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ENVIS BULLETIN HIMALAYAN ECOLOGY

ISSN: 0971-7447 (Print) Volume 26, 2018 ISSN: 2455-6815 (Online)

Biodiversity Conservation and Management

ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment & Sustainable Development (An Autonomous Institute of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India) Kosi-Katarmal, Almora-263 643, Uttarakhand, India ENVIS Advisory Committee Vol. 26, 2018 ENVIS Bulletin CHAIRMAN Prof. S. S. Bargali, Kumaon University, Nainital, HIMALAYAN ECOLOGY Uttarakhand, India Copyright © : 2018, GBPNIHESD Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand MEMBERS Prof. Varun Joshi, Guru Govind Singh Indraprastha University, Dwarka, New Delhi, India ENVIS Coordinator Executive Editor Dr. G.C.S. Negi, CBCM, GBPNIHESD, Dr. G.C.S. Negi Dr. G.C.S. Negi Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India Mr. Ranjan Joshi, CLWRM, GBPNIHESD, Editor-in-Chief Editorial Board Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India Dr. R.S. Rawal Prof. R.S. Tripathi, FNA Dr. Sandipan Mukherjee, CLWRM, GBPNIHESD, Director Dr. Eklabya Sharma, FNA Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India Dr. G.S. Rawat, FNAS Prof. A.R. Nautiyal MEMBERS SECRETARY Dr. Subrat Sharma, CEA&CC, GBPNIHESD, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India

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ENVIS BULLETIN ______HIMALAYAN ECOLOGY

Volume 26, 2018

ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development (An Autonomous Institute of Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, Government of India) Kosi-Katarmal, Almora-263 643, Uttarakhand, India

About the Bulletin

Environmental Information System (ENVIS) Bulletin on Himalayan Ecology is an annual non-priced publication of the ENVIS Centre, which was established at the headquarters of the G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD) in the financial year 1992-93 with the fiscal support from the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India, New Delhi. The present volume of the ENVIS Bulletin is 26th in the series of its annual publication and contains 18 articles related to Forest ecology, biodiversity conservation and meditational plants. Few articles are also devoted on forest resources consumption and forest soil. The views in these papers in this publication are the views of the concerned authors. Therefore, they do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors, ENVIS Centre and the Institute. The content of the Bulletin may be quoted or reproduced for non-commercial use provided the source is duly acknowledged. The contributions to the next issue of the Bulletin in the form of a research paper, popular article, news item and technical report, etc., related to Himalayan ecology, are always welcome. However, the matter supplied by the individual/organization may be edited for length and clarity. Request for institutional subscription of the Bulletin may be sent to the ENVIS Coordinator. The comments/suggestions for further improvement of the Bulletin are welcome.

Dr. G.C.S. Negi Executive Editor - ENVIS Bulletin ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora–263 643, Uttarakhand, India

Contents

VOLUME 26 YEAR 2018 ISSN: 0971-7447 (Print) ISSN: 2455-6815 (Online)

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT

PHYTODIVERSITY, STAND STRUCTURE AND BIODIVERSITY 07 CONSERVATION IN A TROPICAL FOREST COMMUNITY UNDER RAJAJI TIGER RESERVE, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA Akash, Navneet, B.S. Bhandari and Kamal Bijalwan ASSESSMENT OF DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OF GENUS CYPRIPEDIUM IN 17 PINDARI VALLEY, KUMAUN, WEST HIMALAYA

Renu Suyal, Ranbeer S Rawal, Indra D Bhatt and Lalit M Tewari FORESTS OF UTTARAKHAND: DIVERSITY, DISTRIBUTION, USE PATTERN 21 AND CONSERVATION Vishwambhar Prasad Sati and S. K. Bandooni A COMPARISON OF CANOPY COVER MEASURED THROUGH TRANSECT 29 AND DENSIOMETER IN OAK FOREST OF CENTRAL HIMALAYA, INDIA Poonam Prasad, Jeet Ram and Jitendra Bhatt IMPACT OF ASPECT ON ASSOCIATION OF QUERCUS SPECIES: A CASE 33 STUDY FROM MUKTESHWAR MAHADEV TEMPLE FOREST, KUMAUN HIMALAYA Poonam Mehta, Balwant Kumar, Kapil Bisht, Shashi Upadhyay and K. Chandra Sekar Timberline forests: potential habitats for conserving 39 Himalayan medicinal lichen diversity in Kailash sacred landscape part of india K. Bisht, S. Upadhyay and Y. Joshi APPLICATIONS AND ROLES OF LICHENS IN MONITORING AND 47 CONSERVATION OF HIMALAYAN ENVIRONMENT Ashutosh Paliwal, Rekha Gahtori, Amrita Kumari, Nidhi Negi, Garima Chand, Penny Joshi, Lalit M. Tewari, Yogesh Joshi and Santosh. K. Upadhyay PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN FOREST (VAN PANCHAYAT) MANAGEMENT 53 A CASE STUDY OF ‘HAT-THARP’, DIDIHAT BLOCK OF PITHORAGARH DISTRICT Amit Bahukhandi, Ravi Pathak, Anjali Barola, Kamini Durgapal and Shinny Thakur PIONEERING STUDIES ON HIGH-ALTITUDE MUSHROOMS OF 59 TRANS-HIMALAYAN LADAKH (JAMMU & KASHMIR), INDIA- DISTRIBUTION, PHENOLOGY AND ETHNOMYCOLOGY

Konchok Dorjey and Roshi Sharma

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 5 BIOPROSPECTING OF PAEONIA EMODI FOR LIVELIHOOD ENHANCEMENT 67 IN WESTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA Praveen Joshi, Prem Prakash, V.K. Purohit and Kuldeep Joshi SCOPING STUDY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN WESTERN HIMALAYAN 71 REGION AND THEIR ROLE IN TRADITIONAL HEALTHCARE Nidhi Bhakuni and Harshit Pant ETHNO-MEDICINAL PLANTS IN NONGTALANG, MEGHALAYA: THEIR 75 USES AND THREATS First Born Myrchiang, R. Eugene Lamare and O. P. Singh Black turmeric: A high value medicinal herb from North- 83 East India Om Prakash Arya, Priyanka Adhikari and Anita Pandey An overview on Antimicrobial Activity of Aloe vera Against 85 Pathogenic Bacteria and Fungi S. P. K. Malhotra and T. K. Mandal HERBAL THERAPY IN THE TREATMENT OF DRUG ADDICTION 91 Laxman Singh, Renu Suyal and I. D. Bhatt FUELWOOD AND FODDER CONSUMPTION PATTERN IN GOSTU GAD 95 WATERSHED, PAURI GARHWAL, UTTARAKHAND M.K. Parmar and R.S. Negi CHARACTERIZATION OF PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING 99 RHIZOBACTERIA OF Pinus roxburghii Pramila Verma and Seema Rawat STUDY ON SOIL PHYSICAL CHARACTERS IN RELATION TO ASPECT AND 105 ALTITUDE OF A GARHWAL HIMALAYAN BROAD LEAVED FOREST

Vikaspal Singh, D.S. Chauhan and S. Dasgupta

6 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology PHYTODIVERSITY, STAND STRUCTURE AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN A TROPICAL FOREST COMMUNITY UNDER RAJAJI TIGER RESERVE, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA

Akash*1, Navneet1, B.S. Bhandari2 and Kamal Bijalwan3

1Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India 2Ecology Laboratory, Department of Botany and Microbiology, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar, Uttarakhand, India 3S.G.R.R. (P.G.) College, Pathribagh, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Rajaji Tiger Reserve has a diverse and biogeographically important floral and faunal assemblage due to its varied topographical features as well as the different climatic conditions. The study assessed the structure, composition, vegetation pattern and diversity as well as the conservation strategies in Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Haridwar-Pauri Forest Divison (29°15’ to 30°31’ N, 77°52’ to 78°22’ E, altitude 250–1100m) in a tropical forest. The site represents the different combination of dominant and co- dominant species. In trees, shrubs and herbs, most of the species show contaguous pattern of distribution only a few show random and regular distribution. The Shannon index for tree was 2.51, 1.07 for shrubs and 2.99 for herbs, whereas, the Simpson index was 0.097 for trees, 0.46 for shrubs and 0.06 for herbs. The Margalef Richness index was 0.69 for trees, 1.94 for shrubs and 4.82 for herbs. The Evenness Index was 0.68 for trees, 0.43 for shrubs and 0.88 for herbs in the present study area. Further the study also assessed the conservation and management strategies in the Tiger Reserve which are largely providing protection to flora and fauna and help in the restoration of ecosystem.

Keywords: Biodiversity, Flora, Fauna, Rajaji Tiger Reserve.

INTRODUCTION robusta, Mallotus phillipensis etc. On the other hand the dry Tropical forests provide great ecological services like deciduous forests cover a vast area of the India and receive conservation of various flora, fauna and prevention of a rainfall range between 70 and 100 cm. These forests are soil erosion (Armenteras et al., 2009). Tropical forests mainly comprise of Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, account for about 86% of the total forest cover in India Acacia catechu etc. In Uttarakhand tropical forests cover (Singh et al., 1988) and on the other hand dry tropical large numbers of forest community association especially in forest accounts for approximately 38.2% of the forest cover. the protected areas like Corbett Tiger Reserve, Rajaji Tiger In a present situation, unfortunately a large portion of dry Reserve etc. These forests are found in the North-Eastern deciduous forests are being converted into dry grasslands, states of the country along with the foothills of Himalaya dry savannah, scrub (Champion et al., 1968; Singh et al., and succeeded by the wet temperate type of forests between 1988). Despite of these pressures, many factors like seed altitudes of 1000–2000m providing the sustainability to the quality, seedling survivorship and recruitment are playing forest ecosystem. great role in the maintaining the tree composition of tropical forests (Connell 1977). These forests are degrading at a rate STUDY SITE of 3.5% (Puyravaud et al., 2010). Deforestation, invasion Uttarakhand is well known for its biodiversity richness and of species, fragmentation, over-exploitation as well as cultural mosaic and is an essential part of Northern India. the climate change are the main pressures for degrading It has about 34,651 km2 of forests. The protected forests of tropical forests (Gardner et al., 2009; Morris, 2010; constitute approximately 28.52% of the total forested area Anonymous 2013). The tropical deciduous forests are the (Forest Survey of India 2011). The study was conducted in a most widespread forests in India and also known as monsoon forest community of Haridwar-Pauri forest division of Rajaji forests and receive rainfall in a range of 70-200 cm. On the Tiger Reserve. It is an essential part of the terai landscape basis of the availability of water, these deciduous forests between Sharda and Yamuna river in Shivalik landscape are further categoriesed into moist and dry deciduous. The (Akash et al., 2018a). moist deciduous forests receive a rainfall range between 100 The study area comes under Chilla forest division of and 200 cm, and mainly comprise Dalbergia sissoo, Shorea Shivalik hill. Rajaji Tiger Reserve is located in Northern

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 7 India at 29°51’ N to 30°15’ N, 77°52’ E to 78°22’ E at calculated. The Importance Value Index (IVI) at species level an elevations from 250–1100m above mean sea level. It was calculated by summing the three relative values, Viz., falls within the Gangetic plains biogeographic zone and relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance upper Gangetic Plains province (Rodgers et al., 2002). The following Philips (1959). Finally the Importance value whole area of the Tiger Reserve spreads in 820.42 km2. index was calculated on the basis of the following formula: The River Ganga flows 24 km through the park dividing Importance value index (IVI) = Relative Frequency + the Tiger Reserve into two unequal halves. In summer the Relative density+ Relative dominance temperature rises 40-450C and in winter drops to 20-250C. The ratio of abundance to frequency is generally used to The annual rainfall ranges from 1200-1500 mm. Generally interpret the distribution pattern of species (Whitford 1949). the soil is poor and infertile but in some places accumulation The ratio indicates regular distribution if below 0.025, of humus occurs. The Chilla forest range of the Tiger random distribution between 0.025-0.05 and contaguous if it Reserve lies in the east of the river Ganges and attached is >0.05 (Curtis et al., 1956). to the Garhwal forest Division at an elevation between 302 The diversity indices reflect the manner in which abundance and 1000 m above sea level. The Chilla range of the reserve is distributed among the different species constituting the is one of the great centre of attractions for tourists (Akash community. The species diversity index (H’) was determined et al., 2018b). Approximately 90% tourist visit in Chillla by the following formula: range every year to enjoy the wildlife and scenic beauty.

The dominant plant species area Mallotus phillipensis, H’ = – Σ pi ln pi (Shannon et al., 1963) Dalbergia sissoo, Shorea robusta, Acacia catechu. Some Where, pi=ni/N, which denotes the importance probability of the faunal species of the reserve are Panthera pardus, P. of each species in a population; ni = importance value for tigris, Axis axis, Axis peroconius, Cervus unicolor, Elephus species “i”, N = total of importance values. Concentration of maximus, Naemorhedus goral etc. The area of the Chilla dominance (Cd), was calculated by following Simpson index forest division comes under the protected area network but (Simpson 1949). undergoing rapid changes in fauna and vegetation pattern 2 due to the large scale anthropogenic forcing at some Cd = Σ pi places in the form of lopping, grazing and hydro-power The evenness index (Pielou 1966) was calculated by using project, scraping, trampling and extraction of non timber the following formula: products (Akash et al., 2019). Despite of these pressures, management strategies for conservation of flora and fauna J’ = H’/ lns are in process of considering the ecological significance of The Richness index (Margalef 1958) was calculated by the Tiger Reserve. R = S-1/ln(N)

MATERIAL AND METHODS The study was carried out in Chilla Range of Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Uttarakhand which comes under the Shivalik range during 2015-2017. The objectives of the study were to assess the status of the different layers of the plants by Nested quadrate sampling method. Quadrate size of 20×20 m2 for tree species and 5×5 m2 for shrub layer. 1×1 m2 sizes for herbs were laid down randomly to collect the information of the floral species. In each quadrat, trees with > 31.5 cm cbh (circumference at breast height, i.e. 1.37 m above the ground) were individually measured for girth. Shrub and Herbs were treated separately. Plants were identified with the help of flora of Gaur (1999); Pant (1986) in addition, information was collected from the locals and with the help of management plan of Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Haridwar.

Data analysis The quantitative data was analysed for frequency, density and abundance (Curtis et al., 1950) and there after relative Fig. 1. Map of Rajaji Tiger Reserve showing the study area frequency, relative density, relative dominance were (Chilla range)

8 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 1. Density (ha-1), TBC (m2 ha-1), A/F, Importance value index of trees Species Family Density/ha TBC A/F RF RD RDo IVI

Cassia fistula Fabaceae 47.01 0.98 0.04 13.79 18.4 11.44 43.63

Mallotus philippensis Euphorbiaceae 41.67 1.04 0.04 12.07 16 12.12 40.19

Adina cordifolia Rubiaceae 8.33 2.52 0.03 6.90 3.2 29.27 39.37

Naringi crenulata Rutaceae 39.58 0.08 0.06 10.34 15.2 9.65 35.19

Holoptelea integrifolia Ulmaceae 20.83 0.60 0.29 3.45 8 7.04 18.49

Aegle marmelos Rutaceae 16.67 0.23 0.03 8.62 6.4 2.36 17.38

Erythrina indica Fabaceae 6.25 0.76 0.04 5.17 2.4 8.80 16.37

Schleichera oleosa Sapindaceae 6.25 0.53 0.08 3.45 2.4 6.80 12.65

Bauhinia purpurea Fabaceae 8.33 0.14 0.05 5.19 3.2 1.59 9.98

Cordia dichotoma Boraginaceae 12.5 0.132 0.17 3.45 4.8 1.54 9.79

Gewia asiatica Malvaceae 8.33 0.09 0.05 5.17 3.2 1.16 9.53

Listea chinensis Lauraceae 10.41 0.08 0.06 5.17 4 0.10 9.27

Erythrina suberosa Fabaceae 10.41 0.14 0.14 3.45 4 1.65 9.10

Mitragyna parviflora Rubiaceae 6.25 0.14 0.08 3.45 2.4 1.53 7.38

Ehretia leavis Ehretiaceae 4.17 0.04 0.05 3.45 1.6 0.97 6.02

Butea monosperma Fabaceae 6.25 0.07 0.36 1.72 2.4 0.85 4.97

Shorea robusta Dipterocarpaceae 2.08 0.17 0.12 1.72 0.8 1.94 4.46

Anogeissus latifolia Combretaceae 2.08 0.08 0.12 1.72 0.8 0.95 3.47

Phyllanthus emblica Phyllanthaeae 2.08 0.10 0.12 1.72 0.8 0.24 2.76

Total 259.48 7.92 100.0 100.0 100.0 300.0

RESULTS ha-1 whereas the total basal cover varies from 0.04 - 2.52 m2 Species composition and diversity ha-1 in the study area. The Importance Value Index (IVI) for In trees strata, 19 species belonging to 19 genera under 14 tree species was highest for Cassia fistula (43.63) indicating families were recorded in the study area (Table 1). Fabaceae that this is the most dominant species. The other species is the dominant tree family represented by 5 species, has shown co dominance in tree layer. The abundance to followed by the Rubiaceae (2), Rutaceae (2), Euphorbiaceae, frequency pattern revealed that Mallotus philippensis, Ulmaceae, Ehretiaceae, Sapindaceae, Boraginaceae, Holoptelea integrifolia, Cassia fistula, Erythrina suberosa, Lauraceae, Malvaceae, Lauraceae, Deterocarpaceae, Aegle marmelos and Adina cordifolia showed random Combeaceae and Phyllanthaceae (1 species each). The total pattern while rest of the species have showed contaguous stand density of tree species was ranged from 2.08 - 47.01 pattern but none of the species showed regular pattern.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 9 Table 2. Density (ha-1), TBC (m2 ha-1), A/F, Importance value index of shrubs in the study area

Species Family Density/ha Total basal A/F RF RD RDo IVI cover Lantana camara Verbenaceae 2166.67 0.43 0.07 33.33 39.39 29.0 101.72 Colebrookea oppositifolia Lamiaceae 650.00 0.70 0.37 8.33 11.82 47.42 67.57 Murraya koenigii Rutaceae 1133.33 0.16 0.11 20.0 20.60 10.62 51.22 Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae 450.00 0.05 0.18 10.0 8.18 3.01 21.19 Ziziphus zujupa Rhamnaceae 383.33 0.05 0.34 6.67 6.97 3.34 16.98 Asclepias curassavica Apocynaceae 200.00 0.05 1.6 5 3.64 3.48 12.12 Cassia occidentalis Fabaceae 216.67 0.01 0.34 5.0 3.94 0.73 9.67 Adathoda vasica Acanthaeae 133.33 0.021 0.213 5 2.42 1.43 8.85 Calotropis gigentea Apocynaceae 150.00 0.014 0.24 5 2.73 0.90 8.63 Indigofera spp. Fabaceae 16.67 0.001 0.23 1.67 0.30 0.08 2.05 Total 5500.00 1.48 100.0 99.99 100.0 300.0

In shrubs strata, 10 species belonging to 10 genera under Indiofera as least dominant species in the shrub layer. The 8 families were recorded from the study site (Table 2). In A/F ratio indicates that all the shrubs showed contaguous shrubs, most of the species belong to the family Fabaceae distribution pattern. None of the species showed the regular (2) followed by Apocynaceae (2), Rutaceae, Verbenaceae, and random pattern. In herbs strata, 29 species belonging 29 Rhamnaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Leminacea, Acanthaceae, (1 genera under 23 families were recorded (Table 3). species each). In shrubs, the total density ranged from 16.67- In herbs, Asteraceae was dominant family with maximum 2166.67 ha-1. On the other hand the total basal area varies species (4) followed by Fabaceae and Poaceae (2 species), from 0.001-0.70 m2 ha-1. The highest density was recorded Cyperaceae, Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae, Apiaceae, for Lantana camara whereas lowest for Indiofera spp. and Oxallidaceae, Lamiaceae, Pteridaceae, Commelinaceae, highest basal area was recorded for Colebrookea oppositifolia Memispermaceae, Vitaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and lowest was that of Indiofera spp. The importance value Apocynaceae, Asparagaceae, Convulvulaceae (1). The index (IVI) in shrub strata was recorded highest for Lantana density of herbal species varied from 1.39-177.78 d/m2. camara whereas lowest for Indiofera indicating that Lantana Highest individual density of herb was recorded for Abutilon camara is one of the most dominant species whereas indicum and lowest for Oplismensus burmanii and Mucuna

Table 3. Frequency %, Density (D/m2), TBC, A/F, Importance value index of herbs in the study area

Species Family F % Density/m2 A/F IVI

Adiantum spp Pteridaceae 29.17 29.17 0.03 17.29

Kyllinga monochephala Cyperaceae 3.89 56.94 1.05 20.52

Achyranthus aspera Amaranthaceae 16.68 16.68 0.06 13.45

Cynodon dactylon Poaceae 12.50 12.50 0.08 6.97

Sida spinosa Malvaceae 8.33 36.11 0.52 14.85

Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae 40.28 40.28 0.04 35.16

Mucuna pruriens Fabaceae 1.39 1.39 0.71 0.80

Centella asiatica Apiaceae 2.78 16.67 2.15 4.01

Oxalis corniculata Oxallidaceae 5.56 19.44 0.62 5.24

10 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Species Family F % Density/m2 A/F IVI

Abutilon indicum Malvaceae 12.50 177.78 0.14 72.49

Cayratia trifolia Vitaceae 2.78 16.67 0.36 4.01

Xanthium strumarium Asteraceae 5.56 9.72 0.31 4.73

Parthenium Asteraceae 13.89 26.39 0.13 25.93 hysterophorus

Cissampelos prariara Menispermaceae 16.67 22.22 0.08 11.18

Boerhavia diffusa Nyctaginaceae 1.39 4.17 2.15 1.20

Commelina Commelinaceae 5.56 11.11 0.35 4.20 benghalensis

Perilla frutescens Lamiaceae 4.17 6.94 0.23 2.90

Euphorbia hirta Eophorbiaceae 2.78 9.72 1.25 2.62

Pogostemon Lamiaceae 4.17 6.94 0.47 2.90 benghalensis

Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae 12.50 26.39 0.16 9.65

Evolvulus Convolvulaceae 2.79 9.72 0.35 2.62 nummularius Oplismensus Poaceae 1.39 1.39 0.71 0.79 burmannii Ichnocarpus Apocynaceae 20.84 29.17 0.06 15.93 frutescense

Asparagus racemosus Asparagaceae 4.17 4.17 0.23 2.35

Cheilanthes spp Pteridaceae 11.11 33.33 0.27 10.49

Vitis latifolia Vitaceae 1.38 9.72 0.71 2.07

Aerva sanguinolenta Amaranthaceae 4.18 4.18 0.23 2.37

Bauhinia vahlii Fabaceae 1.39 1.39 0.72 0.90

Launea procummbens Asteraceae 4.01 4.17 0.02 2.31

Total 253.89 644.44 299.94 pruriens. Abutilon indicum was the dominant species in The correlation between different vegetational parameter the herb strata with highest IVI whereas, lowest IVI was of trees, shrubs and herbs are given in (Fig. 2, 3, 4). The recorded for Oplismensus burmanii indicating that it was the density was positively correlated with the total basal area in least dominant species. The A/F ratio of most of the herb trees (r = 0.244), shrubs (r = 0.075) and herbs (r = 0.096). species showed contaguous pattern of distribution, 4 species The dominance diversity curves for trees shrubs and herbs of herb showed the random pattern of distribution but none are given in Fig. 5-7. of the species showed regular pattern.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 11 Table 4. Diversity parameters in the study area

Parameter Tree Shrub Herb Richness index 0.69 1.94 4.82 Pielou Eveness Index 0.68 0.43 0.88

Shannon’s diversity index 2.51 1.07 2.99

Simpson Index (cd) 0.097 0.46 0.06

Fig. 5. Dominance-diversity curve for trees

Fig. 2. Correlation between density/ha and total basal area in tree layer

Fig. 6. Dominance-diversity curve for shrubs

Fig. 3. Correlation between density/ha and total basal area in shrub

Fig. 4. Correlation between d/m2 and total basal area in herb layer Fig. 7. Dominance-diversity curve for herbs

12 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology DISCUSSION shrubs and 0.06 for herbs respectively. These values of Protected areas enable a country to protect biodiversity in a the Shannon Diversity Index was comparable with several natural habitat. Rajaji Tiger Reserve has the great association workers like Raturi, 2012 (0.78-3.45); Gairola et al., 2011 of various forest communities like Dalbergia sisoo, Shorea- (2.43-3.33); Akash et al., 2018c (1.35 -2.51); Akash et al., Mallottus-Acacia, Holoptelea integrifolia, Cassia fistula as 2019 (1.862-2.059); Singh, 2013 (0.95-3.30) from Western well as the various associations of mixed forest communities. part of the Himalayas in Uttarakhand. Malik (2015) also This reserve is also well known for its wildlife diversity reported similar results for Simpson Index from the Western including tiger, elephants and many more. The Tiger Reserve part of Himalaya. These values are in the range of earlier has faced severe anthropogenic pressure in past in the form of reports. The Simpson Index is also comparable with earlier looping, grazing, scraping which resulted in the development studies of Akash et al. 2018c (0.097 - 0.44) in six forest sites of secondary forest association in the natural habitats (Table 5). and Akash et al. 2019 (0.161- 0.268) in a forest community The word biodiversity is considered as a significant attribute of Rajaji Tiger Reserve. On the other hand, the Evenness of an organized community (Hairston et al., 1964). Qualitative Index was 0.68 for trees, 0.43 for shrubs and 0.88 for herbs and quantitative attributes are essential for understanding in the study area was comparable to Uniyal et al. (2010) the process of species survival status, coexistence of other from Garhwal Himalayas (0.47-0.83 for trees, 0.69-0.87 for species and long-term ecosystem processes in a natural shrubs). The Margalef Richness index was 0.69 for trees, community. These studies reveal the dominance status of 1.94 for shrubs and 4.82 for herbs was comparable with the plant species. present study. These values are comparable with the earlier The Total Basal Cover, Stand Density from the present studies carried out by Malik (2015) whose values of richness study has shown similar results with the earlier studies of Index ranges from 2.37-4.63 for trees, 1.78-3.06 for shrub. Kukshal et al. (2009) from the tropical forest and (Akash Similar results were also reported from different parts of the et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2019) from the tropical forest Uttarakhand Himalaya by Uniyal et al. (2010) and Gairola of Rajaji Tiger Reserve. Population structural attributes and et al. (2011) form the different areas of Uttarakhnad. Every recruitment patterns of species are affected by various factors, species play a significant role in a forest ecosystem and like disturbance gradients and competitive interactions there is a definite quantitative relationship between abundant between species. The variation in plant structure, density and rare species in an area (Bhandari et al., 1999). The and other phytosociological attributes in a forest community high Importance Value Index of a plant species in a forest is directly associated with the environmental factors of that community states its dominance and ecological succession area. High frequency of a plant species in a forest indicates as well as its better power of regeneration. Cassia fistula in its high distribution due to optimum climatic condition. In tree strata showed maximum IVI in the present study area. the present study area Cassia fistula in tree strata, Lantana High IVI also indicates that all the available resources are camara in shrubs strata and Abutilon indicum in herb strata being utilized by that species and left over being trapped by are the dominant species. Kukshal et al. (2009) had observed other competitors’ species and other associated species in the 100% frequency of Callipedium parviflorum in tropical area. In present study area, the A/F ratio of species showed forest of Garhwal Himalaya. clumped or contaguous pattern of distribution. These results The dense canopy of Cassia fistula and other associated are comparable with those of other workers like Akash et al. species in the tropical forest of Rajaji Tiger Reserve helps to (2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2019); Bhandari et al. (1995); Pande retain the moisture. This property of these forest communities et al. (1996); Bhandari et al. (1997) from Garhwal Himalaya also supports the development of shade adapted seedlings of and for other forest ecosystems as well (Kershaw 1973; Singh tree species. Although, the density of trees, shrubs and herb et al., 1974) for different tropical forests of Northern India. species in the present forest community are slightly higher The clumped pattern of distribution of species may be due than the other tropical forests of Western Himalaya yet there to multitude of environmental conditions and disturbances is little difference in the phytosociological attributes. These (Kershaw 1973). attributes and characteristics of forest community are also used to describe the demands of species, temporal dynamics Forest management and conservation strategies in of understory vegetation, spatial heterogeneity and the Rajaji Tiger Reserve regeneration pattern. Rajaji Tiger Reserve is an important habitat of Asiatic Biodiversity indices are generated to describe the elephants and tigers in Shivalik landscape of Northern India. abundance and diversity of species in different environment It forms important boundary with Corbett Tiger Reserve to a similar scale. The diversity indices of a forest community and conserve the viable populations of flora and fauna. also reveal the overall structure of that forest. The Shannon These two protected areas located at the sites of ecologically Index for tree was 2.51, 1.07 for shrubs and 2.99 for herbs, valuable faunal corridor where once so innumerable locals whereas the Simpson Index was 0.097 for trees, 0.46 for remained dependent on the natural resources. Rajaji Tiger

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 13 Reserve along with the adjoining areas, protecting thousands Rajaji Tiger Reserve constitutes the richest sources of of Asiatic elephants and other globally endangered viable natural forest and biodiversity enriched site in Northern population of tigers and leopards. A local residing in the India. It is one of the vital components for sustaining the corridor mainly depends on forests for various resources life and various ecosystem services and further have been such as fodder, firewood, grazing land, medicinal plants and playing a significant role in the socio-economic development fruits. The various conservation strategies like rehabilitation of people or local community in adjacent areas of Western of pastoralists like Gujjars, fire line, anti poaching squad, Himalaya. Rajaji Tiger Reserve is providing life supporting eradication of non essentials weeds has changed the overall habitat for Asiatic elephants, Tiger and various floral species. scenario of the Tiger Reserve. The relocation programme This Tiger Reserve is contributing as a source of revenue, for the Gujjars and other people in the Tiger Reserve by subsistence as well as the raw material and other wealth. government also made the area free from the biotic pressure. It helps us in maintaining the ecological balance, keeping Due to all these efforts many important plant species like environmental sustainability as well as ensuring the food Ficus benghalensis, F. auriculata, Grewia asiatica, Celtris and fodder security. Rajaji Tiger Reserve is maintaining australis are free from the anthropogenic pressures. the integrity of the foothill of Himalaya by conserving the Secondly, the elephant and Tiger corridors are now free viable population of fauna and flora. Although the main aim from human interference due to the resettlement of the of establishment was achieved by the government because pastoralists community and villagers. The implementation of the large area of this conservatory unit and by most of management and conservation projects has improved favourable environmental condition for survival but there the chances of the survival as well as saved large areas of are various policy, conservation strategies and management forest habitat and maintained biological diversity in the are needed to protect the resource of forests both in terms Tiger Reserve. Further, participatory management for of micro and macro level. Further, sustainable development pastoralist community, health care, conservation education, as well as the awareness among the locals and pastoralists small-scale wildlife tourism which can generally enable the community is essential so that they can use suitable practices villagers to make the transition from exploiting the forest for sustainable utilization of forest resource. to its conservation. The successful implementation of the eco-tourism plan in the in Rajaji Tiger Reserve along the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT adjoining areas would be helpful in reducing the man–animal The authors are thankful to the authorities of Rajaji Tiger and plants conflict. Further active participation of the local reserve for their help during the field visit. community is required in conservation initiatives in the Tiger Reserve. REFERENCES Akash, Navneet, Bhandari BS (2018a). Phytosociological CONCLUSION studies, biodiversity conservation in a sub tropical moist Uttarakhand has approximately 63% of total area under deciduous forest of Rajaji Tiger Reserve. Uttarakhand, India. forests out of it of the state in which the Haridwar forest Int. J. Res. Anal. Rev., 5 (3): 39-51. division cover 7304.60 hectare of forest cover. The tropical moist deciduous forests of this division receive Akash, Navneet, Bhandari BS (2018b). Phytosociological rainfall range between 100 and 200 cm, and mainly investigation, biodiversity conservation and life form mainly comprises of Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo, pattern in a holoptelea integrifolia community under Rajaji Tectona grandis, Emblica officinalis, etc. Rajaji Tiger TigerReserve, Uttarakhand, India. Int. Res. J. Bio. Sci., 7 (7): Reserve is characterizing by sub tropical forest with varied 1- 8. topography which makes it one of the most diverse area of Uttarakhand. Approximately, 90% of the rural populations Akash, Navneet, Bhandari BS (2018c). Tree diversity, stand of Uttarakhand are fully or partially dependent on these structure and community composition in tropical forest of tropical forests for fuel and many other important products. Rajaji Tiger Reserve, Northern India. J. of App. and Nat. Sci., The people of rural and remote areas still keep a special 10 (3): 945-953. and unique relationship with these forests which directly supports their livelihoods. At the same time they are also Akash, Navneet, Bhandari BS (2019). A community analysis aware with their conservation status as they get benefitted of woody Species in a tropical forest of Rajaji Tiger Reserve. from them with important forest products and valuable Env. and Eco., 37 (1): 48-55. plant based medicines. The people and other communities which resides adjacent to these forests play a pivotal role Anonymous (2013). Managing Forest Resources for sustainable in the conservation of the forest by their self-imposed rules development: An evaluation of world bank group experience. and through traditional practices. IEG, World Bank, Washington, USA.

14 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Armenteras D, Rodríguez N, Retana J (2009). Are conservation Kershaw KA. (1973). Quantitative and dynamic plant ecology. strategies effective in avoiding the deforestation of the ELBS and Edward arnold publisher ltd., London, 1-308. Colombian Guyana shield. Biol. Con., 142(7): 14-19. Kukshal S, Nautiyal BP, Anthwal A, Sharma A, Bhatt AB Bhandari BS, Mehta JP, Tiwari SC (1995). Vegetation structure (2009). Phytosociological investigation and life form pattern under different management regimes in a grazingland at of grazinglands under pine canopy in temperate zone, Shrinagar Garhwal. Jour. of Hil. Res., 8: 39-46. Northwest Himalaya, India. Res. Jour. of Bot., 4(2): 55-69.

Bhandari BS, Mehta JP, Nautiyal BP, Tiwari SC (1997). Malik ZA, Bhatt AB (2015). Phytosociological analysis of Structure of a chirpine community along an altitudinal woody species in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary and its gradient in Garhwal Himalaya. Int. jour of Eco. and Envi. adjoining areas in Western Himalaya, India. Jour. of For. and Sci., 23: 67-74. Envi. Sci., 31(3): 149-163.

Bhandari BS, Nautiyal DC, Gaur RD (1999). Structural Margalef R (1958). Perspectic in ecological theory. University attributes and productivity potential of an alpine pasture of of Chicago Press, Chicago. Garhwal Himalaya. Jour. of Ind. Bot. Soc., 78: 321-329. Morris RJ (2010). Anthropogenic impacts on tropical forest Champion HG, Seth SK (1968). A revised survey of forest biodiversity: A network structure and ecosystem functioning types of India, Govt. of India Press, New Delhi, 1- 404. perspective. Philo. Tran. of the Roy. Soc. B: Bio. Sci., 365(1558): 3709-3718. Connell JH, Slatyer RO (1977). Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability Pande PK, Negi JDS, Sharma SC (1996). Plant species and organization. The Am. Nat., 111(982): 1119-1144. diversity and vegetation analysis in moist temperate Himalayan forest. Proc. of Abs. Fir. Ind. Ecol. Con., New Curtis JT, Cottam G (1956). The use of distance measures in Delhi, 27-31. phytosociological sampling. Ecol., 37(3): 451-460. Pant PC (1986). Flora of the Corbett national Park. Botanical Curtis JT, McIntosh RP (1950). The interrelations of certain survey of India, Howrah, India. analytic and synthetic phytosocio-logical characters. Ecol., 31(3): 434-455. Philips EA (1959). Methods of Vegetation Study. Henry Holt Co. Inc., New York, USA, 1-107. Forest Survey of India (2011). India state of forest report. Ministry of Environment. Forest and Climate Change, Pielou EC (1966). The measurement of diversity in Government of India. different types of biological collections. J. Theoret. Biol, 13: 131-144. Gairola S, Sharma CM, Suyal S, Ghildiya SK (2011). Species composition and diversity in mid-altitudinal moist temperate Puyravaud JP, Davidar P, Laurance WF (2010). Cryptic forests of the Western Himalaya. Jour. of For. and Envi. Sci., destruction of India’s native forests. Conse. Lett., 3(6): 390- 27(1): 1-15. 394.

Gardner TA, Barlow J, Chazdon R, Ewers RM, Harvey CA, Raturi GP (2012). Forest community structure along an Peres CA, Sodhi NS (2009). Prospects for tropical forest altitudinal gradient of district Rudraprayag of Garhwal biodiversity in a human modified world. Eco. Lett., 12(6): Himalaya, Indian. Ecol., 2(3): 76-84. 561-582. Rodgers WA, Panwar HS, Mathur VB (2002). Wildlife Protected Gaur RD (1999). Flora of District Garhwal- North Western Area Network in India: A Review (Executive Summary), Himalaya (with ethnobotanical notes). Transmedia Published by Wildlife Institute of India. Dehradun. India, Publication, Srinagar Garhwal, India. 1-865. 1-44

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ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 15 Simpson EH (1949). Measurement of diversity. Nat., 163: 1-688.

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Singh D (2013). Forest structure, diversity, growing stock variation and regeneration status of different forest cover types in Dudatoli area of Garhwal Himalaya. PhD thesis. HNB Garhwal University Srinagar Garhwal, India.

Uniyal P, Pokhriyal P, Dasgupta S, Bhatt D, Todaria NP (2010). Plant diversity in two forest types along the disturbance gradient in Dewalgarh Watershed, Garhwal Himalaya. Curr. Sci., 70: 938-943.

Whitford PB (1949). Distribution of woodland plants in relation to succession and clonal growth. Ecol., 30(2): 199-208.

16 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology ASSESSMENT OF DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OF GENUS CYPRIPEDIUM IN PINDARI VALLEY, KUMAUN, WEST HIMALAYA

Renu Suyal*1, Ranbeer S Rawal1, Indra D Bhatt1 and Lalit M Tewari2

1G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India 2D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The present study is an attempt to assess distribution pattern and specific habitat requirements of three threatened species of genus Cypripedium i.e. C. cordigerum, C. elegans and C. himalaicum in Pindari valley, Kumaun West Himalaya. Results revealed that partially shaded places and humus rich soil forms the ideal habitat conditions for the growth of this species. However, restricted distribution and low plant density in the study sites reflects critically rare status of this species. The species is declining in natural habitat due to grazing, habitat loss and unsustainable collection. Hence, conservation planning is needed to protect the species and its habitat.

Keywords: Cypripedium, Pindari valley, Kumaun West Himalaya, Conservation.

INTRODUCTION therefore, attempts to provide quantitative details of genus Cypripedium L. (Family- Orchidaceae) is a genus of Cypripedium in Kumaun Himalaya through assessment of perennial herb which are commonly known as Lady’s distribution pattern and quantum of availability in natural slipper orchids. The genus is differentiated from other habitats. genera in the Orchidaceae due to the presence of two fertile anthers and a slipper shaped lip or labellum. Globally, MATERIALS AND METHODS the genus comprises of about 59 species and 2 varieties STUDY AREA (TPL 2017). The species is found distributed from Alaska, The study area lies in between 30º5’- 30º10’ N- 79º48’-79º Canada, United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and 52’ E in close proximity of Pindari glacier range of Kumaun, Russia federation, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, West Himalaya, India. The elevation ranges from 3000-3500 North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and Burma. m asl consisting of a wide variety of vegetation ranging from The genus Cypripedium is represented by three species in subtropical to alpine. The description of targeted orchids Western Himalaya, viz. C. cordigerum D. Don, C. elegans Reichb.f. and C. himalaicum Rolfe (Deva et al., 1986; Jalal et al., 2008) (Fig. 1). These species are widely but sparsely distributed in the cool temperate and sub-alpine 2800-3500m regions and are known only from a few scattered populations mostly in small colonies. As per the International Union of Conservation for Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) the overall population trend for these species is decreasing due to threats like overgrazing, collection, habitat loss and 1 2 disturbance of its restricted range due to deforestation and 1. C. Cordigerum climate change. All the three species of Cypripedium are 2. C. elegans sensitive to the environment and require specific habitat 3. C. himalaicum conditions i.e. associating mycorrhizal fungi, nutrient availability and sunlight for germination and growth (Kull 1999). In fact, owing to looming danger, all the species of genus Cypripedium are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Fig. 1. Targeted species of of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The present study 3 genus Cypripedium

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 17 Table 1. Details of targeted species

Species Botanical description Habitat Medicinal uses** Status (IUCN)

Glabrous erect herb, up to C. cordigerum Found under partially Roots are used as a tonic in 40 cm tall, flowers solitary, (3000m asl) shaded forest of Nepal Young leaves cooked Vulnerable terminal, greenish- pale yellow June- September Q. semicarpifolia and eaten as a vegetable and white.

Creeping underground rhizom- C. elegans atous herb, up to 13 cm tall, Moss covered humus rich Nervine tonic in hysteria, (3217m asl) flower green with reddish tinge soil, meadows on the thick spasm, madness, epilepsy Endangered June-August and light red veins on inner humus layer and rheumatism surface.

Rhizomatous herb, 20-40 cm Partially shady places in C. himalaicum tall, flowers greenish brown, Urine blocks treatment, meadows, on steep hill (3350m asl) reddish-chocolate or brownish Stone disease, heart disease, Endangered slopes, grass covered June-September purple or crimson purple with Chest disorder and cough boulders. yellow column.

* Vij et al., 2013; ** Arditti et al., 1982; Arditti et al.,1984 along with their habitat characteristics, medicinal uses and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION status are given in Table 1. All three species of Cypripedium were identified and surveyed for distribution pattern and their DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION specific habitat requirements. The site and habitat Field surveys were conducted during 2016-18 in different detail along with information on associated potential zones of targeted species occurrence (sites species are presented in Table 1 and 2. Study identified on the basis of available herbarium records (BSI). revealed extremely localized distribution of all the The assessment of target species was conducted using three species i.e. species were found in patches. random sampling method. Habitat types and associated Partially shaded forest and humus rich soil form the species were taken into consideration while doing samplings. ideal habitat conditions for the species. The density for At each site of targeted species occurrence one 20x20 m C. cordigerum, C. elegans and C. himalaicum were plots were laid down and 10 (1x1 m) quadrate were placed recorded 0.80, 5.50 and 0.90 individual/ m2, respectively. randomly inside the plot. Following phytosociological However, the relative contribution of the species to sampling procedures (Misra 1968; Mueller et al.,1974). overall stand density was less than the other dominant The relative values of frequency, density, abundance were associates (Table 2). calculated following methods of Curtis (1959). Distribution Since the species are having restricted availability pattern of the species was analyzed using abundance (limited populations with poor density) the continuous to frequency (A/F) ratio. value of A/F < 0.025 suggest harvesting, habitat degradation and over-grazing in regular distribution, between 0.026 to 0.050 random, and sites of their occurrence are causing fast depletion of > 0.050 were identified contagious (Kershaw 1973). Small their population and reflects its critically rare status. population size was the major constraint for ensuring plot Only few areas in the state are left where these plants replication in different populations. The Voucher specimens are present (Jalal et al., 2008). Therefore, to ensure after consulting the herbarium at Botanical Survey of India, long term conservation and sustainable utilization of Dehradun and thereafter, deposited in the herbarium of G. these beautiful species of Cypripedium, there is a need B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and to promote awareness regarding in-situ conservation of Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD), Kosi-Katarmal, species. Further adequate support for bringing species Almora, India. in cultivation seems only way-out.

18 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 2. Occurrence of availability and distribution pattern

D Species RD F (%) A A/F Associated species (ind/m2)

Thalictrum L. (24); Anemone tetrasepala Royle (20); Fragaria C. cordigerum D. Don 0.80 4.57 30.00 2.67 0.09 nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita (15); Polygonum L. (28); Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex G. Don (08)

Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f. (5.69); Artemisia L. (4.63); Oxalis corniculata L. (11.39); Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex C. elegans Rchb. f. 5.50 19.57 60.00 9.17 0.15 Sweet (23.13); Viola biflora L. (18.15); Fragaria nubicola (Hook. f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita (13.17); Corydalis cashmeriana Royle (4.27)

Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. (10.94); Anaphalis contorta C. himalaicum Rolfe ex (D. Don) Hook. f.(20.31); Artemisia L. (10.16); Oxalis corniculata 0.90 7.03 40 2.25 0.06 Hemsl L. (25.0); Rumex hastatus D. Don (16.41); Achyranthes bidentata Blume (10.16)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Kershaw KA (1973). Quantitative and dynamic plant ecology Authors are thankful to inhabitants of the Pindari Valley (2nd Edition), Elbsd and edward arnold, London. 1-308. who shared their knowledge and information to make this work possible. The authors thank to Director, G.B. Pant Kull T (1999). Cypripedium calceolus L. Journal of Ecology, National Institute of Himalayan Environment & Sustainable 87(5): 913-924. Development, Almora for the support and encouragement. The partial funding for this study under Botanical Garden Mishra R (1968). Ecology Workbook. Oxford and IBH, Scheme of Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Calcutta. Change (MoEF&CC), New Delhi (F.N. BSI-290/6/2013- Tech; Date- 29/09/2013) is also gratefully acknowledged. Mueller DD, Ellenberg H (1974). Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology, 26-29. REFERENCES Arditti J, Ernst R (1984). Physiology of orchid seed Vij SP, Verma J, Kumar CS (2013). Orchids of Himachal germination. In: Arditti J (ed) Orchid biology, Reviews and Pradesh. Bishen Singh Mahender Pal Singh, Dehradun. perspectives, New York.

Arditti J, Clementsm MA, Fast G, Hadley G, Nishimura G (1982). Orchid seed germination and seedling culture-A manual. In: Orchid Biology-Reviews and perspectives, Vol 2(1), Arditti J (Ed.), Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 243-370.

Curtis JT, McIntosh RP (1950). The interrelations of certain analytic and synthetic phytosociological characters. Ecology, 31(3): 434-455.

Deva S, Naithani HB (1986). The orchid flora of North-West Himalaya. New Delhi, Print and media associates, 459- 463.

Jalal JS, Kumar P, Rawat GS, Pangtey YPS (2008). Orchidaceae, Uttarakhand, Western Himalaya, India. Check list, 4(3): 304-320.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 19

Forests of Uttarakhand: Diversity, Distribution, Use Pattern and Conservation

Vishwambhar Prasad Sati*1 and S. K. Bandooni2

1Department of Geography and Resource Management, School of Earth Sciences, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India 2Department of Geography, S.B.S.E.C., University of Delhi, Delhi, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The Uttarakhand Himalaya contains rich forest diversity. Forests are distributed along the altitudinal gradients from broad leaf deciduous forests to pine, mixed-oak, coniferous forests and alpine meadows. The rural people are largely dependent on them for their livelihoods and they have traditional practices to conserve forests. This paper aims to examine diversity, distribution, use pattern and conservation of forests in Uttarakhand. The study is based on data gathered from secondary sources and through participatory observation method. We have gathered time series data on vertical distribution of forests, district wise forest cover and change and forest land use, and analyzed them. Further, we have described use pattern and conservation of forest in Uttarakhand. Data show that a large geographical area of the Uttarakhand Himalaya (61.32%) is under forests. Forest diversity varies vertically and horizontally and area under forest is different from district to district. Forest plays a significant role in enhancing livelihoods, income and economy of the local people and the state, respectively. The study suggests that even forest cover is increasing in Uttarakhand, however we need to further conserve them sustainably. A sustainable use of forest resources will manifest rural economy more viable.

Keywords: Forest diversity, Distribution pattern, Sustainable use, Conservation, Uttarakhand.

(UEPPCB 2004). Uttarakhand’s forests are distributed along INTRODUCTION the altitudinal gradients vary from tropical to subtropical, Forests play an important role in sustaining life of both temperate and alpine. Broad leaf deciduous forests are found human and animal. It is a major life supporting resource and in the Tarai and Doon plains. Pine forest is densely and one amongst the major sources of livelihoods in mountainous extensively distributed above the valleys and mid-altitudes, region. Rural people of Uttarakhand are directly dependent mixed-oak forest lies in the temperate zone and conifer forest on forest resources (CEDAR 2010) for fuel-wood, fodder and lies in cold climate zone. Further, grasslands–subtropical, food and they practice community forestry, maintained by temperate and alpine are extensively found along these village community forest councils commonly known as Van gradients. Economic viability of these forests is substantial. Panchayat which was introduced in 1920 (Phartiyal et al., The local people conserve forest using traditional methods 2006). Forests not only provide fire-wood, fodder and wild which not only benefit carbon sequestration but also enable fruits, but also provide leaf litter for manuring crop fields restoration and conservation of forests, meadows and (Singh et al., 2004). In Uttarakhand, about 38% green feeds biodiversity together with local socio-economic upliftment are obtained from fodder trees and 31% fodder is obtained (Rao et al., 1999; Maikhuri et al., 1997; Saxena et al., from grasslands (Rawat et al., 2012). The marginal farmers 2001). Common property resources are community forests, rear livestock in the grasslands temperate and subtropical and pasturelands and water resource, which rural people use and gather fodder from tree leaves (Singh et al., 2009). Besides, conserve together (Joshi 2006). a variety of medicinal plants also grow in all the altitudinal The state of Uttarakhand is bestowed with rich and zones. diversified forest resources with their high economic viability. Uttarakhand state has 7,869 floral species (SFR 2005). In spite of being economically viable and a substantial option The plant diversity is so high from the valleys to the alpine of livelihoods of the rural people, the forests of Uttarakhand meadows (Kumari et al., 2009). It has eight forest types out are largely unused. It is because of the remoteness and of total 16 forest types existing in India (Champion et al., inaccessibility of forest areas. Further undulating and 1968). There are over 12000 Van Panchayats, which cover precipitous slopes hinders its more sustainable use. On the 15.1% area of the total forest area. Besides, out of the total other hand, forest fire, overgrazing, lopping of trees for fodder forest area, 69.2% forest is under forest department, 14.8% and firewood and removal of leaf and wood litters from the under civil forests and the rest belong to private forests forest floor, are the major anthropogenic activities, which

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 21 are affecting plant diversity in the Uttarakhand Himalaya 0.66 in comparision to 0.9 in Europe and Nepal. In terms of (Malik et al., 2016). Forest fire is the major disturbance for pine and oak forests, genetic diversity is also less. forests expansion although used for the growth of grasses in grazing land (Kumar et al., 2005). Mounting population Data collection and analysis pressure on forests has depleted a substantial forest cover, This study was carried out employing qualitative approach. which is resulted in landslides and flashfloods. This has led Data on forest diversity, distribution and use pattern were threatening for species and many of them are on the verge of collected from secondary sources and through participatory extinction (Ram et al., 2004). observation method. The Forest Survey of India data of The main objective of conducting this study was to 2015 and Land Use Statistics, the Ministry of Agriculture, examine diversity, distribution, economic viability, use Government of India (GOI) data of 2001 and 2015 were pattern and conservation of forests of Uttarakhand. It further gathered appropriately. These data are related with vertical studied that how the abundant forest resources can be used distribution of forests, district wise forest cover/change, area sustainably so that the fragile landscape can be restored and under tree species and forest land use. I visited the entire the rural people can harness forest products to carry their Uttarakhand Himalaya several times to study diversity, livelihoods sustainably. distribution and use pattern of forest and compare them with the data of secondary sources. Further, the gathered data were METHODOLOGY analyzed qualitatively and supported by suitable graphs. THE STUDY AREA The Uttarakhand Himalaya having 53,483 km2 geographical RESULTS area, stretches between 28o43’ N-31o28’ N and 77o 34’ E- Forest diversity and distribution 81o03’ E (Fig. 1). Out of its total area, 93% is mountainous Diversity and distribution of forest species in Uttarakhand mainland, of which, 19% area is under permanent snow Himalaya vary according to the altitudinal gradient (Sati cover, glaciers and steep slopes. Due to physical constraints, 2006), from <500 m to >4,000 m (Table 1). Floral diversity trees cannot grow in these locations. Uttarakhand can be is the lowest in pine forest whereas it is the highest in mixed- divided mainly into four physiographic zones–the Greater oak forest. Tropical deciduous forest and coniferous forest have Himalaya, Middle Himalaya, Shivalik ranges and Doon and substantial floral diversity. In mixed oak forest, dominating Tarai regions. Climate varies from sub-tropical to temperate species are oak itself Tilonj, Kafal, Bhamore, Dal Chini and and frigid cold with temperature ranging from sub-zero to Burans. In pine forest, pine is single species and it does not 43oC. Average annual rainfall is 1550mm. The recorded allow other trees to grow. There are a number of species of forest area stands for 34,662 km2, which is 61.43% (MOA same genera in coniferous forest among them dominating 2012) of its geographical area. Of which reserve forest species are deodar, fir, spruce and Ringal (small bamboo). constitutes 71.08%, protected forest 28.51% and unclassified Tropical forests such as Sal and Shisham are widely distributed forest covers only 0.41% area. Per capita forest cover is 0.248 in Tarai, Doon valley and Shivalik regions (<300 m). Other ha. It shares 3.15% of India’s forest area. A study carried out tree species in this region are Khair, Semal, Kanju, Sissoo and by the Forest Research Institute Dehradun (FRI 2015) states Haldu. Bushes and shrubs are also found in this region. Total that Uttarakhand has less genetic diversity of Deodar as it is area under these forests is about 2,826 km2. Forests distributed between 300 and 1100m are characterised by mixed tropical forests with bushes and scrubs. These forests occupy 4,018 km2 areas. Pine forests are densely distributed between 1,100 and 1,800 m and possessed 10024 km2 areas. Mixed oak forests are found between 1800 and 2800 m with high biodiversity. Coniferous forests are found between 2800 and 3400m and beyond of it, vast alpine pasturelands are found (Fig. 2 & 3).

Fig. 2. Graphic representation of vertical distribution of forests in Fig. 1. Map showing location of the Uttarakhand Himalaya Uttarakhand

22 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Area under Tree Species Figure 4 shows that the Himalayan dry and moist temperate forests have the highest area i.e. 39.02% followed by pine with 29.61% and tropical dry and moist deciduous forests (26.25%). Area under alpine dry and moist scrub is 4.98 and plantation forest covers 2.7%.

Fig. 3. [A] Tropical broadleaf deciduous forests in the Rajaji National Park near Dehradun [B] Subtropical pine forests in Jaharikhal, Pauri [C] Mixed oak forests and coniferous forests in the Kedarnath Valley [D] Alpine Meadows in the Kedarnath Valley Fig. 4. Area under tree species (Source: SFRI 2015) The highest forest area (41.35%) is found between 1000 and 2000m followed by forest lies between 2000 and 3000m (23.18%). Forest area between 500m and 1000m is 16.57% while the lowest forest area (0.08%) is found under >4000m. Forest area <500 m is 11.56% whereas 7.14% forest is found between 3000 and 4000m. In terms of forest types such as very dense, medium dense and open forests, the highest areas is under medium dense forest (56.11%) followed by open forest (24.47%) and then very dense forest (19.61%). Very dense forests lie between 500 and 3000m while medium dense forests are located from <500 to 4000m. In terms of open forest, the highest area lies between 1000 and 3000 m.

Table 1. Vertical distribution of forest cover in Uttarakhand (Area in km2) Altitude VDF MDF OF Total zone Fig. 5. Geographical area and forest cover in 2001 and 2015 (Land Use Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI 2001 and 2015) km2 (%) <500m 548 1732 546 2826 11.65 District wise geographical area and forest cover 500-1000m 1035 2189 794 4018 16.57 Geographical area and state and district shares of forest were 1000-2000m 1727 5477 2820 10024 41.35 analyzed. Area wise, three districts–Chamoli, Uttarkashi and 2000-3000m 1345 3074 1202 5621 23.18 Pithoragarh have the highest geographical area in Uttarakhand (Fig. 5). Pauri, Nainital, Tehri, Almora and Dehradun districts 3000-4000m 99 1126 506 1731 7.14 are medium in size whereas Champawat, Rudraprayag, >4000m 0 4 16 20 0.08 Bageshwar, Haridwar and Udham Singh Nagar (USN) are 4754 13602 5884 the smallest districts in area. I did not notice any significant Total 24240 100 (19.61%) (56.11%) (24.47%) relationship between districts’ geographical area and forest cover. For example Chamoli district is the biggest in area Source: Based on SRTM, Digital Elevation Model, State Forest where as its area under forest is only one-third. Uttarkashi and Reports of India, 2015 Pithoragarh have the same situation. In contrast, Champawat Figures in parenthesis are the % of forest area district is the smallest in geographical area however; its forest

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 23 area is two-third. Proportion of forest cover is also high in received decrease in forest cover from 34.2% (highest) in USN Bageshwar district. to 1.99% (lowest) in Rudraprayag. Forest cover has decreased In the meantime, when we look into the state share of forest in Haridwar district by 3.92% and similarly it has decreased by in these districts, Pauri, Nainital, Uttarkashi and Chamoli 3.34% in Nainital district. The highest increase in forest cover districts have the highest share. Meanwhile, state share of forest was noticed in Dehradun district (7.8%) followed by Almora in USN, Haridwar, Champawat, Rudraprayag and Bageshwar (5.88%), Champawat (5.24%), Bageshwar (5.08%), Tehri districts is the lowest. Other districts Dehradun, Almora and (4.45%), Pauri (4.04%), Chamoli (3.79%) and Pithoragarh Tehri have medium share of forest area. It shows that the (3.39%). Uttarakhand as a whole received 1.26% increase in biggest is the district’s size, higher is the state share of forest. forest area. Data on forest land use were analyzed (Table 3). In Uttarakhand, three types of forest land use: dense forest, open Share of state’s forest area and forest at district level forest and shrubs are found. Time series forest land use data Percentage share of state’s forest area and share of forest of 2001 and 2015 were gathered from SRTM digital elevation at district level was analyzed using data of 2001 and 2015 model and I analyzed them comparing two data. (Table 2). Out of the total state forest area, Pauri, Nainital and Uttarkashi districts had the highest area under foresti.e. 13% each in 2001. Chamoli had 11%, Tehri had 9% and Pithoragarh had 9% forest area. Haridwar and USN had the lowest state forest area share i.e. 3% each. Other districts had 5% and 6% state’s forest share. Further, district share of forest cover was observed and changes were noticed during the period 2001- 2015 in Uttarakhand. Nainital district had the highest forest area (70.67%) followed by Champawat district (67.04%), Pauri district (61.34%) and Bageshwar district (60.69%). In terms of the lowest forest area, USN had 19.91% followed by Haridwar (24.92%), Chamoli (33.39%) and Uttarkashi (38.32%). Other districts had between 25% and 60% forest (2015). Uttarakhand state had 45.32% forest. Fig.6 shows forest cover change (percentage of district’s forest area) Fig. 6. Forest cover change (percentage of district’s forest area); between 2001 and 2015. Four districts of Uttarakhand have (Land Use Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI 2001 and 2015)

Table 2. Percentage share of state’s forest area and percentage share of forest at district level Percentage share of state’s forest area Percentage share of forest at district area District 2001 2015 2001 2015 Pauri 13 13.5 58.9 61.3 Nainital 13 12.4 73.1 70.7 Uttarkashi 13 12.7 38.3 38.3 Chamoli 11 11.1 32.2 33.4 Tehri 9 8.9 56.7 59.2 Pithoragarh 8 8.7 28.6 29.7 Almora 6 6.5 47.6 50.4 Dehradun 6 6.6 48.1 51.9 Bageshwar 5 5.6 57.8 60.7 Champawat 5 4.9 63.7 67 Rudraprayag 5 4.7 58.1 56.9 Haridwar 3 2.4 25.9 24.9 USN 3 2.1 30.3 19.9

Source: Land Use Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI 2001 and 2015

24 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 3. Forest land use (area in km2) Types 2001 2015 Change (%) Dense forest 19,023 18,356 -3.5 Open forest 4,915 5,884 +19.71 Shrubs 598 307 -48.7 Total 23,938 24,240 +1.26 % of 44.76 45.32 +1.25 geographical area

Source: Based on SRTM, Digital Elevation Model, State Forest Reports of India, 2015

A large part is covered by dense forest which is above 80% followed by open forest. Meanwhile, shrub’s area is very little. In terms of changes in forest land use, dense forest has decreased by 3.5% and area under shrubs also decreased by 48%. However, open forest increased by 19.71% during the reported period. I have analyzed district wise levels of forest cover high, medium and low (Table 4). In state share of forest cover, four districts – Pauri, Nainital, Uttarkashi and Chamoli have high level while Haridwar and USN have low level. Other districts have medium level of state share. In terms of percentage Fig. 7. [A] Women carrying oak leafs (major fodder) in Gairsain [B] of district’s geographical area, Nainital, Champawat, Pauri and Resin is extracted from pine trees in Jakholi [C] Amanla, wild fruit Bageshwar have high level meanwhile; Haridwar and USN grows in the valleys and mid-altitudes [D] Kafal, wild fruit grows in temperate zone along with mixed oak forests have low level. Other districts have medium level.

Table 4. District wise levels of forest cover (2015) (A) Percentage of state’s forest area Indices Levels Districts fall under each indices >10 High Pauri, Nainital, Uttarkashi and Chamoli 5-10 Medium Tehri, Pithoragarh, Almora, Dehradun, Bageshwar, Champawat and Rudraprayag <5 Low Haridwar and USN (B) Percentage of district’s geographical area >60 High Nainital, Champawat, Pauri and Bageshwar 30-60 Medium Tehri, Rudraprayag, Dehradun, Almora, Uttarkashi and Chamoli <30 Low Pithoragarh, Haridwar and USN

Source: SFRI, 2015

Forest use pattern sub-tropical grasslands are extensive and fodder leafs, mainly About 70% of the economy is dependent on agriculture, from mixed oak forests, are abundant, milk production is livestock and forest in Uttarakhand. At the meantime, the substantial. The areas of mountainous mainland that falls rural people of Uttarakhand are substantially dependent on under temperate forests are rich in fodder and consequently forests for fuel-wood, fodder and food/fruits (Sati 2006), milk production in these areas is high. Pine and oak leafs are because the remote villages do not have much support of also used to make animal beds and manure. Firewood is used liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and fodder. Forests provide for cooking food and warming house by about 90% rural fodder in the forms tree leafs and grasses from both people. It is generally obtained from pine and oak trees, which subtropical and temperate grasslands. People use them through are extensively found in the mid-altitudes and the highlands sending livestock in the forest area and collecting grasses respectively 1000-2400 m. It is collected from dry or dead and tree leafs from forests for stall feeding. Availability of trees mainly by women. Cutting of young trees for firewood grasses and fodder leaves have great implications on milk is prohibited. During summer, the rural people gather fuel production. I observed that the areas where temperate and wood and stall them for the winter season when the highland

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 25 region receives snowfall. Timber is used for making houses and that USN and Haridwar districts obtain the lowest forest cover furniture. It meets the need of constructing houses and making because these districts lie in plain regions where arable land furniture for household uses after getting permission from the is more than 70%, and population concentration is high. Two Van Panchayat. Non-timber forest products in the form of a districts of mountainous mainland– Chamoli and Uttarkashi number of wild fruits are abundant. There are seasonal wild also obtain less forest area. We observed that a large part of fruits with high nutrient value and plenty. During summer, these districts fall under perpetual snow cover area and alpine Kafal (Fig. 7) Hansole and Kilmode and during winter Bhamor pasturelands therefore, forest cover is less. It was noticed that and Bhatmoya grow. People eat Bedu and Timila as both fruits Nainital district possess the highest area due to large tract of and vegetables. Resin extracted from pine trees. It has multiple forest and world famous Corbett National Park.We have further uses and Uttarakhand state is number one in resin production in noticed the reasons of decrease and increase in forest cover India. Oak bark is used for making Agricultural tools and it is at the district level in Uttarakhand. The three districts where produced largely from Uttarakhand. forest cover has decreased are located in the plain region. A large forest area has been transferred for either cultivation or Conservation of Forest construction of settlements and thus forestland has decreased. The state of Uttarakhand has a long and rich history of conserving In Rudraprayag district, the cause of decrease in forest area forest through applying indigenous and modern knowledge. As, during the period was mainly the Kedarnath disaster of 2013, livelihoods of a large group of people is dependent on forest when cloudburst triggered debris flow and flashfloods have products, they are more aware towards conservation of forests. devastated the entire landscape. A report from NRSC, ISRO, Until today, people of Uttarakhand worship a number of plant Hyderabad (2013) states that about 125ha. grassland and 46 ha species such as oak, Peepal and sacred groves during various forest cover loss was noticed in Rudraprayag district due to the occasions. As a result, it has a vast forest cover of vary valuable said incident. The other reason is that the district has famous tree species. highland pilgrimage ‘Kedarnath’ where number of people visit Uttarakhand state has been conserving forest through every year. To provide them services - lodging and boarding– the establishing Van Panchayat, an old and only form of conserving local people construct business avenues along the river valley forest in India. A substantial forest area comes under Van and for that they cut forest. The other reasons for decrease in Panchayat in Uttarakhand and the rural people use and conserve forest cover are rotational felling and diversion of forestlands them. Every village has its own forest area under Van Panchayat for developmental activities (SFRI 2015). We observed that (total number in the state is 7348). Besides, village people help increase in forest area in Pauri, Chamoli, Tehri, Pithoragarh, the forest officials in conserving forest. Almora, Bageshwar and Champawat was due to out-migration Uttarakhand is a land where the world famous Chipco from these districts. Increase in forest area in other districts, Movement started in the 1970’s. Chipco means hugging the and Uttarakhand as a whole, has a number of driver forces; trees. The state government (then Uttar Pradesh) ordered cutting among them Forest Act of India, Van Panchayat and people’s of large-scale temperate forest from the hills of Uttarakhand. participation in forest conservation are prominent.Changes in The local people, whose livelihood was dependent on the forest forest cover in the state were due to a number of driving forces. for fodder, firewood and food, opposed illegal cutting of trees. Although, a part of Dehradun district i.e. the Doon valley, has They hugged trees and warned contractors that before cutting received an exodus immigrants after 2000 when it became trees, you have to cut our heads. This has become a mass the state capital yet its mountainous parts received increase in movement and the state government was compelled to cancel forest cover. Almora, Pauri and Tehri districts noticed exodus its venture. out-migration and as a result, forest cover increased. Forest Joint forest management (JFM), another means of forest Act of India 1982 has played a significant role in increasing conservation, was initiated in 1992 when it was a part of Uttar forest area. There are several social groups working actively Pradesh State. There are 10107 JFM committees managing in conserving forests. All these drivers have manifested in about 0.86 million ha (25%) of forest area. About 0.5 million increase in forest cover. families are involved in these committees and of which, 15,000 families are scheduled tribes (MoEF 2005). Under JFM, CONCLUSION employees of State Forest department and office bearer of The study revealed that Uttarakhand state has abundant forest village assembly work together to conserve forests. Besides, resources, which are economically viable and which have high soil conservation department also conserve forest mainly in the potential for the economic development of the state. However, degraded land. use pattern of forest products are limited upto the surrounding villages and a number of dense forest areas are unused mainly DISCUSSION those are located in the high lands/ remote regions. Forest Both vertical and horizontal variations in forest cover and its products: timber and non-timber can further enhance the rural density were noticed in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. We observed livelihoods, if they are sustainably used. Among the major

26 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology forest use, forest based small-scale industries at village level Rao KS, Maikhuri RK, Saxena KG (1999). International Tree and sustainable management of forests and grasslands are Crops Journal, 10(1): 1-17. essential. For instance furniture industry, dairy farming and wild fruits and flowers based processing centres have potential Sati VP (2006). Forest Resource Management in Mountain for utilizing forest products sustainably. This can be carried out Regions: A Case for the Pindar Basin of Uttaranchal along with maintaining conservation measures. Pine trees are Himalaya. Lyonia: A Journal of Ecology and Application, the most susceptive to forest fire thus prompt and immediate 11(1): 75-84. measures are to be taken up. In the meantime, pine is the most economically viable trees. Saxena KG, Rao KS, Sen KK, Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL (2001). Conservation Ecology, 5: 14, online http//www. REFERENCES consecol.org./vol15/iss2/art14. CEDAR 2010. Centre for ecological development and research, final report, available at: www.cedarhimalaya.org. SFRI (2015). State Forest Report of India, Ministry of Environment & Forest, Dehradun. Champion HG, Seth SK (1968). A revised survey of the forest types of India, Government of India Publications, New Delhi. SFRI (2005). Forest survey of India, Ministry of Environment & Forest, Dehradun, 140-142. Joshi BK (2006). Common property resources synergy and perspectives of sustainable management in Garurganga Singh K, Singh HS (2009). Forage resource development in watershed, Indian Central Himalaya. Journal of Human Uttarakhand Experiences and observations, 1-35. Ecology, 20: 69-75 Singh SP, Tewari A, Jina BS (2004). Climate Change Challenge Kumari P, Tiwari LM (2009). Biodiversity in Uttarakhand (3C) and social-economic-ecological, International Journal Himalaya region. Nature and Science, 7(3): 545-552. of Ecological Environmental Science, 31: 45-48.

Kumar A, Ram J (2005). Anthropogenic disturbances and plant UEPPCB (2004). State of Environment Report for Uttaranchal, biodiversity in forests of Uttaranchal, Central Himalaya. Uttaranchal Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Biodiversity Conservation, 14(1): 309-331. Board, Government of Uttaranchal, Dehradun.

Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL, Rao KS, Saxena KG (1997). International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 4(1): 192-203.

Malik ZA, Bhatt AB (2016). Regeneration status of tree species and survival of their seedlings in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary and its adjoining areas in Western Himalaya, India, Tropical Ecology, 4(2): 23-29.

MOA (2012). Land use Statistics, Minstry of Agriculture, GOI Phartiyal P and Tewari A (2006). IASCP Conference Papers, http://www.indiana.edu.

MoEF (2005). Proceedings of the National Workshop on Joint Forest Management.

Phartiyal P, Tewari A (2006). IASCP Conference Papers, http:// www.indiana.edu.

Ram J, Kumar A, Bhatt J (2004). Plant diversity in six forest types of Uttaranchal, Central Himalaya, India. Current Science, 86: 975–978.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 27

A COMPARISON of canopy cover measured through transect and Densiometer in oak forest of central Himalaya, India

Poonam Prasad*, Jeet Ram and Jitendra Bhatt

Department of Forestry & Environmental Science, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The present study deals with the comparison of canopy cover in Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus) forest using line transect and densiometer method. Our results showed that the canopy cover was significantly higher in moderate canopy (t = 2.13 P< 0.04) compared to other canopies. It was also significantly higher (t = 3.4 P = 0.002) in Pines forest site as compared to other forest sites. Overall the spherical densiometer showed significantly higher (t = 2.25 P< 0.01, 178 df) forest cover compared to line intercept method. Both the methods have high correlation (r = 0.73 P< 0.01). Thus, the correlation coefficient indicated that both the methods will be convenient for vegetation analysis of these Himalayan forests.

Keywords: Canopy cover, Oak, Transect, T-test, Densiometer.

INTRODUCTION methods include stem and crown mapping, the vertical tube The Himalayan mountains are susceptible for landslide, (Johansson 1985), and the gimbal sight (Walters et al., 1962). landslip and soil erosion. Several disturbances adversely Canopy cover has been defined as the area represented by impact the regeneration and distribution of forest in the the horizontal plane of vertical projection of the tree canopy Himalaya. The continuous (recurring) disturbances change (Bunnell et al., 1990; Jennings et al., 1999). It was suggested the architecture of forest canopy through deforestation, that canopy cover methods should be differentiated into lopping, fire and grazing. The forest canopy not only “canopy cover” and “canopy closure” based on the angular provides shelter to the ground vegetation but also conserve view used for the particular method. Forest canopy is one the land and soil. of the most important parameter for forest management The Oaks are dominant forest forming species in mid to and conservation. The canopies of Oak forests have various high elevation forest of the Himalaya. About 23 species of degrees of openings due to anthropogenic disturbances. It Oaks are distributed in the Himalaya and most of them are showed sparse distribution of trees to a dense canopy in Oak evergreen. Out of these, 5 evergreen Oak species viz. Phaliyant forest. There is no definite and perfect method for estimation Oak (Q. glauca Thunb), Banj Oak (Q. leucotrichophora A. of canopy cover. Thus, the aim of the present study is to Camus), Rianj Oak (Q. lanuginosa D. Don), Tilonj Oak determine the canopy cover through traditional line transect (Q. floribunda Lindl), and Kharsu Oak (Q. semecarpifolia method and densiometer and to analyze their appropriateness Smith) grow naturally in the Central Himalaya (Champion (Kumar et al., 2005). et al.,1968). Estimation of forest canopy cover is widely used in forest research and management, yet methods used MATERIALS AND METHODS to quantify canopy cover and the estimates they provide vary Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus) forest was selected greatly (Fiala et al., 2006). Canopy cover is often used as a for the canopy analysis. The study area is located between criterion for classifying stand structure in the forest (Wisdom 29°36’N latitude and 79°48’E longitude between 1800 et al., 2000). Despite the importance of quantitative estimates -1900 m elevations in Uttarakhand Himalaya. The sites were of canopy cover, there are no standard measurement methods surveyed frequently and ocular estimate was made to identify instead, estimates are derived with a wide variety of ground- the forest canopy as open (the overhead canopy was very based techniques. Commonly used ground-based methods sparse), moderate (the overhead canopy was sparse) and close include ocular estimates, the moosehorn (Robinson 1947), (the overhead canopy was almost close). Thus, a total of three spherical densitometer (Lemmon 1956), the densitometer canopies as open, moderate and close were identified for the (Stumpf 1993), hemispherical photography (Evans 1959), study and in each canopy types three sites were also identified. point counts, and the line-intercept method (Canfield At each site, 10 line intercept or transect and 10 densiometer 1941; O’Brien 1989). Less commonly cited ground-based readings were taken which come to total 30 samples for each

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 29 canopy and a total of 90 samples each for all site and canopy RESULTS AND DISCUSSION was studied. 10 line transect of 10m length were placed Across the sites and canopy cover, the percent cover varies randomly in the forest. The area occupied by canopy on the from 17.3 ± 7.0 to 80.4 ± 8.4 for Kailakhan forest in open transects were marked by observing the expanse of overhead and close canopied forest, respectively for transect method. canopy and determined the area occupied on the transect. Thus, Similarly, the value of canopy cover for densiometer varies this method is based on partly ocular and partly measurement. from 19.3 ± 2.8 to 86.9 ± 1.4 for Kailakhan forest (Table 1). Similarly in the same area 10 densiometer readings were The cover measured through densiometer was higher in all also taken. In densiometer, we assume four equi-spaced dots the sites except Hanumangarh and different canopy cover for in each square of the grid and systematically dots counts densiometer (t = 2.25 P< 0.01). equivalent to quarter-square canopy openings. The total counts The comparison was made for transect method and were multiplied by 1.04 to obtain percent of overhead area not densiometer among the canopy covers indicated that it was occupied by the canopy. The difference between this and 100 is always higher for the densiometer except hanumangarh, an estimation of over story canopy density in percent (Stumpf where it was higher for transect. The percent cover 1993). The data were statistically analyzed for standard varies from 26.4 ± 5.2 to 69.5 ± 4.9 for transect method error, t-test two-sample assuming equal variances and linear and 36.5 ± 4.1 to 75.8 ± 1.9 for open and closed canopied correlation coefficient (Snedecor et al., 1967). forest, respectively (Fig. 1). The t-test indicated that the value measured through densiometer was significantly higher in moderate canopy (t = 2.13 P< 0.04) while it was Table 1. Comparison of canopy cover at different sites not significant for open and close canopy. between transect and densiometer methods

Name of site Open Canopy Moderate canopy Close canopy Transect Densiometer Transect Densiometer Transect Densiometer Hanumangarh 38.2± 1.4 48.9± 9.7 51.9± 11.5 66.2± 5.4 73.9± 7.1 66.8± 2.2 Kailakhan 17.3± 7.0 19.3± 2.8 50.3± 8.5 65.2± 1.6 80.4± 8.4 86.9± 1.4 Pines 23.7± 7.5 41.3± 2.5 55.6± 8.9 63.2± 1.9 54.2± 8.1 73.6± 2.5

Fig. 1. Variation in canopy cover for transects and densiometer methods Fig. 2. Variation in canopy cover between transect and densiometer method across the canopy cover (T-Transect and D- Densiometer) across the sites T-Transect and D- Densiometer

The relationship was developed between transect and densiometer across the forest sites and canopy which indicated that it showed the positive correlation (r = 0.73 p≤ 0.05) (Fig. 3). The Oak forest of Himalaya witnesses several disturbances mainly human induced disturbances like lopping, cuttings, grazing and fire. The disturbances make survival of oak difficult in the area. Thus, these forests have different intensity of canopy openings as <30%, 30- 60% and >60% considered as open, moderate and close Fig. 3. Relationships for canopy cover between transect and densiometer method forests (Kumar et al., 2005).

30 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology The comparison made between transect and densiometer it concludes that there is a high correlation between the method indicated that it was significantly higher (t = 2.25 transect and densiometer method and therefore, both the P< 0.01) for spherical densiometer across the sites and methods will be convenient to study the vegetation analysis canopies. It may be pointed out that when the spherical of these Himalayan forests. densiometer is exposed under forest canopy the whole canopy in spherically occupied the points along the margins ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS of square of densiometer. This increased the canopy We express our sincere thanks to the Head, Department of occupancy in the sample and forest as well. Similarly, Ko Forestry and Environmental Science, Kumaun University et al. (2009) reported highest canopy cover estimates for Nainital for providing necessary facilities in the department. spherical densiometer when they studied the canopy cover by various methods in semiarid woodlands. Other studies REFERENCES have pointed out that the potential bias of overestimating Bunnell FL, Vales DJ (1990). Comparison of methods for canopy cover by using methods with wide angular views that estimating forest overstory cover. Differences among measure canopy closure, such as the densitometer (Cook et techniques. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 20 (1): al., 1995; Nuttle 1997). Vora (1988) Suggested that from an 101-107. organism or ecological process perspective, such angular canopy closure methods provides a more ecologically Canfield RH (1941). Application of the line interception meaningful parameter. The higher estimates from canopy method in sampling range vegetation. Journal of Forestry, closure methods can be greatly exaggerated in semi-arid 45: 388–394. woodlands because of the openness and short stature of the tree canopies (Jennings et al., 1999). In addition, as Champion HG, Seth SK (1968). A Revised survey of the forest canopies of small- to intermediate-sized trees often extend types of India. Manager of publications, Government of down to ground level, a measurement under a small tree India, Delhi. canopy can give a very high canopy cover estimate, greatly amplifying the effects from canopy closure methods. Cook JG, Stutzman TW, Bowers CW, Brenner KA, Irwin LL Similarly, it was reported that the field method pairs showed (1995). Spherical densiometers produce biased estimates of somewhat increasing variance at the intermediate to high forest canopy cover. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 23(4): 711-717. ranges (approximately 35-70%) of canopy cover (Ko et al., 2009). The ocular method is quicker and fairly accurate Evans GC, Coombe DE (1959). Hemispherical and woodland with a trained observer (Vora 1988). The densiometer takes canopy photography and light climate. Journal of Ecology, several more minutes at each plot and is subject to error 47: 103–113. in counting of intercept points by the observer. The ocular method works well in all size. Classes of vegetation and Fiala ACS, Garman SL, Gray AN (2006). Comparision of probably does a better job of estimating canopy cover as five canopy cover estimation techniques in the Western defined by drip lines of trees rather than canopy cover in Oregon Cascades. Forest Ecology and Management, terms of light penetration, although the latter is probably 232: 188-197. of greater biological significance. These results indicated that there is no significant difference between two methods. Jennings SB, Brown ND, Sheil D (1999). Assessing forest Thus, the co-relation coefficient indicated that both the canopies and understorey illumination: Canopy closure, methods will be convenient to study the vegetation analysis canopy and other measures. Forestry, 72(1): 59-74. of these Himalayan forests. Johansson T (1985). Estimating canopy density by the vertical CONCLUSION tube method. Forest Ecology and Management, 11: 139–144. The temperate Himalayan vegetation is dominated by sclerophyllous vegetation, particularly the Himalayan oaks Ko D, Bristow N, Greenwood D, Weisberg P (2009). Canopy (Quercus sp). These forests witness various natural and Cover estimation in semi-arid woodlands: Comparison of anthropogenic disturbances and showed different stages field-based and remote sensing methods.Forest Science, 55(2): of degradation viz. open to close canopy. For the study of 132-141. Himalayan vegetation, scientists use various methods to study the vegetation cover and other community characteristics. We Kumar A, Ram J (2005). Anthropogenic disturbances and plant have used line intercept or transect method and densiometer biodiversity in forests of Uttaranchal, Central Himalaya. for comparison of vegetation cover in Quercus forest. Thus, Biodiversity and Conservation, 14(2): 309-331.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 31 Lemmon PE (1956). A spherical densiometer for estimating forest overstory density. Forest Science, 2(4): 314-320.

Nuttle T (1997). Densiometer bias are we measuring the forest or the trees. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 25(3): 610-611.

O Brien RA (1989). Comparison of overstory canopy estimates on forest survey plots. Intermountain Research Station Research Paper, INT-GTR., 417(5): 1–5.

Robinson MW (1947). An instrument to measure forest crown cover. Forestry Chronicle, 23(1): 222–225.

Snedecor GW, Cochran WG (1967). Statistical Methods. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, 381- 418.

Stumpf KA (1993). The estimation of forest vegetation cover descriptions using a vertical densitometer. In Proc. of the Joint Inventory and Biometrics Working Groups Session at the SAF national convention, Indianapolis, Nov. 8-10.

Vora RS (1988). A Comparison of the spherical densiometer and ocular methods of estimating canopy cover. Great Basin Naturalist, 48(2): 10.

Walters J, Soos J (1962). The gimbal sight for the projection of the crown radius. University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry Research Note, No. 39.

Wisdom MJ, Holthausen RS, Wales BC, Hargis CD, Saab VA, Lee DC, Hann WJ, Rich TD, Rowland MM, Murphy WJ, Eames MR (2000). Source habitats for terrestrial vertebrates of focus in the interior Columbia basin: broad-scale trends and management implications. USDA forest service, pacific northwest research station, general technical report, PNWGTR. 485-529.

32 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Impact of aspect on association of quercus species: a case study from mukteshwar mahadev temple forest, kumaun himalaya

Poonam Mehta*1, 2, Balwant Kumar2, Kapil Bisht1, Shashi Upadhyay1 and K. Chandra Sekar1

1Centre for Biodiversity Conservation and Management, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India 2Biodiversity Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, S.S.J. Campus, Kumaun University, Almora, Uttarakhand, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Community structure and composition are the important factors affecting diversity pattern in plant communities. Pertinently, species diversity along altitudinal gradient and variation of aspect differs in different layers at different scale. Hence, the present study was conducted in Mukteshwar Mahadev temple forest in Nainital district of Uttarakhand to understand the vegetation structure, regeneration pattern and impact of aspect on the association of Quercus species. An altitudinal gradient of 2100- 2300m asl with different aspects was selected for present study. The study site was divided into four compartments with respect to different aspects. One plot of 50x50 m was laid down in each compartment and phytosociological analysis was conducted. In the present study, Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A. Camus showed dominance in three aspects viz. North East, North and West, while in the South aspect Q. leucotrichophora A. Camus was the dominant species followed by Q. floribunda with different associates in each compartment. The under story vegetation was better in northern and eastern slopes in comparison to the southern slopes possibly due to the invasion of Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob. The regeneration of Q. leucotrichophora A. Camus in south aspect was seemed to be excellent and in near future there is a possibility of replacement of other plant species by Q. leucotrichophora. The study revealed that aspect plays a major role in defining and controlling the vegetation pattern in the study area.

Keywords: Aspect, Mukteshwar Mahadev, Phytosociology, Quercus.

INTROCUCTION Q. lanata J. E. Sm. (Rianj), Q. leucotrichophora A. Camus Western Himalaya is known for its highly diverse (Banj) & Q. semecarpifoli Sm. (Kharsu)] in Western compositional pattern of forests. Composition of the Himalaya. forest is diverse, and varies from place to place because As Western Himalaya is represented by varied landscape of different land forms. Variation in climate, soil and and topography, the organization of biodiversity in most topography support tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and of the natural ecosystems is influenced by multiple alpine vegetation and in some areas even arid or semi arid environmental factors such as altitude, habitat, climate, vegetation is also reported (Singh 2006). The temperate slope, aspect etc. Among all of the environmental factors, region is dominated by broad leaved forests, among them aspect plays an important role in defining vegetation Oak (Quercus) constitutes a major portion. pattern. Hence the present study was designed to collect Oak forests represent climax vegetation between 1000- the quantitative information about role of aspect on the 3500 m asl in the region and play a vital role in conservation forest diversity and regeneration status of dominant trees of soil, water, native flora and fauna, thereby, providing at Mukteshwar Mahadev forest in Nainital district of numerous ecosystem services to mankind (Singh et al., Kumaun Himalaya. 2012). The forest community having variable topography of the area supports luxuriant growth of Quercus STUDY AREA AND METHODS leucotrichophora, Q. floribunda, Q. semecarpifolia The present study was conducted in Mukteshwar Mahadev and Pinus roxburghii (Singh et al., 1987). The oak is forest which is located at a distance of 51 km from the main represented by five evergreen species [Q. floribundaLindl. town of Nainital district, Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand ex A. Camus (Moru, Tilonj), Q. glauca Thunb. (Phalyant), in the month of May, 2018. Mukteshwar is located at

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 33 29˚28’20”N latitude to 79˚38’52”E longitude with an RESULTS AND DISCUSSION altitude ranging from 2100 to 2300m asl. Mukteshwar is Species composition covered by dense forests and on the other side it offers In the present study, a total of 28 plant species belonging splendid view of enchanting valleys and the Himalaya. to 16 families (14 angiospermic and 2 gymnospermic) and Mukteshwar got its name from a 350 year old temple 25 genera have been recorded. Out of which 7 were tree of Mukteshwar Mahadev or Mukteshwar Dham whose species followed by 10 shrub species and 11 herb species residing deity is Lord Shiva. The forest around the temple (Table 2). The tree diversity of forest was belonging provided a scope for this study due to accessibility of all the to 5 families, out of which 3 (Ericaceae, Fagaceae and four aspects. Mukteshwar has a subtropical climate, which Sapindaceae) of angiospermic group and 2 (Cupressaceae is similar to other parts of northern India, with distinct and Pinaceae) from gymnosperms, shrubs were belonging summer, monsoon and winter seasons. However, due to its to 8 families (Adoxaceae, Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, high elevation, Mukteshwar is spared of the intense heat Berberidaceae, Fabaceae, Hypericaceae, Rosaceae and of lower-lying towns and cities. It has cold winters and Thymelaceae) and herb diversity was belonging to 7 relatively cool summer with drastically escalated rain, in families (Asparagaceae, Acanthaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, relation with lower altitudes, and frequent fog. Summer is Rosaceae, Lamiaceae and Poaceae) of flowering plants. The warm with moderate rainfall, while the monsoon season detailed characteristics of different forest compartmentsare is slightly cooler and fetches much heavier rain. Winters given in Table 1. can be quite cool and temperatures below freezing are not Quercus floribunda was found the most dominant species unusual. Snowfall occurs occasionally in December and wall compartments. The density of Q. floribunda was highest January, though it is sparse, while the heavy rainfall event in COM 1 with 580 plants ha-1 followed by COM 3 (440 plants occurs during the monsoon season stretching from July to ha-1), COM 4 (340 plants ha-1) and COM 2 (280 plants ha-1), September. and whereas the saplings density were recorded as same as the trees in COM 1 (440 plants ha-1) followed by COM 2 (280 Vegetation analysis plants ha-1) 1340 plant ha-1, COM 3 (180 plants ha-1) and COM 4 One plot of 50x50 m was marked at each compartment (120 plants ha-1). However, the density of Q. leucotrichophora and sampling was done in five quadrates of 10x10 m (four (380 plants ha-1) was greater than Q. floribunda in south aspect. at corners of the plot and one at the centre). Trees and The regeneration of Q. leucotrichophora in south aspect was saplings were analyzed within the same quadrate. Plants seemed to be excellent and in near future there is a possibility having circumference more than 30 cm at breast height of replacement of other plant species by Q. leucotrichophora. (1.37m above the ground) were considered as tree, plants The under story vegetation and regeneration pattern of having CBH lower than 30 cm but not less than 10 cm dominant species was better in northern and eastern slopes in were considered as sapling, and plants with CBH below 10 comparison to the southern slopes probably due to the invasion cm were considered as seedling. Subsequently quadrates of Ageratina adenophora in south. The distribution pattern of 5x 5 m were laid with in 10x10 m quadrates for study of (Regular, Random and Contagious) of tree species is shown in shrubs and 1x1 m for herbs (Knight 1975). Table 3.

Quantitative analysis Impact of aspect on species diversity of Mukteshwar The vegetation data were quantitatively analyzed for Mahadev forest density (D), frequency (F), abundance (A) & A/F ratio The species richness (number of species) of tree, sapling, of trees & shrubs following Curtis et al. (1950). Value seedling, shrub and herb strata indicated that the forest of A/F < 0.025 was categorized as regular distribution, compartments were comparatively species rich. The COM between 0.026 to 0.050 random and > 0.050 contagious 1 and COM 2 were relatively species poor than COM 3 and type of distribution by Kershaw (1973). Similarly COM 4 although dominance was shared by a number of the sum of relative frequency (RF), relative density (RD), species. On the basis of Density, Frequency, Basal Area and and relative basal area (RBA) represented as Important IVI, the species Quercus floribunda, Q. leucotrichophora, Value Index (IVI) for various species and was computed Rhododendron arboreum were the most important and (Curtis 1959). The species richness was determined dominant species in all forest compartments of Mukteshwar as the number of species per unit area ‘Menhinick’s Mahadev forest (Table 4). However the abundance of Q. richness index (DMn; Whittaker 1965). However leucotrichophora seedlings in south aspect (COM 4) of this diversity (H’) was determined by using Shannon Wiener forest stand may be an indication towards the replacement of Index by Shannon et al. (1963). The concentration of dominant species (Q. floribunda by Q. leucotrichophora) in dominance (Cd) or Simpson’s index was calculated rest of the compartments (aspect) in near future. The forests (Simpson 1949). of Q. floribunda and Q. leucotrichophora which are later

34 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology successional and climax species, when disturbed by various anthropogenic factors (i.e. lopping, cutting, burning etc) are invaded by the early succession species such as Lyonia ovalifolia and Persea duthiei. But at the time of study no sign of lopping and burning were encountered in the study site, the forest was entirely intact.

Table 1. Qualitative and quantitative characters of studied compartments of Mukteshwar Mahadev forest, Nainital district

Alt. Dominant tree Associated Associated COM Aspect NS NG NF NT NSh NH Associated herbs (m asl) species tree shrubs

Asparagus racemosus, Berberis Q. leucotri- aristata, Daphne Fragaria vesca, COM chophora, papyracea, Ma- Polygonatum, multi- NE 2141 12 9 7 3 6 3 Q. floribunda 1 Cedrus honia nepaulensis, florum, Polygonatum deodara Rubus elipticus, verticillatum Viburnum cotinifolium

Bidens biternatea, Berberis aristata, Micromeria biflora, Daphne papyra- Rhodo- Polygonatum multiflo- cea, Hypericum dendron rum, Trifolium repens COM dyeri, Indigofera N 2273 14 13 11 3 7 4 Q. floribunda arboreum, 2 heterantha, Ma- Cedrus honia nepaulensis, deodara Rubus elipticus, Rubus niveus

Rhodo- Asparagus rac- dendron emosus, Daphne Cynodon dactylon, arboreum, papyracea, Indi- Dicliptera acuminata, COM W 2298 14 14 12 4 5 5 Q. floribunda Lyonia gofera heterantha, Polygonatum multiflo- 3 ovalifolia, Rubus elipticus, rum, Salvia abicaulis, Aesculus Viburnum cotini- Trifolium repens indica folium

Q. flori- Ageratina adeno- Ageratum conyzoides, bunda, Rho- phora, Berberis Dicliptera, acuminata, dodendron aristata, Hyper- COM Q. leucotri- Micromeria biflora, S 2288 17 15 11 5 6 6 arboreum, icum dyeri, Ma- 4 chophora Polygonatum multiflo- Cedrus deo- honia nepaulensis, rum, Salvia abicaulis, dara, Thuja Rubus elipticus, Sonchus oleraceus orientalis Rubus niveus

Abbreviations- COM- Compartment, NS-Number of Species NG- Number of genera, NF- Number of families, NT- Number of tree species, NSh- Number of shrub species, NH- Number of herb species

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 35 Table 2. Plant species distribution in different compartments of the studied forest

S. No. Species name Family Life forms Compartments COM 1 COM 2 COM 3 COM 4 1. Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. Sapindaceae Tree - - + - 2. Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob. Asteraceae Shrub - - - + 3. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Herb - - - + 4. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Asparagaceae Shrub + - + - 5. Berberis aristata DC. Berberidaceae Shrub + + - + 6. Bidens berteriana Spreng. Asteraceae Herb - + - - 7. Cedrus deodara Roxb. ex D Don G. Don Pinaceae Tree + + - + 8. Cynodon dactylon L. Pers. Poaceae Herb - - + - 9. Daphne papyracea Wall. ex G. Don Thymelaceae Shrub + + + - 10. Dicliptera acuminata Ruiz & Pav Juss. Acanthaceae Herb - - + + 11. Fragaria vesca L. Rosaceae Herb + - - - 12. Hypericum dyeri Rehdar Hypericaceae Shrub - + - + 13. Indigofera heterantha Wall ex Brandis Fabaceae Shrub - + + - 14. Lyonia ovalifolia Wall.Drude Ericaeae Tree - - + - 15. Mahonia nepaulensis DC. Berberidaceae Shrub + + - + 16. Micromeria biflora Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Benth. Lamiaceae Herb - + - + 17. Polygonatum multiflorum L. All. Asparagaceae Herb + + + + 18. P .verticillatum L. All. Asparagaceae Herb + - - - 19. Quercus floribunda Lindl ex A. Camus Fagaceae Tree + + + + 20. Q. leucotrichophora A. Camus Fagaceae Tree + - - + 21. Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Ericaeae Tree - + + +

22. Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rosaceae Shrub + + + +

23. Rubus niveus Thunb. Rosaceae Shrub - + - + 24. Salvia abicaulis Benth. Lamiaceae Herb - - + + 25. Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae Herb - - - + 26. Thuja orientalis L. Cupressaceae Tree - - - + 27. Trifolium repense L. Fabaceae Herb - + + - 28. Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don Adoxaceae Shrub + - + -

Table 3. Compartment wise distribution pattern of tree species in each aspect

Compartments S. No Tree species COM 1 COM 2 COM 3 COM 4 1 Aesculus indica - Random - 2 Cedrus deodara - Regular - Random 3 Lyonia ovalifolia - - Contagious - 4 Quercus floribunda Contagious Contagious Random Random 5 Q. leucotrichophora Random - - Random 6 Rhododendron arboreum - Random Random Random 7 Thuja orientalis - - - Random

36 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 4. Aspect wise phytosociological characters of each compartments COM 1- North East Species name Stage A RD RF RBA IVI A/F H’ Tree 8.6 63 45 31 140 0.086 1.6 Quercus floribunda Sapling 5.5 32 36 5 74 0.069 0.9 Tree 1 1.5 9.1 54 65 0.05 0 Quercus leucotrichophora Sapling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tree 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cedrus deodara Sapling 2 2.9 9.1 9.4 21 0.1 0.1 COM 2- North Tree 5.8 47 29 18 94 0.058 1.3 Quercus floribunda Sapling 3.5 23 24 3.1 49 0.044 0.7 Tree 2.8 18 24 20 61 0.034 0.6 Rhododendron arboreum Sapling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tree 2 13 24 60 96 0.025 0.5 Cedrus deodara Sapling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 COM 3- West Tree 4.4 33 25 27 85 0.044 1 Quercus floribunda Sapling 3 14 15 5 34 0.05 0.4 Tree 3.4 26 25 26 77 0.034 0.9 Rhododendron arboreum Sapling 3.5 11 10 4.9 25 0.088 0.3 Tree 2.5 7.6 10 37 54 0.063 0.2 Lyonia ovalifolia Sapling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tree 2 9.1 15 0.8 25 0.033 0.3 Aesculus indica Sapling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 COM 4- South Tree 3.4 19 16 12 47 0.034 1.9 Quercus floribunda Sapling 2 6.6 9.7 2.7 19 0.033 0.7 Tree 3.8 21 16 24 61 0.038 2 Quercus leucotrichophora Sapling 3.8 16 13 2.8 32 0.047 1.5 Tree 2.6 14 16 17 47 0.026 1.5 Rhododendron arboreum Sapling 1.5 3.3 6.5 2.2 12 0.038 0.3 Tree 2.3 7.7 9.7 16 34 0.039 0.7 Thuja orientalis Sapling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tree 2.8 12 13 23 48 0.034 1.2 Cedrus deodara Sapling 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As observed in the present study; the south aspect was species Financial support from the National Mission for Sustaining rich and dominated by Q. leucotrichophora while in the other the Himalayan Ecosystem, Task Force-3 ‘Forest Resources aspects Q. floribunda was dominant, considering aspect in and Plant Biodiversity’ Government of India is gratefully besides this the south aspect was invaded by two invasive acknowledged. Thanks are due to the Director, GBPNIHESD species. The present study concludes that long term and Head of Department Botany, S.S.J. Campus, Almora monitoring of that forest may help in understanding the for providing laboratory facilities. changes taking place in distribution of plant species, and intensity of invasion over time. The future studies on the same forest can also correlate the climate change impact on vegetation distribution.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 37 REFERENCES Curtis JT, McIntosh RP (1950). The Interrelation of certain analytic and synthetic phytosociological characters. Ecology, 31(1): 434-455.

Curtis JT (1959). The Vegetation of Wisconsin. An Ordination of plant communities, University Wisconsin press, Madison Wisconsin, 657.

Kershaw KA (1973). Quantitative and Dynamic Plant Ecology, Elbsd and Edward Arnold, London, 308.

Knight DH (1975). A phytosociological analysis of species rich tropical forest on Barroclorada Island. Panama. Ecological Monographs, 45: 259- 284.

Shannon CE, Weaver W (1963). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, USA. 117.

Simpson EH (1949). Measurement of diversity. Nature, 1(1) 163- 688.

Singh G, Rawat GS (2012). Quantitative analysis of tree species diversity in different oak (Quercus spp.) dominated forests in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Notulae Scientia Biologicae, 4(4): 132-140.

Singh JS, Singh SP (1987). Forest vegetation of the Himalaya. Botanical Review, 53(1): 80-192.

Singh JS, (2006). Sustainable development of the Indian Himalayan region: Linking ecological and economic concerns. Current Science, 90(6): 784-788.

Whittaker RH (1965). Dominance and diversity in land plant communities. Science, 147: 250- 260.

38 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Timberline forests: potential habitats for conserving Himalayan medicinal lichen diversity in Kailash sacred landscape part of india

K. Bisht1, 2*, S. Upadhyay1, 2 and Y. Joshi2, 3

1 Centre for Biodiversity Conservation and Management, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India 2 Lichenology Laboratory, Department of Botany, S.S.J. Campus, Kumaun University, Almora, Uttarakhand, India 3 Department of Botany, Rajasthan University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

*Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT Present study is based on several expeditions conducted in the four high altitude valleys viz. Byans, Chaudans, Darma and Johar of Pithoragarh district. The study was focused on exploration and enumeration of economic and medicinally important lichens growing in those regions. The study area having an altitudinal range 2500 - 4600 m asl comprising timberline forests and alpine meadows revealed the occurrence of 45 medicinally important lichen species belonging to 23 genera and 15 families. The medicinal values of these species have been reported by various workers and these species are used by different ethnic communities as different remedies throughout the world. The timberline forests exhibit the climax vegetation and hence bigger and older trees of these regions provide a suitable habitat for epiphytic lichens to grow and thrive. Remoteness from the human habitats protects these forests from lopping and grazing and hence the anthropogenic pressure becomes negligible. The study concludes that the timberline forests can be the potential sites for conserving lichen diversity.

Keywords: Himalaya, Lichens, Medicinal, Pithoragarh, Timberline.

INTRODUCTION The biological activities of lichens are mostly due to Timberline ecotone is an integral part of mountain systems, the presence of secondary metabolites present in them. which represents assemblage of temperate, sub-alpine and Approximately 1050 secondary metabolites produced by alpine ecosystems. As a transition between alpine and temperate lichens have been identified (Stocker et al., 2008). The ecosystems, timberline provides a corridor for species to secondary metabolites produced by lichens are unique migrate across these two ecosystems. Owing to the special with respect to those of higher plants (Yucel et al., 2007). position, timberline harbors several unique, representative Chopra et al. (1958) for the first time described the economic and sensitive biodiversity elements. Being highest in terms of uses of lichens growing in different parts of India with altitude, timberline in Himalaya is considered special as the their chemical constituents. Worldwide review on ethno- indicator of climate change. However, our understanding on medicinal information on more than 50 lichen taxa has been indicator value of timberlines is meager. Some studies have carried out (Upreti et al., 2007). Nayaka et al. (2010) have attempted to establish uniqueness value, floristic sensitivity enumerated 137 lichen species of medicinal importance from and responses of timberline vegetation to anthropogenic India. Hence, the present study was designed to identify disturbances (Rawal et al., 1997; Gairola et al., 2009 2015; and enumerate the medicinally important lichens of KSL Rai et al., 2012). Few others have highlighted conservation part of India because some regions of the KSL part of India importance of timberline in Western Himalaya (Rawal et al., have been well explored by several workers for floristic 1997; Dhar 2000; Rawal et al., 2018). - taxonomic account (Pant 2002; Joshi et al., 2008; Joshi Lichens are among the most widely distributed and dominant 2010), ecological account (Upadhyay 2017; Upadhyay et al., groups of organisms on the globe, and cover as much as eight 2018a,b), and lichenometric studies of glaciers (Bisht 2018; percent of the earth’s surface (Ahmadjian 1995). Besides Bisht et al., 2018a, b). their various ecological functions lichens are also used commercially as spices, perfumes, dyes, food, medicines, STUDY AREA AND METHODS animal feed, architect models, wreath and floral decorations Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) is a trans-boundary (Llano 1948; Moxham 1986; Ding 1988; Sochting 1999). landscape covering a large region of about 31175 km2

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 39 Table 1. Attributes of study sites in different valleys Valley Study area Major Forest Types Altitudinal Range (masl) Alpine scrub, Betula utilis, Juniperus communis, J. indica 3225 - 4609 Gunji - Adi Kailash Glacier Byans and Pinus wallichiana Gunji - Nabhidang Alpine scrub, Abies pindrow, Pinus wallichiana 3225 - 4263 Alpine pasture, Betula utilis Broadleaf temperate Chaudans Himkhola - Shekuakhan mixed forest, Quercus semecarpifolia, Rhododendron 2475 - 4266 campanulatum and Taxus wallichiana Alpine scrub, Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, Juniperus Darma Nagling – Sipu 2871 - 3478 indica and Pinus wallichiana

Alpine scrub, Broadleaf temperate mixed forest, Taxus Johar Lilam - Milam Glacier wallichiana, Betula utilis, Juniperus communis and J. 2406 - 3579 indica around Great Mt. Kailash in China, India and Nepal RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (Zomer et al., 2011). The Indian part of KSL extends over The study revealed the occurrence of 45 medicinally important an area of 7,120 km2 comprising two districts Pithoragarh lichen species belonging to 23 genera and 15 families from (6826.35 km2) and Bageshwar (293.81 km2) of Kumaun timberline forests of KSL-India. Parmeliaceae was the division in Uttarakhand state. The KSL part of India dominant family with 14 species followed by Cladoniaceae shows great variability in geological and physiographic (9; Table 2). Maximum number of medicinally important lichens forms. It represents the three major physiographic zones were reported from Chaudans valley (44 species) followed by Byans viz. the Trans-Himalaya, the Greater Himalaya and the (32), Johar (31) and Darma (15). 11 species viz. Dermatocarpon Lesser Himalaya. The diverse physiographic features of reticulatum, Diploschistes scruposus, Dolichousnea longissima, the landscape provide opportunities to exhibit richness, Flavoparmelia caperata, Hypotrachyna cirrhata, Peltigera representativeness, and uniqueness of biodiversity polydactylon, Protoparmeliopsis muralis, Ramalina conduplicans, components. R. sinensis, Stereocaulon foliolosum and Xanthoria elegans The present study was carried out from September 2014 showed 100% frequency while 09 species viz. Cladia aggregata, to September 2017 in various timberline forests of four high Lobaria isidiosa, L. japonica, Myelochroa irrugans, Parmelaria altitude valleys viz. Byans, Chaudans, Darma and Johar of thomsonii, Parmotrema sancti-angelii, Peltigera canina, P. KSL - India (Table 1). dolichorhiza and P. horizontalis showed 25% frequency (Table 2). The macrolichens were collected from bark of trees, On the basis of Sorenson’s similarity coefficient, the maximum fallen twigs, soil and rocks. The samples were packed in similarity was found between Chaudans & Johar valley (82.7%), paper bags and brought to the Lichenology Laboratory, while minimum similarity was found between Chaudans and Department of Botany, S.S.J. Campus, Kumaun Darma Valley (50.8%; Table 3). University, Almora. The collected samples were air dried. There is a possibility for finding new biodiversity elements The identification was done on the basis of morphological in the remote regions of KSL; during recent explorations some characters of thallus, reproductive structures, colour, size species of lichenicolous fungi new to science and new records and shape under stereo zoom dissecting microscope (SZ2 of lichens and lichenicolous fungi for India were reported (Joshi ILST OLYMPUS). Anatomy of thallus and fruiting bodies et al., 2018a, b). According to Upreti et al. (1995), the diversity was studied by cutting thin sections and examining under of Indian lichen flora has undergone a considerable decline due compound microscope (B-150 DB OPTIKA). Spot tests to urbanization, commercial overexploitation, forest fires and were performed with the help of reagents K (Potassium grazing, deforestation and unsystematic forestry practices are the Hydroxide), C (Calcium Hypochlorite) and Pd (para- major threats to the lichen diversity (Upreti et al., 1995; Wolseley Phenylene Diamine). Lichen samples were identified 1995). In the present time biodiversity have been dwindled due with the help of published literature (Divakar et al., 2005; to unsustainable harvesting. To overcome with these threats Awasthi 2007). The economic and medicinal value of months when the herders inhabit the alpine meadow. Lichen lichens was compiled from published literature. Based on flora is also protected on the phorophytes in timberlines because the occurrence of the species in different sites, frequency the timberlines are far from the settlements and the trees are not of each species was calculated by Curtis et al. (1950). lopped for fodder fuel wood collection throughout the year, only Similarity coefficient was calculated as per Sorenson few trees are lopped during summer season by the herders and (1948) for comparing medicinally important macro lichens Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Yartsa-Gambu) collectors for fuelwood found on different studied valleys of KSL. and making their tents.

40 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 2. Macrolichens reported from Kailash Sacred Landscape India and their medicinal value (Source: Nayaka et al., 2010) Lichen Taxon Kailash Sacred Landscape valleys S. No. Frequency (%) Remedies (Family) Byans Chaudans Darma Johar Bulbothrix set- schwanensis Inhibition of tyrosinase and xanthine oxidase 1 + + - + 75 Zahlbr Hale activity (Parmeliaceae) Antimicrobial against Bacillus subtilis, Trichophyton Cladia aggregata mentagrophytes and cytotoxicity against murine 2 Swaerz Nyl. + - - - 25 leukemia cells and slow growing BS-C-1 cells (Cladoniaceae) (African green monkey kidney, ATCC CCL 26) Cladonia chloro- phaea Florke in 3 - + - + 50 Wound healing Sommerf. Spreng. (Cladoniaceae) Cladonia coccifera Decoction used for fever and whooping cough in 4 L. Willd. + + - - 50 children (Cladoniaceae) Cladonia coniocraea 5 Flörke Spreng. + + - - 50 It is the source of fumar protocetraric acid (Cladoniaceae) Antimicrobial against Bacillus subtilis, Candida Cladonia fimbriata albicans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and 6 L. Fr. - + + + 75 cytotoxic against murine leukemia cells and slow (Cladoniaceae) growing BS-C-1 cells (African green monkey kidney, ATCC CCL 26) Cladonia furcata Exhibits cancer chemopreventive, cytotoxic 7 Huds. Schrad. + + - - 50 activity and antimicrobial activity (Cladoniaceae) Cladonia humilis 8 With. J. Laundon - + - + 50 Exhibits superoxide dismutase like activity (Cladoniaceae) Cladonia pyxidata L. Traditionally used to treat whooping cough and as 9 Hoffm. + + + - 75 a febrifuge in Europe (Cladoniaceae) Coccocarpia pal- Cytotoxic against murine leukemia cells and slow micola (Sprengel) 11 + + - + 75 growing BSS-C-1 cells (African green monkey Aevid. and Galloway kidney, Atcc CCL 26) (Coccocarpiaceae)

Anti-oxidant and antimicrobial activity Used for high blood pressure, as a diuretic, for Dermatocarpon min- expelling parasites, for malnutrition in children, 12 iatum (L.) Mann + + + + 100 for dysentery, for improving digestion, and for (Verrucariaceae) abdominal distention. Drunk as decoction or as soup

Diploschistes Antibacterial against Bacillus cereus, B. scruposus (Schreber) 13 + + + + 100 megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus and Norman Klebsiella pneumoniae (Thelotremataceae)

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 41 Kailash Sacred Landscape valleys S. No. Lichen Taxon Frequency (%) Remedies Byans Chaudans Darma Johar

Heterodermia In India Nepalese of Chaunje Basti, near Gangtok diademata (Taylor) in Sikkim apply this lichen on cuts and wound as 16 + + - + 75 D.D. Awasthi plaster to protect from water and infection. It is (Physciaceae) locally called ‘Dhungo Kuseto Jhau’

Heterodermia The methanolic extraxt exhibits lipid podocarpa (Bél) peroxidation and tyrosinase enzyme activity, 17 + + - + 75 D.D. Awasthi while zeorin isolated from the same exhibited (Physciaceae) antioxidant activity

It is used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine Hypotrachyna under the name ‘Chharila’ as carminative and cirrhata (Fr.) aphrodisiac and considered useful in dyspepsia, Divakar, A. Crespo, spermatorrhoea, amenorrhoea, calculi, diseases 18 + + + + 100 Sipman, Elix & of blood and heart, stomach disorders, enlarged Lumbsch spleen, bronchitis, bleeding piles, Scabies, (Parmeliaceae) Leprosy, excessive salivation, soreness of throat, tooth-ache and general pain Hypotrachyna nepalensis Taylor Divakar, 19 + + - + 75 Used in the treatment of toothache and sore throat A. Crespo, Sipman, Elix & Lumbsch (Parmeliaceae) Lobaria isidiosa 20 Mull. Arg. Vainio - + - - 25 Antitumor agent (Lobariaceae) Lobaria japonica 21 Zahlbr Asahina - + - - 25 Antitumor agent (Lobariaceae) Lobaria pseudopul- 22 monaria Gyeln. + + - + 75 Antitumor agent (Lobariaceae) Lobaria retigera Skin diseases 23 Bory Trev. + + - + 75 (Lobariaceae) Myelochroa irrugans 24 - + - - 25 Inhibits tyrosine activity Nyl. Elix & Hale

Parmelaria thomsonii Stirt. D.D. The Lepchas of Sikkim use the smoke of this 25 - + - - 25 Awasthi lichen to relive eye pain (Parmeliaceae) Parmotrema austros- 26 inense Zahlbr Hale + + - + 75 Beta-glucosidase inhibitor activity (Parmeliaceae)

42 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Kailash Sacred Landscape valleys S. No. Lichen Taxon Frequency (%) Remedies Byans Chaudans Darma Johar Parmotrema prae- sorediosum Nyl. 27 + + - + 75 Beta-glucosidase inhibitor activity Hale (Parmeliaceae) The tea is commonly prepared in late afternoon Parmotrema reticu- and left for one night before being drunk to 28 latum Taylor Choisy + + - + 75 relieve discomfort from kidney disorders or (Parmeliaceae) venereal disease

Parmotrema saccati- Exhibits inhibition of Epstein-Barrvirus 29 lobum Taylor Hale + + - + 75 activation induced teleocidin B-4 and superoxide (Parmeliaceae) dismutase activity

Parmotrema sanc- In Madhya Pradesh, India, Gond and Oraon tribe ti-angelii (Lynge ) use this lichen by mixing the ash with mustard or 30 - + - - 25 Hale linseed oil to treat ring-worm like skin disease of (Parmeliaceae) the neck Used for blurred vision, bleeding from uterus, Parmotrema tincto- bleeding from external injuries, sores and 31 rum Nyl. Hale + + - + 75 swelling, chronic dermatitis and localized (Parmeliaceae) swelling The apothecia of P. canina resemble vaguely of Peltigera canina L. dog teeth (doctrine of signature) and hence it is 32 Willd. - + - - 25 widely used for treating rabies and it is popular (Peltigeraceae) as dog lichen Peltigera dolichorhi- 33 za Nyl. Nyl. - + - - 25 Cytotoxic against murine leukemia cells (Peltigeraceae)

Peltigera horizonta-

In India Lepchas and Nepalese of Skyong Valley, Peltigera polydacty- north Sikkim apply the paste of P. polydactylon 35 lon Neck Hoffm. + + + + 100 to cuts to stop bleeding and as an antiseptic, that (Peltigeraceae) cure wounds and it is locally called as 'Jhau'

P. amara is taken internally in cases of Pertusaria amara intermittent fever. It is implied that this use was 36 Ach. Nyl. - + - + 50 because of its bitter taste, as a replacement for (Pertusariaceae) quinine

Protoparmeliopsis Antibacterial against Bacillus cereus, B. muralis var. muralis 37 + + + + 100 megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus and Schreb Rabenh. Klebsiella pneumoniae (Lecanoraceae)

Punctelia rudecta 38 Ach. Krog + + - + 75 Antibacterial against A. foecalis and E. coli (Parmeliaceae)

Ramalina 39 conduplicans Vainio + + + + 100 Used in inflammation (Ramalinaceae) Ramalina sinensis 40 Jatta + + + + 100 Antimicrobial (Ramalinaceae)

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 43 Kailash Sacred Landscape valleys S. No. Lichen Taxon Frequency (%) Remedies Byans Chaudans Darma Johar

Stereocaulon foli- Exhibits significant antibacterial activity against 41 osum + + + + 100 virulent strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Stereocaulaceae) H37Rv

Used for dizziness, kidney infections, weakness, Sulcaria sulcata Lev heart palpitation, night sweating, edema, impetigo Bystrek ex Brodo and sores, used for aching back and legs, traumatic + + - + 75 and D. Hawks. bleeding, menstrual irregularities, uterus (Alectoriaceae) prolapses, epilepsy, paralysis, impotence, Drunk 42 decoction or applied to affected area

Xanthoria elegans Exhibits cancer chemopreventive and cytotoxic 44 (Links) Th. Fr. + + + + 100 activity (Teloschistaceae)

Total 32 44 15 31

Table 3. Sorenson’s similarity coefficient among studied and provide favorable environmental conditions for valleys (in percentage) the growth, dispersal and development of lichens. The timberlines not only harbor unique phytodiversity Byans Chaudans Darma Johar but also are important corridors for the movement of faunal diversity and provide shelter and food for Byans 100.0 81.6 55.3 82.5 wildlife also. Since, lichens are food source for several wild animals, conserving lichens may also play Chaudans 100.0 50.8 82.7 a crucial role in the conservation of wild fauna in KSL – India. Darma 100.0 56.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Johar 100.0 Authors are grateful to Dr. Ranbeer S. Rawal, Nodal Person KSLCDI – India and Director G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and CONCLUSION Sustainable Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, The ecosystem of timberlines are naturally conserved Uttarakhand for providing financial support under Kailash and protected without any legal governance. Therefore, Sacred Landscape Conservation and Development can be the potential sites for conserving the lichen Initiative (KSLCDI) to conduct field explorations in diversity because they face lesser human interference Pithoragarh district.

44 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology REFERENCES Joshi S (2010). Diversity of lichens in Pindari and Milam Ahmadjian V (1995). Lichens are more important than you regions of Kumaun Himalaya. Ph. D. Thesis, Kumaun think. Bio. Science, 45: 124. University, Nainital, Uttarakhand.

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46 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology APPLICATIONS AND ROLES OF LICHENS IN MONITORING AND CONSERVATION OF HIMALAYAN ENVIRONMENT

Ashutosh Paliwal1, Rekha Gahtori1, Amrita Kumari1, Nidhi Negi2, Garima Chand2, Penny Joshi2, Lalit M. Tewari3, Yogesh Joshi4 and Santosh. K. Upadhyay1*

1Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Campus Bhimtal, Uttarakhand, India 2Department of Chemistry, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India 3Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India 4Department of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

*Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT The Himalayan mountains harbour very rich biodiversity. Due to its unique geography and associated biodiversity, Himalaya is a source of wealth of natural resources and has been attracting environmentalists, Conversationalists as well as researchers working on medicinal plants. A smaller fraction of the flora of this region has been well studied for their morphological/ genomic features and economic and medicinal value, whereas, much of the plant biodiversity is yet to be explored. One of the least explored plant groups of this region is represented by a symbiotic association between algae and fungi, called ‘lichens’. In lichen, the fungal partner provides shelter to the alga, whereas, the alga carries out photosynthesis to arrange food for this association. Lichens have many industrial and medicinal uses and are also bio-indicators of air quality. These are abundant in the regions of Himalaya with less anthropogenic activity; however, in the urbanized or industrialized area, due to increasing level of SO2 pollutants lichen biodiversity is being severely damaged. Lichen rich zones provide a rapid and qualitative assessment of the air quality and also help in bio-accumulation of heavy metals and cleaning of environmental xenobiotics by bioremediation. Lichens are also the primary colonizers and help in succession of lands/ forest areas after wildfire. Therefore, lichens play important role as bioindicators, in the bioremediation of the environmental pollutants, as well as in the colonization of the burnt and barren surfaces in forests.

Keywords: Lichens, Bio-indicators, Bio-monitors, Bio-accumulators, Bioremediation.

INTRODUCTION 1000 secondary metabolites belonging to various classes viz. The synergetic association between algae and fungi in which diterpene, triterpene, dibenzofuran, depsides, depsidones, algae arrange food via photosynthesis to their companion, anthraquinones, xanthones, usnic acid and pulvinic acid while fungi offer shelter to its partner, are collectively grouped derivatives (Dayan et al. 2001) that makes them unique and into lichens (Sudarshan et al., 2010). These organisms are full of immense medicinal and commercial potential. Many perpetual, buoyant and are able to live for many years in of these secondary metabolites are normally absent in any extreme conditions such as snowy Himalayas to barren other group of plants. areas (Maphangwa et al., 2012). India has a rich diverse flora of lichens contributing 15% of total global lichen flora Role of lichens in the environment (Upreti 1998) and is represented by 2714 species Lichens have multiple roles to play in the environment. (Sinha et al., 2018). Lichens are associated with nutrient (particularly Nitrogen) Because of their immense importance in the field of cycling and are also bio-indicators for various pollutants medicines and spices, lichens have been used throughout the present in the environment. Besides, they have the capability world since prehistoric time and are exported from temperate to accumulate heavy metals and radioactive compounds. regions of the Himalayas including Himachal Pradesh and These various roles of lichens in the environment have been Uttarakhand, which are the reservoirs for lichen diversity. described as under. Besides this, lichens have been reported to be used for several other purposes, such as, dyes, food, animal feed, Lichens in the cycling of nutrients architect models, wreath and floral decorations, perfumes, Lichens tend to absorb air and rain-borne nutrients from and as test organisms for atmospheric pollution (Anonymous environment for their use and thereby contribute in nutrient 1962; Moxham 1986). It is the presence of approximately recycling in ecosystem (Knops et al., 1991). Members of

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 47 cyanolichen species help in nitrogen fixation through their fatal as well. Lichens are enormously biologically diverse symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria which provide a (Hawksworth 2001) and functionally important in terrestrial significant amount of nitrogen to forest ecosystem (Godoyet ecosystems (Arseneault et al., 1997). For monitoring of al., 2001). In a recent study, Kobylinski et al. (2015) reveal ecosystem health, a sensitive, relevant and measurable that higher cyanolichen abundance elevates foliar Nitrogen indicator is required. Lichens fit for most of these criteria in host tree and cyanolichens also balance the nitrogen in because they can persist through the environmental extremes subalpine fir forest and sub-boreal interior hybrid spruce related to humidity, temperature, wind and air pollutants. (Kobylinski et al., 2015). Use of living organisms or their remains has been suggested Gauslaa et al. (2012) quantified the higher light as an indicator of environmental health in either quantitative tolerance of cyanolichens and concluded that cyanolichens (bio-monitoring) or qualitative (bio-indication) terms associated with humid climates but more resistant to drying (Markert et al., 2011). Pertaining to their unique biology, light treatment. lichens are important bio-indicators due to their sensitivity towards pollutants, especially sulphur dioxide (Saxena et Lichens in the colonization of forests after wildfire al., 2007). They are also bio-monitors for trace elements and Forest wildfire critically affects the biodiversity and species carry out heavy metal accumulation and deposition in their composition of a forest. However, it often provides a thalli (Garty 2001; Conti et al., 2001). The diversity of lichens competition free habitat for primary colonizers such as few is affected by pollution mainly by the presence of sulphur species of lichens, mosses and bryophytes. The availability dioxide because it decreases the pH of medium and inhibits of nutrients and substrates may differ from a natural to post- the growth. So, lichens can be used as monitors of pollutants fire forest enabling certain lichens to grow more efficiently as as well as of air quality (Seaward 1992). Other reports reveal colonizers (Lohmus et al., 2018). Although the re-succession that not only SO2, but other pollutants like O3 Sigal et al. of forest land by lichens is very slow and it takes over decades, (1983), NO2 Nash (1976), NH3 Van Dobben et al. (1996), in some early post-fire succession 2-4 years after forest- fluoride Nash (1971), heavy metals Folkesson et al. (1988) burning, lichens start re-colonization by dispersing from the or air pollutants in general, do also have role in the decline surrounding unburned forest areas (Maikawa et al., 1976; of lichen diversity. Studies show that some lichen species Ruokolainen et al., 2006; Motiejunaite et al., 2014). The are also capable of survival in extreme climatic conditions ability of re-colonization varies within different taxonomic (Hauck et al., 2007). groups of lichens and depends upon mode of dispersal, growth Changes in composition of lichen species is a very rate and the specificity of substrates for habitat (Longán prominent tool for getting clues regarding changes in climate, et al., 1999; Johansson et al., 2006). In some cases, when air quality and biological processes. If any change or alteration sufficient biological nutrients and substrates such as wood transpires in natural atmosphere there is a change also logs, barks, snags and charred surface are available post- recorded in diversity, abundance, morphology, physiology, wildfire, the lichenbiota grows more rapidly (Lindenmayer accumulation of pollutants of lichens. Generally biodiversity et al., 2008; Schmalholz et al., 2011). Certain microlichens, of lichens is also affected by overexploitation, air pollution, viz., Carbonicola myrmecina and C. anthracophila etc. have climate change which results in habitat degradation or loss and been documented to have strong priority for burnt substrate fragmentation (Scheidegger et al., 2009). The best example (Timdal 1984; Bendiksby et al., 2013). Rate of colonization of this could be seen in India, where two metropolitan cities of microlichens are much slower than macrolichens viz. Bangalore (Nayaka et al. 2003) and Kolkata (Upreti et al. (Hamalainen et al., 2014). The Microlichens: Trapeliopsis 2005b) recorded loss of lichen diversity with increasing rate flexuosa and Placynthiella icmalea and Macrolichens: of urbanization and atmospheric pollution. Vulpicida pinastri, Hypocenomyce scalaris, Hypogymnia physodes and Parmeliopsis ambiqua, are among the most Heavy metal accumulation by lichens frequent colonizers of charred surfaces. Additionally, about Pollutants can penetrate and affect the community of lichens. 20 species of Cladonia were found to colonize on burned Lichens can also be used as bio-monitors of pollutants by forest substrates (Lohmus et al., 2018). This signifies the quantifying the amount of trace element(s) accumulated important role of lichens in re-succession in burned forest within them over time (Srivastava et al., 2015). Studies from zones. various parts of the world revealed that lichens are being used to monitor for metal deposition both as active and passive Lichens as bio-indicators and bio-monitors of pollution monitors (Jeran et al., 2002). Because of the excess use of Pollutants are major public health concern; those may include chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the agriculture industry, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone the physical and chemical texture of the soil changes. The and particulate matter. Air pollution is notoriously known bioaccumulation of these trace elements by vegetation has to cause respiratory and other health issues, which could be become a risky affair not only for nature as well as for human

48 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology health (Kabata et al., 1995). Lichens, which for long have and pine needles (Varga 2007) can be considered as the been recognized as sensitive indicators of environmental most commonly applied organisms. conditions are also good accumulators of many of these trace All forms of lichens do not show sensitivity towards elements (Bingol et al. 2009), particularly heavy metals and pollutants such as SO2 and NOx gases, for example, radionuclides (Aslan et al., 2010). crustose and foliose lichens are pollution tolerant. Heavy Numerous lichen species have also been identified to metal is acquired in large amount by these pollution accumulate airborne metals like Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd, and Zn in tolerant lichens (Shukla et al., 2013). In Europe, Lecanora their thalli (Bajpai et al., 2012). Lichens accumulate these conizaeoides Nyl. is recognized as a common pollution metals either on the outer surface of the walls of their fungal- tolerant species for carrying out air pollution studies, hyphae or within the walls (Bajpai et al., 2010a). But some however, in tropical Asian countries, Pyxine cocoes (Sw.) of the metals thus absorbed by the lichen thalli gain entry Nyl. is identified to be an effective pollutant accumulator into the cells and ultimately take part in the metabolism. and monitor (Savillo 2010). In India P. cocoes has been Finally, they may lead to the death due to accumulated metal utilized for the assessment of accumulation of heavy metals toxicity (Dzubaj et al., 2008). Certain epiphytic lichens have in commercial, industrial and residential areas of Lucknow been particularly gained attention for their bioaccumulation by using transplant technique (Bajpai et al., 2004). This potential (Jeran et al., 1996); like Hypogymnia physodes for species also exhibited its ability to accumulate arsenic and bioaccumulation of trace elements Jeran et al. (1996) and fluoride (Bajpai et al. 2010) and heavy metals like Al, As, Pyxine cocoes for bioaccumulation of metals (Bajpai et al., Cu, Fe and Zn (Karakoti et al., 2014). 2012). Certain Lichens of Garhwal Himalaya are known to Most of the macro-lichens are known to show high degree accumulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Shukla et of sensitivity to metallic pollutants, but some species like al., 2009). Saxena et al. (2007) reported that crustose lichen Dirinaria pappillulifera, Hypogymnia physodes, Parmelia Arthopyrenia nidulans and foliose lichen Phaeophyscia sulcata, Pseudevernia furfuracea, and Pyxine subcinerea orbicularis accumulated heavy metals (Saxena et al., grow luxuriantly in metal rich environment and are known 2007). The best example of heavy metal accumulation was to be hyper-accumulator of various metals (Shukla et al., reported in Kodaikanal (India), near a thermometer factory, 2008). Surface complexion, bio-mineralisation and physical where the lichens were found to accumulate high amount trapping are some methods by which lichens not only of Mercury (Krishna et al., 2003), whereas lichens from accumulate essential but also non-essential elements in the mining sites are reported to have higher accumulation intercellular spaces of the medulla (Nash 2008a). In India, of arsenic (Bajpai et al., 2009a). A study of Bajpai et al. the bioaccumulation potential of P. hispidula has been well (2009b) in Mandav city in central India illustrated that explored (Shukla et al., 2009). In several reports lichens although most of the metals were absent, or present in have been implicated in accumulation and absorption of insignificant amount in substrates, yet the thallus of lichens metals from polluted sites (Bajpai et al. 2011), and have had significantly higher concentration of metals such as been used to monitor atmospheric depositions of various Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn. Thus it is apparent that the accumulated metals. metals were air borne (Bajpai et al., 2009b). Out of different growth forms of lichens, foliose lichens are prior to metal CONCLUSION accumulation followed by crustose and squamulose lichens. Lichens have role in re-colonization of forests post-fire Zn, Ni, Cd and Cr were spotted higher in lichens, collected and the cycling of certain nutrients in the environment. from road side while maximum quantity of Fe, Cu and Al Besides, they are proficient bio-indicators and bio-monitors were reported in lichens collected from central sites of the of environmental pollutants. By virtue of bioaccumulation, city. The lowest amounts of all the metals were reported lichens are capable of eradicating xenobiotics from the in sites farther from city. Rani et al. (2011) estimated nine environment. In addition to their diverse roles in the heavy metals in lichen samples from 12 different sites of environment, viz, bio-indicators, bio-monitors and bio- Dehradun city by periodic monitoring. An organism that accumulators, lichens are sources of diverse and many responds to certain level of pollution by altering its natural unique secondary metabolites. This has led to identification behaviour or accumulating the pollutants in its tissues is of diverse biological activities in their phytoextracts, such as, considered a bio-monitor (Blasco et al., 2006). The use anti-microbial, anti-pyretic, anti-analgesic, anti-proliferative of pollution bio-monitors enables easier sampling, even and anti-cancerous activities. Because of their constituents in remote areas where sampling technology is not readily including enormous secondary metabolites, lichens are also accessible. Furthermore, the sample treatment and analysis commercially utilized as flavour enhancers, spices, dyes, steps in the laboratory are facilitated, making possible the medicines and animal feeds etc. Therefore, we conclude that simultaneous determination of several pollutants in the lichens are important for environmental monitoring and for same matrix. For air pollution assessment, lichens, mosses, good ecosystem health, in general. In addition, their industrial

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 49 demand is expected to shoot up in future, particularly in Bendiksby M, Timdal E (2013). Molecular phylogenetics medicine sector, for the presence of myriad of unique and taxonomy of hypocenomyce sensu lato metabolites in their thalli. (Ascomycota, Lecanoromycetes)-extreme polyphyly and morphological ecological convergence. Taxon., REFERENCES 62: 940–956. Anonymous (1962). The wealth of India. PID, CSIR, New Delhi, 6: 81-90. Bingol A, Aslan A, Çakıcı A (2009). Biosorption of chromate anions from aqueous solution by a cationic surfactant-modified Arseneault D, Villeneuve N, Boismenu C, Leblanc Y, Deshaye lichen (Cladonia rangiformis (L.). J. Hazard. Mater, 161: 747- J (1997). Estimating lichen biomass and caribou grazing on 752. the wintering grounds of northern Que´bec: an application of fire history and Landsat data.Journal of Applied Ecology, Blasco M, Domeño C, Nerín C (2006). Use of lichens as pollution 34: 65–78. biomonitors in remote areas: comparis. Environ. Sci. Techno., l40: 6384–6391. Aslan A, Apaydın G, Yazıcı K, Cengiz, E, Aylıkcı V, Tırasoglu E (2010). Analysis of trace element concentrations of some Conti ME, Cecchetti G (2001). Lichens as Bioindicators of Air lichens of turkey. Asian J. Chem., 22(1): 389-400. Pollution Assessment-A Review. Environ. Pollut., 114: 471– 492. Bajpai R, Mishra GK, Mohabe S, Upreti DK, Nayaka S (2011). Determination of atmospheric heavy metals using Dayan FE, Romagni JG (2001). Lichens as a potential source of two lichen species in Katni and Rewa cities, Indian J. pesticides. Pestic. Outlook (December), 229-232. Environ. Biol., 32: 195-199. Dzubaj A, Backor M, Tomko J, Peli E, Tuba Z (2008). Tolerance Bajpai R, Upreti DK (2012). Accumulation and toxic effect of the lichen Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. to metal stress. of arsenic and other heavy metals in a contaminated area of Ecotoxicol Environ. Safety, 70: 319–326. West Bengal, India, in the lichen Pyxinecocoes (Sw.) Nyl. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 83: 63-70. Folkesson L, Andersson-Bringmark E (1988). Impoverishment of vegetation in a coniferous forest polluted by copper and Bajpai R, Upreti DK Misra SK (2004). Pollution zinc. Canadian Journal of Botany, 66: 417-428. monitoring with the help of lichen transplant technique at some residential sites of Lucknow City, Uttar Pradesh. Garty J (2001). Biomonitoring atmospheric heavy metals Enviornmental Biology, 25(2): 191-195. withlichens: Theory and application. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 20: 309-371. Bajpai R, Upreti DK, Dwivedi SK (2009a). Arsenic accumulation in lichens of Mandav monuments, Dhar Gauslaa Y, Darwyn SC, Knut AS (2012). The paradox of district, Madhya Pradesh, India. Environ. Monit. Assess., higher light tolerance during desiccation in rare old forest 159: 437–442. cyanolichens than in more widespread co occurring chloro and cephalolichens. New Phytologist, 195(4): 812-822. Bajpai R, Upreti DK, Dwivedi SK, Nayaka S (2009b). Lichen as quantitative biomonitors of atmospheric heavy metals Godoy R, Oyarun CE, Gerding V (2001). Precipitation chemistry deposition in central India. J Atmos Chem., 63: 235–246. in deciduous and evergreen Nothofagus forests of southern Chile under low-deposition climate. Basic Applied Ecology, Bajpai R, Upreti DK, Nayaka S (2010). Accumulation of 2: 65-72. arsenic and fluoride in lichen P. cocoes (Sw.) Nyl., growing in the vicinity of coal– based thermal power plant at Hamalainen A, Kouki J, Lohmus P (2014). The value of retained Raebareli, India. Journal of Experimental Sciences, 1(4): scots pines and their dead wood legacies for lichen diversity in 34-37. clear-cut forests: The effects of retention level and prescribed burning. Forest Ecology and Management, 324: 89–100. Bajpai R, Upreti DK, Nayaka S, Kumari B (2010a). Biodiversity, bioaccumulation and physiological Hauck M, Dulamsuren C, Muhlenberg M (2007). Lichen diversity changes in lichens growing in the vicinity of coal-based on steppe slopes in the northern Mongolian mountain taiga and thermal power plant of Raebareli district, north India. J. its dependence on microclimate. Flora, 202: 530- 546. Hazard Mater, 174: 429-436.

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52 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN FOREST (VAN PANCHAYAT) MANAGEMENT A CASE STUDY OF ‘HAT-THARP’, DIDIHAT BLOCK OF PITHORAGARH DISTRICT

Amit Bahukhandi*, Ravi Pathak, Anjali Barola, Kamini Durgapal and Shinny Thakur

G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India

*Crosspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT Van Panchayats (VPs) are playing important role for the livelihood needs of local residents and in the conservation of biodiversity and climate. The villagers meet livelihood needs from their VP forest where the rights and concessions for small timber, fuel, fodder etc. have been given by the VP council. In addition, these forests are providing many indirect ecological and environmental services. In the above context, present investigation focused to document floristic composition and function of VP council in Hat-Tharp, Pithoragarh district. Results revealed Quercus glauca (IVI-150.5) to be dominant species in the study site. In addition, total 7 tree species were recorded from the study site and showed a density of (386.67 Ind/ha), total basal area of 2.80 m2/ha and Shannon weiner diversity index was 1, in the forest. The forest has a total biomass of 78.49 ton/ha and carbon storage of 39.25 ton/ha. The local inhabitants continue to practice agro-pastroral activities. It is interesting to document that because of their local level conservation practices, tree species such as Myrica esculenta, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rhododendron arboreum and Prunus cerasoides are also well flourishing in the region. Moreover, occurrence of higher number of seedlings of Rhododendron arboreum and Lyonia ovalifolia show good regeneration potential and ‘new’ regeneration of Pyrus pashia was recorded. The active participation of villagers for conservation of the forest, regular function of VP council, follow up of rules and regulations by the local inhabitants and concept of devotion of forest to local deity were good examples of ‘Hat-Tharp’ VP for biodiversity conservation.

Keywords: Van panchayat, Floristic composition, Regeneration, Conservation.

INTRODUCTION its approval by the government in 1931 (Mukherjee 2004), Van panchayats in Uttarakhand are known to play an the dependency of local inhabitants on VPs has increased important role in meeting livelihood needs of local residents (Balooni et al., 2007). With over 12089 VPs nearly 5500 and strengthening the conservation of biodiversity. They sq. km. forest area is being managed by communities in represent a distinctive example of decentralized governance. Uttarakhand (Pandeya et al., 2016). The area under VPs, However, the community institution is vulnerable to various however, ranges from less than a fraction of hectare up to externalities and faces different levels of threats (Mukherjee over 2,000 hectares (Rawat et al., 2011; Rawat 2016). The 2004; Lodhiyal et al., 2012). Historically, the formation capacities of these forests to meet the daily needs of local of VPs in Uttarakhand was an outcome of local resistance inhabitants in the region and maintain the flow of ecosystem in early 1900s against the ownership and management of services varies depending upon the level of participants of forests by the government under British rule (Guha 1989; inhabitants in management. Some of the VPs set an example Balooni et al., 2007). The landmark Van Panchayat Act 1931 of excellent participatory management. In this context, a case handed over the control of designated community forests study for Kumaon Himalaya has been documented for wider to elected members Van Panchayats (VPs) the State Forest learning. Department; and provisions have been revised in 1976, 2001 and in 2005 (Nagahama et al., 2016). The VPs are also METHODOLOGY considered as the largest experiment in common property The present study was carried out to analyze forest community management by village communities in collaboration with structure in the van Panchayat forest of “Hat-Tharp” (1500 the state. It has a legal backing, and has an elected body of m asl; N 29°47’14.0’’; E 80°15’30.0’’) in Didihat block 5-9 members that forms VP council, having an assigned task of Pithoragarh district. Random vegetation sampling was of managing village forest resources. Since formation of first conducted and 3 sample plots (50x50 m) were marked. In VP in Kumaon division in 1921 (Kanwal et al., 2013) and each plot, 5 quadrats (10x10 m) for enumeration of trees were

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 53 laid. Five sub quadrats (2x2 m) for shrubs and 10 sub quadrats RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (1x1 m) for herbs and seedling were laid within each quadrat. A total of 15 plant species were recorded from the VP forest Circumference at Breast Height (CBH at1.37 cm height from of Hat-Tharp, of which 7 were trees, 3 were shrubs and 5 ground) measured for trees. The tree population structure was were herbs (Table 1). Of the total, 11 plant species were developed based on density distribution across size classes. native to Himalaya. The quantitative analysis revealed that Individuals: >31.5 cm CBH were considered trees, 10.5-31.5 in tree layer Quercus glauca with an IVI of 150.5 dominated cm CBH as sapling and <10.5 cm CBH and <30 cm height as the forest followed by Myrica esculenta (IVI = 54.4), seedlings (Rawal et al., 1994). The quadrat data were pooled Quercus leucotrichophora (IVI = 35.2), Rhododendron for plots for calculation of various quantitative measures such arboreum (IVI = 21.0) and Prunus cerasoides (IVI = 7.3), as density, frequency, abundance, total basal area, Importance respectively. However, Randia tetrasperma (IVI = 69.0) Value Index (IVI) and diversity index (H’), etc., following dominated the shrub layer followed by Pyracantha crenulata (Misra 1968; Saxena et al., 1982). Importance Value Index (IVI = 66.8) and Berberis asiatica (IVI = 54.9). In the forest, (IVI) of tree is calculated by adding relative density, relative herbaceous layer was dominated by Origanum vulgare (IVI frequency and relative total basal area. Whereas in case of = 72.12) followed by Bidens pilosa (IVI = 42.6), Reinwardtia shrubs and herbs IVI was calculated as the sum of relative indica (IVI = 26.0), Ageratum conyzoides (IVI = 23.8) and density, relative frequency and relative abundance followed Thallictrum minus (IVI = 21.1). (Curtis et al., 1951). The regeneration status of tree species Tree layer density was recorded as 387 ind/ha, whereas was determined on the basis of population size of seedling, that of shrub and herb was 7833 ind/ha and 41000 ind/ha sapling and tree (Hanief et al., 2016). Biomass estimation of respectively. Herb layer was more diverse (H’= 1.68) than trees in each site was carried out by quadrat method. Biomass shrub (H’= 1.33) and tree (H’= 1) layer (Table 2). was estimated using the allometric regression for each tree In terms of biomass and carbon storage, the forest component developed by Chaturvedi (1987) as follows: ln represents total 78.49 ton/ha and 39.25 ton/ha. Y = a+ b ln X, (Where, Y= biomass per tree and X is the In the forest the overall regeneration was found to be “Fair”. circumference at breast height, a = intercept and b = slope However species level regeneration varied. Rhododendron of regression). C-stock of standing trees was determined arboreum and Lyonia ovalifolia showed ‘good’ regeneration. using the biomass value of tree species multiplied by a factor Poor regeneration was recorded for Prunus pashia. Only one (C= Biomass × 0.47). For soil sampling random sampling species i.e. Pyrus pashia showed ‘new’ regeneration in the approach was followed and three soil sample up to depth 10 study site (Fig.1). cm were dug out (Walkley et al., 1934).

Table 1. Description of plant species recorded in VP forest of Hat-Tharp

Life form Species Family Nativity Importance Value Index (IVI) Trees Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus. Fagaceae Reg.Himal. 35.2 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex. Ericaceae Reg.Himal. 21.0 D.Don. Myricaceae As Trop et sub Trop 54.4 Quercus glauca Thunb. Reg.Himal. Prunus cerasoides D.Don. Fagaceae Reg.Himal. 150.5 Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex. D.Don. Rosaceae Reg.Himal. 7.27 Lyonia ovalifolia Hort. Rosaceae - Reg.Himal. Ericaceae 5.2 Shrubs Randia tetrasperma Benth. & Hook. Rubiaceae Reg.Himal. 69.0 Berberis asiatica DC. Pyracantha crenulata D.Don. Berberidaceae Reg.Himal. 54.9 Rosaceae Reg.Himal. 66.5 Herbs Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae Ind.Occ; Am. austr 42.6 Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae Europe As et Afr Trop 72.1 Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae Trop. America 23.7 Reinwardtia indica Dumort. Linaceae Reg.Himal. 26.0 Thallictrum minus L. Ranunculales Reg.Himal. 21.1

54 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 2. Variation in different phytosociological parameters of Hat-Tharp forest of Didihat block

Life form Trees Shrubs Herbs Parameters Density (Ind/ha) TBA (m2/ha) Diversity (H') Density (Ind/ha) Diversity (H') Density (Ind/ha) Diversity (H') 386.67 2.80 1.00 7833.33 1.33 41000.00 1.68

Fig. 1. Regeneration pattern of dominant tree species in the forest of Hat Tharp

The different soil characteristics include pH (5.2); moisture goats. There are 7 members (women-2; SC-2; Gen-3), two content (36.31%); bulk density (1.4 g/cm3); porosity (46.10%); persons (caretakers) and sarpanch in the VP who are actively water holding capacity (64.08%); soil-carbon (1.1%) and working in the forest and maintaining the records. The forest organic matter (1.89%). Species distribution pattern indicates has been devoted to local deity so that protection of the forest its adaptability to various environment and forest variables is ensured due to religions sentiments of people. Active which mainly depends on the ecological characteristics of participation of the VP and taking devoted forest concept locations, soil characteristics, diversity and regeneration as management practice have ensured good condition of pattern of the species (Gairola et al., 2014). According, to the forest. They followed good practices for plantation of Jones et al. (1994) forest composition and structure depends broad leaf species through seeds and propagules in degraded on the regeneration potential of species composing the forest forest sites. For illegal activities such as green wood cutting stand in space and time. Many researchers reported that fine of Rs 500/- is fixed. The wood cuttings, grazing of regeneration is a crucial process in which old trees die and cattle, mining are absolutely restricted in this area and for get replaced by young ones in perpetuity in the forest which more protection of the forest they have devoted this for is important for forest development and largely depends on local deity. In order to protect this oak forest, the villagers microclimatic condition, altitude and climatic variables such prefer to walk 7-8 km away for collecting fodder and fuel as temperature and rainfall etc (Dhar et al., 1997; Kharkwal wood from other forests. Only dry old or fallen trees, dried et al., 2005; Pant et al., 2012; Malik et al., 2014). The species leaves for animal cushion are allowed to collect from the composition and biomass in the forest was also influenced VP forest in the presence of caretakers in the forest opening by soil properties (Sollins 1998) because soil is the largest time (October and November) and most villagers depend on organic carbon reservoir (Garten et al., 1999; Yang et al., LPG. Following good management practices VP has earned 2008). Van pancahyat of ‘Hat-Tharp’ was established in more than 2 Lakh rupees (from fine charges implemented the year of 1975 and covers approximately 121 ha land. At and through various government schemes) and invested in present around 180-200 household inhabit this village and the welfare of village for construction of main gate, repairing own nearly 140-160 livestock, including cows, buffaloes and Panchayat ghar etc., purchasing of materials for celebration

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 55 of marriage functions and other local festivals). The local Drew G (2014). Mountain women, dams, and the gendered communities also harvest wild fruits of Myrica esculenta dimensions of environmental protest in the Garhwal Himalaya. and flowers of Rhododendron arboreum for consumption in Mountain Research and Development, 34(3): 235-242. fresh, raw form, preparation of juices and sell them in local market, which contributed for the upliftment of economic Gairola S, Rawal RS, Todaria NP, Bhatt A (2014). Population conditions. Few studies have suggested that function of VPs, structure and regeneration patterns of tree species in climate- active participation of women, good management practices sensitive subalpine forests of Indian western Himalaya. and proper follow-up rules of VPs were directly responsible Journal of Forestry Research, 25(2): 343-349. for protection of the forests (Drew 2014; Rawat et al., 2012; Nagahama et al., 2016). Garten CT, Post WM, Hanson PJ, Cooper LW (1999). Forest soil carbon inventories and dynamics along an elevation gradient CONCLUSION in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Biogeochemistry, Inhabitants of ‘Hat-Tharp’ village have set a unique example 45(2): 115-145. of a participatory approach by way of community engagement in forest conservation. Recognizing this effort of VP, Guha R (1989). The unquiet woods: Ecological change and peasant Government may consider providing technical know-how to resistance in the Himalaya. Delhi, Oxford University Press. inhabitants so that the relevant plant species are planted in van panchayat forest through the involvement of villagers. Hanief M, Bidalia A, Meena A, Rao KS (2016). Natural The study further indicates that the VPs can act as small regeneration dynamics of dominant tree species along an biodiversity repositories which may sustain area specific altitudinal gradient in three different forest covers of Darhal genetic diversity. The Government may also make provision watershed in north western Himalaya (Kashmir), India. for providing biogas, LPG and Kerosene so as to reduce Tropical Plant Reserach, 3(2): 253-262 burden on forest especially for fuel wood consumption. Jones RH, Sharitz RR, Dixon PM, Segal DS, Schneider RL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (1994). Woody plant regeneration in four floodplain forests. The authors thank Director, GBPNIHESD for facilities and Ecological Monographs, 64(3): 345-367. encouragement. Financial support received from National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) Kanwal K, Samal P, Lodhi M, Kuniyal J (2013). Conflicts, (Task Force-3), Department of Science & Technology, India motivation and conservation. Current Science, 105(8): 1038. is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also thankful to colleagues of Center of Biodiversity Conservation and Kharkwal GP, Mehrotra YS, Rawat YS, Pangety YPS (2005). Management (CBCM) group for their support. Phytodiversity and growth form in the relation to altitudinal gradient in the Central Himalayan (Kumuan) region of India. REFERENCES Current Science, 89(5): 873-878. Balooni K, Ballabh V, Inoue M (2007). Declining instituted collective management practices and forest quality in the Lodhiyal N, Lodhiyal LS, Pangtey YPS (2002). Structure and Central Himalayas. Economic and Political Weekly, 42: function of shisham forests in central Himalaya, India: dry 1443-1445. matter dynamics. Annals of Botany, 89(1): 41-54.

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ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 57

PIONEERING STUDIES ON HIGH-ALTITUDE MUSHROOMS OF TRANS-HIMALAYAN LADAKH (JAMMU & KASHMIR), INDIA- DISTRIBUTION, PHENOLOGY AND ETHNOMYCOLOGY

Konchok Dorjey1* and Roshi Sharma2

1Department of Botany, Eliezer Joldan Memorial College, Leh, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, India 2Department of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India

*Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir is positioned at 30˚15΄ to 36˚15΄N latitude and 75˚15΄ to 80˚15΄E longitude in Trans- Himalayan region of Indian subcontinent. The region represents a unique geographical location with wide range of floristic and faunal composition. The present paper provides a review of the distribution of high-altitude mushrooms in Ladakh. The paper, besides providing a preliminary list of 26 macro fungi reported from Ladakh, also gives an overview of the distribution, habitat, phenology and substrate preferences of these macromycetes. A part of this, paper also contributes information on ethnomycology, edibility and molecular characterisation of mushrooms of Ladakh.

Keywords: Ladakh, High-altitude, Mushrooms, Distribution, Phenology, Ethnomycology.

INTRODUCTION 27,046 were considered to be mushrooms (Kirk et al.. Mushrooms, particularly called macrofungi, fleshy fungi 2008). However, Deshmukh (2004) mentioned the existence or macromycetes, are typical heterotrophic organisms that of as many as 41,000 mushrooms worldwide, of which consist of distinct epigeous and hypogeous fructifications approximately 850 species were recorded from India. produced from the underlying mycelial thread under Macrofungi are significant group of organism on earth. optimum climatic conditions. Being saprophytic, parasitic Edible mushrooms, for centuries, have been used for and symbiotic heterotrophs, they constitute a significant human consumption owing to the potential flavour as well component of terrestrial ecosystem in particular and earth’s as medicinal and tonic attributes of mushrooms (Manzi et biodiversity in general. Mushrooms are cosmopolitan, al., 2001). Beside food, macromycetes are known to possess seasonal moisture loving fungi, fruiting predominantly during bioactive compounds of medicinal value or secondary rainy season and sparsely in spring and autumn. Within the metabolites produced by fungi to protect themselves from the ambit of macrofungi, they produce morphologically diverse hordes of attacking microbes. These bioactive compounds fruiting bodies that consequently categorised them into with medicinal attributes of varying degree were known to popular group such as cup fungi, gilled fungi, puffballs, possess properties of antioxidant, anti tumouranti bacterial truffles, polypore, bracket fungi, etc. They have diverse and antifungal (Mizuno 1995; Mothana et al., 2000; Kim et texture, varying from fleshy to sub-fleshy or woody and al., 2004; Lindequist et al., 2005; Vishwakarma et al., 2017; sometimes leathery. Ragupathi et al., 2018). Fungi are the third significant functional section after Mushrooms represent one of the major components of fauna and flora as decomposers, symbionts and pathogens forest and grassland communities. In forest ecosystem, they demonstrating global diversity between 1.5 and 3 million represent a significant indicator of the forest life supporting species based on the recent reports in tropics (Teke et al., system (Stamets 2000). Based on their ecological role, they 2018). The estimation of world’s fungi have been the subject may be saprophytes, parasites and mycorrhizal in nature. of vigorous discussion. Tropical and sub-tropical countries While as the saprophytic fungi are the major decomposer are known to harbour more fungi than the reported number of terrestrial ecosystem, the parasitic macromycetesare and thus resulted discrepancy related to the global fungal pathogenic to plants; mycorrhizal symbionts constitute estimate. For the last couple years, numbers of studies significant component of fort ecosystem as they forma havebeen focused on enumerating the global fungal diversity mutual relationship with roots of higher plants. (Crous 2006). Of the 1.5 million world’s fungi estimated Ladakh (30˚15΄ to 36˚ N and 75˚15΄ to 80˚15΄E) in Jammu by Hawksworth (2001), as many as 98,998 species of fungi and Kashmir state is located in Trans-Himalayan region of belonging to 8283 genera have been described, of which, Indian subcontinent. The region is known as cold desert with

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 59 unique topography, climate and distinct culture and tradition. families of Agaricomycetes, dominant being Agaricaceae (6), Although sub-zero temperature of winter to scorching heat Thelephoraceae (3), Cortinariaceae (2) while as Gomphaceae of summer with little precipitation and low relative humidity (1), Fomitopsidaceae (1), Psathyrellaceae (1) and Phallaceae (1) makes the plateau inhospitable terrain, the region constitutes an were least represented. important home for the luxurious growth of diverse group of Distribution of mushroom species varies in different fruiting high altitude macrofungi in addition to green plants. seasons as well as collection sites of study area. Mushrooms The macrofungal diversity of Ladakhis poorly explored.For collected in 10 different collection sites of Leh district such couple years, researchers (Dorjey et al., 2013a, b, 2015, 2016a, as Wanla, Skurbuchan, Tya-Tingmosgang, Phyang, Gangless, b, c; Yangdol et al., 2014, 2015, 2016a, b; Kour et al., 2016; Sumoor, Khardong, Phey, Nimmo, Gonpa were reported to Sharma et al., 2017a, b) at Botany Department, University exhibit variation in species distribution. of Jammu, initiated a pioneering studies on the mushrooms The number of species recorded area wise (Table 3) and of Ladakh to understand distribution, habitat, taxonomy and (Fig. 1) showed maximum number of seven species in Wanla other aspects of these unique high-altitude organism, and to area which include Cyathus olla, Helvella acetabulum, H. set a database for future study. The present paper, therefore, corium, H. macropus, H. queletii, Scutellinia setosavar. was designed to analyse and discuss the taxonomy, diversity, muscivorum var. nov. and Peziza ampliata. Pheyarea was distribution, substrate, phenology and ethnomycology of larger second in species richness with five species (Inocybe curvipes, fungal diversity of this cold arid region. I. sororia, Laetiporus sulphureusvar, Himalayan sisvar. nov., Phallus macrosporus and Thelephora japonica), followed by Species distribution and diversity three macrofungal species reported each from Tya-Tingmosgang From the list of different macrofungal species (Table 1) (Peziza succosa, P. vesiculosa and Ramaria conjunctipes) and reported from Leh district of Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Gonpa (Scutellinia setosa, Thelephora regularis and Thelephora it is revealed that the region is rich repository of diverse vialis). Likewise two species- Peziza ammophila and Peziza fungal groups. Till date, as many as 26 macrofungal species badia as well as Bovista plumbea and Bovista plumbea var. dens- and varieties representing 12 genera and 10 families were caulis var. nov. were recorded from Skurbuchan and Gangless reported from Ladakh (Table 2). Of these, 11 fungal species respectively. However, areas like Phyang, Nimoo, Summor and were represented by three Pezizomycetes families- Pezizaceae Khardong showed least macro fungal richness with one species being dominant (5), followed by Helvellaceae (4) and reported from each area including Bovista minor, Psathyrella Pyronemataceae (2). Likewise, 15 taxa were belonged to seven spadicea, Calvatia bovista and Bovista pusill are respectively.

Table 1. Members of wild macrofungi recorded from Leh district of Ladakh

S. No Species Date of collection Accession No. Sources 1 Bovista minor Morgan July 2012 HBJU-266 Dorjey et al., 2016c 2 Bovista plumbea Pers. July 2012 HBJU-267 Dorjey et al., 2016c 3 Bovista plumbea Var. dens-caulis var. nov. August 2012 HBJU-268 Dorjey et al., 2016c 4 Bovista pusilla (Batsch) Pers. August 2011 HBJU-269 Dorjey et al., 2016c 5 Calvatia bovista (L.) Pers. August 2011 HBJU-270 Dorjey et al., 2016c 6 Cyathusolla (Batsch) Pers. August 2011 HBJU-201 Dorjey et al., 2013b 8 Helvella corium (O. Weberb.) Massee July 2010 HBJU-185 Dorjey et al., 2013a 7 Helvella acetabulum (L.) Quél. July 2010 HBJU-182 Dorjey et al., 2013a 9 Helvella macropus (Pers.) P. Karst. July 2010 HBJU-186 Dorjey et al., 2013a 10 Helvella queletii Bres. July 2010 HBJU-190 Dorjey et al., 2013a 11 Inocybe curvipes P. Karst. August 2014 HBJU-493 Yangdol et al., 2016a 12 Inocybe sororia Kauffman September 2014 HBJU-494 Yangdol et al., 2016a 13 Laetiporus sulphureus Var. September 2012 HBJU-245 Yangdol et al., 2014a Himalayan sisvar Nov. 14 Peziza ammophila Durieu& Lev. August 2011 HBJU-257 Dorjey et al., 2016b 15 Peziza ampliata Pers. July 2011 HBJU-258 Dorjey et al., 2016b 16 Peziza badia Pers. August 2012 HBJU-259 Dorjey et al., 2016b

60 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology S. No Species Date of collection Accession No. Sources 17 Peziza succosa Berk. August 2012 HBJU-260 Dorjey et al., 2016b 18 Peziza vesiculosa Pers. August 2012 HBJU-261 Dorjey et al., 2016b 19 Phallus macrosporus B. Liu, Z.Y. Li & Du September 2014 HBJU-402 Kour et al., 2016 20 Psathyrella spadicea P. Kumm. Singer, September 2014 HBJU-498 Yangdol et al., 2016b 21 Ramaria conjunctipes Coker Corner July 2011 HBJU-314 Dorjey et al., 2016a 22 Scutellinia setosa Nees Kuntze August 2011 HBJU-263 Dorjey et al., 2015 23 Scutellinia setosa Var. muscivorum var. nov. June 2011 HBJU-264 Dorjey et al., 2015 24 Thelephora japonica Yasuda August 2012 HBJU-320 Yangdol et al., 2015 25 Thelephora regularis Schwein August 2012 HBJU-321 Yangdol et al., 2015 26 Thelephora vialis Schwein August 2012 HBJU-322 Yangdol et al., 2015

Table 2. Distribution of different species and families among class Agaricomycetes and Pezizomycetes S. No. Family Species Total Class: Pezizomycetes 01 Helvellaceae Hevella acetabulum, H. corium, H. macropus, H. queletii 04 02 Pezizaceae Peziza ammophila, P. ampliata, P. badia, P. vesiculosa, P. succosa 05 03 Pyronemataceae Scutellinia setosa, S. setosa var. muscivorum 02 Class: Agaricomycetes Calvatia bovista, Bovista plumbea, B. plumbea var. dens-caulis var. nov, B. minor, 04 Agaricaceae 06 B. pusilla, Cyathusolla 05 Gomphaceae Ramaria conjunctipes 01 06 Fomitopsidaceae Laetiporus sulphurous var. himalayan sisvar. nov. 01 07 Thelephoraceae Thelephora japonica, T. regularies, T. vialis 03 08 Psathyrellaceae Psathyrella spadicea 01 09 Cortinariaceae Inocybe curvipes, I. sororia 02 10 Phallaceae Phallus macrosporus 01

Table 3. Distribution of wild macrofungi in district Leh S. No Species Collection sites WL SK TT PH GL SU KH PY NM GN 1 Bovista minor Morgan - - - + ------2 Bovista plumbea Pers. - - - - + - - - - - 3 Bovista plumbea Var. dens-caulis var. nov. - - - - + - - - - - 4 Bovista pusilla Batsch Pers. ------+ - - - 5 Calvatia bovista L. Pers. - - - - - + - - - - 6 Cyathus olla Batsch Pers. + ------7 Helvella acetabulum L. Quel. + ------8 Helvella corium O. Weberb. Massee + ------

9 Helvella macropus Pers. P. Karst. + ------

10 Helvella queletii Bres. + ------11 Inocybe curvipes P. Karst. ------+ - - 12 Inocybe sororia Kauffman ------+ - - Laetiporus sulphureus Var. 13 ------+ - - Himalayan sisvar. Nov. 14 Peziza ammophila Durieu & Lev. - + ------

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 61 15 Peziza ampliata Pers. + ------16 Peziza badia Pers. - + ------17 Peziza succosa Berk. - - + ------18 Peziza vesiculosa Pers. - - + ------19 Phallus macrosporus B. Liu, Z.Y. Li & Du ------+ - - 20 Psathyrellas padicea P. Kumm. Singer, ------+ - 21 Ramaria conjunctipes Coker Corner - - + ------22 Scutellinia setosa Nees Kuntze ------+ Scutellinia setosa Var. muscivorum 23 + ------var. nov. 24 Thelephora japonica Yasuda ------+ - - 25 Thelephora regularis Schwein ------+ 26 Thelephora vialis Schwein ------+

species validates the fact that humic soil serves as a reservoir of minerals and nutrients required for the proliferation of the mycelium and sporophores of fleshy fungi. These results substantiate the findings of other researchers who recognized humus as the most preferred habitat for most of the macrofungi from various regions of India (Natarajan et al., 1982; Saini et al., 1988; Kour 2013). Four fungal species were bryophilous (P. ammophila, P. ampliata, P. badia and Scutellinia setosa var. muscivorum var. nov.), found growing in association with mosses. Possibly, in absence of tree vegetation in Ladakh, the bryophytes particularly mosses might well have provided a unique ecological niche with sufficient soil moisture, temperature and organic nutrients that probably caused Fig. 1. Distribution of macrofungi in different study sites in Leh (Ladakh) emergence of fruiting bodies of these macrofungi. Since tree component of vegetation is sparsely represented in study area, only single fungal species-Laetiporus sulphureus var. Himalayan sisvar nov. was exclusively lignicolous growing on trunk of Salix alba. Three species of Thelephora Habitat and phenology (T. japonica, T. regularis and T. vialis) were recorded as Owing to the extreme climatic conditions, mushrooms in ectomycorrhizal as well as humicolous in nature. Likewise, Ladakh exhibit a wide array of habitat preferences (Table Cyathus olla was lignicolous as well as humicolous and 4). These macromycetes were found in areas with good Ramaria conjunctipes were reported to grow humus soil as water source and high humus rich in organic content, wet well as in association with bryophytes (Fig. 2). grasslands, areas inhabited by bryophytes, cultivated fields of Occurrence of wild macrofungi tends to fluctuate widely Barley and Wheat, mixed forest of Salix and Populus species. from one month to another within the seasons of a year due They are preferably, due to different nutritional and ecological to varying seasonal and climatic factors. Some species begin needs, adapted to specific habitats and consequently grouped to form sporophores earlier while others prop up later. Thus, as humicolous, bryophilous, ectomycorrhizal and lignicolous considering fungal phenology is significant to guide the (Fig. 2). Out of 26 reported macrofungi, majority of fungi design of fruiting body studies and to infer their results. The consisting of as many as 16 species were reported to be seasonal period of life-history events of organisms, generally exclusively humicolous, found growing on decomposed moist depends on climatic conditions and has wide implications for soil rich in organic matter and humus. Availability of water species communication, ecosystem processes and ecological resources, humus, cultivated land and sparse vegetation might communal structure. The timing of phenological events can have resulted in fructification of abundant humicolous (16) be quite sensitive to environmental conditions and is thought forms found growing on terrestrial moist and humid sandy- to be determined by substrate moisture and temperature. loam soil. Incidence of high diversity of humicolous fungal Data presented in Table 4 and Fig. 3 revealed that maximum

62 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology fructification of sporophores observed during the month The sharp variation in phenology of macrofungal of July, August and September. In the month of July, the fructification is principally due to soil temperature,moisture, appearance number of fruiting bodies of macrofungi occur vegetation and water availability. In Ladakh, after the long with record of as many as eight taxa while as the fruiting and freezing winter, moderately warm climate in spring becomes availability of the macrofungi increased remarkably during apparent which, subsequently, resulted in melting of snow and the month of August with record of as many as twelve taxa glaciers. This natural process might have caused the nutrients during this period. However, the emergence of sporophores mobility and moisture availability for these macrofungi in gradually declined in the month of September and, the nutrient and moisture deficient soil which might have consequently, only four macrofungal species were recorded. triggered the emergence of sporophores in temperate and cold arid climate of Ladakh.

Ethnomycology and Edibility Understanding local mycological knowledge is critical for conserving ecological system and promoting sustainable livelihoods. Though, traditional mycological knowledge of Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir was not given due attention by the mycologist, Ladakh seemed to be a repository of folk mycological knowledge given the rich traditional cultural heritage, ethnic diversity and geographical isolation of the region. Dorjey et al. (2013) reported an interesting ethnomycological knowledge of a bird’s nest fungus, Cyathus olla from Leh district of Ladakh. The authors have revealed that the local inhabitants compared Cyathus olla, locally termed as Fig. 2. Substrate preferences of mushroom fungi in Leh district ‘Nasi-bangah’, with a traditional granary used for storing

Table 4. Substrate, phenology and Edibility of wild mushrooms of district Leh Species Habit, Habitat and Phenology Vernaculars and Edibility in study area Fruiting Habit Habitat Plant associations Vernacular Edible Non-edible month

Solitary deciduous forests of Populus Bovista minor Morgan Humicolous July Landeh-sButpa - + scattered nigra and Salix alba,

Bovista plumbea Pers. Scattered Humicolous Open grass land July - +

Bovista plumbea Var. Dens Solitary Humicolous Open grass land August - + caulis var. nov. scattered

Bovista pusilla Batsch Pers. Scattered Humicolous Open grass land August - +

temperate forests of Salix Calvatia bovista L. Pers. Scattered Humicolous August Fargolokpa + alba and Populus nigra,

field of Hordeum vulgare Humicolous and mixed forests of Salix Cyathus olla Batsch Pers. Scattered August Nasi-baangah - + Lignicolous excelsa, S. alba, Populus nigra and P. caspica, mixed forests of Salix Helvella corium O. Weberb. excelsa, S. alba, Populus Scattered Humicolous July Koreh - + Massee nigra and P. caspica

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 63 mixed forest of Salix alba, Helvella acetabulum L. Quél. Scattered Humicolous July Koreh - + S. excelsa. Populus nigra mixed forests of Salix Helvella macropus Pers. P. Scattered Humicolous excelsa, S. alba, Populus July Koreh - + Karst. nigra and Mentha longifolia mixed forests of Populus Helvella queletii Bres. Scattered Humicolous July LandehKoreh - + nigra, Prunus armeniaca

Inocybe curvipes P. Karst Scattered Humicolous on soil under Salix alba tree August - +

Inocybe sororia Kauffman Scattered Humicolous on soil under Salix alba tree September - + Laetiporus sulphureus Var. growing on the trunk of Salix Lignicolous September Chasha + - Himalayan sisvar. nov. alba Peziza ammophila Durieu & Among mosses under Scattered Bryophilous August - + Lev. Populus Among mosses in deciduous Peziza ampliata Pers. Scattered Bryophilous July Balti Koreh - + forest of Salix Peziza badia Pers. Scattered Bryophilous Among mosses August Koreh - + Peziza succosa Berk. Scattered Humicolous Deciduous forest August - + Scattered Peziza vesiculosa Pers. Humicolous Among temperate forest August - + gregarious Phallus macrosporus B. Liu, Solitary Humicolous In cultivated field of barley September - - Z.Y. Li & Du Psathyrella spadicea P. Kumm. Gregarious Humicolous at the base of Populus nigra September + - Singer, caespitose Ramaria conjunctipes Coker humicolou humus soil inhabited by caespitose July - + Corner sbryophilous mosses Gregarious Deciduous forest of Salix Scutellinia setosa Nees Kuntze Humicolous August Koreh - + caespitose alba Scutellinia setosa Var. mus- Scattered Bryophilous Areas dominated by mosses June Koreh - + civorum var. nov. gregarious Ectomycor- mixed forest of Populus Thelephora japonica Yasuda Gregarious rhizal August - + nigra and Salix alba Humicolous Ectomy- mixed forests of Salix ex- Thelephora regularis Schwein Scattered corrhizal August - + celsa, S. alba, Populus nigra Humicolous Ectomy- Mixed forest of Populus Scattered- Thelephora vialis Schwein corrhizal nigra Salix alba Hippophaer- August - + Gregarious Humicolous hamnoides

Fig. 3. Seasonal occurrence of mushroom fungi in Leh district

64 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology barley grains. They believed that vase-shaped peridium Dorjey K, Kumar S, Sharma, YP (2013b). Cyathus olla from the of fungus was resembles with traditional storage granary cold desert of Ladakh. Mycosphere, 4: 256-259. and the peridioles inside them were considered as grains. In addition, Cyathus is also considered as lucky charm Dorjey K, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2015). New record of two mushroom and its appearance during harvesting season was interesting taxa of Scutellinia from Ladakh (Jammu & believed to be a sacred omen that would bring good fortunes Kashmir), India. Indian Journal of Forestry, 38: 125-128. to the community in the form of bumper grain production. In another attempt at ethnomycological studies in the Dorjey K, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2016a). New record of Ramaria region, Yangdol et al. (2014) reported culinary potential conjunctipes from Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and an of a wood inhabiting fungus, Laetiporus sulphureus var. update list of Indian ramaria. Indian Journal of Forestry, 39: Himalayan sisvar nov., from Phey village of Leh district. The 51-56. fungus was locally termed as ‘Chasha’ meaning ‘Chicken’ due to meat like texture and taste of its fruiting body; Dorjey K, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2016b). Desert puffballs from particularly used in traditional recipes like ‘skyu’, ‘mok- Ladakh trans-Himalaya (J&K), India-the genus bovistaand mok’ and ‘thukpa’. Besides, two more edible macrofungi calvatia. Indian Phytopathology, 69: 87-92. reported from the region include Calvatia bovista and Psathyrella spadicea (Dorjey et al., 2016; Yangdol et al., Dorjey K, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2016c). Studies on genus 2016) which have been consumed by the local community. peziza from Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir), India. Kavaka, 46: Ladakh also witnessed a rich folk taxonomy of macrofungi 18-22. that existed and helped local communities to differentiate diverse macofungal groups (Dorjey et al., 2013; Dorjey, Hawksworth DL (2001). The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 2014; Yangdol et al, 2014). 1.5 million species estimate revisited. Mycological Research, 105: 1422-1432. Molecular and biochemical studies Yangdol et al. (2016) made an attempt to understand the Kim SH, Song YS, Kim SK, Kim BC, Lim CJ, Park EH (2004). morphological, anatomical and molecular features along Anti-inflammatory and related pharmacological activities with the biochemical, physical and antioxidative properties of the n-BuOH subfraction of mushroom Phellinus linteus. of edible macrofungal species- Psathyrella spadicea Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 93: 141-146. collected from Phey village of Ladakh region. Various parameters such as molecular characterization, HPLC, Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Ainsworth antioxidant activity, fluorescence analysis were studied. and Bisby’s “Dictionary of the Fungi” (10th edition). CAB The result indicated that P. spadicea extract exhibited a International, Wallingford, UK, 771. substantial amount of antioxidant activity with significant amounts of flavonoids, ascorbic acid, β-carotene, total Kour H (2013). Taxonomic studies on some wild fleshy fungi phenolics and high ability to scavenge DPPH radical. of district Poonch (J&K). M. Phil. Dissertation, University of Therefore, the studied wild macrofungus can be used an Jammu. available source of natural antioxidants to treat various oxidative stresses related diseases and constitutes Kour H, Yangdol R, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2016). Three species ansignificant food supplement among the nutrient deficient of Phallus (Basidiomycota: Agaricomycetes: Phallaceae populations of Ladakh region of Indian sub-continent. (Jammu & Kashmir), India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 8: 8403-8409. REFERENCES Crous PW (2006). How many species of fungi are there in tip of Lindequist U, Niedermeyer THJ Julich WD (2005). Africa. Studies in Mycology, 55: 13. The pharmacological potential of mushrooms e CAM., 2: 285-299. Deshmukh SK, Mishra JK, Jalpa PT, Papp T (2004). Nutritional profile of wild edible mushrooms of North India. Fungi Manzi P, Aguzzi A, Pizzoferrato L (2001). Nutritional value of Application and Management Strategies, 24. mushrooms widely consumed in Italy. Food Chemistry, 73: 321-325. Dorjey K, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2013a). Four helvella (Ascomycota: Pezizales: Helvellaceae) species from cold Mizuno T (1995). Bioactive biomolecules of mushrooms: Food desert of Leh, Ladakh, (J&K), India. Journal of Threatened function and medicinal effect of mushroom fungi. Food Taxa, 5: 3981-3984. Reviews International, 11: 7-12.

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66 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology BIOPROSPECTING OF PAEONIA EMODI FOR LIVELIHOOD ENHANCEMENT IN WESTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA

Praveen Joshi1, 3*, Prem Prakash1, V.K. Purohit2 and Kuldeep Joshi3

1Department of Botany, M.B.P.G. College, Haldwani, Kumaun University Nainital, Uttarakhand, India 2High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, H.N.B. Garhwal Central University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India 3G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India

Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT Bio-prospecting of Paeonia emodi can be a good source of income for the rural people of Kedar valley, Uttarakhand. The edible parts P. emodi were analyzed for nutritional value by the G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Garhwal unit Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand for promoting large scale consumption and cultivation. Bio-prospected products have been adopted by the people of Kedar valley for increasing their income and sustaining livelihood. The present study highlights the promotion of P. emodi as the wild edibles source of nutritional and economic security for the rural people of Himalayan region.

Keywords: Himalaya, Paeonia emodi, Bio-prospecting, Medicinal plants, Traditional knowledge.

INTRODUCTION Herbal products have less side effects, therefore rapid The plant diversity of the Indian Himalaya is utilized by increase in their demand can be observed. Even in western the native communities in various forms as medicine, countries, people adopting traditional medicinal systems and edible/food, fodder, fuel, timber, agricultural tools, etc. importing medicinal plants from countries like India, China Among these, wild edible plants are an important source of and Thailand. According to world trade figures India stands supplement food and can contribute to address global food in second position after China with exports of 32,600 tons insecurity (Negi et al., 2018). Wild plants are gathered in medicinal plants raw materials worth US$46 million per the form of fruits, shoot, leaves, twigs, flowers, roots, tubers annum (Lange 1997; Kala 2005). China is at the forefront stems etc. (Samant et al., 1997; Samant et al., 2001). of this trade. In India about 960 species of medicinal plants Plants play an important role in the human life. Medicinal are traded per year, of which 178 species are extracted in plants offer alternative remedies with tremendous surplus of 100 Metric tones (Ved et al., 2008). opportunities. They not only provide access and affordable Unemployment in Himalayan regions is a matter of medicine to the poor people in the remote areas; but also concern, and local people are migrating to distant cities provide the opportunities to livelihood enhancement of for earning money. In the last 10-15 years, there has been the local communities in the developing countries (Rao unlimited migration for education, health and employment et al., 2003; Arnold et al., 2001; Hamilton 2004; Negi from mountain areas (Maikhuri et al., 2017). Tourism is 2011). Several plants such as Ocimum basilicum (basil), an important source of livelihood in Uttarakhand. The Ficus religiosa (peepal), Mangifera indica (mango), Ficus resource of the livelihood of the local farmers and youth benghalensis (banyan) and Azadirachta indica (neem) etc. of Kedar valley, famous Uttarakhand’s holy place (Dhams) have significant religious importance. of worship, is based on tourism for only 5-6 months in a Industries related to medicinal plants are developing at year, in which horse-riding, hotel-business and transport the tremendous pace. At present, the annual growth rate of business are the main professions but the uncertain weather herbal industry is increasing continuously and on the record conditions like excessive rainfall and landslides in the basis from the National Medicinal Plant Board (NMPB), the June-August months have the negative effect on the Indian herbal industry may like to increase in order of Rs. employment here which causes economic losses. As a result 80 to 90 billion by 2020 (Shakya 2016). A large part of the these local basic means of employment fail, so that the local industry’s total production is exported and thus the country youth and the farmer are forced to migrate towards cities receives a large amount of foreign exchange. for employment.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 67 Species such as Phyllanthus emblica (Amla) and Citrus species (Nembo) for pickle; another Citrus species (Malta), Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy) and Rhododendron arboretum (Burans) are used for juice; Malus domestica (apple), Prunus persica (peach) and Prunus armeniaca (apricot) for fruit jam while Phaseolus vulgaris (Rajma) and Solanum tuberosum (potatoes) are providing good livelihood support in the mountainous regions. The present study was carried to explore the potential of multipurpose plant Paeonia emodi (Chandra) as the income generating source to sustain livelihood in the Western Himalaya.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study species Paeonia emodi Wall. ex. Royle is annual, 50-70 cm tall plant, commonly known as Himalayan Peony or Chandra is largely distributed in North Western India, Northern Pakistan, East Afghanistan, China, and Western Nepal Documentation of traditional knowledge and nutrient (Deyuan 2004). In India, the species is distributed from profile of the bio-prospected product Kashmir to Uttarakhand (Chauhan 1999; Ismail et al., An extensive survey was carried out in the Kedar valley 2003; Kumar et al., 2011). The species is found to grow during 2017-18 for documenting the ethnobotanical in Garhwal and Kumaun regions of the Uttarakhand at knowledge on the P. emodi. Interviews and group discussions an altitudinal range of 1800 - 3000 m asl (Rawat et al., with local people and shopkeepers of Triyuginarayan were 2010). The species grows in cold climate and flourishes conducted to collect information on the traditional use well in moist places under deciduous mixed oak forest. of the species. Information of bio-prospecting process The plant prefers well-drained sandy to loam soils for its and nutritional constituents of the manufactured product growth and survival which is initiated during February (pickle) from P. emodi was gathered from Rural Technology and complete in September (Joshi et al., 2017). The oval and Demonstration Centre (RTDC) in Triyuginarayan (a shaped fruits appears in the plant at the end of June which training Center of G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan bears 8-12 black seeds. (Rawat et al., 2010). Environment and Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD), The species is one of the traditionally important Garhwal unit Srinagar Garhwal). medicinal herb of Indian Himalaya Region (IHR) and has several medicinal uses i.e. for instance, the dried, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION powder and paste of the stem is applied for joint pain Unemployment in the mountain regions of Uttarakhand and as a plaster on bone fractures (Chopra et al., 1956; is a matter of concern for the sustainable development Watt, 1982; Haq et al., 2011), Fleshy roots are used in the of the region (Rawat et al., 2010; Negi et al., 2011). Small intestinal and uterine diseases, the tuber of the plant is entrepreneurship could play pivotal role in the providing highly effective medicine for blood purifier, colic, bilious, the employment to the youth of the Uttarakhand state. headache, dizziness, vomiting, dropsy and hysteria while Unemployed youths in this region can engaged themselves the seeds are purgative, emetic, cathartic and to aid in the preparation of quality products from wild edibles. pregnancy (Shinwari et al., 2003; Ahmad et al., 2004). An A report confirms that output and net return from these infusion of the dried flowers is given to control diarrhaea exercises can be very fruitful (Negi et al., 2011). Some (Chopra et al., 1949). people from Kedar valley of Uttarakhand are adopting bioprospecting of wild edible plants as a source of income. STUDY AREA GBPNIHESD, Srinagar, Garhwal, Uttarakhand, in its training For achieving the objective of the study a detail unit located in Triyuginarayan of Kedar valley, is training survey of Garhwal regions was carried out to identify local community, researchers and students (approximately P. emodi dominated areas. Therefore, Triyuginarayan 550 youths and farmers) for self-employment. The pickle (Altitude 2250 m asl, Latitude 30°26’45” N and formed from Paeonia emodi is appearing as the option for Longitude 78°54’79”E) and nearby villages of Kedar valley income generation. As a result, trainees learned the process under Rudraprayag district were selected for present of making pickle from this plant and have adopted as a study (Fig. 1). livelihood enhancement option.

68 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Bio-prospecting through value addition to the potential The product is very useful in diabetes (Joshi et al., 2017). wild edibles is attracting attention of nutraceuticals and 500 gm or 1000 gm of manufactured pickles canned packs, pharmaceuticals companies etc. (Maikhuri et al., 1998). whose market sale price is up to Rs. 300 /-per kg (Fig 2). It can be the high income generating component for rural mountain regions. Marketing of wild edible and their products (food, medicines, cosmetics etc.) play a significant Table 1. Nutritional value of the manufactured products from P. role in the socio-economic development of rural area as it emodi generates income for poor people (Sundriyal et al., 2004; S. No. Nutrients Nutritional value Maikhuri et al., 2004). 1 Vitamin A 58.31±0.11 mg/100 gm 2 Vitamin C 160.50±1.85 mg/100 gm Bio-prospecting of Paeonia emodi 3 Vitamin E 0.49±0.007 µ gm/gm 1. Pickle: The leaves and stems are washed to remove foreign materials, cut into small pieces, and boiled than use 4 Protein 310.06±0.47 mg/100 gm tap water to remove bitterness thoroughly. After that, it is 5 Carbohydrate 0.353±0.02 mg/gm kept for drying in the sunlight for 2-3 hours. The product 6 Methionin 36.13±0.04 mg/gm is then fried with oil and mixed with salt and spices to 7 Proline 1.04±0.07 µ mol/gm make pickle. Preservative may be also added for long time utilization (Fig. 2). (Resource- GBPNIHESD, Garhwal unit, Srinagar Garhwal Uttarakhand) Prepared pickle has good nutritional constituent (Table 1).

2. Dry green chunks are prepared from green leaves and stems, which are used for making vegetables and Indian raita (Fig 1). 3. Boiled leaves and stem water is used to in stomach disorders and for diabetic.

CONCLUSION Bio-prospected products of Paeonia emodi holds good potential for increasing the income of the rural people of Himalayan region. Small entrepreneurs with the marketing of wild edibles along with the tourism should be promoted for solving the under-employment, poverty and food security issues of rural areas of Uttarakhand, Western Fig. 1. (A) P. emodi in natural habit, (B) Leaves & Stem in juvenile stage, (C) Chopping process, (D) Boiling process, (E) Filtration, Himalaya. (F) Chunks & drying process. REFERENCES Ahmad M, Sher H (2004). Medicinally important wild plants of Chitral, medicinally important wild plants in view of ethnobotanical study of district Chitral. PMID., 67: 432-440.

Arnold JEM, Ruiz PM (2001). Can non-timber forest products match tropical forest conservation and development objectives. Ecol. Econ., 39: 437–447.

Chauhan NS (1999). Medicinal and aromatic plants of Himanchal Pradesh. Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi.

Chopra RN, Badwar RL, Ghosh S (1949). Poisonous plants of India. Govt. of India Press, Calcutta, 41-45(1): 465-467.

Chopra RN, Nayar SL, ChopraI C (1956). Glossary of Indian Fig. 2. (A) Manufactured pickle of P. emodi after many process, (B) Pickle with tagged inside plastic box, (C) Manufactured products from P. emodi medicinal plants. Council of Scientific and Industrial & other wild edible plants for selling. Research, New Delhi.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 69 De-yuan H (2004). Paeonia (Paeoniaceae) in Xizang (Tibet). Negi VS, Maikhuri RK, Rawat LS (2011).Non-timber Available on-line at: http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/ forest products (NTFPs): a viable option for biodiversity novon/hong7-2.htm. conservation and livelihood enhancement in Central Himalaya. Biodivers. Conserv., 20: 545-559. Hamilton AC (2004). Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodivers. Conserv., 13: 1477–1517. Rao VR, Arora RK (2003). Rationale for Conservation of Medicinal Plants (Abstracts). Asia Pacific Medicinal Plants Haq F, Ullah E (2011). Comparative determination of trace Research Meeting, Kualalumpur, Malaysia. elements from Allium sativum, Rheum australe and Terminalia chebula by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Rawat B, Gairola S, Bhatt A (2010). Habitat characteristics IJB., 1(5): 77-82. and ecological status of Paeonia emodi Wallich ex Royle: A high value medicinal plant of Western Himalaya. Medicinal Ismail M, Iqbal Z, Ahmad B, Zakir S, Niaz U (2003). Plants, 2(2): 121-125. DOI: 10.5958/j.0975-4261.2.2.021. Biological and pharmacological properties of two indigenous medicinal plants, Rheum emodi and Paeonia Samant SS, Dhar U (1997). Diversity, endemism and emodi. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 6: 984-986. economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Joshi P, Prakash PP, Purohit VK, Bahuguna V. (2017). Ecology, 4: 179-191. Paeonia emodi: A review of multipurpose wild edible plant of Western Himalaya. Int. J. Adv. Res., 5(12): 480-486. Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS (2001). Himalayan Medicinal Plants: Potential and Prospects. Gynanodya Publications, Kala CP (2005). Indigenous uses, population density and Nainital, India, Pages: 435. conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conservation Biology, 19: Shakya AK (2016). Medicinal plants: Future source of 368–378. new drugs. International Journal of Herbal Medicine, 4(4): 59-64. Kumar A, Rawat S (2011). Bioresources of Uttarakhand: Their conservation and management: List of threatened medicinal Shinwari Z, Khan A, Nakaike T (2003). Medicinal and other plants (CAMP Criteria) from Uttarakhand, 599. useful plants of district Swat, Pakistan. Aziz Communications, Peshawar, Pakistan,139-145. Lange D (1997). Trade figures of botanical drugs world wide. Medicinal Plants Conservation Newsletter, 3: 16-17. Sundriyal M Sundriyal RC (2004). Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: marketing, value addition and implications Maikhuri RK, Rao KS, Saxena KG (2004). Bioprospecting of for management. Economic Botany, 58(2): 300-315. wild edibles for rural development in the central Himalayan mountains of India. Mountain Research and Development, Ved DK, Goraya GS (2008). Demand and supply of medicinal 24(2): 110-113. plants in India. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun and FRLHT. Maikhuri RK, Nautiyal S, Rao S, Saxena KG (1998). Medicinal plants cultivation and biosphere reserve management: a Watt G (1982). Dictionary of economic products of India. case study from Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Himalaya. Cosmo publication Delhi, India, 6: 3. Current Science, 74: 157-163.

Maikhuri RK, Negi VS, Rawat LS, Pharswan DS (2017). Bioprospecting of medicinal plants in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve: Linking conservation with livelihood. Current Science, 113(25): 571-577.

Negi VS, Maikhuri RK , Maletha A , Phondani PC (2018). Ethnobotanical knowledge and population density of threatened medicinal plants of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya, India. Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci., https://doi.org/10.1007/s40995-018-0545-5.

70 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology SCOPING STUDY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN WESTERN HIMALAYAN REGION AND THEIR ROLE IN TRADITIONAL HEALTHCARE

Nidhi Bhakuni1 and Harshit Pant2*

1Mountain Division, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India 2Centre for Socio-Economic Development, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India

*Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT The Indian Himalayan region is rich in high value medicinal plants and plays a significant role in traditional healthcare system of the dependent communities. Though the diverse flora is found abundantly in Himalayan region the documentation and validation of these high potential medicinal plant species is essential for their utilization by the local communities residing in the vicinity. Their importance in aspect of community based natural resource management system is highly necessary for the widespread concept of sustainable resource utilization through community intervention. The present study is focused on the assessment of community perception for the traditional uses of medicinal plants in indigenous health care system in selected villages of Western Himalayan region.

Keywords: Western Himalaya, Medicinal plants, Traditional knowledge, Community, Climate change.

INTRODUCTION (Samant et al., 1998; Samant et al., 2007). The objectives of The Indian Himalayan region is endowed with rich faunal the present study were: and floral diversity. Most of the floral diversity of the region 1. To assess the status of medicinal plants uses by local is high in valuable medicinal properties and forms a basis of communities; and 2. To document the traditional medicinal traditional knowledge. Since, the ancient times people are uses and change in practice over the time. well endowed with the information of curative properties of plants and have started using them for health care and these STUDY AREA AND METHODS practices are a part of cultural folk tradition (Samant et al., The study was conducted in the Western Himalayan region 1997). Traditional knowledge on medicine since the time of and was focused in the Uttarakhand state. The study sites great sage Charak has led to the discovery of many important were located in and around the community managed forests drugs of modern age (Uniyal et al., 2002). of Almora and Nainital districts of the state. The information World Health Organization (WHO) has also reported regarding the medicinal plants status, uses and traditional that approximately 80% population of the world and about importance along with conservation methods was collected 65% of the Indian population rely on traditional medicine through detailed questionnaire based survey following for their primary healthcare (Timmermans 2003). In the Chambers (1994); Lise (2000) along with validation through Indian Himalayan region, the reservoir of enormous natural the visit in and around the villages. The survey was focused resources of medicinal wealth and traditional knowledge on herbal practitioners and experienced old folk and their has been explored for its multiple benefits (Mathur et al., indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants, usages pattern, 2012). The traditional medicinal practice is inclusive of mode of preparation and types of disease treated. Group local practitioners and the use of herbal medicine by the discussions were also conducted to assess the perception tribal communities is influenced by various socio- culture of communities for the resource status and conservation practices, beliefs and benefits, support of traditional authority strategies and their role in resource extraction. since their ancestral times. As the tribal people have close relationship with their environment they are entirely RESULTS AND DISCUSSION dependent on it for their primary healthcare due to their The study provided a glimpse of people’s perception for the remoteness. Excessive anthropogenic pressures have been conservation strategy of natural resources, specifically the identified as the main causes of decline in the population and medicinal plants and their conservation implications. The availability of the medicinal plants in the Himalayan region main species of medicinal plants which are documented

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 71 Table 1. List of some of the traditionally used medicinal plants and their use in healthcare

S. N. Name of Plant Local Name Family Parts Used Form Use/ Treatment Resin used in the treatment of snake 1. Pinus Roxburghii Sarg. Chir Pinaceae Resin Tree bite/ Antiseptic property Aesculus indica (Wall. Ex. Leaf and Skin disease, Rheumatism, Astringent, 2. Pangar Rhamnaceae Tree Cambess)Hook Fruits painkiller for headache. Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Eczema and wound, heart ailments, 3. Ayar Eriaceae Leaves Tree Drude respiratory disorder. Rhododendron arboreum Flower juice used to treat fever and 4. Buransh Ericeae Flower Tree (Smith.) headache. Leaf paste is applied externally, used as Eupatorium odoraum 5. Kalabansa Asteraceae Leaves Shrub syrup and as ear drop to prevent cold, (Lindle) joint pain, Jaundice and ear pain Hedychium spicatum Rhizome extract is taken orally in 6. Ban haldi Zinziberaceae Rhizome Shrub (Smith InA. Rees) asthma and bronchitis. Rosa macrophylla Flower Juice is used for treatment of 7. Ban gulab Rosaceae Flower Shrub (Lindle) earache. Concoction of leaves is given in treat- 8. Rhus parviflora (Roxb.) Tung Anacardiacea Leaves Shrub ment of cholera Rumex nepalensis Used for treatment of female health 9. Kathura Polygonaceae Roots Herb (Lindle) disorder Treatment of high fever and stom- 10. Ajuga parviflora (Benth) Ratpatia Lamiacea Leaves Herb ach-ache. during the study (10 in number) have the highest rate of for the accuracy and can be resourceful for supporting the utilization according to the community perception (Table 1). policy generation for the state’s natural resources. The important medicinal plants traditionally being used by the community can be classified in the main categories CONCLUSION for the treatment of ailments such as fever, gastric problem, The study provides the status assessment of the use of diarrhea, indigestion, asthma and gonorrhea, jaundice etc. medicinal plants and forms a way forward of reducing pressure (Table 1). Various forms of preparation are made from on natural resources and reasonable income generation these plants such as decoction, paste, powder, infusion etc. through community development. For envisaging this In majority of cases the local healers either use fresh plant through community involvement it is necessary to promote parts such as roots, tubers (both in dry form as well as in medicinal plant cultivation through various governmental fresh form), seeds, bark and leaves or dry and store them support schemes viz. State Medicinal Plant Board (SMPB) for future use. National Mission on Medicinal Plants (NMMP), Chief As the perception based analysis of community inferred that Minister Medicinal Plant Development Program (CMMPDP) in present day situation the highly utilized medicinal plants and Amla Mission etc. It is also suggested that the specific have been losing their habitats due to unscientific methods need based trainings of communities for sensitization and of collection, the easy availability of medicinal plants in and creating awareness for sustainable management of their around the community managed forest makes it harvest an resources and development of opportunities for their market easy task for villagers, which sometimes overexploit the linkage are highly essential. There is a strong need to take resources, causes high pressure on regeneration capacity and up this issue for the development and modification of state eventually leads towards habitat destruction. Previous studies level action plans for the policy intervention and sustainable (Sharma et al., 2017) have also reported that if the resources management of natural resources through appropiate are not managed properly then the consequences can affect action plans. the market value as well as community dependence on the resources. Although there are many conservation schemes ACKNOWLEDGEMENT that work for protection and sustainable conservation of The authors are thankful to Dr. R.S. Rawal, Director, G.B. medicinal plants in the region, there are still under reported Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and practices of illegal extraction of medicinally valued species Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD), Kosi-Katarmal, which needs proper documentation and systematic validation Almora for the opportunity to contribute in institutional

72 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology publications. Authors are also thankful of Dr. P.P. Dhyani, former Director (GBPNIHESD), Kosi-Katarmal, Almora Uttarakhand for the work permissions. Furthermore authors are also thankful of all the respondents of studied VPFs for their continuous support during the study tenure.

REFERENCES Chambers R (1994). Participatory rural appraisal: challenges, potentials and paradigm. World Development, 22(10): 1437-1454.

Lise W (2000). Factors influencing people’s participation in forest management in India. Ecological economics, 34(3): 379-392.

Mathur A, Joshi H (2012). Traditional remedies in Tarai region of Kumaun, Uttarakhand. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 11(4): 652-657.

Sharma S, Pant H (2017). Vulnerability of Indian Central Himalayan forests to fire in a warming climate and a participatory preparedness approach based on modern tools. Current Science, 112(10): 2100.

Samant SS, Dhar U (1997). Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. The International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 4(3): 179-191.

Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS(1998). Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya: Diversity distribution potential values. Nainital: Gyanodaya Prakashan.

Samant SS, Pant S, Lal MSM, Singh A, Sharma A, Bhandari S (2007). Medicinal plant in Himanchal Pradesh, north- western Himalaya, India. International journal of biodiversity science Management, 3: 234-251.

Timmermans K (2003). Intellectual property rights and traditional medicine: policy dilemmas at the interface. World Health Organization, Jakarta.

Uniyal SK, Awasthi A, Rawat GS (2002). Traditional and ethnobotanical uses of plants in Bhagirathi valley, Western Himalaya. Indian Traditional Knowledge 1(1): 7-19.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 73

ETHNO-MEDICINAL PLANTS IN NONGTALANG, MEGHALAYA: THEIR USES AND THREATS

First Born Myrchiang, R. Eugene Lamare* and O. P. Singh

Department of Environmental Studies, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Meghalaya, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The tribal communities have been using locally available plants to treat various ailments from time immemorial. Such practice is still prevalent in villages of Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya. In this paper we report various ethno-medicinal plants used by people of Nongtalang village, West Jaintia Hills. A total of 83 plant species belonging to 79 genera and 50 families were found in use to cure various ailments. Of which, the dominant families documented belongs to Zingiberaceae. Among various plant parts used the leaves were found to be used maximum. Study revealed that the people of Nongtalang Village have rich traditional knowledge of various medicinal plants that are used in treatment of various kinds of ailments. However, medicinal plants and the traditional knowledge of using them to cure ailments are getting eroded due to industrialization and modernization of the society. Limestone mining and various other anthropogenic activities in the neighbouring areas were found destroying the habitats of these plants. Hence, immediate steps are needed to protect these plants and the traditional knowledge of their use.

Keywords: Flora, Medicinal plants, Nongtalang village, Limestone mining, Meghalaya.

INTRODUCTION the rich ethnic diversity and existing traditional The state of Meghalaya is blessed with rich natural knowledge in the state the studies are meager. Hence, resources including vast variety of plant species. It it is urgently required that such existing knowledge be constitutes about 18% of the total flora of the country; documented and preserved for future generation. With of these 3128 and 1237 are flowering and endemic plants this objective we have collected and documented the species, respectively. However, their distribution and information on plants and parts used and method of use diversity in the state vary depending on the topography to cure various ailments. of the area, elevation, rainfall, temperature and other environmental factors. STUDY AREA Traditionally, the Khasi, the Garo and the Pnar people, The study was carried out in Nongtalang village, West are known to embrace a vast knowledge about intrinsic Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya lying between 25°12’30.52” values of our Mother Nature including the use of plants N and 92°3’53.11” E coordinates. The village is species for treatment of different diseases for ages. This approximately about 105 Km from Shillong, the state kind of knowledge is conveyed orally from one generation capital. The location map of the study area is showed to another. Not every individual of the community in (Fig. 1). The people residing in the area are known as possesses this knowledge or capability to cure. Rather, War Jaintia. As per the Census 2011, the total population knowledge of identification of plants, their collection and in the study area is about 2,400. The total number of uses are limited to a few individuals, commonly known households is about 391. Cultivation of betel nuts is as the local herbal practitioners or ‘Nong e Dawai Pnar in one of the main agricultural practices and source of Pnar and Kabirait’ in Khasi language. Such knowledge livelihood for the people. Extraction of limestone is an is getting eroded due to influence of modernization and alternative source of income for many people of the area. introduction of alternative methods of cure. Mining and The limestone mining by the individuals and cement other anthropogenic activities are further putting pressure companies have affected the land, water and forest of the on these plants. Some studies on documentation of area to a greater extent. The environmental implications medicinal plants used in various parts of Meghalaya have visible in the Nongtalang village are depletion of the been done (Kayang et al., 2003; Laloo et al., 2006; Barik forest cover; deterioration of air, water, soil; loss of et al., 2006, Hynniewta et al., 2008; Singh et al, 2014; flora and fauna and degradation of the agriculture fields Sharma et al., 2014; Sangma et al., 2017) but considering (Lamare et al., 2015).

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 75 Fig. 1. Location map of the study area

METHODOLOGY identified with the help of taxonomists and by referring to For collection of information on medicinal plants used by the ‘Flora and Fauna of Meghalaya’. This way a comprehensive people of the Nongtalang village, the traditional practitioners list of plants used for medicinal purposes by people of the or ‘Nong e Dawai Pnar/Kabirait’ were contacted. Three Nongtalang village was prepared comprising of scientific traditional practitioners agreed to help, guide and share with name and name of the family, local name, part of the plant us the valuable traditional knowledge which they possess. used, method of preparation or usage and ailment cured. With their help and guidance plants used for medicinal purposes were collected/ photographed during field visit. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Information related to local name, uses, mode of uses, Medicinal plants used ailments cured etc. were collected and compiled. This was Study revealed that traditional healers use a total of 83 done during September 2016 to February 2017. In addition, plant species belonging to 79 genera and 50 families to cure the plant specimens were also collected from the forest for various ailments in and around Nongtalang village. Of these, preparation of herbarium. The specimens collected were maximum number of medicinal plants (7 species) belong to

Table 1. List of Medicinal plants, parts used and ailments treated in Nongtalang village, East Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya Local Name Sl. Botanical Name Family (k: khasi and Part(s) use Mode of usage Ailments treated No. w: war) Albizia chinensis Decoction is taken 1. Leguminosae Tkha Bark Stomach problem and pain in the abdomen (osbeck) merr. directly Bischofia Decoction is taken 2. Phyllanthaceae Soh Nepit (w) Bark Pain in the abdomen javanica Blume directly Clerodendrun wal- Khrah niriang Paste is Severe skin problem such as burn, eczema 3. Verbanaceae Bark lachi (w) applied etc.

Soh se-yiang Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Bark and Mixed to form a Various skin ailments and also leaves paste 4. Lauraceae (w) Perrs. Leaves paste and is applied are use as anti-septic Dieng sying (k)

It is made into a 5. Magnifera indica Anacardiaceae Sohpieng (k) Bark Stomach disorder paste.

76 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Local Name Sl. Botanical Name Family (k: khasi and Part(s) use Mode of usage Ailments treated No. w: war) Soh pyrchong 6. Averrhoa carambola L. Averrhoaceae Fruits Taken freshly Jaundice (w) Soh kymphor The young fruits are 7. Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Fruits Insect bites, inflammation, and burns (w/k) applied directly Juice is prepared Emblica officinalis 8. Euphorbiaceae Sohbyrlo (w) Fruits and consumed Urinary disorders Gaertn directly Juice is prepared Sohtai (w) Diarrhea, dysentery and other stomach 9. Myrica indica Myraceae Fruit and consumed Soh phi (k) disorders directly Zanthoxlum Fruit and 10. Rutaceae Jauir (w/k) Consumed orally Stomach disorders acanthopodium Leaves Zanthoxlum 11. Rutaceae Jauir (w/k) Fruits Dried and used Cold, cough and fever khasianum 12. Acoelorrhaphe writthi Arecaceae Sli-seta Leaves Burnt partially Fractured bone of animals Cuts and wounds 13. Adenosterma lavenia Compositae Soh-byrthit Leaves Applied as paste and also treated insect bite Chong bhang 14. Agapetes sp. Mimosaceae Leaves Made into a paste Severe wounds (w) Juice is prepared Eye ailments and leave paste is used for 15. Ageratum conizoides L. Compositae Sla tewtung Leaves and also made into treatment of cut and wounds a paste Buddleja fallowiana 16. Scrophulariaceae Khrah slang (w) Leaves Made into a paste Various skin problems Balf.f. & W.W.Sm Calotropis gigantean 17. Asclepiadaceae Khrahbaw (w) Leaves Raw leaves Swelling of body parts (L.) Dryand Leaves of the plant Leaves and 18. Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Bhang (k) and seeds of the Skin ailments and stomach disorders seed fruits are used Sli-lepriang (w) 19. Cinnanomum tamala Lauraceae Leaves Dried and crushed Throat problem Latyrpad (k) As an antiseptic and also used as bio pes- Citrus indica Yu. Boiled in a water 20. Rutaceae Soh Niriang (w) Leaves ticide Tanaka bath

Clematis amilacifolia Leaves and Grinded into a 21. Ranunculaceae Krahpethai (w) Boils and carbuncles Hills. roots paste Clerodendrun cole- Young 22. Verbanaceae Sohjarem (w/k) Administered orally Stomach problem brookianum leaves

Raw leaves are Colocasia esculata Cherew mot (w) Leaves and wrapped around the 23. Araceae Fever and bone problems (L.) Schott La-wang (k) rhizomes head and Rhizomes are consumed Eleutherine latifolia Applied directly Leliang khu- Leaves and 24. (Standl. & L.O. Wil- Iridaceae or in the form of a Boils, jaundice, sore throat, trauma and fever laukksia (w) Tuber liams) Ravenna paste Boiled and then 25. Embelia ribes Burn.f. Primulaceae Jiaryngkai (w) Leaves Menorrhagia used

Eugenia claviflora 26. Myrtaceae Cherri (w) Leaves Decoction Liver problem and pain in the abdomen Roxb. Eupatorium odoratum Kynbat phareng 27. Asteraceae Leaves Made into a paste Wounds and stomach problem L. (w)

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 77 Local Name Sl. Botanical Name Family (k: khasi and Part(s) use Mode of usage Ailments treated No. w: war) Ficus elastic Roxb. ex Chrai (w) Young Ointment is applied for treatment of body 28. Moraceae Fried with oil Hornem. Dieng jri (k) leaves pain and paralysis Garcinia pedunculata Young Decoction is taken 29. Clusiaceae Soh janai (w) Heart problem Roxb. ex Buch. Ham leaves. directly Hibiscus rosa-sinen- Leaves and 30. Malvaceae Khla sia (w) Made into a paste Boils sis L. Flower 31. Hodgsonia sp. Cucurbitaceae Soh leteot (w) Leaves Made into a paste Prevent clotting of blood Made into a paste Leaves and Applied externally on the body for treating 32. Hoya cuminata Benth. Apocynaceae Khla syntem (w) and then boiled roots paralysis with oil Khrahlir-lir (w) Young 33. Ipomea uniflora Convolvulaceae La-tiewroi (k) Directly consumed Diarrhea and dysentery leaves

Justicia coccinea 34. Acanthaceae Merembut (w) Leaves Boiled and applied Body pain and paralysis Aubl. Mikaniami crantha Chermew chaina 35. Asteraceae Leaves Made into a paste Skin ailments Kunth. (w) Morinda angustifolia Jiaremtyrmai 36. Rubiaceae Leaves Made into a paste Liver problem Roxb. (w) Duma-ba (w) Toothache, skin problems and also used as 37. Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Leaves Applied directly Dumas la (k) an insecticide Osbekia capitata Soh lyngkthuh Leaves and Boiled and admin- 38. Melastomaceae Menorrhagia Benth. (k) Roots istered orally Pethaiba (w) 39. Piper betel L. Piperaceae Leaves Made into a paste Minor cut and wounds Tympew (k) Soh mrit rit Leaves and Diarrhea, dysentery, and other stomach 40. Piper griffithii Piperaceae Administered orally (w/k) fruits problems Piper hylophilum C. Leaves, Nervous disorder causing temporary loss of 41. Piperaceae Thaisang (w) Made into a paste DC. roots consciousness with or without convulsion Pieris 42. Asteraceae Jakhain (w/k) Leaves Made into a paste Remedy for constipation hieracioides Young Consumed in raw 43. Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae Sohpriam (w/k) Dysentery and diarrhea leaves form Rauvolfia serpertina 44. Apocynaceae Khrah bi-aa (w) Leaves Juice is extracted Vomiting (L.) Benth. Kurz. Sarcochlamys Applied externally for treating major 45. pulcherrima Urticaceae Steng (w) Leaves Made into a paste wounds, severe cut and aid blood clotting Gaudich. 46. Solanum nigrum Solanaceae Soh ngang (w,k) Leaves Juice is extracted Eye ailments Stephania elegan leaves and Dried and grinded 47. Menispermaceae Mokmor (w) Tuberculosis Hook tuber to powered form Tabernaemontana 48. divaricata (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Chuilenui (w) Leaves Juice is extracted Cataract and other eye ailments ex Roem. & Schult. Thunbergia grandi- Shiangludong 49. flora (Roxb.ex Rottl.) Acanthaceae Leaves Juice is extracted Eye ailments (w) Roxb. Grinded and the Curcuma angustifo- Sying niang Gripe in children and also used for treating 50. Zingiberaceae Rhizomes paste is then is lium Roxb. soh-pet (k) severe cough boiled. 51. Cucurma caesia Roxb. Zingiberaceae Syin iong (k) Rhizomes Made into a paste Fever

78 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Local Name Sl. Botanical Name Family (k: khasi and Part(s) use Mode of usage Ailments treated No. w: war) Curcuma decipiens 52. Zingiberaceae Chyrmitba Rhizome Taken orally Cold, cough, boil and allergy Dalzell 53. Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Shyrmit (k) Rhizome Made into a paste Fractured toe nail Cucurma montana 54. Zingiberaceae Sying khlaw (k) Rhizome Made into a paste Treatment of body swelling and Jaundice Roxb. 55. Hedychium sp. Zingibaraceae Sying khlaw (w) Rhizome Consumed directly Ingested during respiratory problems Raphidophora decur- Applied after 56. Araceae Krah psein (w) Rhizome Snake bite siva (Roxb.) A. Schott smashing Trichomanes specio- Hymenophyl- Krahskum (w) Decoction water is Helps in relieving acidity, and act as a 57. Rhizomes sum Willd. laceae Jyrmibteng (k) consumed diuretic 58. Zingiber zurambet Zingiberaceae Sieng blei (w/k) Rhizomes Administered orally Throat problems and headache Calamus floribundus Chiah phlang 59. Arecaceae Root Made into a paste Fever and cough Griff (w) 60. Carex baccan Nees. Cyperaceae Phlang (w) Root Made into a paste Fever and cough Nepenthes khasiana Dried and grinded Applied externally for treating corn and 61. Nepenthaceae Tiewrakot (k) Roots Hook.f. into powder warts Panicum maximum 62. poaceae Phlang-ator (k) Roots Juice is extracted To remove worms from intestine Jacq. Thysanolaena maxima Su-ro (w) 63. Poaceae Roots Made into a paste Worms in children Herb. O. Kuntze, Shynsar (k) Dried, grinded into powdered and the Severe cough, toothache; and skin ailments Tylospora Krah mat suri Roots and applied externally 64. Apocynaceae Eaten with betel nuts and used as an antidote longifolia (w) stem on the wound. Stem is consumed directly Dried and then grinded into pow- 65. Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Soh mrit (w/k) Seed Severe cough der form; mixed with honey Dried the grinded Piper pedunculare Mrit khlaw into powdered and 66. Piperaceae Seed Severe cough (Miq.) C.DC. (w/k) then mixed with honey Flower and Applied 67. Spilanthus acmella Asteraceae Khrahrmen (w) Toothache seed directly 68. Allium sp. Alliaceae Piat lete-aa (w) Tuber Made into a paste Treatment of dogs and cats bites Costus speciosus Khrah bhoi (w) 69. Costaceae Tuber Made into a paste Treatment of body swelling (J.Koenig) Sm Sla-pang mat (k) Juice is 70. Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae Sohlahsew (w) Tuber Dysentery and other abdominal problem extracted Stephania glabra Lepetung doh- 71. Menispermaceae Tuber Made into a paste Inflammation of skin (Roxb.) Miers khnnai (w) Ailments such as headache, tuberculosis, Aristolochia talaga Whole 72. Aristolochiaceae Kynbat ra (w) coughs, paralyze and body pain. It is also Cham. plants used in treatment of severe wounds and boils Aristolochia cathcartii Whole 73. Aristolochiaceae Patiksang (w/k) - Headache, paralysis and body pain Hook f. plants Headache, tuberculosis, boils, toothache, Aristolochia saccata Whole 74. Aristolochiaceae Lahit (w/k) paralysis and body pain. Severe wounds and Wall. plants food poisoning

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 79 Local Name Sl. Botanical Name Family (k: khasi and Part(s) use Mode of usage Ailments treated No. w: war) Asparagus racemosus Whole Juice is extracted 75. Liliaceae Sujma khli (w) Diarrhea and dysentery Willd. plants and consumed Whole Decoction is taken Dysentery, diarrhea and other stomach 76. Cansora diffusa Gensianaceae Krah poh (w) plants orally problems Curculigo orchioides Le-liangkhulauk Whole 77. Hypoxidaceae - Hemorrhage Gaertn. (w) plant. Whole Made in the form 78. Eryngium foetidum L. Apiaceae Chiahkoi (w) Fever plants of a paste Hedyotis scandens Khrah keriah Whole Made in the form 79. Rubiaceae Bone fracture Roxb. (w) plants of a paste Juice is extracted Parochethus com- Whole 80. Papilionaceae Khia- knoi (k) and consumed Stomach problem in children munis plant orally Whole 81. Pediaria foetida Rubiaceae Jiamusem (w) - Dysentery and diarrhea plants Chkorblang (w) Whole Made in the form 82. Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae Minor cuts and wounds Shkorblang (k) plant of a past. Leaves part is made Tinospora cordifolia Chermew ram Whole into a paste Cuts and boils. 83. (Willd.) Miers ex Menispermaceae (w) plants Stem is externally Bone fracture, body ache and diabetes Hook. F. & thoms. applied

Zingiberaceae family followed by Asteraceae (6 species), Ailments treated Piperaceae (5 species), Apocynaceae (4 species). Families Study revealed that maximum number of plant species (i.e. Aristolochia, Menispermaceae, Rutaceae and Rubiceae 13 plants species) are used to cure stomach related problems include 3 species each. Families Acanthaceae, Araceae, followed by 11, 9, 8, 7, 5, 4, 3 plant species used for treatment of Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae, Verbanaceae cut and wounds including blood clotting; problem associated with are represented by 2 species each. The other families skin; dysentery and diarrhea; fever and cough; boil/carbuncle; include one species each of medicinal plants. The list of insect/snake bite and eyes treatment; fractured bone, jaundice medicinal plants used in and around Nongtalang village is and throat problem, respectively. The ailments like toothache, given in Table 1. hemorrhage, diuretic and urinary problem, headache, body ache, paralyses, liver problem are included in the ‘other’ category. The Plant parts used data are presented graphically in (Fig. 2). This study revealed Of the total medicinal plants recorded from Nongtalang interesting information regarding treatment of fractured nail/toe village, leaves are used maximum (37 species which by applying paste of Curcuma longa of rhizome. For treatment account about 40.21%) followed by the use of whole plants (12 species, 13.04%), rhizomes (10 species, 9.78% ), roots (10 species, 10.86%), fruits (6 species, 6.52%), tubers (6 species, 6.52%), bark (5 species, 5.43 %), seeds (4 species, 4.34%), flowers (2 species, 2.17%) and stem (1 species, 1.08%). Information on plant parts used for medicinal purposes and mode of preparation and uses are also given in Table 1. The medicinal plants are used in many ways to cure various ailments. It was found that many are directly administered orally. Some are used as decoction of leaves and roots; some are made into paste; The juice of some plants are extracted and used to cure ailments; some are dried and then ground into powder form; and/or boiled along with oil and is used as ointment. Fig. 2. Number of species used for treatment various ailments

80 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology of corn and warts paste of Napenthes khasiana roots are applied. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The decoction of roots of Panicum maxima and Thysanolaena The authors are grateful to local herbal practitioner of maxima is used for treatment of worms in children. The paste Nongtalang village who provided information which made up of leaves of Pieris hieracioides is ingested for the helped in documenting the rich traditional knowledge of treatment of constipation. medicinal plants used by Pnar tribe of the area. We thank Mr Prem Prakash, Department of Botany, North-Eastern Hill Threats University, Shillong for assisting us in identification of the Loss of habitat due to extraction of limestone and open plant species. dumping of the overburden from nearby mines have affected the quality and quantity of the river water and ultimately REFERENCES the floral and faunal diversity of the area (Lamare et al., Barik SK, Haridasan K, Lakadong NJ (2006). Medicinal 2014; 2015; 2016a, b; 2017). The plant biodiversity was plants resources of Meghalaya: endemism, threat, status also found highly threatened due to extensive extraction of and consumption pattern. Economic Botany, 35(1): 4-9. plant resources from the forest for commercial purposes. Census Report (2011). Government of India. There is need to check destructive and over exploitation of plant resources and take measures for protection of Hynniewta SR, Kumar Y (2008). Herbal remedies among forest of the area. the Khasi traditional healers and village folks Meghalaya. Indian Journal of Tradition Knowledge, 7(4): 581-586. Conservations measures No major conservation practices were found to have Kayang H, Kharbuli B, Myrboh B, Syiem D (2003). Medicinal been adopted or reported by the people in the study area. plants of Khasi Hills Meghalaya. Acta Hortic., 675: 75-80. However, some small scale conservation practices have been adopted by local herbal practitioner. They are doing Laloo RC, Kharlukhi L, Jeeva S, Mishra BP (2006). Status plantation of medicinal plants in their home garden or of medicinal plants in the disturbed and the undisturbed at the periphery of the forest for easy accessibility and sacred forests of Meghalaya, North-East India: Population collection. Based on the study, we found that there is a structure and regeneration efficacy of some important need for documentation of traditional knowledge in the species. Current Science, 90(2): 225-231. area because oral knowledge is getting eroded and soon will disappear in time with modernization. There is also Lamare RE, Singh OP (2014). Degradation of water quality need to create awareness for propagating the knowledge due to limestone mining in East Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya, and conserving the plants species having medicinal values. India. International Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3(5): 13-20. CONCLUSIONS The study revealed that the people of Nongtalang Lamare RE, Singh OP (2015). Localised effect of artisanal and Village have rich knowledge of medicinal plants which small scale mining of limestone mining on water quality in are still used for treatment of various ailments, thereby, Meghalaya, India. Pollution Research, 32(2): 321-329. providing affordable healthcare to the local people. However, deforestation, environmental degradation Lamare RE, Singh OP (2016a). Limestone Mining and Its and loss of habitat are posing severe threat to medicinal Environmental Implications in Meghalaya, India. ENVIS plants of the area including the knowledge of their use Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, 24: 87-100. are slowly disappearing in the area. Therefore, there is need to conserve these medicinal plants, their habitat Lamare RE, Singh OP (2016b). Application of CCME and traditional knowledge for the benefit of the future water quality index in evaluating the water quality status in generation. The conservation measures such as plantation limestone mining area of Meghalaya, India. The Ecoscan., of medicinal plants in home garden or at the periphery of 10(1&2): 149-154. the forest, prohibition of unsustainable collection of plant resources from forests, protection of forest etc. can be Lamare RE, Singh OP (2017). Changes in soil quality in of some help in conservation of medicinal plants in and Limestone Mining area of Meghalaya, India. Nature around the Nongtalang Village. Environment and Pollution Technology, 16(2): 545-550.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 81 Sangma AJT, Sahoo UK (2017). Utilization pattern of medicinal plants by different tribes of Garo hills of Meghalaya, North- East India. American Journal of Ethnomedicine, 4(1): 1-8.

Sharma M, Sharma CL, Marak PN (2014). Indigenous uses of medicinal plants in North Garo Hills, Meghalaya, NE India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences, 3: 137-146.

Singh B, Borthakur SK, Phukan SJ (2014). A Survey of Ethnomedicinal plants utilized by the indigenous people of Garo hills with special reference to the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (Meghalaya), India. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 20(1): 1-30.

82 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Black turmeric: A high value medicinal herb from North-East India

Om Prakash Arya1*, Priyanka Adhikari2 and Anita Pandey2

1G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, North-East Regional Centre, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India 2 Centre for Environmental Assessment & Climate Change, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India

Correspondence: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION South-East Asia and thrives well in moist deciduous forest Turmeric (Curcuma) has been valued as a source of medicine, areas in clayey soil. In India, it grows in North-East and a condiment and a color additive in South Asian countries, Central India, and also found in some places of South India. since ancient times. Probably, in earlier times, it got attention The plant is normally erect with height ranging from 0.5 to due to its attractive color that in due course acquired many 1.0 m. It is divided into underground large ovoid tuberous religious and socio-cultural values. Turmeric, also known rhizome, often called rootstock, and aerial shoot along as “Indian saffron”, has been mentioned in the age-old the leaves. The leaves show deep violet patches that run Indian System of Medicine ‘Ayurveda’. Its importance throughout the lamina. The upper side of the leaves is rough, was documented in Sanskrit, the ancient Indian language velvety and broad oblong lanceolate (Fig.1). The leaves are between 1700 and 800 B.C., in the Vedic age. In Sanskrit, generally present in the group of 10-20. The flowering bracts it is described as “Haridara,” referring that Lord Vishnu are green with a ferruginous tinge. Flower petals may be used it on his body. The great ancient Indian physicians deep pink or red in colour. The inner part of the rhizome is Charaka and Sushruta, while systematizing the Ayurvedic bluish-black in colour and emits a characteristic sweet smell, System of Medicine, cataloged various uses of this plant. due to the presence of essential oil. It has bitter and hot taste Turmeric in form of “Oushadhi” was used in day-to-day life with pungent smell (Pandey et al., 2003; Das et al., 2013). by ancient Indians in treating wounds, stomachache, poison, etc. Besides, it was used in dyeing clothes and yarns, and Therapeutic uses in religious rituals. The Greek physician Dioscorides (40–90 Black turmeric has been an essential component in general A.D.) also made a mention of turmeric in pharmacological healthcare, particularly in the rural areas. It has been used by text. The Indus Valley Civilization dating back to 3300 B.C. many tribal communities worldwide from centuries as spice, included turmericin the trade of spices, in western India. medicine and in spiritual practices. With advancement in The Greco-Roman, Egyptian, and Middle East regions were technology, the species is gaining importance as a potential familiar with this medicinal herb. While turmeric species have been cultivated all over the tropics, some species have also been reported from China, Australia and the South Pacific. Up to 110 species of turmeric have been reported from the tropical Asia with greatest diversity from India, Myanmar and Thailand. About 40 species are indigenous to India, and black turmeric (Curcuma caesia) is one of the economically important species along with C. aromatica, C. amada, C. aeruginosa, C. longa, and C. zanthorrizha (Ravindran 2007; Nair 2013). Fig. 1. Black turmeric (A) cultivation (B) specimen (C) rhizome

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION source of new drugs (Chadalavada et al., 2017). The rhizomes The black turmeric (family Zingiberaceae; botanical name are used as stimulants, anti-diarrheal, diuretic, anti-emetic, Curcuma caesia Roxb., English name black turmeric, Hindi wound cleanser and in treating various skin disorders in India, name kali haldi, locally known by Kalahaldhi in Assamese, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia (Vairappan et al., 2013). Yaingangamuba in Manipuri, Borangshagain Monpa, The paste of black turmeric rhizome is applied on wounds BeiAchombain Sherdukpen communities) is a perennial herb and in rheumatic pain in Manipur. In Arunachal Pradesh the with bluish-black rhizome. It has its origin from India and fresh decoction of rhizome is used as anti-diarrheic while the

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 83 fresh paste of rhizome is applied over snake and scorpion bite REFERENCES (Chadalavada et al., 2017).These rhizomes are traditionally Chadalavada V, Budala S (2017). Study of anthelmintic used in treatment of stomachache, typhoid and wounds in activity of Curcuma caesia. Indo American Journal of tongue by Monpa community of Dirang (West Kameng) in Pharmaceutical Research, 7(7): 248-252. Arunachal Pradesh. Das S, Mondal P, Zaman Md. K (2013). Curcuma caesia Roxb. Bioactive compounds and it’s medicinal uses: a review. International Journal of Black turmeric has been recognized as a medicinal herb Research in Pharmacy and Chemistry, 3(2): 370-375. containing mixtures of different bioactive compounds that may act individually, additively, or in synergy to improve Devi HP, Mazumder PB, Devi LP (2015). Antioxidant and health. The plant contains a good percentage of curcumin antimutagenic activity of Curcuma caesia Roxb. rhizome which possesses many curative properties, as usually reported extracts. Toxicology Reports, 2: 423–428. from all the curcuma species. The multiple phtyoconstituents like curcumminoids, oil content, flavonoids, phenolics, amino Karmakar I, Dolai N, Suresh RBK, Kar B, Roy SN, Halder acids, protein and high alkaloids, found in the rhizome, are PK (2013). Antitumor activity and antioxidant property of responsible for the antimicrobial, antitumor, anxiolytic, anti- Curcuma caesia against Ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma bearing inflammatory, antiulcer, CNS depressant and antioxidant mice. Pharmaceutical Biology, 51(6): 753–759. activities (Karmakar et al., 2013; Devi et al., 2015; Vineela et al., 2017). The chemical structure of phenolic compounds Nair KPP (2013). The agronomy and economy of turmeric having hydroxyl group attached to benzene ring in its and ginger, the invaluable medicinal spice crops. Elsevier structure provides the ability to act as free radical scavenger. Scientific Publishing Company. Antioxidants have been reported to act as scavengers of singlet oxygen and free radicals in biological systems. Pandey A, Agnihotri V (2015). Antimicrobials from medicinal Black turmeric, used in traditional and folk medicine, plants: research initiatives, challenges and the future seems to be a promising source of active therapeutic agents. prospects. In: biotechnology of bioactive compounds: Further studies on isolation of active principle agents may sources and applications in food and pharmaceuticals (VK play an important role in increasing its pharmaceutical and Gupta, M G Tuohy, A O’Donovan, M Lohani, Eds.), John industrial significance. Being a species of the genus Curcuma, Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 123-150. that has been known for its antimicrobial potential since ages, black turmeric should be seen as an important source of Pandey AK, Chowdhury AR (2003). Volatile constituents of plant based antimicrobials. Such species are likely to provide the rhizome oil of Curcuma caesia Roxb. from central India. safer alternates to the microbe-based antimicrobials which Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 18: 463-465. are increasingly reported for their side effects and drug resistance (Pandey et al., 2015). In a field and market based Ravindran PN (2007). Turmeric the golden spice of life. In: survey, conducted in Dirang area of Arunachal Pradesh, this turmeric the genus Curcuma: medicinal and aromatic plants- medicinal herb was recorded with economic benefits in the industrial profiles (PN Ravindran, K. Nirmal Babu, K. local communities due to its high market price (Approx. Rs. Sivaraman, Eds.), CRC Press, 45: 1-13. 3000-3500/kg).The local communities should be encouraged to generate income through cultivation of this plant species Vairappan CS, Elias ME, Ramachandram TR, KamadaT at commercial scale. (2013). Secondary metabolites from rhizome of Curcuma caesia Roxb. (Zingiberaceae). Biochemical Systematics and ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Ecology, 48: 107-110. Authors are thankful to the Director, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Vineela C, Soundarya B (2017). Study of antihelmintic Development, Almora, India for providing necessary activity of Curcuma caesia. Indo American Journal of facilities. Pharmaceutical Research, 7(7): 248-252.

84 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology An overview on Antimicrobial Activity of Aloe vera Against Pathogenic Bacteria and Fungi

S.P.K. Malhotra* and T. K. Mandal

I.C.F.A.I. Tech School, I.C.F.A.I. University Dehradun, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

*Coresspondance: [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT Herbal medicines have been practiced since the ancient times to the present day. They are used to cure various infectious and non-infectious diseases. According to an estimate about 25% of medicines are derived from the plants. Aloe vera L. is a species of Aloe and has become a subject of interest because of its beneficial effects on human health. It belongs to the family Liliaceae and contains about 400 species. Aloe vera is used in Ayurvedic, Homeopathic and Allopathic streams of medicine. The plant contains many potentially active phytochemical constituents viz. anthraquinones, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, sugars, fatty acids, hormones, amino acids, lignin and saponins. Several studies revealed some notable pharmacological profile of the Aloe vera plant such as activity against a variety of infectious agents. It has pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, nephro-protective, antiulcer and anti-aging effects be used as a moisturizing agent and to cure cardiovascular diseases as well as to enhance the immune system. This review is to explore the phytochemical constituents and pharmacological knowledge as well as several promising aspects for research on the antimicrobial activity of Aloe vera against pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

Keywords: Aloe barbadensis Miller, Antibacterial, Antifungal, Anthraquinone.

INTRODUCTION introduced into the of northern Africa, India and other Antibacterial agents are useful to fight infectious arid areas of the world. In India the plant is mainly found diseases. However, with their broad use and abuse, the in Rajasthan and other dry belts of Himalayas. It also emergence of bacterial resistance to antibacterial drugs grows in coasts of Mumbai, Gujarat and South India. Its has become a common phenomenon and a major problem ability to colonize dry areas stems from the fact that the now. Currently used antibiotic agents are failing to bring plant is perennial, drought resistant and succulent. The an end to many bacterial infections due to super resistant ability to store vast amounts of water in its thick leaves strains. Such antibacterial-resistant strains and species are allows it to survive long periods of desiccation. It is a informally referred to as superbugs and contribute to the cactus-like plant that grows readily in hot, dry climates. emergence of diseases that were under good control for Aloe vera an almost sessile perennial herb, has leaves many years. For this reason the search is ongoing for new 30-35 cm long and 10 cm broad at the base, colour pea- antimicrobial agents. Herbal medications in particular green (when young), bright yellow tubular flowers 25-35 have seen a revival of interest due to a perception that cm in length arranged in a slender loose spike, stamens there is a lower incidence of adverse reactions to plant frequently projected beyond the perianth tube. The term preparations compared to synthetic pharmaceuticals. Aloe is derived from an Arabic word ‘alloeh’ meaning Coupled with the reduced costs of plant preparations, this ‘bitter’ which refers to the taste of the liquid contained makes the search for natural therapeutics an attractive in the leaves. It is also known as ‘lily of the desert’, the option. plant of immortality with qualities to serve as alternate Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Aloe barbadensis Miller is a medicine. perennial succulent xerophyte, which develops water storage tissue in the leaves to survive in dry areas of Phyto constituents present in Aloe vera gel: Aloe vera low or erratic rainfall. The genus Aloe contains over 400 contains 75 potentially active constituents as stated below: different species, among which A. barbadensis Miller A. vera, A. aborescens, and A. chinensis are the most Vitamins popular. A. barbadensis Miller is the most biologically The A. vera plant contains different medicinal content including active. The plant is native to southern and eastern Africa Vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C and E, and plays an important along the upper Nile in the Sudan, and it subsequently role as antioxidant and inflammation (Radha et al., 2015).

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 85 Enzymes from the whole plant having antimicrobial activity and Enzymes amylase, lipase and carboxy peptidase are saponins, which are soapy substances, forming about 3% of present in the plant’s extracts help in the breakdown of fats, the gel with cleansing and antiseptic properties Ghasemi et sugars and starch. Carboxypeptidase in particular acts as al. (2009) have also been reported. on bradykinin acting against inflammation and controlling vasodilation (Sebastian et al., 2011). This indicates that the Biological activity and therapeutic uses of Aloe vera plant can be used in remedying hypertension (Johnson MA Aloe barbadensis Miller (Aloe vera) has a long history of et al., 2012). use as a therapeutic agent with many reported medicinal properties. Amongst its therapeutic properties, it has been Minerals shown to show activity against a variety of infectious agents. It also has calcium, chromium, copper, selenium, It has pharmacological activities such as antibacterial magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium, and zinc, (Subramanian et al., 2006; Arunkumar et al., 2009; Saritha which are essential for the proper functioning of various et al., 2010; Fani et al., 2012; Nejatzadeh-Barandozi 2013); enzyme systems in different metabolic pathways; some of antifungal (Bajwa et al., 2007; Rosca Casian et al., 2007; these elements are also antioxidants. Khaing 2011; Sitara et al., 2011); antiviral (Zandi et al., 2007); antioxidant (Baradaran et al., 2013; Ray et al., 2013; Sugars Kang et al., 2014); cytotoxic (Jose et al., 2014; Shalabi et It provides monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) al., 2015); antidiabetic (Tanaka et al., 2006; Choudhary and polysaccharides: glucomannans/polymannose. These et al., 2014; Suleyman et al., 2014); anti-inflammatory are derived from the mucilage layer of the plant and are (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2012; Bhattacharjee et al., 2014); known as mucopolysaccharides. The most prominent antitumor (El-Shemy et al., 2010; Srihari et al., 2015); monosaccharide is mannose-6-phosphate, and the most nephroprotective (Iftikhar et al., 2015; Virani et al., 2016); common polysaccharides are called glucomannans (beta- antiulcer (Borra et al., 2011) and anti-aging effects which (1, 4)-acetylated mannan). Recently, a glycoprotein can be used as a moisturizing agent and to cure cardio with anti-allergic properties, called alprogen and novel vascular diseases as well as to enhance the immune system anti-inflammatory compound, C-glucosyl chromone, has (Chatterjee et al., 2013). been isolated from Aloe vera gel (Hutter et al., 1996; Ro et al., 2000). Anti-bacterial properties of Aloe vera gel The efficacy of Aloe vera gel as an antibacterial agent is Anthraquinones shown to have a wide range of activity against gram positive Aloe vera gel contains Anthraquinones as Aloe: emodin, and gram negative bacteria. The antimicrobial agents of Aloe Aloin, Anthranol, Isobarbaloin, Emodin, Barbaloin vera gel was reported to effectively kill or greatly reduce or and Aloetic acid. These compounds are responsible of eliminate the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella purgative effect, antimicrobial activity and analgesic effects pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Pseudomonas (Kaithwas et al., 2008; Chatterjee et al., 2015). aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Propionibacterium acne, Helicobacter pylori and Salmonella typhi (Lawless et al., Fatty acids 2000; Pugh et al., 2001; Reynolds et al., 1999). Aloe It provides four plant steroids; cholesterol, campesterol, vera gel also speed up the rate of healing, decreases the β-sisosterol and lupeol. All these have anti-inflammatory synthesis of prostanoids and inhibits infection by action and lupeol also possesses antiseptic and analgesic Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Despite the therapeutic properties. possibilities of this plant, there have been limited reports on the antimicrobial effects of isolated Aloe vera Hormones components. Aloe vera juice and gel are known to contain Auxins and gibberellins that help in wound healing and the anthraquinone aloe emodin which has previously been have anti-inflammatory action are also found. shown to have antimicrobial activity (Wu et al., 2006). Ferro et al. (2003) have shown that Aloe vera leaf gel Others can inhibit the growth of the two Gram positive bacteria It provides 20 of the 22 human required amino acids and 7 of Shigella flexneri and Streptococcus progenes. Specific the 8 essential amino acids. It also contains salicylic acid that plant compounds such as anthraquinones (Garcia-Sosa et possesses anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. al., 2006; Dabai et al., 2007) and dihydroxyanthraquinones When lignin, an inert substance, is included in topical (Wu et al., 2006) as well as saponins (Reynolds et al., 1999) preparation, the penetrative effect of other ingredients into have been proposed to have direct antimicrobial activity. the skin is enhanced. A polysaccharide acemannan derived Acemannan, a polysaccharide component from whole plant

86 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology material, has been proposed to have indirect antimicrobial Bajwa R, Shafique S, Shafique S (2007). Appraisal of antifungal activity through its ability to stimulate phagocytic activity of Aloe vera. Mycopath, 5(1): 5-9. leukocytes (Pugh et al., 2001). Wang et al. (1998) have reported on the effect of the anthraquinone, aloe emodin Baradaran A, Nasri H, Nematbakhsh M, Rafieian-Kopaei M on arylamine N-acetyl transferase activity in Heliobacter (2013). Antioxidant activity and preventive effect of aqueous pylori, and hence its antimicrobial activity. leaf extract of Aloe, Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci 6(3): 2152-2162. Anti-fungal properties of Aloe vera gel Candidias (a disease mainly caused by Candida fungus) Bhattacharjee S, Paul S, Dutta S, Chaudhuri TK (2014). Anti- is normally treated with the help of antifungal drugs, inflammatory and protective properties ofAloe vera leaf crude but Aloe vera can remove Candidiasis infections with gel in carrageenan induced acute inflammatory rat models. its natural antifungal properties. Aloe vera shows its Int. J. Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sci., 6(9): 368-371. antifungal activities against other fungi such as Candida paraprilosis, Candida krusei and Candida albican (Das Borra SK, Lagisetty RK, Mallela GR (2011). Anti-ulcer et al., 2011). The Candida yeast breeds in our intestine in effect of Aloe vera in non-steroidal anti-inflammatory an acidic environment, but Aloe vera removes this with an drug induced peptic ulcers in rats. African J. Pharmacy alkalizing effect by alleviating constipation. Toxins collect and Pharmacol., 5(16): 1867-1871. in the colon region of our body, but Aloe vera has laxative properties, which loosens the toxin and helps its removal Chatterjee P, Chakraborty B, Nandy S (2013). Aloe vera from our system. Aloe vera repairs and seals the damaged plant: review with significant pharmacological activities. intestinal wall and prevents Candida from penetrating it. Mintage J. Pharmaceutical and Med. Sci., 2(3): 21-24. Thus, Aloe vera specially proves to be of great help for the liver and act as the detoxifier. Chatterjee R, Singh D, Dimri AG, Pandita A, Chaudhary S, Aggarwal ML (2015). Comparative study of antimicrobial CONCLUSION activity of Aloe vera gel and antibiotic against isolates Herbal medicines derived from plants are used since from fast food. wjpps., 4: 1058-1073. ancient human civilizations. Therefore, for past two decades, renewed interest in health products through Choudhary M, Kochhar A, Sangha J (2014). Hypoglycemic herbal medicine globally has opened new avenues of and hypolipidemic effect of Aloe vera L. in non-insulin exploration and research in this field. The identification dependent diabetics. J. Food Sci. Technol., 1(1): 90-96. of natural antimicrobial compounds provides a promising avenue of research for novel antimicrobials. Therefore, Dabai YU, Muhammad S, Aliyu BS. (2007). Antibacterial studies are necessary in the face of increasing microbial activity of anthraquinone fraction of Vitex doniana. antibiotic resistance. Aloe vera is considered the “plant Pakistan J Biol Sci., 1-3. of immortality” has been used medically for thousands of years. The phytochemicals derived from Aloe vera show Das S, Mishra B, Gill K, Ashraf MS, Singh AK, Sinha antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria and M, Sharma S, Xess I, Dalal K, Singh TP, Dey S (2011). fungi. Various research studies are in pipeline to discover Isolation and characterization of novel protein with the potential of Aloe vera such as boosting immunity, antifungal and anti-inflammatory properties from Aloe treatment against HIV virus, managing diabetes along with Vera leaf gel, Inter J of Bio Macromolecules, 48(1): 38- treatment of certain types of cancer. Public interest in Aloe 43. vera has grown quickly, and now there is a considerable amount of research on the various components of Aloe vera El-Shemy HA, Aboul-Soud MA, Nassr-Allah M, Aboul- to find out more about their properties and to characterize Enein AA, Kabash, Yagi A (2010). Antitumor properties these components so that more specific research can provide and modulation of antioxidant enzymes’ activity by Aloe clues to the “magic” that is attributed to Aloe vera. vera leaf active principles isolated via supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Curr. Medicinal Chem., 17(2): 129- REFERENCES 138. Arunkumar S, Muthuselvam M (2009). Analysis of phytochemical constituents and antimicrobial activities of Fani M, Kohanteb J (2012). Inhibitory activity of Aloe Aloe vera L. against clinical pathogens. World J. Agri. Sci., vera gel on some clinically isolated cariogenic and 5(5): 572-576. periodontopathic bacteria. J. Oral Sci., 54(1): 15-21.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 87 Ferro VA, Bradbury F, Cameron P, Shakir E, Rahman SR, Lawless J, Allan J (2000). The Clinical Composition of Aloe Stimson WH (2003). In vitro susceptibilities of Shigella vera,: Aloe vera natural wonder cure. London: Thorsons, flexneri and Streptococcus pyogenes to inner gel of Aloe Publishing Ltd., 161-171. barbadensis Miller. Antimicrobial agents and Chemotherapy, Mar., 1137-1139. Nejatzadeh BF (2013). Antibacterial activities and antioxidant capacity of Aloe vera. Organic and Medicinal Chemistry Garcia SK, Villarreal AN, Lubben P, Peña-Rodriguez LM Letters, 3: 5. (2006). Chrysophanol, an antimicrobial anthraquinone from the root extract of Colubrina greggii. J. Mex Chem. Soc., Pugh N, Ross SA, ElSohly MA, Pasco DS (2001).Characterization 50(2): 76-78. of Aloeride, a new high molecular weight polysaccharide from Aloe vera with potent immunostimulatory activity. J. Ghasemi S, Emami MR, Maleki M. (2009). Histhopathologic Agri. Food. Chem., 49(2): 1030-1034. evaluation of curative impact of Aloe vera L. fresh gel on healing of experimental infected fullthickness open wounds induced Radha MH, Laxmipriya NP (2015). Evaluation of biological with Staphylococcus aureus in dogs. IJVS., 4(2): 103-113. properties and clinical effectiveness of Aloe vera: A systematic review. J of Traditional and Compl Med., 5(1): Hutter JA, Salmon M, Stavinoha WB, Satsangi N, Williams RF, 21- 26. Streeper RT (1996). Anti-inflammatory C-glucosyl chromone from Aloe barbadensis. J. Nat Prod., 59: 541–3. Ray A, Gupta SD, and Ghosh S. (2013). Evaluation of antioxidative activity and UV absorption potential of the extracts Iftikhar A, Hasan IJ, Sarfraz M, Jafri L, Ashraf MA (2015). of Aloe vera L. gel from different growth periods of plants. Nephroprotective effect of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis Industrial Crops and Products, 49: 712-719. (Aloe vera) against toxicity induced by diclofenac sodium in albino rabbits. West Indian Med J., 64(5): 462–467. Reynolds T, Dweck AC (1999). Aloe vera leaf gel: a review update. J. Ethnopharmacol., 68: 3-37. Johnson M, Renisheya JM, Nancy BS, Laju RS, Aruriya G, Renola JT (2012). Antimicrobial and Antifungal activity of Ro JY, Lee B, Kim JY, Chung Y, Chung MH, Lee SK (2000). Aloe vera Gel Extract. Journal of International Biomedical Inhibitory mechanism of aloe single component (Alprogen) and Advance Research, 3:184-187. on mediator release in guinea pig lung mast cells activated with specific antigen-antibody reactions. J Pharmacol Exp Jose J, Sudheesh S, Sumesh KTM, Sony J, Jayadevi Variyar Ther., 292: 114–21. E (2014). A comparative evaluation of anticancer activities of flavonoids isolated from Mimosa pudica, Aloe vera, Rosca CO, Parvu M, Vlase L, Tamas M (2007). Antifungal Phyllanthus niruri against human breast carcinoma cell activity of Aloe vera leaves. Fitoterapia, 78(3): 219-222. line (MCF-7) using MTT assay. Int. J. Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sci., 6(2): 319-322. Saritha V, Anilakumar KR, Khanum F (2010). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Aloe vera gel extracts. Int. J. Kang MC, Kim SY, Kim YT, Kim EA, Le SH, Ko SC, Pharmaceutical and Biological Archive, 1(4): 376-384. Wijesinghe WAJP, Samarakoon KW, KimYS, Cho JH, Jang HS, Jeon YJ (2014). In vitro and in vivo antioxidant activities Sebastian E, Nidiry J, Ganeshan G, Lokesha AN (2011). of polysaccharide purified fromAloe vera (Aloe barbadensis) Antifungal activity of some extractives and constituents of Aloe gel. Carbohydrate Polymers, 99: 365-371. vera. Research Journal of Medicinal Plants, 5(2): 196-200.

Kaithwas G, Kumar A, Pandey H, Acharya AK, Singh M, Sitara U, Hassan N, Naseem J (2011). Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Bhatia D, Mukerjee A (2008). Investigation of comparatives App. Sci., 6(3): 2152-2162. antimicrobial activity of Aloe vera gel and juice. Pharmonline., 1: 239-243. Shalabi M, Khilo K, Zakaria MM, Elsebaei MG, Abdo W, Awadin W (2015). Anticancer activity of Aloe vera Khaing TA (2011). Evaluation of the antifungal and antioxidant and Calligonum comosum extracts separetely on activities of the leaf extract of Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Asian Pacific J. Tropical Miller). World Acad of Sci, Eng. and Tech., 75: 610-612. Biomedicine, 5(5): 375-381.

88 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Srihari R, Surendranath AR, Kasturacharya N, Shivappa KC, Sivasitambaram ND, Dhananjaya BL (2015). Evaluating the cytotoxic potential of methonolic leaf extract of Aloe vera on MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines. Int. J. Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sci., 7(13): 81-83.

Subramanian S, Kumar DS, Arulselvan P, Senthilkumar GP (2006). In vitro antibacterial and antifungal activities of ethanolic extract of Aloe vera leaf gel. J. Plant Sci., 1(4): 348-355.

Suleyman A, Gnanasekaran N, Daniel S (2014). Amelioration of streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia through Aloe debrana. Int. J. Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sci., 7(2): 290-293.

Tanaka M, Misawa E, Ito Y, Habara N, Nomaguchi K, Yamada M, Toida T, Hayasawa H, Takase M, Inagaki M, Higuchi R (2006). Identification of five phytosterols from Aloe vera gel as anti-diabetic compounds. Biol. Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 29(7): 1418-1422.

Vijayalakshmi D, Dhandapani R, Jayaveni S, Jithendra PS, Rose C, Mandal AB (2012). In vitro anti inflammatory activity of Aloe vera by down regulation of MMP-9 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J. Ethnopharmacol., 141(1): 542-546.

Virani S, Bhatt S, Saini M, Saxena K (2016). Aloe vera attenuates gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in wistar albino rats: histopathological and biochemical changes. Asian J. Pharmaceutical and Clinical Res., 9(1): 113-117.

Wang HH, Chung JG, Ho CC, Wu CT, Chang SH (1998). Aloe- emodin effects on arylamine N-acetyl transferase activity in the bacteria Heliobacter pylori. Planta Med., 64: 176-178.

Wu YW, Ouyang J, Xiao XH, Gao WY, Liu Y (2006). Antimicrobial properties and toxicity of anthraquinones by microcalorimetric bioassay. Chinese J Chem., 24: 45-50.

Zandi K, Zadeh MA, Sartavi K, Rastian Z (2007). Antiviral activity of Aloe vera against herpes simplex virus type 2: An in vitro study. African J. Biotechnol., 6(15): 1770-1773.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 89

HERBAL THERAPY IN THE TREATMENT OF DRUG ADDICTION

Laxman Singh*, Renu Suyal and I. D. Bhatt

G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT A search for novel herbal therapy for the phenomenon of substance abuse has progressed significantly in the past decade. The powerful potential of phytotherapy being equally competent to the counterpart i.e. synthetic analogue and is presumed to be safe without any side effects. As a result of which a large numbers of herbal formulations are being prepared and are being tested for its psychotherapeutic potential in a variety of animal models. The objective of this article is to highlight some of the herbal extracts from the Indian sub-constituents, having significant therapeutic potential against drug addiction. Herbal remedies, although have demonstrable psychotherapeutic potentials, but proper scientific validation with adequate proof is still in its initial stage. Hence, in future studies it deserves special attention, taking into considerations the growing rate of abuse addiction.

Keywords: Phytotherapy, Drug addiction, Herbal therapy.

INTRODUCTION globe consume one drug or the other (Sharma et al., 2017). Plants have evolved intrinsic mechanisms to synthesize an array To an estimate, the binge alcohol addiction alone results into of biologically active compounds that are in turn important for 2.5 million death per year, while, cocaine, heroin and other them to survive and perpetuate. One such special category of drugs accounts to about 0.1 to 0.2 million deaths per year plants are the psychoactive plants, which have been used since (UNDOC 2010). India being no exception and is caught in the prehistoric times to lessen physical pain or mind-altering the hands of drug abuse. Over the years, the number of cases purposes, as promptly written in several ancient literatures. related to drug abuse is increasing day by day. The epidemic Some of the widely used, active psychoactive compounds vicious circle it engulfs is mainly the youth generation, who includes; caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and morphine, which become attracted knowingly or unknowingly. In recent years, are known for their direct affect on the nervous system and the country has seen major transformation in the family thus, changing the behavioral state of mind. Activities such structuring, changes in cultural values, increasing economic as hallucinogens that distort reality, sedatives/narcotics that stress and most importantly declining supportive bonds that induce sleep, calmative or anxiolytics, antidepressants, and are figured as the leading cause to substance abuse. stimulants that wake the mind are reported. But, over time, According to the UN report on registered heroin addiction in regular usage of such substances and its derived products India is about 1 million, but there is a fear that the figure could such as alcohol, opioids, cigarettes tobacco and diversion of be much more than this to about 5 million (Miller et al., 1993). prescription drugs has resulted in a habitual behavioural intake, Cannabis, opium, heroin, methamphetamine are the most as a result of which in today’s scenario abuse and addiction commonly used soothing substance after alcohol and tobacco. has become a common practice. Thus, this is perceived as a Taking this into account, Government of India conducted a complex chaos associated with biological, emotional, and National household survey (2004) on drug use in the country. social factors, leading to heath deterioration, loss of economic The survey was conducted by Institute of Development and prosperity of the family, transmission of infectious diseases Communication and is the first systematic documentation on (like HIV/AIDS), social disorder, crime etc and is one of the prevalence of drug abuse in the country.The survey revealed major health problem concerns internationally. that the primary substance abuse in the country was due to According to the report of United Nations Office on Drugs alcohol intoxication accounting to about (21.4%) actively and Crime (UNODC) approximately 5 per cent of the world’s followed by cannabis (3.0%) and use of opioids (0.7%). populations were found to be indulged in activities such as According to Drug Abuse Monitoring System Data, number illicit drug abuse in 2010. The world statistics on trade of drugs of patients visit for rehabilitation, were indulged in intake of al- account to about $500 billion, and is believed to be third largest cohol (43.9%), opioids (26%) and cannabis (11.6%) (Ray 2004). business sector around the globe next to petroleum products and Taking this into consideration, in future discourse relapse and arms trade. Approximately about 190 million people around the rehabilitation against these substances become utmost priority.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 91 Over the year many synthetic analogue have been RESULTS AND DISCUSSION formulated and prescribed, but at point of time, there are re- Rehabilitation and discontinuation of substance addictions port of development of side effects and tolerance development. remains a challenging task of research in present scenario. Therefore, the search for alternative and complementary Several allopathic drugs i.e. benzodiazepines, disulfiram, approaches becomes necessary. metadoxine, flumazenil, gamma hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), In this regards herbal therapy has gained significant impetus chlordiazepopxide, diazepam and baclofen have been tried and for drug withdrawal prevention, possibly and relapse mainly tested to prevent relapse but they are known to have their own due to minimal side effects. merits and demerits. Frequent use of these drugs often leads to hypotension, METHODOLOGY impairment in consciousness, depression, agitation and anxiety Information was collected and retrieved using popular disorders etc. Other than this the modern pharmacological search engine such as Microsoft academic, Google approaches are known to play a key role in achieving complete Scholar, and Mendeley. The keywords used were herbal to partial abstinence and preventing relapse, their efficacy is still remedies, drug dependence and addiction, phytotherapy, limited, accompanied with a great deal of side effects, tolerance complementary medicines. The data was congregated development, and sensitization or dependence to such drugs through the Boolean information retrieval method using (Abenavoli et al., 2009). “AND” / “OR” operators.

Table 1. Preclinical research based on ethno-pharmacological applications targeting substance abuse

Type of Species Tested model Extract Results References addiction

Administration of Ws root extract inhibited Withania Albino mice (Laka Opiate (mor- development of tolerance to analgesic effect Kulkarni et al., somnifera WS root extract strain) phine) of morphine while inhibiting development of 1997 (L.) Dunal withdrawal jumps WSE markedly reduces motivation for drinking and seeking ethanol and could be Adult male Wistar rats WS extract Alcohol Peana et al., 2014 an alternative phytotherapic approach for the treatment of excessive alcohol drinking Hyperforin reduces alcohol intake and help in Hypericum Marchigian Sardinian HPE ( 3.8% Panocka et al., Alcohol the treatment of mild to moderate depression perforatum L. (msP)rats hyperforin) 2000 and alcoholism HPE markedly reduces ethanol intake in msP Marchigian Sardinian Perfumi et al., HPE ( 0.3% hypericin) Alcohol rats (125 or 250 mg/kg) without modifying (msP)rats 1999 food intake with 30-40% reduction At a dose of 100 mg/kg/day, the extracted Pueraria Daidzein, daidzin, and isoflavonoid (daidzein, daidzin, and puerarin) lobata Female P rats puerarin (isoflavonoid) Alcohol supressess alcohol consumption by 75%, Lin et al.,1996 (Willd.) from plant extract 50%, and 40% respectively without any toxic Ohwi effect Ginger possess anti-addictive property against Zingiber chronic usage of morphine due to anti-inflam- Torkzadeh-Mahani Officinale Male Wistar rats Ginger root extract Morphine matory and antioxidant properties and ability et al., 2014 Roscoe to reduce morphine-induced glial activation and neuroinflammation Extract caused faster removal of ethanol from Ginkgo Rat Water extract Alcohol blood of normal rat due to enhanced alcohol Sakai et al., 1989 biloba L. dehydrogenase (ADH) activity Boerhaavia diffusa root extract possess hepatoprotective activity as it decreases the serum activities of marker enzymes Boerhaavia Male Wistar rats Root extract Alcohol such as aspartate aminotransferase, alanine Devaki et al., 2004 diffusa L. aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase and gamma glutamyl transferase etc.

92 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Presently efforts are being made to focus on the development Lin RC, Guthrie S, Xie CY, Mai K, Lee DY, Lumeng of low-toxicity and high-efficiency natural remedies, with urge L, Li TK (1996). Isoflavonoid compounds extracted to deepen our understanding of the complementary approaches from Pueraria lobata suppress alcohol preference in a used in traditional and folk medicine. Taking in account the pharmacogenetic rat model of alcoholism. Alcoholism: beneficial effects and application of herbal medicines has led to Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(4): 659-663. the isolation and characterization of pure and active compounds such as Withanolide D and Withaferin A from Withania Miller WR, Sanchez VC (1993). Motivating young adults somnifera, Daidzin, daidzein and puerarin from Pueraria lobata, for treatment and lifestyle change. In: Howard G, editor. tanshinones I and II, cryptotanshinone, and miltirone from Issues in Alcohol Use and Misuse in Young Adults. Notre Salvia miltiorrhiza, hyperforin from Hypericum perforatum, and Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 55–82 ginsenosides from Panax ginseng, that are some of the widely studied and well known species that suppress substance intake Perfumi M, Ciccocioppo R, Angeletti S, Cucculelli M, in experimental animals (Abenavoli et al., 2009; Rezvani et al., Massi M (1999). Effects of Hypericum perforatum extract 2002; Zhu et al., 2017). These substances are known to put forth on alcohol intake in Marchigian Sardinian alcohol- their effects by influencing several of the neurological systems, preferring rats. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 34(5): 690-698. thereby suppressing drinking behaviour. Table 1 provides a brief summary of selected herbal products found in India and their Peana AT, Muggironi G, Spina L, Rosas M, Kasture SB, suppressant effects on substance abuse. Cotti E, Acquas E (2014). Effects of Withania somnifera Considering the limitations of the available on oral ethanol self-administration in rats. Behavioural pharmacotherapeutic agents, herbal remedies may provide an pharmacology, 25(7): 618-628. alternative. Herbal extracts and constituents with demonstrable psychotherapeutic effects in animal models deserve further Panocka I, Perfumi M, Angeletti S, Ciccocioppo R, Massi clinical trials and evaluation. As, the use of these formulation M (2000). Effects of Hypericum perforatum extract on in most the therapeutics is still in its infancy stage. Collective ethanol intake, and on behavioral despair: a search for investigation on clinical and behavioural studies of herbal the neurochemical systems involved. Pharmacology remedies would provide a unique opportunity for the Biochemistry and Behavior, 66(1): 105-111. development of new pharmacotherapies for drug withdrawal symptoms and provide relapse. Rezvani AH, Parsian A, Overstreet DH (2002). The Fawn-Hooded (FH/Wjd) rat: a genetic animal model of CONCLUSION comorbid depression and alcoholism. Psychiatr. Genet., Herbal therapy treatment is known to offers assessable advantage 12: 1–16. over the existing pharmacological intervention. Less cost aided with safe for consumption, with least side effects further adds Sakai K, Saitoh Y, Ikawa C, Nishihata T (1989). Effect of value to this. Thus usage of herbal therapy to prevent relapse Water Extracts of Aloe and Some Herbs in Decreasing and to achieve complete rehabilitation remains a challenging Bllod Ethanol Concentration in Rats. Chemical and task of research. Further behavioral and clinical studies of herbal Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 37(1): 155-159. remedies might provide a break through, for the development of new pharmacotherapies for substance addiction withdrawal and Sharma B, Arora A, Singh K, Singh H, Kaur P (2017). Drug thereby preventing relapse. abuse: Uncovering the burden in rural Punjab. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 6 (3): 558-562. REFERENCES Abenavoli L, Capasso F, Addolorato G (2009). Phytotherapeutic Torkzadeh S, Nasri S, Esmaeili S (2014). Ginger (zingiber approach to alcohol dependence: new old way. Phytomedicine, officinale roscoe) prevents morphine-induced addictive 16: 638–644. behaviors in conditioned place preference test in rats. Addiction & Health, 6(1-2): 65. Devaki T, Shivashangari KS, Ravikumar V, Govindaraju P (2004). Hepatoprotective activity of Boerhaavia diffusa on United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) ethanol-induced liver damage in rats. Journal of Natural Vienna, Austria: UNDOC; 2010. World Drug Report Remedies, 4(2): 109-115. 2010, United Nations \Publication, Sales No.E.10.XI.13

Kulkarni SK, Ninan I (1997). Inhibition of morphine tolerance Zhu W, Zhang Y, Huang Y, Lu L (2017). Chinese Herbal and dependence by Withania somnifera in mice. Journal of Medicine for the Treatment of Drug Addiction. Int. Rev. ethnopharmacology, 57(3): 213-217. Neurobiol., 135: 279–295.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 93

FUELWOOD AND FODDER CONSUMPTION PATTERN IN GOSTU GAD WATERSHED, PAURI GARHWAL, UTTARAKHAND

M.K. Parmar* and R.S. Negi

Department of Rural Technology, H.N.B. Garhwal Central University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India

*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper aims to show changes in seasonal fuel and fodder consumption in Gostu Gad watershed, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand. The lack of alternate energy sources in this region is the major setback. Data was collected along three altitudinal ranges across three seasons by random selection of 120 households of different villages. The Freidman test was used for analyzing the data and it was observed that changes in fuelwood consumption were quite notable along altitudinal ranges in the Gostu Gad watershed. Majority use fuelwood for domestic cooking and it was highest (1076.75 kg capita-1 year--1) at higher altitudes and lowest (616.85kg capita-1 year-1) in the middle altitudes. Gross annual consumption of fodder was highest (7927.80 kg) in high altitudes and lowest (5642.90 kg) in lower altitude villages.

Keywords: LPG, Seasonal, fuelwood, Fodder, Altitude.

INTRODUCTION season like from the month of October to March since In India the mountainous villages are completely depends on the the demand for domestic energy at highest point and demand for fuel wood which is considered to be the main source of energy labour is relatively low. to meet cooking energy and heating requirements. Majority of the rural population in India wholly thrive on fuel wood, crop MATERIALS AND METHODS residues and waste of the animals. Forests aound. The people The watershed was categorized into three altitudinal zones viz. fulfill about 70% of energy requirement in the form of fuelwood 500-1000 m, 1000-1500 m, and 1500-2000 m above mean sea that leads to removal of about 50 million tons of wood every level (amsl). Five villages were selected for detailed study on year. The increasing demand for fuelwood leads to degradation fuelwood and fodder consumption activity at each respective of resources causing deforestation. Now shifting to bio energy altitudinal zone. The household data like total number of can bring about recovery of degraded land, prevent soil erosions people in the respective family, livestock holding, source and and watershed protection. By entirely shifting from fuelwood requirements of fodder for livestock, source and requirement to other alternate energy sources like biogas, kerosene, for fuelwood, amenities like road and other infrastructures, solar, and wind energy which do not cause environment total distance from the forest, socio-economic status and level degradation can eventually reduce the pressure on forests. In of education were collected by interviewing the people during this paper we are attempting to show the changes in seasonal the year 2017-18 in the selected villages. After proper surveying bio-energy consumption at different altitudes in villages of a eight households from each of the village were identified for mountain watershed. complete data collection of fuelwood and fodder resources and agro ecosystem functioning. Thus a total of 120 households LOCATION OF STUDY AREA were studied in detail. The quantification of fuelwood use was The catchment of Gostu Gad is lies between 300 12” to 300 taken separately during summer, winter, and rainy seasons 15” N Latitude and 780 55” to 780 57” E Longitudes which using weight survey technique. The process included a wood occupies an area of 21.609 Km2 with an elevation ranging lot being weighed and left in the kitchen of the household while between 622 m to 2165 m above mean sea level. Gostu Gad household was requested to burn the wood from this particular area lies in inner Garhwal lesser Himalayas and identified lot only and then nearly after 24 hours household was rechecked by the gentle and mature topography and the water stream by measuring the actual fuelwood consumption. This technique originates from northern slope of Khirsu ridge 2165 m and was also applied for the estimation of fodder consumption. joins the river Alaknanada at Dungripanth 622 m. The data was collected from the villages of Gostu Gad watershed Data Analysis for fuel and fodder in Pauri Garhwal District, Uttarakhand. It was found Parameters for fuelwood that were analyzed using Freidman test that greater amount of fuelwood is collected in the winter are listed below.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 95 Decision Rule other alternate sources of energy like LPG, Kerosene, solar Reject H0 if M (T.S) critical value at X2 = 5%, k-1 d.f lamps and electricity in the watershed. It was noticed that LPG is only used during the guest visit and Chulha is used Calculation method regularly. The fuelwood consumption by villagers from The differences between the sum of the ranks is evaluated by different altitudinal categories of Gosu Gad watershed calculating the Friedman test statistic T.S. from the formula changes significantly among different altitudes but the The treatment sum of square (T.S) was calculated as seasonal fuelwood consumption is not that same for all the season (Table 1). k = number of columns Fuelwood requirement was estimated 4.08 kg in winter, (often called “treatments”) 2.77 kg in summer, and 2.01 kg in rainy (per capita per day) in n = number of rows (often the villages of high altitudinal regions followed by 2.81 kg in called “block”) winter, 1.69 kg in summer and 1.30 kg in rainy (per capita per

Ti = sum of the ranks in day) in lower altitudinal regions and 2.42 kg in winter, 1.56 kg column i. in summer, 1.11 kg in rainy (per capita per day) in the middle altitudinal regions. It clearly showed that fuelwood consumption RESULTS AND DISCUSSION is greater in higher altitudes as forests are easily accessible, General Characteristics of respondent Households low temperature areas and poor road network. The fuelwood The study of socio-economic condition of local people was is preferred by lot of villagers is because of its easy availability of high importance as it played a vital role in understanding from nearest forest. A total of 32 species were identified as the the contribution of fuelwood. The average household size preferred firewood and 28 species were identified as preferred was found to be 5.10 members. The family size classes: fodder species. Villagers selected tree species for fuelwood out nearly 25.83% belonged to the smaller household class of the species of trees available in their forests. The principle while 8.33% were in the larger household class. The gross aspect employed by the villagers for the selection of species illiteracy rate was recorded as 68.67% and lowest average were good fuel characteristics like high calorific value, annual income (65785.56+26903.64 INR) was determined producing less smoke, burns well with gradual flame and in small households compared to that of other household durable ember. From low and middle altitude interviewees it classes whereas the highest annual income was determined to was revealed that each year they have to travel far distances to be 286306.66+179481.7 INR for only very large households. collect the firewood which signifies the increasing scarcity but

Table 1. Energy consumption in different altitudinal zones in Gostu Gad Watershed

Annual Altitudinal Zone Fuelwood (kg) Fuelwood (kg) Annual Consumption Consumption of (Meter) (a.m.s.l.) Person-1 Day-1 Household-1 Day-1 of Fuel Wood (kg) Fuelwood (kg)

Summer Winter Rainy Summer Winter Rainy 500-1000 1.69 2.81 1.30 704.45 6.72 10.05 5.11 2660.85 1000-1500 1.56 2.42 1.11 616.85 5.72 8.86 4.05 2266.65 1500-2000 2.77 4.08 2.01 1076.75 7.48 10.45 5.41 2839.70 (Mean) 2.00 3.10 1.47 799.35 6.64 9.78 4.85 2589.06

The overall annual income was estimated as in near future use of these resources would become a difficult 197214.72+169643.6 INR. The survey showed that each task and they will be left with no option rather than making household cooked their food on traditional mud stove use of whatever is available to them. Villagers travel formidable known as Chulha and reason behind this was the easy distances (1-4 km) and spent more time ranging between few availability of fuelwood. The gross adult cattle unit holding hours to more than half a day to collect the preferred firewood. is about 486, with average adult cattle unit of 23.16+9.41 We analyzed that those who traveled with their cattle per household. were also involved for collection of fuelwood and these kind of walks were done by mostly adults and sometimes Fuelwood Consumption both genders. They even stored large amount of fuelwood In the study area, Gostu Gad the major source of fuelwood for the winter and rainy season as that time demand is and fodder was from forest and agricultural land. There are quite high.

96 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 2. Fodder collection (kg) household-1 day-1 from different altitudinal zones in Gostu Gad Watershed

Altitudinal Zone (Meter) (amsl) Season 500-1000 1000-1500 1500- 2000 Dry Green Total Dry Green Total Dry Green Total Winter 19.75 27.25 47.00 21.25 18.95 40.20 21.40 19.25 40.65 Summer 21.40 42.30 63.70 29.45 63.25 92.70 27.40 54.20 81.60 Rainy 00.00 53.90 53.90 00.00 82.45 82.45 00.00 64.50 64.50 (Mean) 20.57 41.15 54.86 25.35 54.88 71.78 24.40 45.98 62.25

Table 3. Fodder consumption (kg) animal-1 day-1 in different seasons at different altitudinal zones in Gostu Gad Watershed

Altitudinal Zone (Meter) Average Consumption Seasons Annual Consumption Animal-1 (kg) (amsli) Animal-1 Day-1 (kg)

Summer Winter Rainy 500-1000 11.74 14.55 20.10 15.46 5642.90 1000-1500 16.15 16.85 18.20 17.06 6226.90 1500-2000 18.45 21.08 25.65 21.72 7927.80 Mean 15.44 17.49 21.31 18.08 6599.20

Table 4. Time consumed for fuel wood and fodder collection and distance traveled by the villagers during different seasons at different altitudinal zones in Gostu Gad Watershed

Season Altitudinal Zone Winter Summer Rainy (Meter) (a.m.s.l.) Time Distance Time Distance Time Distance Consumed (Hrs) Traveled (Km) Consumed (Hrs) Traveled (Km) Consumed (Hrs) Traveled (Km) 500-1000 3.5 5.0 4.0 6.0 2.0 1.5 1000-1500 3.0 4.5 3.5 5.0 2.0 0.5 1500-2000 2.0 3.0 3.0 4.5 2.0 0.5 Mean 2.83 4.16 3.5 5.16 2.0 0.83

Fodder Consumption The gross annual consumption was found highest The greatest amount of fodder is available in the form (7927.80 kg) at the high altitude and minimum of grasses, hay leaves and young leafy stems etc. All (5642.90.25 kg) at the lower altitude. Thus among these were collected in the watershed and the fodder different seasons in the watershed fodder compustion consumption statistics varies in different villages of the depended which depended upon the availability of the watershed. It was found that minimum amount of fodder green grass and various fodder sources. Here people was around 40.20 kg household-1 day-1 which was collected got fodder from two sources that is forest and the during winter season in the middle altitude and highest farmland. The fodder which was grown naturally was was 92.70 kg which was collected during summer season from the pastureland, riverside forest, roadside bunds, in middle altitude villages (Table 2). and agro forests. The lopped trees like Bauhinia People of middle and lower altitude collected maximum retusa, Grewia optiva, Quercus leucotrichophora fodder from their farm land and their farm trees. In rainy also contributed to fodder needs. The time consumed season fodder consumption was high and low during for fuelwood and fodder collection across the three winter season. Fodder consumption (per animal per day) is altitudes is given in (Table 4). Least time of village highest 21.72 kg in the higher altitude region followed by people is consumed during rainy season and the 17.06 kg in the middle and 15.46 kg in the lower (Table 3). maximum during summer.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 97 CONCLUSION Fuelwood consumption disparities are studied at three different altitudes across three different seasons. Based on sample survey conducted in the year 2006-07, fuelwood/fodder consumption is analyzed using Frieds man test. While working upon the statistics of fuel, fodder consumption it has been figured out that all the villages of watershed under study have a problem of fuel and fodder extraction and as villagers rear animals for their instant income for milk selling or meat purpose. Therefore it is crucial that rural energy and fodder requirements are addressed at the policy level and policy makers to find a suitable local-specific need based alternative programmes. Here, in this study, it is indicated that if the pressure of fuelwood consumption demand is high, then alternative interventions like electrification, providing subsidized LPG cooking etc. may be suggested. But to deliver such alternatives, the need arises to have a system with appropriate institutional frameworks, delivery mechanisms, business models, capabilities and outcome measurements tools which is a time taking process in the remote areas like in Himalaya (Srivastava et al., 2012). Afforestation with ecologically as well as socio: economically viable Himalayan fuelwood and fodder species will not only check the degradation in the Gostu Gad watershed but also provide the much needed fuel and fodder requirement of the hill people.

REFERENCE Srivastava L, Goswami A, Diljun GM, Chaudhury S (2012). Energy access: revelation from energy consumption patterns in rural India. Energy Policy, 1(1): 4711–4720.

98 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology CHARACTERIZATION OF PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING RHIZOBACTERIA OF Pinus roxburghii

Pramila Verma1 and Seema Rawat*2

1Department of Botany & Microbiology, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar, Uttarakhand, India 2School of Life Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

*Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT In Garhwal Himalaya, Pinus roxburghii is considered to be an important species of conifers due to its wide ecological role and economic importance. It is a dominant species of the Himalayan sub-tropical forest. The tree harbours bacterial population in its rhizosphere which is either beneficial or deleterious. The beneficial microbial population is called as, “Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)”. In the present study, the rhizospheric soil of P. roxburghii was selected for the study of rhizospheric bacteria. A total of 25 morphotypes were recovered which were characterized morphologically and biochemically. These morphotypes were further screened for plant growth promoting properties. 24% of morphotypes were found to be phosphate solubilizers, 44% siderophore producers, 36% HCN producers, 76% ammonia producers and 40% were found to be IAA producers. The potential PGPR can be exploited as biofertilizers for sustainable and eco-friendly agriculture.

Keywords: Chirpine, PGPR, Pinus roxburghii, Root exudates, Siderophore.

INTRODUCTION sites, particularly on warmer and drier south-facing slopes Himalaya is a region of bio-diversity, where flora and fauna (Ghildiyal et al., 2009). It is mostly found on drier, sun-facing vary extensively with climate diversity from one region to the slopes where other tree species cannot perform well. other. The various factors like topography, climatic condition Besides providing mechanical support and facilitating and geographical location influence the vegetation diversity water and nutrients, the roots of plants also synthesize, of the forest ecosystem. The vegetation is complex in nature, accumulate and release a wide variety of compounds. These structure, composition and varies from place to place. Plant compounds act as chemical attractants for a large number community of a region is affected by the rainfall, temperature, of heterogeneous, diverse and actively metabolizing soil humidity, slope, altitude and aspect at a given time. In the microbial communities. The chemicals which are secreted Himalayas, forests of north facing aspects are more productive by roots into the soils are generally called as ‘root exudates’. and have better soil properties as compared to south facing These root exudates modify the physical as well as chemical aspects (Sharma et al., 2010). South facing aspects are dry properties of soil by regulating the soil microbial population and warm as compared to north facing aspects due to longer of the immediate vicinity of root surface. The narrow zone of exposure of sunlight. soil around the root surface is known as rhizosphere. A group Pinus roxburghii Sargent (Chir pine) is a pine species of bacteria residing in the rhizosphere region referred as amongst six indigenous pine species of India. It is a dominant ‘rhizobacteria’ (Kloepper et al., 1991). Some microorganisms species of the Himalayan sub-tropical forest. It generally living in the rhizosphere are useful for plant growth also occurs at lower elevations than other pines in the Himalaya known as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. They and forms the first low-elevation forests above dry deciduous promote plant growth by various mechanisms like phosphate woodlands and shrub lands. The occurrence of the Chir pine solubilization, biological nitrogen fixation, siderophore forests ranging from longitudes 70o E to 90 oE and latitudes 26 production, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production and oN to 36oN in subtropical and warm temperate monsoon belts, by hydrogen cyanide (HCN) production. Various genera between 450 m to 2300 m altitudes in Siwaliks and Himalayan including Azotobacter, Acetobacter, Azospirillum, Bacillus, river valleys, from Kashmir to Bhutan. It is mostly used for Burkholderia, Pseudomonas, Paenibacillus and some timber for house construction, fuelwood extraction, charcoal members of Enterobacteriaceae. PGPR are also helpful formation, resin tapping, fuel briquetting, cattle bedding and in biocontrol of plant pathogens. Various PGPR strains of for manufacturing organic manure, etc. As it is the pioneer Rhizobium meliloti have been studied to inhibit the fungal species, therefore, chir pine is an active colonizer of degraded pathogen, Macrophomina phaseolina which cause charcoal

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 99 rot of groundnut by producing siderophores in iron stress centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 30 min and 1 ml of the supernatant condition (Bhattacharyya et al., 2012). was mixed with two drops of orthophosphoric acid and 2 ml Though a lot of research has been done on PGPR in of Salkowaski’s reagent (50 ml, 35% perchloric acid; 1 ml agricultural systems yet research on this bacterial group in 0.5 M FeCl3). Development of pink colour indicated IAA forest ecosystem is still at its nascent stage. Chir pine is the production. O.D. (optimum density) was measured at 530 nm fastest growing tree amongst conifers, has in built quality of using spectrophotometer (Gorden et al., 1951). growing in tough conditions and is better adapted for degraded sites and deficient in nutrients. The rhizospheric bacteria which Ammonia production: Bacterial morphotypes were tested for promote the growth of Chir pine are able to survive in very the production of ammonia in peptone water. Freshly grown harsh condition, can serve as effective agents for restoration bacterial cultures were inoculated in 10 ml peptone water in of barren land. each tube and incubated for 48-72 hours at 28±2 ºC. Nessler’s reagent (0.5 ml) was added in each tube and development of METHODOLOGY brown yellow colour indicated a positive result for ammonia Sampling production (Cappucino et al., 1992). The rhizospheric soil samples of Pinus roxburghii (Sarg.) from the south-facing slope of Pauri were collected HCN production: All the recovered morphotypes were in polybags aseptically in the month of July 2015 and screened for the production of hydrogen cyanide. Nutrient stored at 4°C. Then, isolation of root associated bacteria broth was supplemented with 4.4 g glycine/l and bacteria were was carried out by taking 10 gm rhizospheric soil and streaked on a modified agar plate. A Whatman filter paper no. suspended in 90 ml of sterile distilled water which was 1 soaked in 2% sodium carbonate in 0.5% picric acid solution vortexed for 1 hour. 1 ml of it was serially diluted up was placed at the top of the plate. Plates were sealed with to 10-6. 100 microlitre of each dilution 10-3, 10-4, and parafilm and incubated at 28±2 °C for 4 days. Colour of filter 10-5 were plated on Nutrient agar and King’s B agar in paper changed from yellow to dark brown indicated HCN triplicate. Plates were incubated at 28±20C for 72 hours. production (Bakker et al., 1987).

Morphological and biochemical characterization RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The different bacterial morphotypes were picked up and Rhizospheric soil is inhabited by different types of purified by streaking and restreaking on nutrient agar microorganisms but bacteria are most prominent among total medium. The various morphological characteristics of the microbial populations. PGPR are a group of bacteria that colony (shape, size, elevation, surface margin, colour, colony inhabit in the rhizosphere of plant and enhance the growth and form, pigmentation etc.) and cell (gram’s reaction, shape development through a variety of mechanisms. In the present and arrangement) were studied. The various biochemical study, rhizospheric bacterial morphotypes of Pinus roxburghii characteristics viz., Indole production, Methyl Red-Voges were characterized morphologically as well as biochemically Proskauer Test, Citrate Utilization Test, Triple sugar iron agar and screened for various plant growth promotion attributes. test, Nitrate reduction test, Catalase and Urease production A total of 25 bacterial morphotypes were recovered from were studied. rhizospheric soil samples of P. roxburghii. These were mostly rod-shaped bacteria except few which were found to be Plant Growth Promoting Properties cocci. All the isolates were further screened for plant growth Phosphate solubilization: It was evaluated on Pikovskaya’s promoting properties such as IAA production, phosphate agar medium (Pikovskaya, 1948). A loopful inoculum of solubilization, ammonia production, siderophore production bacterial culture was spot inoculated on the plates and and HCN production. All the recovered bacterial morphotypes incubated at 28±°C for 7 days. A clear halo zone around the exhibited at least one PGPR activity (Table 1). bacterial colonies indicated the solubilization of phosphate. Rhizobacteria can suppress the growth of various phytopathogens by competing for nutrients and space, Siderophore production: Siderophore production was limiting available Fe supply through producing siderophores. detected on Chromeazurol ‘S’ agar (CAS) medium by the Siderophore plays an important role by providing a competitive formation of orange halo zones around bacterial colonies after advantage to organisms against fungal pathogens for the 48 hours at 28±2 °C (Schwyn et al., 1987). absorption of available iron. The role of siderophore in the control of diseases has been reported (Bakker et al., 1986). 44% IAA production: All the recovered bacterial morphotypes of recovered bacterial morphotypes were found to produce were screened for IAA production. Bacterial cultures were siderophore, ranging from 0.1 - 1.3 cm of the zone. SLR7 grown in the nutrient broth amended with L- tryptophan was found to be the most efficient siderophore producer (1.3 and incubated at 28±2 °C for 48 hours. Then cultures were mm halo zone). Ammonia production is another mechanism

100 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 1. Plant growth promoting activity of recovered Rhizobacterial morphotypes

PGPR Properties

Morphotypes Phosphate Siderophore produc- Ammonia IAA production HCN production solubilization tion production

SJR1 + - - - + SJR2 - + - + + SJR3 - - - - + SJR4 - - - + + SJR5 - + - - + SJR6 - - - - + SJR7 - + + + - SMR1 - - - + + SMR2 - - - + + SMR3 - - + - + SMR4 - + - + + SMR5 - + - + + SMR6 - - + - + SMR7 - + - + - SMR8 + - + - + SMR9 - - - - - SLR1 + + + - + SLR2 - + + - - SLR3 + - + - + SLR4 - - - + + SLR5 + + + - + SLR6 - - - - + SLR7 + - - + - SLR8 - + - + - SLR9 - - + - +

of PGPR which influences the growth of plants indirectly. 76% morphotypes were found to be ammonia producers while Phosphate Solubilization Siderophore Production 40% were found to be IAA producers. 36% morphotypes were HCN Production IAA Production found to be HCN producers while 24% morphotypes were found to be phosphate solubilizers exhibiting zone, ranging 44% from 0.2 - 0.4 mm. SLR 5 exhibited the highest phosphate solubilization zone (0.4mm). 76% 40% The bacterial morphotypes exhibiting three or more plant growth promoting properties were considered as potential isolates and identified on the basis of biochemical and morphological 24% characteristics using ABIS online software. 7 bacterial 36% morphotypes viz., SJR1, SJR7, SMR4, SMR8, SLR1, SLR3 and SLR5 exhibited three or more PGPR activities. SJR1 (Lysini bacillus sp.) and SMR4 (Aneurini bacillus sp.) exhibited IAA production, siderophore production, ammonia production while SMR8 (Bacillus sp.) and SLR3 (Streptococcus sp.) exhibited phosphate solubilization, HCN production and ammonia Fig. 1. Distribution (%) of PGPR properties amongst production. SLR1 (Bacillus sp.) and SLR5 (Paeni bacillus sp.) recovered Rhizobacterial morphotypes

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 101 REFERENCES Baker R, Flad Y, Sneh B (1986). Physical, biological and host factors in iron competition in soils. In: Swinburne T.R. (eds) Iron, siderophores and plant diseases. Plenum press, New York, 117.

Bakker AW, Schippers B (1987). Microbial cyanide production on the rhizosphere in relation to potato yield reduction and Pseudomonas spp. mediated plant growth stimulation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 19: 451–457.

Bhattacharyya NP, Jha D (2012). Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): Emergence in Agriculture. World Journal Microbial Biotechnology, 1327-1350.

Cappuccino, JC, Sherman N (1992). In: Microbiology: A Fig. 2. Distribution of PGPR properties amongst potential rd Rhizobacterial morphotypes Laboratory Manual, 3 ed. Benjamin/cummings Pub. Co., New York, pp. 125–179. exhibited four PGPR properties like phosphate solubilization, Ghildiyal SK, Sharma CM, Gairola S (2009). Additive IAA production, HCN production and ammonia production. genetic variation in seedling growth and biomass of Only one isolate SJR7 (Aneurini bacillus sp.) exhibited IAA fourteen Pinus roxburghii provenances from Garhwal production, HCN production, siderophore production (Fig. 2). Himalaya. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Though studies on PGPR are relatively advanced in 2(1): 37–45. agricultural systems, yet it is still not widely studied in forest ecosystems. It is important to characterize PGPR of forest Gorden SA, Weber RP (1951). Colorimetric estimation of ecosystems as they combat various kinds of stresses and thus indole acetic acid. Plant Physiology, 26: 192–195. can serve as better agents for biofertilizers. In the present study, the rhizosphere of Pinus roxburghii was found to be dominated Joshi P, Tyagi V, Bhatt AB (2011a). Characterization of by Bacillus. Bacillus sp. was also reported in the rhizosphere Rhizobacteria Diversity Isolated from Oryza sativa of chir pine by Yadav et al. (2013). Bacillus sp. had also been Cultivated at Different Altitude in North Himalaya. reported to be dominant in the rhizosphere of wheat and rice Advances in Applied Science Research, 2(4): 208-216. (Joshi et al., 2011a, 2011b). 23 phosphate solubilizing bacterial isolates had been isolated from the rhizosphere of Pinus Joshi P, Bhatt AB (2011b). Diversity and function of plant massoniana (Lu et al., 2010). growth promoting Rhizobacteria associated with wheat Rhizosphere in North Himalayan Region. International CONCLUSION Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1(6): 1135-1143. The rhizosphere of Pinus roxburghii is dominated by Bacillus sp. 7 bacterial morphotypes were found to be potential PGPR. Kloepper JW, Zablotowick RM, Tipping EM, Lifshitz R SLR1 and SLR5 were found to be more efficient PGPR followed (1991). Plant growth promotion mediated by bacterial by SMR4, SMR8, SLR3, SJR1 and SJR7 which solubilized rhizosphere colonizers. In: Keister, D.L., Cregan, P.B. unavailable form of phosphate for the plant, produces IAA, (Eds.), The Rhizosphere and Plant Growth. Kluwer siderophore, HCN, ammonia. These rhizospheric bacteria Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 315–326. can serve as effective agents for plant growth promotion as biofertilizers in agriculture and also for reforestation. Lu C, Huang B (2010). Isolation and characterization of Azotobacteria from pine rhizosphere. African Journal of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Microbiology Research, 4(12): 1299-1306. The authors are thankful to the Department of Botany and Microbiology, H.N.B.G.U. Srinagar, Garhwal for providing Pikovskaya RI (1948). Mobilization of phosphorus in soil all the facilities needed to carry out this work and also to UGC, in connection with the vital activity of some microbial New Delhi for financial support to first author. species. Microbiology, 17: 362-370.

102 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Schwyn B, Neilands JB (1987). Universal chemical assay for the detection and determination of Siderophores. Anal Biochemistry, 160: 47-56.

Sharma CM, Badoni NP, Gairola S, Ghildiyal SK, Suyal S (2010). Effects of slope aspects on forest compositions, community structures and soil properties in natural temperate forests of Garhwal Himalaya. Journal of Forestry Research, 21(3): 331-337.

Yadav A, Yadav K (2013). Seasonal Population Dynamics of Rhizosphere and Non-rhizosphere Soil Microorganisms of Chir Pine Seedlings (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.). British Microbiology Research Journal, 3(4): 664-677.

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 103

STUDY ON SOIL PHYSICAL CHARACTERS IN RELATION TO ASPECT AND ALTITUDE OF A GARHWAL HIMALAYAN BROAD LEAVED FOREST

Vikaspal Singh1*, D.S. Chauhan2 and S. Dasgupta3

1Department of Forestry, Dolphin P.G. Institute of Biomedical and Natural Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India 2Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, H.N.B.G.U., Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India 3Department of Forestry and Biodiversity, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar, Tripura (West), India

*Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT A soil physical characters study was conducted with relation to altitude and aspect in a Garhwal Himalayan broad leaved forest. The soil physical characters varied with the altitudes as well as the aspects. Higher significant variation was found for soil moisture and water holding capacity in respect of altitude and aspect. In respect of aspect there was no significant difference was recorded for sand, silt and clay particles. Soil moisture was higher at upper altitude followed by middle and lower altitude in both the aspects but north facing aspect showed comparatively greater moisture to the south facing aspect. Water holding capacity of soil was found higher at middle altitudes of both aspects. A major proportion of clay and silt was recorded in the soil texture in all altitudes as well as aspects.

Keywords: Soil, North facing aspect, South facing aspect, Altitude.

INTRODUCTION caused by senescence, stress, mechanical factors (eg. wind) a The soil system is always under dynamic equilibrium combination of these factors or by death and weathering of the because of various bio-geochemical processes active during whole plant in a given period (Kozlowski 1973). Bisht et al., soil development and genesis (Bhat et al., 2009). Soil (2005) have explored the Central Himalayan range in relation Carbon (both soil organic carbon, SOC and soil inorganic to the various soil aspects and vegetation analysis. Singh et al. carbon, SIC) is important as it determines ecosystem and (2007) carried out a study in the Central Himalaya with soil agro-ecosystem functions, influencing soil fertility, water characters and observed that the higher moisture % and higher holding capacity and other soil parameters (Bhattaracharyya soil carbon was in the Northern aspect. et al., 2008). Soil is the fundamental requirement for every natural forest which determines the structure and STUDY AREA composition of the forest vegetation. Soil properties directly The study area is dominated by broad leaved species including influence the vegetation and its regeneration potential. In Quercus leucotrichophora, Rhododendron arboreum, Myrica Garhwal Himalaya many workers have assessed the soil esculenta, Lyonia ovalifolia, Pyrus pashia and Benthamidia features in context of forest diversity and composition. In a capitata etc. with dominant shrub species of Woodfordia forest ecosystem trees largely determine the architecture fruticosa, Rubus ellipticus , Pyracantha crenulata, Berberis and microclimatic conditions of the forests and hence, aristata and Colebrookea oppositifolia. This study was the changes in tree community dynamics may strongly conducted in Chandrabadani Oak forest. The Chandrabadani affect the other forest species (Browkaw 1985) and Oak forest forms a moist-temperate area falling in the ecological processes in a stand (Singh et al., 1986; Kharkwal jurisdiction of Tehri district of Uttarakhand State. et al., 2005). The study area was assessed along three altitudes viz; upper, The altitude and slope aspect play a key role in determining middle and lower in both north facing and south facing aspects. the temperature regime of any sites. Within one altitude the co- The studied altitude in north facing aspect were in the range factors like topography, slope aspect, inclination of slope and of 1500-2100 m and in south facing aspect from soil type also effect the forest composition (Shank et al., 1950). 1500-2200 m altitudes. Every natural forest consists of some microenvironment within the local climate of the habitat in the form of soil features, litter METHODOLOGY production, herbaceous biomass, etc. Litter production refers Soil samples were collected in a random pattern with a as the shedding of vegetative and reproductive plant parts sampling depth of 10 cm. at three different horizons. Here

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 105 three horizons were established i.e. 0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 aspect and 9.0% - 20.9% in the south aspect. There cm. to estimate the physical and chemical properties of soil. was significant variation in soil moisture with respect The collected soil samples were mixed in a clean piece of of altitude, aspect and depth. Shrestha et al. (2007) polythene sheet. The samples were kept into the polythene observed increasing soil moisture with elevation due bags with suitable description and identification marks. to the combined effect of increasing tree canopy cover, Soil physical analyses were assessed in laboratory as per decreasing temperature and decreasing distance from appropriate methods. Soil texture, soil moisture and water- snow melt water resources. holding capacity were observed under physical properties Statistical analysis indicated that the mean moisture of soil. Soil texture was analyzed by sieve method (Pandeya (%) in the upper altitude was greater followed by middle 1968). Soil moisture percentage was calculated on the and lower altitude. The greater amount of soil moisture basis of dry soil weight with the formula, Pm = weight was observed in upper soil depths of 0-10 cm and 10- of moist soil- weight of oven-dry soil / weight of oven 20 cm. Verma et al. (2008) observed similar relation of dry soil x 100 given by Donahue et al. (1987). The water soil moisture to the aspect and found higher amount of holding capacity was estimated by the methods given by moisture in the north aspect. The water holding capacity Mishra (1968) as WHC = W2– W3/W3 – W1 x 100 where, was recorded maximum (84.3%) in middle altitude and W1= weight of crucible, W2 = weight of crucible with wet minimum (59.5%) at lower altitude of north facing aspect soil, W3 = Weight of crucible with dry soil. while, in the south aspect highest (53.5%) at upper altitude and lowest (43.1%) in the middle altitude. Statistical RESULT AND DISCUSSION data showed the significant difference of water holding Physical characters of soil are presents in Table 1, and capacity among all altitudes and between the aspects statistical analysis in Table 2. Among physical characters the north aspect showed high water holding capacity. of soil, the soil moisture ranged 11.7% - 30.2% in north Soil depth also showed a significant difference among

Table 1. Physical characters of soil in different altitude and aspects at studied area

(North facing aspect Upper Altitude- 2092 m.) Depth (cm.) M% WHC% Sand % Silt% Clay% 0 - 10 29.3 ± 3.1 78.1 ± 9.9 16.4 ± 1.6 39.5 ± 5.9 44.1 ± 4.5 10 - 20 24.1 ± 4.4 75.8 ± 11.4 22.9 ± 4.1 39.3 ± 6.9 37.9 ± 4.0 20 - 30 20.9 ± 1.5 64.8 ± 10.1 22.1 ± 2.4 39.7 ± 3.0 38.2 ± 2.9 (North facing aspect Middle Altitude- 1781 m.) 0 - 10 30.2 ± 3.5 84.3 ± 7.2 11.6 ± 2.1 43.4 ± 2.2 44.9 ± 1.9 10 - 20 22.2 ± 3.6 79.8 ± 5.9 10.6 ± 2.9 42.2 ± 4.7 47.2 ± 2.4 20 - 30 17.7 ± 4.5 75.9 ± 5.4 16.0 ± 3.9 40.9 ± 3.9 43.1 ±1.0 (North facing aspect Lower Altitude- 1597 m.) 0 - 10 29.3 ± 3.5 65.2 ± 7.2 19.2 ± 2.5 41.5 ± 2.8 39.4 ± 2.0 10 - 20 21.9 ± 3.2 69.9 ± 20.3 21.1 ± 3.2 38.7 ± 2.0 40.3 ± 4.1 20 - 30 11.7 ± 2.7 59.5 ± 12.6 18.1 ± 3.0 43.0 ± 3.4 38.8 ± 2.5 (South facing aspect Upper Altitude- 2103 m.) 0 - 10 20.9 ± 3.0 51.2 ± 5.9 17.6 ± 1.2 39.8 ± 5.2 42.6 ± 4.5 10 - 20 13.6 ± 4.0 50.6 ± 6.5 19.2 ± 6.3 37.1 ± 0.4 43.7 ± 6.2 20 - 30 12.6 ± 3.3 47.9 ± 5.2 19.2 ± 1.5 40.3 ± 3.9 40.5 ± 2.8 (South facing aspect Middle Altitude- 1829 m.) 0 - 10 18.6 ± 3.5 53.5 ± 9.8 10.7 ± 46.6 46.6 ± 7.7 42.7 ± 4.7 10 - 20 10.7 ± 1.3 45.6 ± 8.2 12.0 ± 2.9 42.6 ± 4.3 45.4 ± 6.9 20 - 30 10.0 ± 2.6 43.1 ± 7.1 14.6 ± 3.8 44.6 ± 3.9 40.7 ± 4.9 (South facing aspect Lower Altitude- 1563 m.) 0 - 10 12.1 ± 2.7 52.4 ± 6.3 21.4 ± 3.3 38.3 ± 5.2 40.3 ± 2.2 10 - 20 10.8 ± 2.3 49.0 ± 4.0 17.9 ± 3.5 38.8 ± 2.0 43.3 ± 1.6 20 - 30 9.0 ± 1.6 45.7 ± 5.0 15.4 ± 1.9 42.0 ± 4.9 42.7 ± 4.9

106 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology Table 2. Statistical analysis of soil physical characters of the study area

Level of Effect Factor Mean values CD value Significance Effect of Altitude on Lower Middle Upper *** Altitude 1.635 moisture 15.19 18.31 20.75 P < 0.001 Effect of aspect on North South *** Aspect 1.335 moisture 22.28 13.89 P < 0.001 Effect of depth on D1 D2 D3 *** Depth moisture 23.63 16.83 13.79 P < 0.001 Effect of altitude on Lower Middle Upper *** Altitude 4.605 WHC 53.76 64.85 61.99 P < 0.001 Effect of aspect on North South *** Aspect 3.760 WHC 70.95 49.45 P < 0.001 D1 D2 D3 ** Effect of depth on WHC Depth 4.605 63.58 60.94 13.79 P < 0.01 Lower Middle Upper * Altitude 4.605 53.76 64.85 61.99 P < 0.05 Effect of Aspect on North South Aspect NS - sand % 70.95 49.45 Effect of depth on D1 D2 D3 * Depth - sand % 63.58 60.94 13.79 P < 0.05 Effect of Altitude on Lower Middle Upper * Altitude 2.419 silt % 41.21 42.56 39.07 P < 0.05 Effect of Aspect on North South Aspect NS - silt % 40.76 41.13 D1 D2 D3 * Effect of depth on silt % Depth 2.419 39.90 40.06 42.87 P < 0.05 Effect of Altitude on Lower Middle Upper *** Altitude 2.419 clay % 40.46 44.53 40.18 P < 0.05 Effect of Aspect on North South Aspect NS - clay % 41.33 42.11

Effect of depth on D1 D2 D3 ** Depth 2.419 clay % 43.13 42.09 39.94 P < 0.01

upper middle and lower depths. Verma et al. (2008) also CONCLUSION reported the high water holding capacity in the north Present study indicated no significant effect by aspect on the aspect in different altitude of Garhwal Himalaya due to soil particles sand, silt and clay but variation in altitude and mineral rich and high amount of clay particle. soil depth the proportion of silt and clay particles was higher As far as the soil texture was concerned, major proportion comparatively. Soil moisture and water holding capacity was found of silt and clay particles as compared to sand significantly affected by the changing altitude, aspect and particles in all altitudes as well as north and south aspects. depth. The north aspect achieved healthy soil conditions Statistically significant difference was observed for sand, in terms of moisture, water holding capacity as well as the silt and clay particles with altitude, and soil depth but in greater amount of silt and clay particles. South aspect on the respect of aspect the soil particles showed no significant other side recovered maximum exposure of sun light and thus difference. The silt and clay proportion was also reported the moisture content or water holding capacity influenced in higher amount in a Quercus leucotrichophora forest by significantly. Semwal et al. (2009).

ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 26, 2018 107 REFERENCES Singh KN, Brij Lal Singh RD, Todaria NP, Ahuja PS (2007). Baht N, Verma RK, Reshi Z (2009). Litter decomposition in Species richness, distribution pattern and conservation Fraxinus excelsior Linn. and Ulmus villosa Brandis in of higher plants in Spiti cold desert of Trans Himalaya, different season in Dachigam National Park (J&K). Indian India. International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Forester, 135(12): 1730-1736. Management, 3: 223-233.

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108 ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology

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