua masked Bison in iGreat Basin 5:00 dancers Join participants in this festive celebration. 5:00 Plains Culture: Wild Rice Camp Problems Ft. Berthold Acquiring Herd Management Willow for Basketry

On-going craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction, Yaqui ramada

construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing,

lacrosse stick making, bul&lo hide tanning, Great Basin basket making, buffalo headdress making. buUboat making Monday, July 3

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music Stage Hula Stage Foodways Music Stage Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00 11:00 Surrounding French Puerto Rican the O'bon Make a Lei American Music: Na Hula Ui Tower; Roots in Asia & Women Singers Indians El Conjunlo Kealoha paper doll Coconut Toys Boricua Filipino making,

Cascarone calligraphy, Songs from Taoist worship, Brittany

12:00 Okinawan bull rush 12:00 Music & Dance; Waimea Hawaiian Hawaiian sandalmaking, Quebecois Nakasone Church Choir Stories lauhala Harmonica Storytelling SeifuKai weaving, Korean Dance coconut weaving, herbal Zydeco Music; Houma Crafts Portuguese medicine, Halau '0 Kekuhl Herbal Healing The Lawtell 1:00 Malasadas iasun weaving 1:00 Hawaiian Music Playboys

Maritime area; "Show me how koa canoe to do the French Pa'u building, Hula" Hurdy-Gurdy Accordion & Samoan Demonstration throw net Filipino Music: Music from Fiddle Styles Music & Dance fishing Family Brittany Camarillo 2:00 Occupational 2:00

Hawaiian Chinese area: Kau'i Language Gin Doi taro farming, Music & Dance Korean Dance; Zuttermeister Island lava rock New England from Normandy Halla Pai Huhm Family Stories & wall building Music Dancers Legends

Paniolo Music & Dance Weaving Waimea Hawaiian tack shed; from Poitou Portuguese with Natural 3:00 Church Choir saddlemaking, 3:00 Music: Fibers Quebecois rawhide Camoes Plavers Accordion & braiding Michif Step Dance Hawaiian Hawaiian Music & Song

Kbelepalau Near the Games Puerto Rican Music; Hawaiian Chant Okinawans //«ii stage; El Conjunlo in Hawai'i shell, 8oral Boricua Cajun Music; and feaUier Dewey Balfa 4:00 to' making, 4:00 Preserving & Friends instrument Our Identity Filipino Music; Halau Kekuhi making, Family Musics quiltmaking Camarillo Tourism

Okinawan Near the New England Undagi Narrative Fiddle New England

stage; Music 5:00 Hawaiian Music; Samoan woodworking, 5:00 Ku'ulei's Own Music & Dance Percussion photo exhibit Workshop of plantation Breton Step Dancing life Bagpipes

- 1 00- 1 ;45 Lava Rock Wall Building ^ 300-3:45 - Throw Net Fishing in the Maritime Area 4:00-5:00 - Obon Dance Dance Party VeiUee; Dance Music from Quebec & New England

7:00 Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sigti language interpreters will be available for selected programs. each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be

interpreted are marked with the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative Main Stage Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Booth Stage 11:00

International Drumming Cuban Bison in Jibaro Music: Kiw^ Workshop: Boundaries: Workshop: Tumbandera Cuban Ritual Plains Culture: Cuerdis de Making Sacred Wild Rice Camp K Problems Kumina & Drummaking Cooking Ft Berthold Borinquen Vodoun Drawings Maintaining Maroon Workshop Herd Management Cultural Ties

12:00 Iroquois Resource Jamaican Lacrosse: Management: Cuban Son: Great Basin Cuban Preparation Onondaga Reintroducing Cuartelo Patria Basketry Palo Monte of Cassava vs Buf^o to Ceremony Tuscarora Reservations

Bomba & Jibaro Puerto Rican Water Rights: Workshop: Marcial Cuban Son: Cooking with Government Reyes y sus pleneros Bufelo Grupo Changiji Tropical Fruits 1:00 Yaqui Pascola Policy & & Cuerdas de Culture: & Cassava & Deer Dances Regulation Borinquen Tribal Arts

Great Basin Problems Cuban Son: Vodoun Iroquois Acquiring Familia Oviedo Ceremony Lacrosse: WiUow for in Honor of Onondaga WUd Rice Camp Basketry Ghede 2:00 vs Tuscarora f Indian Puerto Rican Puerto Rican Language: Bomba & Plena: Kumina Herbs Cultural Marcial Reyes Bands Workshop Continuit)' y sus pleneros & Identity Yaqui Pascola Great Basin & Deer Dances Basketry

3:00 Access to Maroon Cuban Son: Thatching Recognition: Ginger Beer Cuarteto Patria Workshop The Case of Making Lacrosse

Bison in Plains Culture: WUd Rice Camp Yaqui Ft. Berthold Loa Dance Indigenous Problems Cuban Son: Jamaican Herd Management Movement Instruments Acquiring Grupo Changiii Cassava Cooking 4:00 Workshop Workshop Ceremonial Iroquois Needs

Lacrosse: Bufltilo Onondaga Culture: Cuban Son: Ojibway vs Tribal Arts Familia Oviedo Problems of Tuscarora Making Access to Maroon Puerto Rican Wild Rice Drumming & Haitian 5:00 & Dance Cuban Rumba: Candy Yaqui Pascola Great Basin Resource Grupo Afro-Cuba & Deer Dances Basketry Man^ement: Reintroducing Buflalo

On-going craft demonstrations: instrument making, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction, Yaqui ramada

construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing,

lacrosse stick making, buffalo hide tanning. Great Basin basket making, bu&lo headdress making, bullboat making Tuesday, July 4

Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawai'i North America

Narrative Ongoing Children's Narrative Music Stage Hula Stage Foodways Music St^e Stage Demonstrations Area Stage 11:00 11:00 Surrounding Portuguese Kau'i -^ Pau the O'bon Coconut Breton Music: Zuttermeister Demonstration Tower: Toymaking & Music & Dance Bagpipes Camoes Players Family paper doll Origami Paper from Poilou Chinese making, Folding Cooking calligraphy, Filipino Music: Traditions '0 Na Hula U'i Taoist worship, Family Hawaiian 12:00 Kealoha bull rush 12:00 Accordion Camarillo Heritage Award sandalmaking, Quebecois Styles Recipients lauhala Harmonica Chinese & weaving, Okinawan coconut Lion Dancing Waimea Hawaiian weaving, Church Choir Tradition herbal Hawaiian Music Hawaiian & Tourism medicine, Call & Response Holiday Cooking 1:00 taswn weaving 1:00 Singing Foodways Traditions

Maritime area: Performance Samoan koa canoe Hula Training of Korean Okinawan Music & Dance building, Dancing Quebecois Music & Dance throw net Accordion & Fiddle Styles Nakasone fishing Step Dance Seifu Kai

2:00 Occupational 2:00 Filipino Ho'opi'i Japanese in area: Cooking Puerto Rican Brothers Hawai'i taro farming. Traditions "Show me how Cajun Music: Music: lava rock Music from to do the Dewey Balfa El Conjunto wall budding Normandy Hula" & Friends Boricua Paniolo Access tack shed: Portuguese Halau Kekuhi to Natural 3:00 saddlemaking, 3:00 Music: Resources rawhide Music fi'om Camoes Plavers Songs & Ballads Portuguese braiding Normandy Hawaiian Cooking Stories & in the Near the Korean Dance: Hawaiian Legends Waimea Hawaiian Fomo Hula stage: HaDa Pai Huhm Paniolo Church Choir shell, floral Dancers (Cowboys) and feather New England Instrument 4:00 4:00 Fiddle Making fc'( making, instrument Okinawan Hardwood in making, Music & Dance: Samoan Hawai'i quiltmaking Zydeco Music: French Nakasone Music & Dance Okinawan The Lawtell American Seifu Kai Near the Cooking Playboys Indians Narrative Traditions slage: Slack Key 5:00 woodworking, 5:00 Guitar Styles Storytelling Hawaiian Music: photo exhibit The Grand Halau Kekuhi Workshop Ku'ulei's Own of plantation Farewell

Ufe

1:00-1:45 - Instrument Making 3;00-3:45 - Taoist Worship in the Chinese Crafts Tent 4:00-5:00 - O-bon Dance Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in Sign language interpreters will be available for selected programs. each program area for specific information. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol ^ .

The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in the New World American Indian Program

Jamaican Narrative MainSt^e Hounfor Dancing Solar Foodways Center Mall Woods Booth Stage 11:00

^SS Bison in Access to Kes»sWorkshop: Jamaican Cuban Son: Cuban Son: Plains Culture: Recognition: Maidng Sacred Preparation Wild Rice Camp Cuartelo Patria Grupo Changui Ft. Berthold The Case of Vodoun Drawings of Cassava Herd Management Lacrosse

Puerto Rican Drumming 12:00 Indian Maroon Cooking Buf&lo Bomba & Plena: Workshop: Yaqui Pascola Problems with Coco Root Culture: Marcial Reyes Jamaican & Deer Dances Marketing & Coconut Tribal Arts y sus pleneros & Cuban Crafts & Foods

Indian Bison in Jibaro Music: Thatching Puerto Rican Language: Vodoun Plains Culture: Cuerdas de & Wattling Cuban Tumbandera Cookngwith Cultural Ceremony 1:00 Ft Berthold Great Basin Borinquen Workshop Drummaking Coconut Continuity in Honor of Herd Management Basketry Workshop & Identity Marassa

Resource Maroon Mani^emenl: Cuban Rumba: Cuban Son: Drumming Reintroducing Grupo Afro-Cuba Cuarteto Patria Yaqui Pascola & Dance Buffiilo to & Deer Dances 2:00 Wild Rice Camp Reservations

P Yaqui Problems Cuban Son: Kumina Cuban Ritual Iroquois Acquiring Familia Oviedo Bands Cooking Initiation & Lacrosse: Bufi&lo Ceremonial Purification Onondaga Culture: Needs Workshop vs Tribal Arts Tuscarora Traditional Staples: 3:00 Jibaro Music: Native Cuban Son: Taro Cuerdas de Practices Grupo Changui Cassava Borinquen Maintaining WUd Rice Sustained Yields Yaqui Pascola Great Basin & Deer Dances Basketry Resource Puerto Rican Ritual Dance Management: Bomba & Plena: Workshop: Haitian Soups Reintroducing Buffalo Marcial Reyes Kumina & 4:00 y sus pleneros Haitian

Bison in Access to Plains Culture: Recognition: Cuban WUd Rice Camp Ft. Berthold The Case of Santeria Herd Management Lacrosse Ceremony

Cuban Son: Iroquois Cuarteto Patria 5:00 Lacrosse: Bueblo The Decline Onondaga Culture: of Natural vs Tribal Arts Materials Tuscarora

On-going craft demonstrations: insttumeni maidng, games, ritual crafts Ongoing demonstrations: Lacrosse instruction, Yaqui ramada

construction & tribal arts demonstration, wild rice processing,

lacrosse stick making, buffalo hide tanning, Great Basin basket making, buffalo headdress making, bullboat making In Kind Contributors Atebara Potato Chips Co., Inc., Hilo, Contributing Hawai'i and Donors Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawai'i Sponsors Bong Brothers Coffee, Kealakekua, General Festival Support The Hawai'i program has been Hawai'i A. O. Smith/Thomas Sommerville Campbell Sales Co., Alexandria, Virginia made possible by the State of Company, Washington, D.C. Captain Cook Coffee, Capt. Cook, Hawai'i Hawai'i, John Waihee, Governor, Allied Plywood, Alexandria, Virginia Carnation Company, Los Angeles, with support from the Office of American Horticultural Society, Mount California Hawai'i State Vernon, Virginia the Governor, the Dial Corporation, Phoenix, Arizona Barrens Lumber, Gaithersburg, Maryland Foundation on Culture and the East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai'i Ben and Jerry's Ice Cream, Waterbury, Arts, the Hawai'i Visitors Bureau, Louise Emanuel, Equine E.stablishment, Vermont and Hawai'i corporate sponsors: Clinton, Maryland Crop Genetics International, Hanover, Frito Lay of Hawai'i, Inc., Honolulu, Duty Free Shoppers Inc., Alexan- Missouri Hawai'i der & Baldwin Inc., Aloha Air- Devlin Lumber, Rockville, Maryland Fugya, Ltd., Honolulu, Hawai'i lines Inc., American Telephone & Eagle Rice and Feed Mills, Crowley, George A. Hormel & Company, Austin, Hawai'i, Louisiana Telegraph Inc., Bank of Minnesota Estherwood Rice Sales Corporation, Elton, First Hawaiian Bank, Frito Lay of Gould's Pumps, Seneca Falls, New York Louisiana Hawai'i Inc., GTE - Hawaiian Tel, Granny Goose Foods. Inc., Honolulu, Florida State Department of Agriculture, Hawaiian Electric Industries Inc., Hawai'i Division of Forestry and Consumer Hawai'i Department of Agriculture, International Savings/National Services, Miami, Florida Marketing Division, Honolulu, Hawai'i Mortgage & Finance Co., Japan Florida Sugar Cane League, Clewiston, Hawai'i Pork Industry Association, Travel Bureau, Oceanic Properties Florida Honolulu, Hawai'i Inc., Pacific Resources Inc. Imperial Products, St. Louis, Missouri Hawai'i State Society, Washington, D.C. Konriko, New Iberia, Louisiana Hawaiian Service, Inc., Honolulu, Hawai'i Rudi Foods, Inc., Washington, D.C. Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Hawaiian Tea Company, Haiku, Hawai'i Steel and Wire Company, Baltimore, North America, a program on the The Iron Horse, Washington, D.C. Maryland Kona Kai Farms, Kealakekua, Hawai'i occasion of the Bicentennial of Sugar Association, Washington, DC. Kuai Kookies, Eleele, Hawai'i the French Revolution and the Vie de France Baking Corporation, The Lanai Company, Lanai, Hawai'i Declaration of the Rights of Man McLean, Virginia Lindsay Cadillac Company, Alexandria, the Citizen, has been Vulcan-Hart Corporation, Bowie, and of Virginia Maryland made possible by the American Lyon Arboretum, Honolulu, Hawai'i William B. Riley Coffee Company, Committee on the French Revolu- Maryland Pork Producers, Maryland Baltimore, Maryland tion with the generous support of Matson Navigation Company, San Francisco, California the following corporations and The Caribbean: Cultural Encounters in Maui Chips, Wilmington, Delaware foundations: Archer-Daniels-Mid- the New World Papaya Administrative Committee land Foundation, Arthur Andersen Bacardi Imports, Miami, Florida (Representing Hawaiian Papaya Co., General Electric Founda- Cafe Bustelo Coffee Company, Bronx, & Industry), Honolulu, Hawai'i + New York tion, Gulf 'Western Foundation, Pet, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri Columbian Coffee Grower's Federation, ITT Corporation, KPMG Peat Mar- Pier I Imports, Fort Worth, Texas New York, New York wick, Lazard Freres, Warner-Lam- Puukapu Farms, Kamuela, Hawai'i Fruit and Spice Park, Homestead, Florida bert and the assistance Silbeme Sales, Inc., Washington, D.C. Company G - Street Fabrics, Washington, DC. Tropical Dreams, Kapaau, Hawai'i of the government of the Repub- Instituto de Cultura Puertorriquena, San Tyler Quarter Horses, Newark, Delaware lic of France and the province of Joan, Puerto Rico United Airlines Air Cargo Atlanta, Quebec. J. Martinez and Company, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Georgia Department of Music, Honolulu, Alfredo Siani, Curator, Gardens of The Caribbean: Cultural Encoun- Hawai'i Oatlands, Leesburg, Virginia ters in the New World has been Yick Lung Co., Inc., Honolulu, Hawai'i in part, the made possible, by Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and North American Indian Program Music Performance Trust Funds, America Blue Star Tipis, Missoula, Montana and the government of Jamaica, Air France Jennifer Compton, Compton Farms, the government of Puerto Rico, B. F. Trappey's and Sons, Inc., New Bridgeport, West Virginia Iberia, Louisiana American Airlines and Marazul Major Indoor Lacrosse League, Kansas Boudin King, Jennings, Louisiana Charters. City, Missouri Community Coffee, Baton Rouge, Pet Farm Park, Reston, Virginia Louisiana Indian program Sioux Trading Post Inc., Rapid City, South The American Recamier Inc., Fredericksburg, Virginia has been supported by federal Dakota Tandy Leather Co., Fort Worth, Texas appropriations and Smithsonian Hatvai 'i Program Washington Wave, Capitol Centre, Institution Trust Funds. Alexander & Baldwin Sugar Museum, Landover, Maryland Maui, Hawai'i Aloha Juice Company, Honolulu, Hawai'i Barbara Ham, Matson Navigation Lago Pele, Office of Congressman Faleo- Special Thanks Company mavaenga General Festival Candice Hand, Hawai'i State Foundation Picorp Inc., Baltimore We extend special thanks to all the vol- on Culture and the Arts Horacio Quintanilla unteers at this year's Festival. Only with Robert Hewett, Institute for Culture and Sarah Richards, Hawai'i State Foundation their assistance are we able to present the Communication on Culture and the Arts programs of the 1989 Festival of Ameri- Tommy Holmes, Hawaii Maritime Raisaac G. Colon Rios can Folklife. Museum Ariel Ricardo Amores Stanley Hong, Hawaii Visitors Bureau Rosebud Sioux Tribe Kendall Hubert, American Conunittee on Roger Rose, Bishop Museum Les Ateliers de I'Enfer the French Revolution Kathy Sunshine, EPICA Valentin Abdy Irving Jenkins Andy Spence Keahi Allen, State Council on Hawaiian Peter Kosutic, Mom's Coin Operated Brother Simon of the Red Cloud Mission Heritage Laundry Norman Shapiro Jerome Bedier, Directeur, Ministere du Viola Kennison Jerry Shimoda, Pu'uhonua o Honaunau Commerce et de I'Artisanat, France James Kaina, Hawaii Visitors Bureau Barbara Smith, University of Hawaii, Richard Barbeyron, First Secretary, Em- Daniel Kam, Hawaii State Society Manoa bassy of France, Washington King Kamehameha Day Celebration Clyde and Sheryl Sproat David Bosserman Commission Barbara Stanton, Hawai'i Department of Patricia Bacarreza-Cosgrov Clarence Kaona Business and Economic Development Fran Bumstein Yukio Kikagawa, Hawaii Department of Tom Stevens Gerard Baker Agriculture Marie D. Strazar, Hawai'i State George Bacon, Hawaii State Archive Steve and Jim Kastner Foundation on Culture and the Arts Jeanette Bennington, East-West Center Bea Krauss, Lyon Arboretum Steve Sumner, Matson Navigation Co. Marie Blanco, Office of Senator Inouye Gaylord Kubota, Alexander and Baldwin Marie Thomas Pat Brandt, Office of the Governor of Sugar Museum Mark Talisman Hawai'i Lance Lee, Rockport Apprentice Shop Elizabeth Tatar Martin Bergin Sarah Lewis Takeshi Toma, Environmental Protection Wright Bowman Sam Little Owl Agency Le Chasse-Maree Lynn Maunakea, County of Hawai'i Paquito Vivo, Institute for Puerto Rican Marten Compton, International Distribu- Musee du Bateau Affairs, Inc. tors Violet Muller Gordon Velasco, U.S. Army Corps of Luz Claudio Catherine Morris Engineers Mary Cliff Clarice Mauricio, Bishop Museum Carl Viti, Honolulu Advertiser Raymond Cabote Marie McDonald Volcano Art Center Betty Cam, Bishop Museum Edith McKinzie Larry Vogel, Hawai'i Duty-Free Shoppers George Camarillo III Daithi Leilehua Martin Charlie Wade Joan Challinor, American Committee on Senator Charles McC. Mathias, Jr., Anne Walton, American Committee on the French Revolution American Committee on the French the French Revolution Annette Chang, United Airlines Revolution The Honorable John Waihee, Governor Stuart Ching, Bishop Museum Charles B. Mathias, American Committee of Hawai'i Tamar Chotzen, Hawai'i Nature Center on the French Revolution Deb Wallwork Captain John Clarke, Honolulu Fire Dept. Jim Menke, Office of the Governor of Joe Wilson, National Council for the Gene Cotter, Hawaii Visitors Bureau Hawai'i Traditional Arts DASTUM-Rennes Dan Moriarty, Kilauea Point National Norma Wong, Office of the Governor of Lucie Duranceau, Conseillere aux Affaires Wildlife Refuge Hawai'i Culturelles, Delegation Generale du Boone Morrison Quebec, New York Katherine Neill Lynn Davis Nathan Napoka, Hawai'i Department of George Ellis, Honolulu Academy of Arts Land and Natural Resources Chuck Estep John Naughton, National Marine Fisheries Barbara Faust Service Peter L. Finkelstein, Yvon Mau & Fils, Inc. Lloyd One Star Steve Fitch Oglala Sioux Tribe Folklore Society of Greater Washington Franklin Odo, University of Hawaii, Richard Felger Manoa Tom Fredericks Christopher Oswald, Hawaii Visitors Nina Fox Bureau Georgia Fox Peter Randall Plume Congressman Eni F.H. Faleomavaenga, Emma (Pinky) Iron Plume Representative of American Samoa Shirley Plume Chuck Freedman, Office of the Governor Irmalee Pomroy of Hawai'i Eduardo Gonzalez Masao Hanaoka, Hawaii Department of Agriculture Seamus Houston Catherine Harmon Illustrations by Emil Her Many Horses Becky Lepkowskl Sound Technicians: Maria Breyer, Lee Cultural Liaisons: Carolyn Shapiro, Festival Staff Dishman, Steve Edwards, Ted Philippe Vadet Estersohn, Steve Fischer, Mark Fieldworkers: Barry-Jean Ancelet, Robert Acting Director, Office ofFolklife Fitzgerald, Lamping, Dean Bouthillier, Ray Brassieur, Steven Programs: Richard Kurin Gregg Langwell, Owen Orzak Green, Nick Hawes, Sheila Hogg, Lisa Administrative Officer Jewell Dulaney Stage Managers: Enrique Aviles, Jeff Omstein, Catherine Perrier, Nicolas Festival Director: Diana Parker Anthony, Sandy Poitra, John Kemper, Vrooman, John Wright Program Book Editor: Frank Proschan Richard Lambrecht, Susan Levitas, Al Consultants: Barry Bergey, Guy Sign Editor: Peter Seitel McKenney, Mike Nelson, John Bouchard, Michel Colleu, Bernard Sign Production Coordinator Andras Shankar Goldinger Reynolds, Guha Genest, Gilbert Guerin, Norman Accessibility Coordinator Betty Belanus Legault, Nick Spitzer Ptiblicatiotj Review: Arlene Liebenau Sign Language Interpreters: Rayelenn Presenters: Ray Brassieur, Bruce Duthu, Folkways Recordings Director: Anthony B. King, Diane Gladu, Veronique Perennou, Seeger Casey, Mary Andre Mele-Beaudoin, Eric Quint, Perrier, Nick Spitzer, Radio Smithsonian Producer Nicholas Janis Catherine John Sterling, Hank Young Wright Spitzer Volunteer Coordinator Diane Green Sound Recordings Engineer- John Tyler Assistant Volunteer Coordinator Katea Sound Recordings Consultant: Pete The Caribbean: Cultural Stitt Reiniger Encounters in the New World Chief Volunteers: Annie Bell, Willette Site Designer: Daphne Shuttleworth Program Curator Olivia Cadaval Carlton, Mary Cliff, Sabina Flagg, Designer: Joan Wolbier Priscilla Flowers, Marilyn Gaston, Associate Program Curator Heliana Assistant Designer Becky Lepkowski Phyllis Lesansky, Virginia McCauley, Portes de Roux Exhibit Specialists: Kelly Guerrero, Birgit Johari Rashad, Lorraine Ray, Beverly Program Coordinator: Elizabeth Robb Rudelius, Suzanne Segalla Assistant Program Coordinator: Maria Simons, Neville Waters, Sr., Kelli Weiss Calligraphers: Susan Auerhan, Allyn Isabel Prieto Clerk Typist: Lydia Stancil Kurin Special Events Coordinator: Camila Festival Services Manager Barbara Bryce-LaPorte Strickland Hawai'i Festival Aide: Wilcox Morris Fiscal Technician: Claudia Telliho Program Curator: Richard Kennedy Administrative Assistant: Karen Stewart Participant Coordinator: Diane Walder Program Coordinators: Barbara Lau, Fieldworkers: Kenneth Bilby, Jesus Assistant Participant Coordinators: Jill Linda Moriarty Blanco, David Brown, Martha Ellen Linzee, Kitt Schrichte, Susana Williams Program Consultant: Lynn Martin Davis, Maurice Gordon, John Homiak, Housing Coordinator: Susan Axleroad Music Consultant: Ricardo Trimillos Aisha Kahn, Olive Lewin, Rene Lopez, Technical Coordinator Fred Landscape Consultant: Gordon Velasco Israel Moliner, Danilo Orozco, Nahwooksy, Jr. Festival Aide: Elizabeth Ransom Emerante de Pradines, Nydia Rios de Assistant Technical Coordinators: Eric Design Consultant: Curt Bowman Colon, Stephen Stuempfle, Hector Annis, Connie Lane, Paul McFarland Fieldu'orkers: Simeamativa Aga, Keahi Vega, Thomas Vennum, Jr. Technical Crew Chiefs: Jeanette Buck, Allen, Carlos Andrade, Norma Carr, Presenters: David Brown, John Homiak, Cal Southworth Marsha Erikson, David Furumoto, Olive Lewin, Hazel McClune, Israel Technical Crew: Teresa Ballard, Steve Joyce Davis Jacobson, Jay Junker, Moliner, Danilo Orozco, Jorge Perez, Coats, Lisa Fricano, Ellen Garrett, Pat Pi'ilani Ka'awaloa, Dennis Kana'e Emerante de Pradines, Nydia Rios de Hunt, Sue Keil, Julie Levy, Linley Keawe, Alfred Kina, John Koon, Linda Colon, Daniel Sheehy Logan, Dumah Muhammad, Terry Le Geyt, Linda Moriarty, Nathan Folkways Recordings Project: Rene Lopez Meniefield, Malcolm Nichols, Danny Napoka, Eileen Momilani Naughton, Translators: Janine Bland, Maria Isabel Noveck, Lisa Ogonowski, Jeremy Sera, Puakea Nogelmeier, Keone Nunes, Prieto, Marie Thomas Michael Shewmaker, Judianne Sisson, Audrey Rocha Reed, Edna Ryan, Thatch Consultant: Maurice Fabian Holly Wright Kalena Silva, Lily Siou, Teri Skillman, Clarke Technical Crew Clerk Typists: Cecilia Chariene Sumarnap, Judy Van Zile, Coats, Minu Tahmassebi Elaine Zinn Supply Coordinator Sallie Bodie American Indian Program Presenters: Simeamativa Aga, Mililani Assistant Supply Coordinator: Doris Program Curator: Thomas Vennum, Allen, Jeanette Bennington, Mary Jo Jr. Dietrich Program Coordinator: Dennis Fox, Freshly, Jay Junker, Dennis Kana'e Jr. Public Information: Mary Combs, Keawe, Lasinga Koloamatangi, John Assistant Program Coordinator: Jane Katherine Kirlin Koon, Gaylord Kubota, Lynn Martin, Fortune Intern: Cardinal Rieger Marie McDonald, Edith McKinzie, Intern: Catherine Johnson Special Events Coordinator Jacqui Peters Fieldworkers: Linda Moriarty, Nathan Napoka, Eileen Harriet Brady, Bemadine Logistics Coordinator: Dot Neumann Momilani Naughton, Puakea DeLorme, Norman DeLorme, Richard Concessions Coordinator Susie Reed Nogelmeier, Keone Nunes, Audrey Felger, Catherine Fowler, Dennis Fox, Documentation Coordinator Jeff Place Robert Griffith, Rick Rocha Reed, Kalena Silva, Barbara Jr., Gough, Jim Video Documentation: Daphne Hill, Lyons, Felipe Molina, Stefan, Marie D. Strazar Oren Shuttleworth Michael Pavel, Phyllis White Shield, Documentation Assistant: Lori Taylor Thomas Vennum, Les Fetes Chez Nous: France Jr. Photographers: Richard Hofmeister, Eric Presenters: Catherine Fowler, Robert and North America Long, Laurie Minor, Dane Penland, Gough, Jim Griffith, Rick Hill, Oren Richard Strauss, Jeff Tinsley, Rick Program Curator Winnie Lambrecht Lyons, Carl Whitman Vargas Program Coordinator Francesca McLean Sound Production Coordinator Tim Assistant Program Coordinator- Linda Kidwell Breitag Festival Aide: Kimberly Evers Smithsonian Bureau Office of International Relations Duplicating Branch Office of Quincentenary Programs Mail Service Center and Office Support National Zoological Park Office of Personnel Administration Office of Printing and Photographic Office the Assistant Secretary office of the Secretary of for Services Museums Office of Plant Services American Indian Program, Office of the Undersecretary National Office of Procurement and Property Museum of American History Management Black American Culture Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Public Program, Office of Protection Services National Sen'ice Museum of American History Travel Services Office Office of Office of Elementary & Secondary Exhibits Central Education Office of Horticulture Office of the General Counsel Office of Interdisciplinary Studies Latino Working Committee Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Office ofInspector General External Office of Public Affairs Affairs Office of Membership Visitor Information & Associates' and Development Office of the Treasurer Reception Center Office of Congressional Relations Office of Accounting and Financial Office of Telecommunications Office of Special Events Services Office of Risk Management the Assistant Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Office of Secretaryfor Office of Sponsored Projects Research Administration Communications Department of Anthropology, National Management Division, Office of Museum of Natural History Information Resource Office of Fellowships and Grants Management Office of Design & Construction

r'

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Smithsonian Institution

Office of Folklife Programs 2600 L'Enfant Plaza Washington, D.C. 20560 FOLKWAYS O'"'*"""'"Folkways

The Smithsonian Institution acquired Folkways Records in 1987 in order to ensure its enduring contribution to American culture. Folkways consists of nearly 2,200 albums, including a wide variety of cultures, genres, and styles, issued by Moses Asch over a period of 40 years. The recordings include the folk and traditional musics of communities in almost every country on every continent, extensive coverage of American folk music, children's music, spoken word, historical recordings, as well as animal and object sounds. Building on the strong tradition of multi-cultural

recordings in the Folkways collection, the Office of Folklife Programs is also issuing new titles. Several of these are available in the Smithsonian shops at this Festival.

Smithsonian/Folkways The Folkways Vision 1988 Festival of albums issued for this Package—^Three Related American Folklife: Festival: Recordings: Musics of the Soviet Union Puerto Rican Music in Hawai'i: Kachi- Folkways: A Vision Shared. A Tribute to (SF 40002). The 1988 Festival of Kachi (SF 40014). Woody Guthrie and LeadbeUy. A bene- American Folklife album, featuring out-

Music of the Puerto Rican plantation fit album containing songs written by standing performances of a number of workers and contemporary dance music, Woody Guthrie and Huddie Ledbetter regional traditions in the Soviet Union. recorded live in Hawai'i. Recorded, ed- (Leadbelly) and interpreted by major stars

ited, notes and photographs by Ted Solis. of the 1980s. Issued by CBS Records. If you are not able to find Folk- ways records at your local rec- Hula Drum Dance Chants: Music and ord store, write for free catalogs Power in Time (SF 40015). Historic and A Vision Shared. 72 minute videotape and information about ordering: contemporary' recordings of the Hula including most of the artists on the CBS Pahu tradition, beautifully documented, album above. Issued by Columbia Music Folkways Videos. translated, and digitally remastered. Com- Office of Folklife Programs

piled, edited, notes by Elizabeth Tatar . 955 L'Enfant Plaza, Suite 2600 (This will be available shortly after the Folkways: The Original Vision Smithsonian Institution Festival). (SF 40001). Contains the same songs as the CBS album, but in the original versions Washington, D.C. 20560 Musics of Hawai'i (SF 40016). A sam- recorded in the 1940s by Woody Guthrie or telephone and Leadbelly. Additional songs present pling of recordings by arti.sts performing 202/287-3262 other sides of their at the 1989 Festival of American Folklife. musical genius. Three cuts were never before released ap- This cassette is available at all booths and pear for the first time on this album. where the Program Book is sold. n All the new Smithsonian/Folkway.s issue.s, plus many other Folkways titles are available in the Museum Shops sales tent on the Festival site. Many are also distributed through Rounder Records to your local specialty record shops.

To get a list of Folkways records on your favorite topic, fill m the coupon below and either mail it to the address indicated or drop it off at the Folkways section of the sales tent

Please send me catalog(s) of Folkways Records. I would like Infomiatlon on the following kinds of recordings:

American folk music (if you have special interests, check which ones):

African-American American Indian Hispanic Blues Bluegrass Old time music .

Music from other countries (any country in particular? Name of country

Spoken word (poetry, speeches) Children's music Jazz Sounds and .sound effects

New recordings of the 1989 Festival

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Illustration by Andras Goldinger Telephone ( ) - Smithsonian Folklife Advisory Council: Contributing Richard Bauman (Chair) Institution Roger Abrahams, Henry Sponsors Glassie, Rayna Green, John Secretary: Robert McC. Adams The Hawaii program has been Gwaltney, Chadotte Heth, Under Secretary: Dean Anderson made possible by the State of Adrienne Kaeppler, Ivan Karp, Assistant Secretaryfor Public Hawai'i, John Waihee, Governor, Bernice Reagon, John Tchen, Sen'ice: Ralph Rinzler with support from the Office of Carlos Velez-Ibanez Deputy Assistant Secretaries: the Governor, the Hawai'i State James Early, Robert Dierker Foundation on Culture and the Assistant Secretary for Museums: Arts, the Hawai'i Visitors Bureau, Tom Freudenheim National Park and Hawai'i corporate sponsors: Assistant Secretary for Research: Service Duty Free Shoppers Inc., Alexan- Robert Hoffmann der & Baldwin Inc., Aloha Airlines Secretary the Interior: Assistant Secretary for External of Manuel Inc., American Telephone & Tele- Lujan, Affairs: Thomas Lovejoy Jr. graph Inc., Bank of Hawai'i, First Director: Assistant Secretary for Admini- James M. Ridenour Hawaiian Bank, Frito Lay of Regional Director; National stratiori: John F. Jameson Hawai'i Inc., GTE - Hawaiian Tel, Capital Region: Robert G. Hawaiian Electric Industries Inc., Stanton Office of International Savings/National Deputy Regional Director, Mortgage & Finance Co., Japan Folklife Programs National Capital Region: Travel Bureau, Oceanic Properties Ronald Wrye Acting Director: Richard Kurin Inc., Pacific Resources Inc. Associate Regional Director, Administrative Officer- Jewell Dulaney Public Affairs: Sandra A. Alley Les Fetes Chez Nous: France and Chief, United States Park Police: Festival Director: Diana Parker North America, a program on the Lynn Herring Curator: Folkways Records: occasion of the Bicentennial of Assistant Chief United States Anthony Seeger the French Revolution and the Park Police: Robert E. Lang- Senior Ethnomusicologist: Declaration of the Rights of Man ston Thomas Vennum, Jr. and of the Citizen, has been Commander, Special Forces: Maj. Senior Folklorist: Peter Seitel made possible by the American Carl R. Holmberg Folklorists: Olivia Cadaval, Committee on the French Revolu- Acting Superintendent, National Marjorie Hunt, Phyllis May- tion with the generous support of Capital Par-ks: - Centr-al Machunda, Heliana Portes de the following corporations and Arnold M. Goldstein Roux, Frank Proschan, foundations: Archer-Daniels- Chief, Maintenance, National Nicholas Spitzer Midland Foundation, Arthur Capital Parks - Centr-al: Education Specialist and Cura- Andersen & Co., General Electric William L Newman, tors: Betty Belanus, Richard Jr. Foundation, Gulf + Western Site Manager, National Mall- Kennedy, Winifred Lambrecht Foundation, ITT Corporation, Levy Kelly Festival Services Manager: KPMG Peat Marwick, Lazard Employees of the National Barbara Strickland Freres, Warner-Lambert Company Capital Region and the United Designer: Daphne Shuttleworth and the assistance of the govern- States Park Police Program Specialist: ment of the Republic of France Arlene Liebenau and the province of Quebec. Technical Coordinator: Reaves The Caribbean: Fred Nahwooksy, Jr. Cultural Encoun- Archivist: Jeffrey Place ters in the New World has been Folkways Prvgram Specialist: made possible, in part, by the Dudley Connell Music Performance Trust Funds, Folkways Assistants: Linda and the government of Jamaica, Breitag, Ed O'Reilly the government of Puerto Rico, Film Editor: Guha Shankar American Airlines and Marazul Fiscal Technician: Charters. Claudia Telliho Clerk Typist: Karen Stewart The American Indian program Secretary to the Director: has been supported by federal Diane Green appropriations and Smithsonian Institution Trust Funds.