Training in the Motor Vehicle Repair and Sales Sector in Germany

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 389 867 CE 070 341

AUTHOR Lichte, Rainer; And Others TITLE Training in the Motor Vehicle Repair and Sales Sector in Germany. Report of the FORCE Programme. First Edition. INSTITUTION European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, Berlin (Germany). REPORT NO ISBN-92-826-7582-3 PUB DATE 94 NOTE 129p. AVAILABLE FROMUNIPUB, 4611-F Assembly Drive, Lanham, MD 20706-4391 (catalogue no. HX-84-94-557-EN-C: 8 European Currency Units). PUB TYPE Reports Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC06 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; *Auto Mechanics; Case Studies; Continuing Education; Educational Needs; Educational Practices; Educational Quality; *Educational Trends; Education Work Relationship; Employment Practices; Employment Qualifications; Financial Support; Foreign Countries; National Surveys; Needs Assessment;*On the Job Training; Program Costs; Program Development; Program Effectiveness; *Retailing; *Sales Workers; Tables (Data); Trainers; *Training Methods; Trend Analysis; Work Environment IDENTIFIERS *Germany

ABSTRACT Training in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector in Germany was examined in a study that included thefollowing approaches: review of the sector'sstructure/characteristics, institutional and social context, employment practices/trends, changes in the type of work and employment/trainingrequirements, and available initial and continuing vocational education andtraining; in-depth case studies of five auto repair shops anddealerships; and identification of economic, employment, and training trends. It was discovered that, although the mot-r industry remains the most important industry in Germany's economy, it will not likely experience any more growth. Vehicle sales are declining; however,the volume of repairs is likely to increase as cars become older.Higher qualifications are being demanded of repair shop employees becauseof new environmental/safety standards andtechnological advances. Only about 7% of the sector's employees have no relevantvocational qualification, and one in every five employees is engaged in vocational train:ng. Nearly all employees in aftersales departments and repair shops participate regularly in in-housecontinuing training and/or courses provided by manufacturers, importers, suppliers, or chambers of trades; however, many people inpositions of responsibility within the sector still do not considerthe available training activities sufficient. (Contains 63tables/figures and 33 references.) (MN)

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C21 F C RC E FORMATION CONTINUE EN EUROPE European Commission

MOTOR VEHICLE REPAIR AND SALES SECTOR

S DEPARTMENT OFEDUCATION EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER 1ERIC) 0 Ths document has beenreproducod as recewed from Ihe son or niudnitation originming ii Minor channns haVe been ma& I,: ondfIlVe reprocincinin quinty

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER IERICI"

BEST COPY AVAILABLE MOTOR VEHICLE REPAIR AND SALES SECTOR TRAINING IN THE MOTOR VEHICLE REPAIR AND SALES SECTOR IN GERMANY REPORT FOR THE FORCE PROGRAMME

drawn up by Rainer Lichte, Felix Rauner, Georg Spottl and Herbert Zeymer ITB, Bremen and SFS, Dortmund

1993

First edition, Berlin 1994 Published by: CEDEFOP - European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, Jean Monnet House, Bundesallee 22, D-10717 Berlin Fax 49-30 + 88 41 22 22 Tel. 49-30 + 88 41 20 Telex 18 41 63 eucen d The Centre was established by Regulation (EEC) No 337/75 of the Council of the European Communities 3 Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 1994

ISBN 92-826-7582-3

ECSC EC-EAEC. C:u:sels Luxembourg. 1994

Reproduction is autiuized. except for commercial purposes. provided the source is acknowledoed

Printed in the United Kingdom 4

ti-,- - FORCE

Formation continue en Europe Commission of the European Communities TASK FORCE Human Resources, Education, Training and Youth Rue de la Loi, 200; B-1049 Bruxelles

THE IDEA FORCE The future economic strength and the potential for social progress of the European Community depends on a consistent impovement in the competence and qualifications of its 132.000.000 labour force. Better continuing vocational training is one of the essential conditions for the success of the Single Market 1993. The European Commission is determined to support and give fresh impetus to the efforts which companies throughout the Community are making to improve continuing training. FORCE is the European Community's action programme for the development of continuing vocational training. It is focussed on companies, especially on small and medium-sized companies. It involves trainers and training bodies, employer and union repres3ntatives - everyone concerned with improving the competence of the labour force.

WHAT DOES FORCE OFFER? FORCE promotes working partnerships in continuing training between companies, training bodies, public authorities and social partners. These will include: supporting continuing training innovation through a European transnational network, an exchange programme, transnational and transfrontier pilot projects and projects Concerned with the evolution of qualifications; assuring closer policy co-operation between Member States by evolving a common statistical means of analysing what is being done in terms of continuing troining, through regular analysis of relevant contractual policy and collective agreements, and through enquir- ies into sectoral needs; supporting the establishment of regional consortia and transnational continuing training partnerships which specialise in transferring exemplary good practice to economically weak reg ions. JOINING You can take part in the FORCE network and apply for financial assistance to join its innovation and transfer exchan9es and projects if you are: a large, medium-sized or small company, a training body working with industry or commerce, an employer or trade union body, a training or human resource expert or manager. Through FORCE you can help improve continuing training in your company, sector or local labour market. At the same time you can help to contribute to the improvement and availability of continuing trainingand thus to shaping the European Community.

3 CEDEFOP

European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training Jean Monnet House, Bundesallee 22, D-10717 Berlin

Institutional status

CEDEFOP is an noonomous body, independent of the departments of the Commission of the European Communities, but its task and activities are closely integrated with those of the Commission, to which the Centre contributes its technical and scientific expertise.

Working guidelines for the Centre are laid down ID)its Management Board, whose members represent the EC Commission (3), trade unions (12) employers' organizations (12) and governments (12). The Management Board decides on the Work Programme, draws up and approves budgets and adopts the Annual Report.

The members of the Management Board are appointed by the organizations they represent and remain in office for two years. The chairmanship of the Board changes each year.

Institutional tasks Information: In the field of vocational training, informotion is one of the Centre's vital tasks. Its documentation service and a constantly updated bibliographical database receive information from a network of national correspondents, and the information is then made available to a very wide audience, in part via highly sophisticated computerized channels. Its carefully planned publishing policy also ensures that the Centre's voice is heard on major issues in the field of vocational trainin.g. It produces its own regular publications (»Vocational Training«, »CEDEFOP flash« and »CEDEFOP flash speciak) and occasional publications such as research reports, monographs and manuals.

Research: CEDEFOP, as a centre for the promotion and coordination of research within the Community, provides support in the form of information, expertise and encouragement for the planning and implementation of vocational training initiatives in Member States. In so doing it serves as a focus for innovation.

Consultation: CEDEFOP, as an organization supporting the Commission, has the task a promoting a concerted approach to vocational training iroblems. It takes every opportunity to promote and encourage training.

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was carried out in the framework of the Theproject team wouldliketothankthe European motor vehicle repair and sales sector, companies who gave access for research, and within the EC FORCE programme and conducted whose staff provided the information and help by a central team made up of: which enabled us to write the case studies. We very much appreciate the time and effort invested Kaj Olesen and Bruno Clematide, DTI Denmark so generously. Oriol Horns, C1REM Barcelona Georg Spiittl, ITB Bremen We would alsoliketo thank the employers' with the participation of Skevos Papaioannou, organizations and trade unions, and their repre- INE Greece sentatives, who contributed to the research by making suggestions for case studies, attending under the responsibility of Felix Rauner, ITB meetings and commenting on the draft report. Bremen and inclose collaboration with Tina Bertzeletou, CEDEFOP.

7 CONTENTS Page ,

PART 1 - SECTORAL CONTEXT 1.Repair and sales in the motor v ehicle sector: an overview 13 1.1 Definition and delimitation of the sector 13 1.2 Trends within the motor vehicle repair and sales sector 13 1.3 The role of the dealership as an intermediary 14 1.4 The manufacturers distribution network 14 1.5 Market shares 18 2.Structure and characteristics of the motor vehicle sector 21 2.1 Historical development 21 2.2 Change in functions and tasks in the dealership 22. 2.3 The importance of the motor vehicle sector to the German economy 22 2.4The internal structure of the motor vehicle repair and sales sector 26 3.Institutional and social context 29 3.1 The role of management and labour 29 3.2Collective agreements 29 3.2.1 Binding force of the collective agreement 30 3.3 Legal basis 31 3.3.1 The Handwerksordnung - HWo (Craft Trades Code) of 1953 31 3.3.2 Craft Trades Register 31 3.3.3Industrial code as applicable to craft trades 32 3.3.4Legal provisions governing continuing training 32 3.3.5Miscellaneous regulations 32 4.Employment trends 34 4.1 The motor vehicle industry 34 4.2 The motor vehicle repair and sales sector 34 5.Changes in the type of work and its influence on requirements and training 38 5.1 Changes in the work carried out in the motor vehicle repair sector 38 5.2 Changes in automotive technology and tools 42 5.3 Changes in technology and tools used in the motor vehicle servicing and repair sector and mobility of the labour force 43 5.4 Organization of work 44 6.Initial and continuing vocational training in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector 46 6.1 The organizational basis required for school and vocational qualifications in Germany 46 6.2 Legislation governing vocational education 46 6.3 The system of continuing vocational training and its implications 6.3.1 Participation in continuing vocational education 6.3.2 Continuing training for staff employed in independent dealerships 6.4 State and state-approved Technikerschulen (technical schools) 6.5 Continuing training outside the state schools 6.5.1 Mastercraftsman training 6.5.2The non-state training for technicians in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector 6.5.3 Customer service training centres 6.6General continuing training for managerial staff

PART 2 - CASE STUDIES 1.INDEPENDENT DEALERSHIP N. 1. General description of the case 2. General description of the firm 3. Provision of continuing vocational training 4. Training practice at the firm 5. Evaluation of the training concepts 6. Applicability to other firms 2. MAZDA 1. General description of the case 2. General description of the firm :68 3. Provision of continuing vocational training 3.1 Structure within the firm 3.2 Structure of the customer service training centre 69 3.3 Other forms of continuing training 71 4. Training practice at the firm 71 4.1 Training plans at the repair shop level 71 4.2 Link between training concepts and demand 72 4.3 Target groups of vocational training 72 4.4 Training plans 72 4.5 Costs of continuing vocational training 72 4.6 Evaluation of costs 73 5. Evaluation of the training concepts 73 6. Conclusions .73 Appendices 75

3.MERCEDES-BENZ AUTOHAUS K. 78 1. General description of the case 78 2. General description of the firm 78 3. Provision of continuing vocational training 79 3.1 Structure within the firm 79 3.2 Structure of the customer service training centre 79 3.3 Other forms of continuing training 81 4. Training practice at the firm 81

9 4.1 Training plans at the repair shop level 4.2 Link between training concepts and demand 4.3 Target groups of vocational training 4.4Training plans 8.2 4.5 Costs of continuing vocational training 4.6 Estimation of costs 83 5. Evaluation of the training concepts ,83 6. Conclusions 83 Appendix 84 .

4. BMW AGENCY . 90

1. General description of the case 90 2. General description of the firm 90 3. Provision of continuing vocational training 91 3.1 Structure within the firm 91 3.2 Structure of the BMW Training Centre 91 3.3 Other forms of continuing training 92 4. Training practice at the firm 92 4.1 Training plans at the repair shop level 92 4.2 Link between training concepts and demand 92 4.3 Target groups of vocational training 92 4.4Training plans .93 4.5Costs of continuing vocational training 4.6 Evaluation of costs 94 5. Evaluation of the training concepts 94 6. Conclusions 95

S.VW-AUDI AGENCY 102

1. General description of the case 102. 2. General description of the firm 102 2.1 Main details of the firm 102 2.2 Brief history of the firm and latest strategies and developments 103 2.3 Structure of the firm 103 2.4 Workforce 105 3. Provision of continuing vocational training 106 3.1 Structure of the firm 106 3.2 Structure of the customer service training centre 106 3.3 Structure of continuing training centres run by trade associations 106 4 Training ?olicy of the firm 107 4.1 Trainirrj plans at the repair shop level 107 4.2 Link between training concepts and demand 108 4.3 Target groups of vocational training 108 4 4Training plans 108 4.5Costs of continuing vocational training 110 4.6 Evaluation of costs 110 5. Evaluation of the training concepts 111 5 1 Evaluation of the staff questionnaire 111 5.2Best practice, standard practice 111 5.3Future requirements of continuing vocational training 11 6. Conclusions in the context of best practice and normal practice 111 Appendix 113

6. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE CASE STUDIES 117

PART 3 - TRENDS 1.CONCLUSIONS 119 1.1 Economic developments and employment 119 1.2 Vocational training and selection of personnel 120 1.3 Change in the work of the motor vehicle repair shop 120 1.4 Organization of work and the repair shop and perspectives for continuing training 121 Bibliography 123

11 SECTORAL CONTEXT

PART 1:

1. Repair and sales in the motor vehicle sector: an overview

2. Structure and characteristics of the motor vehicle sector

3. Institutional and social context

4. Employment trends

5. Changes in the type of work and its influence on requirements and training 6. Initial and continuing vocational training in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector

12 1. REPAIR AND SALES IN THE MOTOR VEHICLE SECTOR: AN OVERVIEW 1. 1.1 Definition and delimitation of the RAI et al. (1984, p. 49), these accounted for sector approximately 20% in 1983. Surveys carried out The motor vehicle industry .s more than ever the for 1987 by the ZDK show that "service and keysectorinfluencinginternational economic repair only" businesses linked to a particular competition. In manufacturing countries such as manufacturer account for 18.3% (of a total of the U.S.A., Japan, Germany, Italy and France, it is 25,000). the decisive factor in employment and economic prosperity. A MIT study on the superiority of the In addition to these service outlets, there are a Japanese lean production concept (Womack i. a. considerable number of so-called "independent 1991) has hit Germany like a thunderbolt and dealerships",usuallysmall businer.ses(over prompted people to turn their attention to the 16,000,i.e.almost 40% of allbusinesses). development, manufacture, sales and servicing of Independent dealerships are not linked to manu- cars. The message of the authors is clear: unlessfacturers or binding agreements of any kind. They manufacturers here approach the high productivityact entirely in their own interest and on their own levels achieved by Japanese manufacturers (with account. A link to a particular make may be Toyota topping the league table in lean produc- formed but this is not necessarily the case. tion) they will lose their ability to compete on the world market. This diagnosis pointed out to us at This outlines briefly the industry dealt with in this the beginning of the 1990s the first of two major study: tile subject of investigation are car dealers problems within the motor industry: cost-effective and firms involved in servicing and repairing cars, monufacturing. which are subordinate to the motor industry but are equally essential for the functioning of the The second major problem - which the MIT study whole motor traffic system. Exactly how close the also refers to - is the successful marketing of the links-to the car manufacturers are can be seen in car, the design of the relationship between the car the fact that the main distinction made between dealer, his servicing and repair facilities and the these businesses is whether they are linked to a customer.Itisthese factors that influence themanufacturer or not: authorized firms and inde- customer's decision to buy a particular car and pendent dealerships. The sector is thus closely determines whether he is satisfied with the after- !inked to developments in the motor industry, it is sales (servicing and repair) provided by his make hard to conceive of it as an independent sector, of car. As long as the no-maintenance car remains hilt similarly the car manufacturers could hardly a dream, the strategic position of the motor vehicle market their products without these firms. repair and sales sector will not change. 80% of a dealership's business is accounted for by selling Firms such as bodyworkers, used-car dealers and cars. Nevertheless, repair and servicing remain offilling stations are not counted as belonging to this central importance to the motor vehicle sector.sector if they opemte independently without links More than ever before, car manufacturers rely on to the above-mentioned firms. Many car repair the servicing and repair provided by dealershipsshops do, however, have their own bodywork and their ability to rapidly diagnose and rectifydepartments, a used-carbusiness andfilling defects. In the interplay between flexible manu- station. We have counted these cases since they facture and the electronification of cars, a wide are not specifically identified in the statistics. range of complex automotive technology has been developed which, if it is to be truly mastered by the 1.2 Trends within the motor vehicle service and maintenance sector, demands an repair and sales sector extremely high quality of diagnosis and repairIf the manufacture of cars in the factory and their techniques. use by the customer are recognized as the iwo decisive factors in the motor industry then the Experts believe that dealers today have a greater particular position of the servicing and repairs significance than at the beginning of the eighties sector becomes clear. for the added value in motor businesses. However, a good repair shop is essential to ensure that a A dealershipisfirst and foremost a qualified customer remains loyal to one make of car. One of specialist dealer which owes its existence to the the car manufacturers' rules of thumb is:"The fact that the car is (so far) not a product which can dealersellsthefirstcar,themechanicthe be sold in a department store or any other kind of subsequent ones." (Hamann 1992). retailoutlet selling a range of goods. Inthis function it stands alone because there is no other The importance of after-sales can be seen in product approaching comparable economic sig- Germany by the ,`uct that there is hardly a (new) nificance, which is sold exclusively and so widely car dealer without a service and repair depart- in specialist outlets. ment. Thereare,however, arelativelyhigh number of, often smaller, firms, which are in the The reason for the special position of the dealer- service and repair business only. According to ship is obvious. More than any other product the 1 3

1 car needs specialist care, which can obviously Figure 11 - Manufacture Dealership - Customer (today) only be provided by a large number of specialist dealers with associated after-sales facilities and r r -I Carmanufacturers] 1 Dealership 1- qualified, highly-skilled personnel. The car is a product which, by virtue of its importance to the I-- individual and within society, its life expectancy, Production Distribution its value and above all its mass distribution and complex technology, automatically excludes the possibility of simply being sold and means that a Distribution Sales of cars and Internal and dense network of service and repair businesses is spore parts external - initial and required. This in turn forces the mar vfacturer to 1 continuing organize the contact to the customer in a special Servicing training way withinacarefullydesignedmarketing 1--- strategy. The customer service area is therefore 1 another special feature of the car manufacturing In.house training business. (Rauner/Zeymer 1991, p. 26). Customer servi;1 1.3 The role of the dealership as an training centre intermediary r--- The activitiesinthe dealership have become LCustomer increasingly more distinct as its dependency on the manufacturer has increased over the years. This process of differentiation did not simply follow the principle of Taylorist separation and integra-sales sector rests on the necessity of cars to be tion of work processes. It was influenced far more serviced and repaired and their mass distribution. by the stipulations of manufacturers (cf. fig. 1.1). As long as the dealership continues to play the necessaryroleofintermediary betweenthe The question of division of labour, particularly that manufacturer and the customer, the car manufac- which follows the Taylorist principle and would turers are bound to be interested in optimizing this mean that the dealership is relieved of any kind ofintermediary role of the dealership: process planning activity, which is central to the development of qualification structures, can only 1. by developing technology which is as free from properly be taken into account for the dealership if defects and needs as little maintenance as the "division of labour" between the car manu- possible, and facturers and the dealership is also examined. A mere cursory glance at the job processing in an 2. by designing this intermediary task in a way authorized dealership shows the customer that which will encourage sales. service, maintenance and repair of the car are carried out according to fixed standards and costs This interest of the manufacturers is, of course, stipulated, and thus justified, by the manufacturer. identical to that of the customer because the idea The work of the dealership is thus comparable toof owning a technically high-quality and faultless that of a repair shop which is integrated into a productislinked to the expectation that this factory: prepared in detail, planned both in termsproduct is cared for in a special way and this of what work is to be carried out and how it is to places more obligations on the intermediary than be done, including which tools are to be used andis usual in other fields (cf. Rauner/Zeymer 1991, what time limits are acceptable for each job. p. 26ff).

This is a special feature of the motor vehicle repair 1.4 The manufacturers distribution and sales sector. The services stipulated in thenetwork contracts drawn up with dealers and the workThe motor vehicle sector in Germany is closely entailed is specified in great detail. For example, linkedtothe motorindustry.Over 60% of firms linked to manufacturers are obliged to use dealers/repair shops are under contract to car testing systems and software specified by themanufacturers/importers. These authorized deal- manufacturer. They can thus carry out only thoseerships employ 85% of all people working in this test routines specified by the manufacturer. Theresector. Brand-new vehicles and parts are sold via are similar stipulations governing which tools must this selective system: be bought and how they are to be used. "The car manufacturers/importers work with the Only if the no-maintenance car became reality selected dealers and repair shops to create an the dream of every manufacturerif the car could after-sales service specially tailcired to the vehicle. be sold like other mass-produced products, would In this the vast majority of dealers represent one the motor vehicle repair and sales sector inits make only (exclusive-make policy). For reasons of present form have the carpet pulled from under itscapacity and profitability alone this kind of co- 14 feet. The whole of the motor vehicle repair, and operation cannot be extended to an unlimited k 1 4, number of dealers and repair shops." (RAI et al. The following information can be deduced from 1984, vol. 2, p. 99). Tables 1.1 and 1.2:

Dealers appointed by vehicle manufacturers/a. r3MW, Daimler-Benz and,to some extent, importershavetofulfilcertainqualification Peugeot have similar soles networks. The dealers criteria. In addition to this, the existence of fully have close links to the manufacturers (high number functional service and repair facilities and a of firms in categories A and B). BMW seems to showroom plays an important part. avoiddealershipswithlow-levelinvolvement (category D) and gives preference to a tightly The basis for the legal relationship between the organizednetworkofdealers.Daimier-Benz manufacturer/importer and the dealeristhe practises to some extent a policy of tight links contract(dealerscontract).Accordingtothe and to some extent lower-levellinks withits organizationalstructureof thesales networkdealers (categories A and B comprise approxi- various types of contract are drawn up for direct mately 50% and D1 the other 50%). dealers, representatives, authorized repair shops, sub-agents and branches of the direct dealers. b. V.A.G. has a sales network which is distinctly Regardless of whether they are integrated into a different from that of all other companies. The 12 sales network the dealers apart from a few firms in category A are sales centres, some of exceptions carry out their business transactions which are directly linked to the manufacturer, under their own name and for their own account. some of which,however,belongtoprivate The exceptions are Daimler-Benz and MAN: here companies or are independent, private limited the dealers invoice in the name of and for the companies with a strong link to the manufacturer. account of the manufacturers (agents). In addition The manufacturer himself has no direct influence to this there are also businesses which work ason the dealers/repair shops. (It was not possible commission agents in their own name but for the to determine whether MAN practises the same account of a third party (cf. RAI et al. 1984,policy as V.A.G. Theproportionofbranch vol. 2, p. 100). operations is, however, very high).

Theitems coveredinthese detaileddealers c. Opel concentrates on dealers/repair shops of contracts include: type C and D and has a small number of direct dealers (type B: 171). It can be assumed that there Contractual territory is a "graduated" link to the direct dealers. The aim Scope of the dealer's activities is presumably to establish an extensive network of Activities for other makes of vehicle, dealers/repair shops which, depending on region- Sales to other dealers and third parties for real significance, have tighter or more flexible links sale to the manufacturer. Business operations Advertising and trademarks It is striking that since 1987 Opel has increased Dealer-support from the manufacturer, the number of dealers/repair shops by around Duration of contract/performance of contract 300, decreased the number of direct dealers (type Guidelines for guarantees and accommodation B) by around 1000 and atthe same time Settlement of accounts between dealeand increased the number of sub-agents (type C) by manufacti., er around 1,350. Opel notched up very good sales Continuing training in customer service training figures duringthisperir,d.Thisstep can be centres (partly) interpreted as a plc:ye to "loosen" the tie to the Extent of training and eligible participants manufacturer.

In the case of some manufacturers, the contracts d. Ford and Chrysler have no branch operations also specify working clothes and forms of work at all. Ford has an extensive network of direct organization to be employed such as team workdealers and authorized repair shops. Chrysler or work in groups. works mainly with direct dealers.

Tables 1.1 and 1.2 place businesses within theThe US controlledfirms seemtotie"their" motorvehiclesectorintothecategoriesof dealers/repair shops less tightly to the manufac- distribution centres, business establishments, turer. There are parallels with V.A.G.'s practices. branches of business establishmerts, dealers and branches of dealers, operating branches and lorry e Itis noteworthy that the Japanese manufac- repair shops and repair shops. The vast majority of turersoperate exclusively withdirect dealers businesses are dealers which also have service (category B) andsub-agents(categoryC) stations and repair facilities. Category A firms are sales centres. This indicates that the Japanese controlled firms have a simple sales structure with virtually no graduation.It would only be possible to analyze how intense the link between the dealers/repair shops and the 15 15 Table 1.1 - Distribution networks of the manufacturers/importers (cars and commercial vehicles) As of: 31.12. 1987

Manufacturer/Importer A D I Total

Alfa Romeo 1 196 82 - 279 Austin Rover 157 15 17 189 BMW 18 637 246 - 901 Citroën 5 431 306 - 742

DAF 1 24 68 93 Daihatsu 464 34 - 498 Daimler-Benz 95 451 - 590 1,136 Fiat 2 656 558 - 1,216 - Lancia 2 326 37 358 Ford 807 _ 1,278 2,085 Honda 472 - - 472 Iveco-Magirus 25 140 - 314 479

Jaguar 1 108 - 109 Lada 435 54 - 490 MAN 40 7 - 285 332 Mazda 762 244 - 1,006

Mitsubishi (Cars) 1 836 83 - 920 Lorries 33 - 33 Nissan 2 724 - _ 726 Opel 1,200 - 1,063 2,264 Peugeot/Talbot 15 731 230 133 1,109 Porsche 88 121 - 209 Renault (Cars) 4 516 777 - 1,297 - Lorries 4 24 - 74 102 Saab 5 181 29 - 215 Scania 39 - 58 97 Seat 339 - 339

Skoda 1 226 74 95 396 Subaru 242 286 528 Suzuki 395 35 - 430 Toyota 742 83 _ 825 V.A.G. 12 1,661 1,622 3,295 Volvo (Cars) 2 355 26 9 392 - Lorries 2 45 31 78

Total 23,640

Independent repair shops D2 16,972

Source. VDA/VDIK (Explanations before Table 1.1)

Explanations to Tables 1.1 and 1.2: A: Business establishment of the manufacturer or distribution centre B Direct dealers including their branches C: Sub-agents (sales on behalf of the direct dealer - main activity repairs)

D 1 Repair shops appointed by a dealer (category B) or manufacturer D2: Independent repair shops E: Dealers (in these tables always listed in categories A, B, C) F. Repair shops specializing in components, individual systems etc. (no figures available)

manufacturer is by actually looking at the detaik Japanese ones and the manufacturers' dominance of the contracts. is stronger.

F. Other foreignmanufacturers,such asFiat, In summary,it can be said of the distribution Citroën, DAF, Lada, Rover, Saab, Scania and structures that the European manufacturers demon- Volvo, have sales structures which are comparable strate distinct differences from the Japanese ones. to those of German manufacturers. These struc-The Japanese favour alessgraduated,less 1 6 tures are deeper and more hierarchical than the hierarchically-structured network. The Europeans s Table 1.2 - Distribution networks of the manufacturers/importers (cars and commercial vehicles) As of: 31.12.1991

Manufacturer/ A D1 Total 1991 Of these in Importer eastern Germany

_ Alfo Romeo 1 195 - 196 20 Automot - 15 - - 15 15 BMW 29 668 200 897 90 Chrysler - 165 9 - 174 11 Citroen 6 362 462 830 202 DAF 2 101 121 - 224 93 Daihatsu - 401 14 - 415 48 Fiat 3 849 555 - 1,407 235 - Lancia 3 345 29 - 377 23 Ford - 990 - 1,294 2,284 195 Honda - 512 - 512 67 Hyundi - 174 59 Iveco-Magirus 19 126 - 347 492 78 Jaguar 58 - 3 61 - Lode 2 651 35 - 688 218 MAN 42 - 4 333 379 45 Mercedes-Benz 102 510 - 629 1,241 120 Mazda _ 897 130 - 1,027 108

Mitsubishi 1 1,060 3 9 1,115 227

Nissan 1 874 - 875 118

Opel 1 171 1,356 1,012 2,540 377 Peugeot 17 822 272 65 1,176 248 Porsche - 82 82 4 Renault (Cars) c 651 965 - 1,621 310 - lorries 3 79 84 166 32 Rover - 135 9 33 177 21 Saab 7 136 27 170 6

Scenic) 1 41 - 78 120 18 Seat - 699 - _ 699 218 Skoda - 196 - 196 107 _ Subaru 1 302 207 510 65 Suzuki - 590 13 603 81 Toyota - 667 199 _ 866 64 V.A.G. 12 - 2,088 1,545 3,650 435 Volvo (Cars) 283 50 10 343 16 - Lorries - 47 - 73 120 34 Yugo 292 _ 292 77

Total 26,714

Independent D2 repc.- shops 16,223

Source: VDA/VDIK (Explanations see Table 1.11

go in for multi-levelled hierarchies and various the trend of the increase in other major national forms of links to the agents. The networks of USand international makes of car. 20% of all dealers controlledfirmsaresimilartothoseofthe linked to a particular manufacturer were linked to Japanese. Japanese manufacturers whereas the share of the market held by Japanese vehicles was around No significant shifts in structures can be observed 13.5% in 1991 (cf. Table (.3). This means that the in the period between 1987 and 1991 (Tables 1.1 Japanese have a network of (presumably smaller) and1.2).Inabsoluteterms the number of dealerships which is relatively dense compared to independent dealerships and dealerships linked their share of the new car market. to a particular make of vehicle rose slightly (from 40,617 to 42,937). The increase in dealerships No perceptible reduction in the number of dealers for Japanese makes (1991: 5,395; 1987: 4,932) could be observed by any of the larger manufac- was, at 10%, higher in relative terms but within turers. If one excludes Porsch as a special case 17 I 7 which has suffered slumps in its market in recentarrival of newcomers such as Hyundi, Skoda or years, thereis only one German manufacturer Yugo. (BMW) which has been showing a contrary trend for some time,thatisaslight tendency toIf one looks at the registration figures for new concentration. The overall number of BMW firmscars and estate cars between 1989 and 1991 has decreased. Particularly affected are the sub- (Table 1.3). some particular features are striking: agents. Two reasons are given for this develop-in absolute terms the number of registrations in ment: this period rose both for German and foreign makes. Percentually, however, the share of Ger- The costs per workplace have hit the DMman makes dropped from 67.6% to 64.9% 100,000 level. Given the further increase inwhilst the share of foreign makes rose steadily the variety of models a rise in these costs can be from 32.4% to 35.1%. This trend continued into expected. These costs affect the small and very the first half of 1992, and the share of foreign small firms more severely than the branchvehicles has already reached 38%. Itis striking operations and large firms. that there was an increaseinthe number of French makes and a slight drop in the number of The greater variety of models and the increased Japanese vehicles. complexity and variability of automotive technology demand a division of labour in the The continual increase in the number of foreign repair shop. This in turn requires a certain size vehicles being registered in Germany can also be of firm. observed inFig.1.2.In 1991 both cars and lorries peaked at 35.4% and 35.3% respectively. For German companies the category A dealersThe estimated figures for 1992 and 1993 assume (branch operations or sales centres) have in-a stagnation for cars and a further increase for creased. It can be assumed that this is due to the lorries. Overall, the trend, which began in the establishment of a network of dealers in formerfifties, towards an increasing market share for East Germany. foreign vehicles, continued, albeit to a slightly lesser degree, and this trend is currently being According to ZDK 42,937 businesses (not includ- underpinned by the 50% market share occupied ing those specialized solely in automotive electronics) in 1991 were independent, in other words not tied to a manufacturer or particular make. This means that their proportion (37.8%) has barely Figure 1.2 - Market shares of total registrations held by changed since 1987 when it was 38.4%'. This importers means that, despite the rapid development of more modern and more complex vehicle and diagnosis Percent systems, the independent dealerships cannot be said to be "dying out". Their share measured 40 0. 35.4 35.035.0. against the number of firmshos remained more or Cars/estate cars 30 0. 26.3 less constant and the slight relative drop is probably 22.5 due to the fact that the dealers linked to particulc.r 20 `. -t makes were able to expand more quickly in eastern 9.6 Germany. The independent dealerships are thus still 1 10 0. 4.2 a relatively stable factor in the motor vehicle repair arid sales sector. 0 % ri 19521960 1970 1980 19911992 1993

In terms of the size of firms the increase is due EJ Share mainly to the small firms (size category II). Their share increased from 37% in 1983 to over 50% in 1991, an expression of the fact that many new Year Total registrations Proportion of imports firms were set up during this time. This would suggest that,despite the fact that automotive 1952 195,492 8,142 technologyisbecoming more complex, small 1960 970,268 92,722 firms stillfeel they have a good chance in the 1970 2,107,123 473,718 market for service and repairs. 1980 2,246,187 638,984 1991 4,158,674 1,463,053 1.5 Market shares 1992' 3,700,000 1993' 3,400.000 Another reason for changes in the motor vehicle

repair and sales sector is the change in the market I Estimate shares of the manufacturers,inparticular the Source VDIK

Various ZDK publications give a different figure for the share of the independent garages, putting the share at 18 420.. Our own investigations confirm the figure of approximately 38%

1 ti in eastern Germany. The possibility of a leveiiiig Percent off can therefore not be excluded. 1. 37.0' 38 0 40 % T 35.3 Commercial vehicles Itis significant here that all foreign companies are tryingto set up a performance-orientated network of dealers and service centres with 17.0 blanket coverage. Thisis not only reflected in the 15,300 dealer support centres - 2,800 of 10%T which are in eastern Germany - but also in the 0 7 1.3 1.4 000 - r qualified training and further training of dealers/ 19521960 1970 1980 19911992 1993 sales personnel and mechanics. This is reaffirmed by recent activities of companies such as Toyota, C3 Share who have built a modern training centrein Cologne,orFiatwiththeirnew marketing 1 Year Total registrations Proportion of imports strategy, which focuses on after-sales orientated concepts such as customer satisfaction and social 1952 75,007 558 responsibility. Optimal and continual qualification 1960 107,258 1,402 is seen as one of a number of important elements 1970 138,555 5,651 in this. 1980 143,741 24,414 1991 332,304 117 303 19921 320,000 19931 280,000

1 Estimate Source: VDIK

Table 1.3 - Registrations of brand new cars in West Germany from 1989 to 1991 by manufacturer

Number Percentage share Change in % Manufacturer 1990 to 1991 1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991 from 1989 to 1990

German manufacturers Alpina 296 287 293 0 0 0.0 0.0 -3.0 +2.1 Audi 158,072 167,548 203,648 5 6 5.5 6 0 + 6.0 +21.5 BMW 190,730 190,665 222,266 6.7 6.3 6.5 0 0 1- 16.6 Ford 277,388 292,394 323,499 9.8 8.4 9.4 +5 4 + 10.6 MercedesBenz 255,636 256,780 275,413 9.0 9.6 8 0 +0.4 +7.3 Opel 404,254 455,590 500,815 14.3 15 0 14.6 + 12 7 +9.9 Porsche 8,582 9,292 9,738 0 3 0 3 0 3 + 8 3 +4.8 Sachsenring (Trabant) 3 25 553 0 0 0.0 0.0 Volkswagen 619,053 609,521 687.484 21.9 20.1 20.1 -1.5 +12 8 Misc. 646 661 809 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 7 +22 4

Sub-total 1,914,660 1.982,763 2,224,518 67.6 65 2 64 9 + 3 6 +12 2

Foreign manufacturers 0 9 + 25.9 + 18.8 Alfa, Lancia I 21,1)5 26,592 31,584 0 7 0 9 0.0 -46 9 Alpine F 231 118 83 0.0 0 0 AZNP-Skoda CS 2.598 1,961 3,072 0 1 0 1 0.1 -24.5 +56.7 0 0 - - Bertone I 165 85 113 0 0 0 0 Carni CDN - 3,153 - 0 1 - 1 3 + 15 2 -1 8 Citroen F 40,396 46,545 45,702 1.4 1 5 + 103 7 Chrysler CDN/USA 5 755 5.864 11.945 0 2 0 2 0 3 + 1 9 DAF NI. 79 322 734 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 128 0 0 5 0 4 0 5 9 8 24 4 Daihatsu 1 13 983 12.611 15.686 0 0 0 0 + 5 1 422 5 Ferrari I 414 435 .533 0 0 4 1 4 1 3 8 + 7 5 + 5 0 Fiat I 115.810 124,528 130,724 Ford CDN/GB/USA 260 338 6,123 0 0 0 0 0 2 +30.0 +1,711 5 0 7 - 9 5 + 237 4 Ford E 7,400 6,697 22.594 0 3 0 2 0 5 + 1 5 +15 2 Fuit Heavy Subaru 1 13,589 13,791 15,886 0 5 0 5 GMC CDN/1' \ 1,455 2,163 2,3/4 0 1 0 1 0 1 +48 7 + 9 8 General Motors L 51,417 65.784 81,283 1 8 2 2 2 4 +27 9 423 6 + 121 8 GMC Truck USA 216 693 1,537 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 220 8 19 z.19 Table 1.3 - Continued

Manufacturer Number Percentage share Change in % 1990 to 1991 1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991 from 1989 to 1990

Foreign manufacturers

Honda J 45,549 54,340 51,586 1.6 1.8 1.5 + 19.3 -5.1 Honda USA 1 5 1,703 0.0 0.0 0.0 - - Hyundai ROK - 1,188 0.0 - IBC Vehicles GB 1,145 1,082 1,652 0.0 0.0 0.0 -5.5 + 52.7 Isuzu J 6,139 7,220 6,289 0.2 0.2 0.2 + 17.6 -12.9 Jaguar GB 2,391 2,353 2,130 0.1 0.1 0.1 -1.6 -9.5 Jeep, AMC CDN/USA 4,602 3,915 2,543 0.2 0.1 0.1 -14.9 -35.0 Matra F 4,980 6,454 7,984 0.2 0.2 0.2 + 29.6 + 23.7 Mazda J 91,045 100,542 97,269 3.2 3.3 2.8 + 10.4 -3 3 Mercedes-Benz E 4,008 4,618 6,136 0.1 0.1 0.2 +15.2 + 32.9 Mitsubishi J 67,269 73,845 63,689 2.4 2.4 1.9 +9.8 -13.8 Nissan E 736 1,594 2,808 0.0 0.1 0.1 + 116.6 + 76.2 Nissan GB 7,027 12,749 22,639 0.3 0.4 0.7 + 81.4 + 77.6 Nissan ,I 75,503 78,168 93,101 2.7 2.6 2.7 + 3.5 + 19.1 Peugeot F 62,047 84,830 96,802 2.2 2.8 2.8 + 36.7 + 14.1 Renault 91,597 100,375 139,484 3.2 3.3 4.1 + 9.6 + 39 0 Rover, Austin, Land Rover GB 6,882 8,006 12,724 0.2 0.3 0.4 + 16.3 + 58.9 Saab-Scania S 6,138 5,837 5,688 0.2 0.2 0.2 -4.9 -2.6 Seat E 23,778 43,111 56,677 0.8 1.4 1.7 + 81.3 + 31.5 Suzuki J 27,087 32,556 28,994 1.0 1.1 0.8 + 20.2 -10.9 Toyota J 81,448 94,758 89,127 2.9 3.1 2.6 + 16.3 -5.9 Vaz-Locla CIS 12,631 12,836 12,463 0.4 0.4 0.4 + 1.6 -2.9 Volvo NL 7,311 7,706 8,166 0.3 0.3 0.2 +5.4 + 6.0 Volvo S 10,895 9,880 14,069 0.4 0.3 0.4 -9.3 + 42.4 Zastava YU 5 551 1,426 0.0 0.0 0.0 - +158.8 Misc. 1,983 2,162 4,620 0.1 0.1 0.1 + 9.0 +113.7

Sub-total 917,080 1,058,020 1,204,083 32.4 34.8 35.1 + 15.4 + 13.8

Total 2,831,740 3,040,783 3,428,601 100.0 100.0 100.0 + 7.4 + 12.8 Of these vehicles made by foreign manufacturers with headquarters in.

France 199,304 238,364 290,062 7.0 7.8 8.5 + 19.6 + 21.7 Great Britain 17,722 24,427 39,620 0.6 0.8 1.1 + 37.8 + 62.2 Italy 137,683 151,880 163,221 4.9 5.0 4.8 + 10.3 + 7.5 Japan 421,626 467,862 461.715 14.9 15.4 13.5 + 11.0 -1.3 The Netherlands 7,390 8,028 8,900 0.3 0.3 0.3 4- 8.6 +10.9 Eastern Bloc' 15,290 15,377 17,015 0.5 0 5 0.5 + 0.6 + 10.7 Sweden 17,033 15,717 19,757 0.6 0.5 0.6 -7.7 + 25.7 Spain 87,339 121,809 169,510 3.1 4.0 4.9 + 39.5 + 39.2 USA 10,356 12,477 25,625 0.4 0.4 0.7 + 20.5 +105.4 Misc, foreign countries 3,337 2,079 8,658 0 1 0.1 0.2 -37.7 +316.5

Sub-total 917,080 1,058,020 1,204,083 32.4 34 8 35.1 + 15.4 + 13.8

IIncluding former Yugoslavia Source Federal Motor Office

20 n 1-1 Avotfi 2. STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOTOR VEHICLESECTOR

2.1 Historical development 2 through car catalogues of the time, it is noticeable The motor vehicle repair sector in Germany is that there was o car manufacturer in practically rooted in the metal industry and as such is classed every large city. itself a craft trade. At its core, however, it is pari of the sector set up by industrial manufacturing: the Doimler's repair shop, writes Schumann motor industry created the motor sector, just Js it (1911,22) "is quite separate, on the other side was only as a result of research inthe electrical of a public street, in a shed 65 metres long and 66 industry that the trade of electrical engineering metres wide. These repair shops and tl-,eir sheds was born. The motor vehicle repair sector isthus virtually form a small car factory in its own right fundamentally industrial in nature - paradoxical with an office and waiting room, turnery, milling as that may sound. Since the 1920sthe motor shop, forge, test room with over 60 machine tools vehicle has been an industrially manufactured of all kinds, blowers, presses, hardening furnaces product. However, the motor repair sector has noetc." Schumann points out that the repair shop directinfluence on the design of automotive was a place where "responsible work wascarried technology. This means that an important char- out by mostly competent workers with training in acteristic of the classical craft trades is missingthe trade." here: its capacity to participate in the design of manufactured goods. In automotive technologyFrom a description by Stapelmannit becomes the development process depends on science andclear that in the early days of motor mechanics the technology not craftsmanship - apart from during tasks and work in the field of car repair hardly the initial phase inthe manufacture of motor differed from those in metalworking and mechani- vehicles. cal engineering.

Until the beginning of the century there were"New pistons were rarely used, people usually hardly any businesseswhichspecializedin improvised by adding rings.If,however, new servicing and repairing motor vehicles, because: ones were necessary a model was made and cast. If possible they also acquired them from the works. the metalworking tradedidnot have the The cast pistons were worked on a lathe. Even the machinetoolsrequiredtoproducelarge piston pin holes were drilled on the lathe. After the numbers of spare parts to a satisfactory degree piston pins were finished the surface of the whole of precision; thing was hardened using potassium. Then the cylinders were ground. After the pistons had been there were no details on manufacturing toler-tightly fitted they were coated with oil and emery ances to be adhered to, since themanufac- and, using a handle they had made themselves, turers mostly kept them secret (standardizedthey were pushed up and down until they ran machine fitting systems were not introduced smoothly and with suction. This work needed a until after the First World War); delicate touch. After the piston had been ground, the piston rings were fitted and the residues on the the necessary materials and manufacturingcylinder walls were removed with petrol.If the stages did not exist or were unknown; piston pin bushing was also fitted the engine could be assembled. only a small number of craftsmen recognized the significcnce of the evolving motorization The control wheels were sometimes exposed and and were prepared to take on the risks and sometimes enclosed. They were greased in the changes involved, partly due to conservatism, enginecasingifthey werenotcompletely partly due to lack of capital. separate. They normally had to be changed after 10,000-20,000 kilometres. If the valves had to In the case of Daimler, for instance, it was not until be replaced they made these themselves, because 1908 when new models were introduced that the valve stem had to be stronger since the valve mass-produced spare parts were also manufac- stem bushes had been made round, i.e. they had tured. Previously the spare part department had been reamed. Adjustable rams had not yet been been attached to their own repairs department. invented and so the valves were fitted with a Afterthisthe "spare parts and mail order" 0.5-1 mm play, after having been previously department became independent in an attempt re-seated."(Stapelmann,quoted in Krupko to boost sales and with them production levels. 1976, p. 32). Complicated repairs to cars which the owners or their chauffeurs were not able to do themselvesThus, it was mainly metalworking firms which took were carried out in the repair shopbelonging to on car repairs and sales of accessories and spare the manufacturer. This meant that shortly after the parts before the First World War. On the one turn of the century the geographical distribution ofhand, they had suitable equipment and on the the makes was atleast limited and, looking other hand, close contact with the customer which

21 2 Cf. for this section Rouner/Zeymer, 1992, 46-49. inspired confidence. However, due to the fact thatrepair and sales sector. In 1949 there were 14 stores of spares required high capital investment, vehicles for every person in the motor vehicle repair shops were from the very beginning forced sector, around 40 in 1965 and today the figure is to commit themselves to the manufacturers, and in closerto100.Ifmanufacturerssucceedin fact to as few as possible. introducing sensor-aided individual servicing, this figure willrise to well above 100. The future Using the example of how other metalworkingdevelopment of this growth curveis a central firms developed, features which are specific to this indicatorforthe competitive strengthof car sector can be identified. They are listed below in a manufacturers. Figure 2.1uses the increase in summarized form: manufacturing costs for automotive electronics to show that the trend towards electronification of The development of the firms was givena motor vehicles and withittheincreaseof special kind of dynamics by the metalworkingcomplexity is morelikelytoincreasethan trade, because this trade concentrated on the decrease. work created on the periphery of industrialization. The task facing car manufacturers and the motor vehicle repair sector consists of mastering the This trade tended to have several strings to its ever-accelerating increase in the complexity of bow and several areas it focused on, which automotivetechnologysothattheintervals could be replaced as industrialization advanced between servicing become longer, the car's repair (plumbing, bridge building etc. on the oneneeds can be further reduced and the repair shop hand and selling and repairing sewing ma-can carry out the remaining tasks swiftly, safely chines, bicycles or cars on the other). and cost-effectively. These requirements of automobile maintenance would seem to constitute The sale and repair of motor vehicles was not squaring the circle. The motor vehicle sector is incorporated into the firms until relatively late responding to the demands with three instruments: but then the development was rapid and far- reaching. 1. Further and continuing training by mar ufac- tuners; The move to concentration was a Iwo-stage 2. Reduction in the complexity of the work by use process: the first stage was in the mid-1920s of complex systems technology; and the second was in the early 1960s when it3. Intelligent maintenance and service. became exclusive (the other "strings to the bow", such as filling stations are included in Figure 2.1 - "Higher production levels" in the repair shop this). Number of vehicles per person employed

The boom in business went hand in hand with 100 the link to a large manufacturer. 90 1 80 1 These characteristics are important for an under- 70 standingof vocationaltraininginthemotor vehicle sector. 60 50 -1 2.2 Change in functions and tasks in the 40 1 dealership 30 1 The question needs to be addressed as to how 20 modern vehicles have affected the motor vehicle 10 repair and sales sector and changed the work of 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 the dealership and furthermore how dealers and service and repair outlets in conjunction with the manufacturers are coping with these changes. From 1990 expert estimate Despite the exponential increase in new technol Source- Rauner, Zeymer 1991, p 45 ogy and the range of vehicles on the market, the length of time a car spends in the garage- an indication of its need for repair and service has 2.3 The importance of the motor vehicle not increased, on the contrary it has decreased sector to the German economy significantly (Fig. 2.1). This fact demonstrates the The motor vehicle sector, including the manufac- drastic change in the work carried out in dealer-turing industry and the repair and sales sector is ships over the course of the last 40 years. one of Germany's mostimportant economic sectors. It is without doubt the manufacturers who Since 1949 the number of vehicles on the road in are dominant but the prosperity of this industry is 22 Germany has increased six times more than the dependent on sales figures and above all their rate number of people working in the motor vehicle of increase. 2 Figure 2 2Percentage of production costs accounted for by elactrics and electronics in the vehicle, in °0

32 Elertrics MI Electronics 30

26 7

18 7

8 --i

6 --I 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

The economic importance of the motor industry in first, and probably last, time for some years to Germany will be demonstrated with some figures come (Table 2.21. Of this, 4.66 million were cars for 1991 (cf. Table 2.1). No less than 13% of theand estate cars which corresponds to the produc- turnover of German industry is accounted for by tion volume of 1990. The manufacture of com- this sector and every 6th employee is dependentmercial vehicles rose by 12%. on developmentsinthissector.In thisthe significance of commercial vehicles striking: This trend was reflected in the production levels of their share in the value added in thc German German companies abroad. There the number of motor industry is over a quarter, their share in motor vehicles manufactured rose by 2% to 1.88 turnover just under a quarter. With exports worthmillion in 1991. Here again the increase is due to over 115 thousand million DM, the motor industrythe increase in the manufacture of commercial was Germany's largest exporter in 1991. Thevehicles, whereas the production levels for cars/ export surplus was DM 45 thousand million. estate cors stagnated. the motor The number of people working in A little under half the cars/estate cars produced in 1991, industry was on average 779,000 in western Germany in 1991 were exported2.2 of peaking at 787,000. In September 1992 this 4.6 million, although this is somewhat less than in figure had already dropped to 765,000 and a previous years. There was a clear drop of 16% further shedding of jobs has been announced. from 1990 to 1991 in the number of cars/estate In 1991 in what was formerly West Germanycars. The drop amounts to 20% of the export (before 3 October 1990) over 5 million motorfigures of 2.72 million reached in1989, the vehicles of all types were manufactured for the highest export figures to date. (Cf. Table 2.2).

Table 2 1 The econonlic significance of the German motor industry in 1991

Total C ars C ommercial vehicles Billion DM/ Number Absolute Proportion Absolute Proportion

Turnover (in billion DM) 223 0 169 5 76 0", 53 5 24 0',, Value added (In billion DM 74 0 54 5 73 6',, 19.5 26 4'. Employees 11,0001 779 565 /2 .5" 214 27 5*,, Exports fin billion DM) 115 5 92 3 79 9'0 23 2 20 l',, 23

4n3 Table 2.2 - Production and export of motor vehicles in the Federal Republic of Germany (within the boundaries valid before 3 10. 1990)

Type of vehicle 1989 1990 19911 f%91/92

Car/estate car 4,563,673 4,660,657 4,659,480 o of which exports 2,721,829 2,597,722 2,184,560 Commercial vehicle 287,974 314,895 355,523 + 12.5 of which exports 175,876 167,923 162,154

Cars and commercial vehicles produced 4,851,647 4,976,552 5,015,003 + 0.8

Vehicles produced abroad by German manufacturers in joint-venture arrangements

Type of vehicle 1989 1990 19912 -A 91/92

Cars/estate cars 1,519,287 1,638,304 1,640,000 0 Commercial vehicles 204,164 205,148 240,000 + 17

Together: 1,723,451 1,843,452 1,880,000 2

Source: VDA statistics Provisional figures 2Estimate

There was an above-average drop in exports toTable 2.3). This meant that the number of cars/ France (-27%), Great Britain (-45%), the U.S.A.estate cars on the road in eastern Germany had (-40%) and Japan (-19%). Less severe were the risen by the end of 1991 to 6.3 million. In 1991 export losses to the Benelux countries (-6%) and the share of the market held by foreign makes in Switzerland (-5%). There was an increasein eastern Germany was 53%, which is considerably exports to the Eastern bloc states and Austria higher than in western Germany where it has (+10%). The motor industry reports that falling remained steady at 34% for the past three years. trends have been clearly noticed since mid-1992. All orders lagged behind the levels of the previous In previous years there had been a sharp increase year, sometimes dramatically. Itis assumed that in the number of vehicles on the domestic market. the car market in Germany is saturated (cf. Fig- This is true for all categories of vehicle in western ure 2.3). Germany with the exception of buses and tractors. Statistics have only been kept in eastern Germany Of the 4.6 million cars/estate cars manufacturedsince the end of 1991. inwestern Germany in1991, approximately 60,000 were assembled in eastern Germany The total number of vehicles registered in western Production of traditionalEast German makes Germany amounted to 36 5 million on 1. 1. 1992 came to an almost completehalt.In1991, and 46.2 million in the whole of Germany (cf. 730,000 brand new cars and estate cars were Table 2.4). put into circulation in the former East Germany (cf.

Table 2.3 The car market in eastern Germany Cars/estate cars

Existing fleet New registrations (by make) Production in eastern Germany East German West German Foreign Total

1988 3 744,00 149,000 20,000 169,000 218,000 1989 3,8 9,900 163,000 24,000 187,000 217,000 1990 4,817,000 52,7000 128,000 102 3 284,000 152,000 1991 6,3000.000 4.000 347,000 379,000 730,000 76.500 1992 0 350,000 300,000 650,000 85,000 24 Table 2.4 Trends in motor vehicles registered in western Germany and number of motor vehicles registered in eastern Germany on 1 January 1991 (including vehicles temporarily not registered)

Type of vehicle western Germany eastern Whole of Germany Germany

1.1.1989 1.1.1990 1.1.1991 1.1.1992 1.1.1992 1. 1.1992

Motor cycles 1,322,769 1,348,498 1,396,083 1,481,561 1,355,425 2,836,986 Cars & estate cars 29,190,322 30,152,399 30.695,082 31,309,165 7,305,897 38,615,062 148,969 Buses 70,186 70,478 70,258 69,710 79,259 1,918,117 Lorries 1,327,638 1,364,918 1,408,952 1,499.748 418,369 2,058,544 Tractors 1,742,802 1,751,949 1,755,032 1,749,161 309,383 Other motor vehicles 388,664 416,327 444,000 472,923 190,373 663,296

All motor vehicles 34,042,381 35,104,569 35,749,407 36,582,268 9,658,706 46,240,974

1 As of 30.09.1990 (details provided by the People's Police Department of the Ministry of the Interior) ondthe vehicles registered in the central vehicle register on 1.1 1992. Source: Federal Motor Office

Figure 2.3 Trends in the number of inhabitants per motor The following conclusions can be drawn from vehicle (includes cors/estate cars and lorries) these figures:

Inhabitant per vehicle a.The rise seen since 1984 in the number of (cars/estote cars and lorries) people employed in the West German motor industry probably exceeded its peak in 1991. 12 10.7 The fallin employment levels has already 10 begun and will intensify in the near future.

b.A slack in domestic demand for new cars could revive the second-hand car market. Due to the 6 higher probability of their requiring repair and 4o 4 the ever-increasing number of vehicles on the 52.24 2 0 24 Saturation roadthiscould havepositiveeffects on business in the repair sector. The frequency of Jahr repair as a function of age is shown in Fig- 7 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 ure2.4. A perceptibleincrease can be detected in vehicles from their fourth year of operation onwards. At the same time the link to the authorized dealership decreases visibly. Figure 2.3 correlates the number of vehicles registered against the number of inhabitants.It c.The German motor industry is approaching shows that in 1990 there were two inhabitants for saturation level on the domestic market. The every motor vehicle, whereas in 1960 there had demand for new cars in Germany has already been 10.7 inhabitants per vehicle, if only the main dropped and exports too have been dropping categories cars/estate cars and lorries are taken for years. into account. If all motor vehicles are included there is a parallel curve at a slightly lower level d.The motor industry in Germany will have to (1970: 3.6; 1990: 1.8). face radical reorganization measures if it is to survive on the world market. This affects both Two areas of this curve are of particular signifi- the way production in the factories is organ- cance. Between 1960 and 1970 thedensity of ized, the product itself the car, and the vehiclesincreased clearly from10.7 to 4.0 relationships between manufacturer,dealer- inhabit,ts per vehicle. From 1980 the curve ship andustomer. For example, more and beginsJ flatten and reaches a highdensity in more motor management systems and systems 1990 with two inhabitants per vehicle. Never- to aid active safety are being developed which theless, it can be assumed that saturation point has repair and service outlets will have to master. not yet quite been reached. Itis expected at around1.6to1.8inhabitantspervehicle. The demands placed on car dealers and repriir Demand on the domestic market will concentrate shops are changing as a result of shorter innovation cycles, a marked increase inth(. less on first time buyers and more on replacing 25 existing cars. range of models available and a generally 5 Figure 2.4 - Repair as a function of age of vehicle in 1991 mechanics. In the case of firms specializing in Number of repairs per car per year automotiveelectricstherehas been aslight decrease in numbers since 1988. This is probably 2 - due to the integration of mechanical and electronic 1.8 systems in vehicles. Businesses carrying out servicing and repairs of motor vehicles have to be able to deal with these integrated systems. This has caused

1.3 firms specialized in automotive electronics to lose significance. While in 1965 there was one firm 1.1 dealing with automotive electronics for every 17 businesses carrying out general servicing and 1 -10 0.95 repairs, the ratio today is1 to 21. That means that despite the dramatic expansion of automotive 0.6 electronics in the motor vehicle sector the propor- 0.4 tion of firms working in automotive electronics has dropped.It will be particularly difficult for the independent electrics firms to hold their ground against the authorized dealerships which are becoming increasingly competent and qualified and are now dealing with automotive electronics as Under 2 to 4 to 6 to 8 years 2 years 4 yeors 6 years 8 yearsand over a matter of course. The general service and repair firms with their comprehensive range of jobs Source: DAT - Customer service report, 1992 tailored to one particular make of vehicle have extended their market position.

increased orientation to customer needs. ThisIf one takes into account that the firms mentioned in turn leads to different qualification demands specializedinautomotiveelectronicsinclude being placed on the motor vehicle repair and approximately 900 Bosch partners the number of sales sector and on continuing training which remaining electrics firms is only 2% of the overall takes this into account. figure, in other words negligible.

2.4 The internal structure of the motor There are approximately 350 specialized firms vehicle repair and sales sector (1 /2/3-Autoservice, PIT-STOP,Fahr-Well,tyre In the following section we shall concentrate on specialists etc.) on the market in Germany. They the vehicle repair and distribution sector in the thus have carried no particular weight to date and narrower definition of the FORCE project. Table 2.5 have no great influence on specialization trends. shows a slight but steady increase in the number of motor firms since 1979. The increase is clearly a The distribution of the firms into the size categories result of the increase in firms specialized in motor is shown in Table 2.6.It can be seen that the

Table 2 5 - Number of firms in the motor vehicle sector (change from previousyeor in italics)

Western Germany Motor vehicle repair sector Automotive electrics sector Motor vehicle repair (Repair shops belonging to sector overall authorized dealers and independent repair shops)

1979 31,745 + 3.1% 1,651 + 2.2% 33,396 + 3 0% 1981 32,775 4 3 2% 1,686 + 2.1% 34,461 + 3 0% 1982 33,747 4 3 0% 1,733 + 2.8% 35,480 + 3.0% 1983 34,704 + 2 8% 1,775 + 2 4% 36,479 + 2.8% 1984 36,020 + 3 8% 1,776 0 0% 37 796 + 3.6% 1985 37,226 + 3 4% 1,823 + 2 7% 3S )49 + 3.3% 1986 38,998 + 4.8% 1,901 + 4 3% 40,899 « 4.700 1987 39,968 + 2 5% 1,927 +1 4% 41,895 4 2.4% 1988 40,617 + I 1,918 - 5% 42,535 +1 5% 1989 41,4V1 .2 1- 1.927 4 0 43,380 + 2 0%

1990 42,209 4 1 8', 4 1,946 1 0", 44,155 + 1 80,. 1991 42 588 + 09' 1,914 -1 6% 44,502 + 0 8% 42,937 + 0 9% 1,910 0 2% 44,847 + 0 8%

Eastern Geirnanyi 7,031 852 7,883

I Recorded for the first time in 1991 26 Source /DK As of 1 3 1992 r)6 proportion of medium-sized firms is small, in the two-thirds of firms in category I also sold cars, in category 20 to 49 employees a downward trendclass II there were 84% and in categories III to V can be seen, while the number of smaller firms is well over 90%. increasing: smog firms in category I increased from 37% in1983 io 51.2% in1991. TheThe smaller proportion of dealers in category Iis increase in small firms con be explained by theexplained by the high proportion of independent Fact that many young people who have just gained dealershipscf. Table 2.8in this category (71% their master mechanics qualifications cannot find in 1987, more recent statistics are not available). a suitable job in the companies they trained in andThese firms are often family businesses or belong therefore set up their own business. In the businessto the young master mechanics who have set it is known as "the flight to self-employment". Theythemselves upinbusinessbut,forreasons do not normally achieve instant recognition by a described above, have not yet started tosell manufacturer, which also explains the fact that cars. Large firmsin categories IV and V play only a small proportion of these firms also sellvirtually no part amongst the "independents". cars, as seen in Table 2.7. However, another Independentdealershipsarenotboundby factor in the establishment of these new businesses contracts with manufacturers. A concentration on is without doubt the fact that new companies such one make of vehicle can result but must not as Hyundi and Yugo, which are now pushing their necessarily do so. This happens in around 30% way onto themarket,support young newly- of firms in categories II and II; in other categories qualified master mechanics and help them to set the figure is nearer 10%. up their businesses, as do petrol companies which offer them low interest loans.

Approximately 20% of firms do not sell cars (cf. Table 2.8 - Independent firms by number of employees Table 2.7). Surveys carried out for 1987 by the including owners and family members employed and ZDK show that 18.3% of businesses linked to apprentices factories were a service and repair shop only. The Size 1987 proportion of small firms which also sell cars category dropped by approximately 6% between 1981 and 1983. A similar trend, though not as severe, 1 - 4 employees 71 % can be seen in the medium-sized firms. Only in II 5 - 9 employees 23 4% larger firms (over 50 employees) did the propor- Ill 10 - 19 employees 4.4% tion rise by around 2%. IV 20 - 49 employees 0 8°. V Over 50 employees 0.4% Differences in structure from one size category to another can also be identified. In 1983 less than Source. ZDK 1987

Table 2 6 - Firms categorized by number of employees (including owners and family members employed and apprentices)

Size category Eastern Germany

1983 1989 1991' 1991

1 - 4 Employees 37°. 39 0. 51.2% 30 2% II 5 -9 27°. 29 % 28.2% 33 7°. III 10 - 19 18% 19 % 13 5°. 22.1% IV 20 - 49 13% 5.8% 5.8% 8.5% V Over .50 5% 5 % 1.3% 5 5°.

Source ZDK The question of whether the ZDK used a cliffereot method for data collection remains open

Table 2 7 - Share of firms in the motor vehicle sector which sell cars !in percentage)

Number of II Ill IV V All firms Employees 1-4 5-9 10-19 20-49 50

1981 69 9 90 5 95 4 93 5 94 9 88.3

1982 61 1 85 4 93 5 94 6 96.6 80 4 1983 61 4 84 0 91 5 95.2 93 3 79 5

Source Ruhl et al , 1984, p 49 27 , 27 It was not possible to determine how many of Despite the increase in the number of firms, the these firmsonly work "after hours"but arenumber of people employedinthe sectoris nevertheless on the Crafts Register (for instance, dropping.In1980 there were 32,775 firms in order to be able to carry out exhaust emission employing 493,900 people; in 1991 there were testing). Experts estimate that the figure is some-42,937 firms employing only 357,000 people where between 3 and 15%. The new exhaust (cf. Table 4.1). emission test, AU II, due to enter into force on 1.12.1993, will further reduce this percentage.

28 3. INSTITUTIONAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT

3.1 The role of management and labourmeasures in the firm" and the "participation in Negotiating parties on an industry-wide level vocational training schemes outside the firm" 1. (Article 97), as well as explicit co-determination The most important association of employers in the rights as set out in Article 98, which regulates the motor vehicle repair and distribution sector is the "implementation of training possibilities within the Zentralverband des Deutschen Kraftfahrzeughand-firm." Amongst other things, it stipulates that the werks ZDK (Central Association of the German staff committee can,incertain circumstances, Motor Trade). It represents the social and econom- "oppose the appointment of a person who has icinterests of companies in the motor vehiclebeen given responsibility for carrying out the sector. vocational training within the firm or ask for their dismissal" (paragraph 2) and that it can "make Two trade unions are largely responsible for suggestions concerning the participation of em- people working inthis sector: the Industriege-ployees or groups of employees in the firm in werkschaft Metall IGM (Metalworkers' Union) vocational training schemes" (paragraph 3). whichisone oftheunions constitutingthe Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund DGB (the Ger-The firmis also obliged to "provide the staff man Trade Union Federation) and the Deutsche committeeingood timewith comprehensive Angestellten-Gewerkschaft DAG (German Un- information on current and future personnel needs ion of Salaried Employees). IGM is the largestand on the personnel Measures resulting from that union in this sector with a membership within the and schemes for vocational training" (Article 98). trade in West Germany of 30%. In the East the Furthermore there is the general obligation for percentage of workers and employees in the trade"employers andthestaffcommittee"tobe union is somewhat higher. For firms exclusivelyinvolved in the "promotion of vocational train- involved in sales, and to some extent for the sales ing' (Article 96). departments of general motor firms, the union Handel, Banken und Versicherungen HBV To regulate these questions, employers and staff (Commerce,BankingandInsuranceUnion), committee canreach agreements which are which is part of the DGB, and the DAG are alsoapplicable throughout the works or the whole responsible. firm.They have thefunctionofestablishing binding agreements at firm level which have not For details on the influence of trade unions and been covered for the whole sector by the collective employers' associations on vocational training in agreements drawn up between the trade unions Germany see below (Chapter 6). and employer's organizations. In-house agreements of this kind, particularly in large companies, Labour/management relations within firms have been increasingly drawn up in recent years in various fields includiny in-house continuing In firms employing more than five people, the training. employees have the right to elect a staff committee to represent their interests and rights within the firm. The number of representatives on the council 3.2 Collective agreements and arrangements about time allowed during Relations between labour and management in this working hourstocarry out committee worksector are laid down in a series of collective depend on the number of employees. The staff agreements. These agreements primarily contain committee is elected for a four-year term of office. regulations which have been reached about economic and social working conditions. The Youth and Trainee Council (1AV) is responsible for young people (up to the age of 18) andCollective framework agreements regulate,for trainees (up to the age of 25); it is elected every example: two years. The JAV has no decision-making power in the firm. Its task consists mainly in "Applying to the content of the employee's contract thestaff committee for certain measures" and basic pay and bonuses passingonsuggestionstoitwhich areof protection against rationalization schemes and particularinteresttotheirconstituencyand provision for old age "specifically... on issuesof vocational training"; working hours, emergency duty in addition to this it also has monitoring functions" holidays and special leave (Article 70, BetrVG). Collective agreements on wages and salaries The Works Constitution Act (BetrVG)sets out regulate: relatively far-reaching possibilities for the staff committee to participate in the area of initial and levels of wages, salaries and remuneration for continuing training within the firm:it has both trainees advisory functions, suoh as in the "establishment age increments in the various wage and salary and equipping of in-house facilities for vocational categories training", the "introduction of vocational training piece-work rates 29 In addition to these, there are a number of special ple, at weekends some repair shops have set up collective agreements, for example on: an emergency service and during the week too overtime is worked in many firms and often paid o payment of Christmas bonuses "on the side". Furthermore, in this sector there are profit sharing often many owners and members of their families employee asset formation scheme who work in the business and whose working hours are, as a rule, not properly recorded. In the motor vehicle repair and sales sector the collective agreements are negotiated on a federal The length of annual holidays is arranged on ci state level by the Association of Guilds for the national level by representatives of labour and motor vehicle repair and sales sector and the management. Itis 30 working days a year for district leadership of the metalworkers' union (and older employees. Extra holiday money, set at 50% any other union involved). of a monthly salary, has also been agreed.

The mc*t important points of discussion in recentAnother important element is the collective wage/ years were working hours and holidays. Sincesalary agreements re-negotiated each year by 1991,theaverage working weekinWest labour and management. At present the levels set Germany has been 37 hours, the same hours for for hourly rates or monthly salaries in the collective white and blue-collar workers employed by caragreements on wages and salaries differ from one manufacturers or dealerships. The working hoursfederal state to the next (cf. Table 3.1). are basically from Monday to Friday - although there are now a number of devic.9ons from this in 3.2.1 Binding force of the collective particular companies (e.g. hur-cloy weeks withagreement nine hours worked each day .It is expected that If an owner of a motor business belongs to the working hours will be furtF.er reduced over therelevant guild the business is obliged to apply the next few years.In1991 the average annual collective agreement in force. The motor mechanic working time in the German motor vehicle sector must then,for example, be paid a minimum was 1,643 hours, whereas in other countries faraccording to the current collective agreement on more hours are worked (in Japan, for example, itwages and salaries.In some firms the sales was 2,119 hours a year). Whether all the hoursdepartment belongs to the guild of automobile worked in a firm were really included inthis dealers in which case the negotiating partner is calculation remains open to question. For exam- the HBV union or the DAG.

Table 3.1 - Negotiated standard wage rates in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector,1June 1992 Evaluation for firms in the motor vehicle sector working on a time-wages basis

Wage categories for employees over 1 8 without increments or deductions for age

Unskilled In the 1st Figures in italics mean: journeyman's standard wage or 100% wage From To From To year

Bavaria 13.85 15.23 15 58 16.2716.96 17.3019.3820 77 Berlin 13.08 13.97 14.9617.03 17.8819.71 21.42 Bremen 12.3415.9213.3616.7315.5917.27 18 96 Bremerhaven 11 11 14.33 12.0415.07 14.51 15.3617.07 Hambuig 1.3.93 15.7614 4916.5616.3416.6817 4219.1920.32 Hesse 2,06. 2,1932,3262,3402,5472,6732,8233,0703,198 Lower Saxony 11.8613.9713.1715.49 15 81 17.2018.4919.78 North Rhine-Westphalia 14 16 15 41 15.43 16.5617.6419.0819.2620.3120 50 North Wurttemberg/ North Baden 1` 37 16 2017 03 17 88 19 71 21 5323 26 South Wurttemberg- Hohenzollern lower Palatinate 12 81 14 39 15 17 16 7218.3719 9821 54 15,51 16 37 17 18 17 9718.78 19 62 Rhineland-Rhinehessen 14 70 13 76 15 39 16.18 17.82 18 6219 42 Saarland 12 96 13 97 15 62 15 43 16 31 17 42 17.6919 97 Schleswig.Holstein 13 07 14 75 16 02 17 1016.58 17.88 19.6021.3923.20 South Baden 16 02

I Taken from the brochure "IG Metall Daten, Fukten, Informationen 1992" ? Monthly wage 30 As of: June 1992 If the employer does not belong to any profes- people in a profession which is classed as a craft sional association he is not bound by the collective trade (Annex A and B to the Craft Trades Code) agreement. This is the case, for example, in firms which are not inthe regional Association of vocational training in the craft trade Guilds. On the other hand, employees who are examination as a journeyman and master not members of a trade union nevertheless have a mechanic righttothe wage collectively agreedifthe reporting obligations: employer is bound by the agreement. inorderto become self-employedthecraft There are severai possibilities to ensure in law that tradesman must register with collective agreement on wages and salaries are adhered to by employers and employees who are the Chamber of Trades with an application to not members of professional associations or trade be entered ontheCraft TradesRegister unions respectively: (membership of the Chamber of Tradesis obligatory),

1. Employers and employees canagreeto incorporate the col'iective agreement (e.g. the thelocal authorityinthe area where his one negotiated by the regional Association of businessis(factory inspectorate duties are Guilds for the motor vehicle sector)into the carried out by the local authorities) contract of employment. In this case it is permissible to take only the collective agreement on the local tax office responsible wages and salaries into account. the Berufsgenossenschaft BG (tradeco- 2. The Federal Minister of Labour may declare the operative association). Depending on its Ar- collective agreement to be generally binding. If ticles of Association the owner of a business this happens the collective agreements acquire the which is classed as a craft trade) may be liable character of a law applicable to all employment tojoin the statutory Occupational Accident contracts. Adherence to the collective agreement Insurance Scheme or may be able to choose a is then compulsory.Itis of no matter whether voluntary scheme. employer and employee belong to their respective professional organizations. This option is, how-Membership in the relevant guild is voluntary. ever, rare'put into practice. 3.3.2 Craft Trades Register 3.If neither case 1 nor case 2 is put into practice The Chamber of Trades keeps several registers: there may still be tacit application of the provisions of the collective agreement, giving it a binding the Craft Trades Register which is the list of all character. independently run firms practising craft trades within the area of jurisdiction of the Chamber of Sometimes, however, there are also independent, Trades; sometimes verbal, agreements between compa- the register of businesses which are similar to nies and employees to simply use the collective crafts; agreement as a guideline or even deviate from it the register of apprenticeships to record all considerably. existing apprenticeships.

3.3 Legal basis It is not possible to set up a firm carrying out a craft The most important instruments in "crafts law" aretrade without being registered on the Craft Trades the following: Register. This in turn is not possible without having passed the master mechanicexaminations 3.3.1 The Handwerksordnung HWo ("Higher Certificate of Competency"). Passing (Craft Trades Code) of 1953 this exam entitles the craftsman to train appren- The Croft Trades Code determines the organiza- tices.Exceptionsarepossibleundercertain tion of the craft (trade) and thus the organization circumstances. Engineering examinations may, for of the Chambers of Trades as statutory c-gpora-instance, replace the master mechanic examinations under public law. These Chambers are tions if a journeyman's qualification was gained in obliged to keep the Craft Trades Register, the the relevant craft trade. inventory of self-employed craftsmen and craftsmen licensed to train apprentices, the register of The motor trade guild unites all the firms in the apprentices and the list of registered apprentice- motor vehiclesectorinaparticularregion. ships. Although membershipistechnicallyspeaking voluntary itis in effect compulsory if a firm seeks The Craft Trades Code ....)ntains stipulations on: professional recognition. For example, certain work, such as exhaust emission testing, may only a. Requirements to be fulfilled by master me-be carried out by members of the guild. There are 31 chanics wishing to set up in business and employ only very few exceptions to this.

U1 Only members of the guild are allowed to displayorganization of these examinations, the entrance 1. the sign: "Company member of the motor trade requirements and sets up examining boards. guild with qualified master mechanics" (cf. 3.2.5). Article 42 (2) of the Craft Trades Code stipulates: The guilds are partners in the collective bargaining process and are therefore bound by the"As the basis for a correct and uniform further collective agreements negotiated. The groupingvocational training and in order to adapt it to the of workers into the valid wage categoriesis technological, economic and social requirements therefore unequivocally regulated. Furthermoreand their development the German Minister for the guilds actively carry out extensive public Education and Science may, having heard the relations work (for example, organizing informa- German Committee on Vocational Training, issue tion weeks), run numerous continuing trainingregulations to determine...the content, aim, facilities (e.g. schools to train master mechanics) examination requirements, organization of the and holdtheexaminationsforjourneymen. examination as well as entrance requirements Member firmsprofit fromallthese activities. and the title of the qualification. The regulations Non-members have to pay high fees to use these may furthermore make provision for the further services.The guildsultimately dominate andvocational training to be followed by distance regulate their parricular field.This ensures the study." high membership levels with an average of 93% of firms registered on the Craft Trades Register. This means that the Chambers of Trades are able Approximately 6% are classified as so-called to organize further vocational training indepen- "casual firms" or "after hours firms" which do dently of the regulations of the federal states and not gain any benefit from being members of the have it recognized at federal level. Articles 46 guilds and 1% are firms which due to lack ofand 49 of the Act on Vocational Training create professional qualifications were not accepted bythe basis for the recognition of vocational training the guilds. schemes and the recognition of vocational training professionswithouttakingintoaccountthe The individual guilds are organized in Regional regulationsofthefederalstateorstate-run Associations of Guilds and theseinturn are continuing training facilities. represented in the Federal Association of Guilds. The latter is the professional association proper ofThe Craft Trades Code (Article 42) and the Act on the motor vehicle repair and sales sector.In Vocational Training (Articles 46 and 49) create addition to this there are the professional associa-the legal r.;-amework, so that, for example, the tions of the motor vehicle repair and sales sectorcontinuing training to service technicianintro- organized at regional level. The umbrella organi-duced by the motor vehicle repair and sales zation of both professional associations is the sectorinSeptember 1992 willeventually be Zentralverband Deutsches Kraftfahrzeuggewerbe recognized by the German Ministry. This ap- e.V. ZDK (Central Federation of the German proach ought to meet with the support of the trade Motor Vehicle Trade). unions since they are not represented in state-run schools and continuing training facilities. 3.3.3 Industrial code as applicable to craft trades Theindustrialcode regulates amongst other3.3.5 Miscellaneous regulations things: Regulations not limited to this sector alone

theobligationtoregisterwiththelocal Further regulations and requirements which motor authority when opening a commercial enter- firms have to fulfil can be found in the Regulations prise (factory inspectorate) on Accident Prevention and the guidelines issued the use of a title or name for the enterprise by the co-operative trade association. The regula- which corresponds to the nature of business tions and stipulations which are important to the requirements to be fulfilled when operating a motorvehiclesfirmare summarizedinthe plant whichisdangerous and subjectto Appendix to this report (Appendix 1 and 2). monitoring stipulationstopreventtheexploitationof The Act on Shop Opening Hours, which bans, for employees example, sales after 6.30 p.m. and on Sundays and public holidays, applies to dealers. 3.3.4 Legal provisions governing continuing training Arbitration bodies Article 42 of the Craft Trades Code stipulates that the Chamber of Trades can regulate vocational In addition to the Act on Consumer Protection, the continuing training.Itcan hold examinationsmotor trade guilds have also set up "impartial" which correspond to the requirements of voca- arbitration bodies to protect the customer. In the tional adult education. The Chamber of Trades case of dispute with a firm the motorist can contact 32 regulates the content, aims, requirements and free of charge: rl a. an arbitration body of the motorvehicle repair from the disposal of motor vehicles". The main and sales sector (of which there are 90) or thrust of these regulations is that: 1. b. anarbitration body fosecond-hand car dealers (of which there are 38). 1. Manufacturersofmotorvehicleswillbe obliged to take back used vehicles and recycle Firms which agree to be bound by the judgement as much of them as possible; ofthearbitrationbodiesdisplaythesign "Company member of the motor trade guild with 2. Thefollowingrecyclingratesshouldbe qualified master mechanics". In 1991, exactly achieved: 12,606 applications were submitted to the 90 arbitration bodies of the motor vehicle repair and sales sector; in the previous year the figure was Material Recycling in % by weight 11,772. Over 96% of these cases were dealt with 1996 2000 by the arbitration bodies in the same year.

100 100 The most frequent grounds for complaint were: Steel Non-ferrous metals 85 90 Plastics 20 50 Over-charging Tyres 40 50 Inadequate workmanship/faults not rectified Other elastomers 20 30 Work carried out which had not been re- Glass 30 50 quested.

In 1991 4,134 applications were made to the arbitration body for used car dealers. Itis assumed that this regulation will enter into force in mid-1993. This will require not only the Technical regulations developntent of a recycling industry but also a change in the materials used in the motor vehicles To ensure that the vehicle itself adheres to certain in order to ensure their suitability for recycling. The technical standards (e.g. brakes, exhaust fumes) repair shops must be prepared touse other there are numerous regulations and standards materials and ensure recyclabiliiy of the materials which are set out in the: during repairs.

Road Traffic Act This entails extensive continuing training schemes. Road Traffic Registration Act A license to carry out the exhaust emission testing FAKRA Manual (standards) which will become law on 1. 12. 1993 for virtually ECE/EEC regulations or the European ECN all motor vehicles will only be granted to firms with standard on reducing exhaust fumes from 1993 qualified master mechanics, that is employing at (the AU II exhaust emission testing will becomeleast one master mechanic, and if the master law on 1. 12. 1993). mechanic responsible has taken part in a system- specific training course. Training must be repeated To ensure that statutory regulations are adhered to, every three years. testing procedures and bodies have been set up and will assume a monitoring function. There is not The competent application of these regulations enough space to go into further detail here aboutand standards and their extension as a conse- the individual regulations. quence of Europeanintegrationhas had a considerable influence on the size of firms in the The German MinistryoftheEnvironmentis smallfirmcategory.Category 1 firmswill currently preparing regulations on "the avoid-probably not be able infuture to operate as ance, reduction and recycling of waste arising fully-fledged motor vehicle enterprises.

33 33 4. EMPLOYMENT TRENDS

4.1 The motor vehicle industry population of Germany one in eleven jobs In the last ten years the number of employees has depends on the commercial vehicle industiy. risen continually (cf. Figure 4.1), i.e. the motor industry in West Germany was not able to meetAt the same time employment in the East German production growth simply by increasing productiv- motor industry has hit an all-time low. By the end ity levels but had to make recourse to extra staff. In of 1990 the number of people employed had 1990 it reached a temporary peak at 780,000already droppedfrom127,000(1989)to employees and dropped again to 777,000 at theapproximately 86,000.Factory closures and end of 1991. This downwards trend continued in lower production levels caused further drops in 1992 (September 1992: 765,000) employees, thesefiguresinthe months which followed. that is 15,000 fewer than a year earlier). In manyDespite the fact that West German manufacturers quarters thisI, is being seen as more thanwith new works there plan to produce twice as simply the result of the economic situation; many many vehicles as in the former GDR factories, only see it as the beginning of a structural crisis in the a little over 40,000 people will be employed in German motor vehicle industry. the motor vehicle industry in eastern Germany in the future. Figure 4.1 Employees in the motor vehicle industry 4.2 The motor vehicle repair and sales Thousand sector 800 Numbers employed and size of firms

760 The number of people employed in the motor 720 vehicle repair and sales sector has dropped from its maximum of 403,900 in 1980 to 357,000 in 680 1991 (cf.Table 4.1). The lowest point was 640 - 335,400 in 1984 and since then the number of employees has risen again slightly. During this 600 I 1 1 i time the number of firms rose continually from 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 8889 90 91 34,461 in 1980 to 44,847 in 1991. Thus the End of year average firm sizenumber of employees per firm Source: VDA is tending to drop and was 8 people in 1991 and only 7.8 in 1992.

Of these, 765,000 people employedinthe A comparison of the number of firms with the German motor industry 27.5% alone work in the number of employees per firm between 1975 and area of commercial vehicles. Of these, 85,000 1991 reveals opposite trends. The number of firms are directly employed in the commercial vehiclein this period rose by 52.3% from 29,448 to industry, 51,000 are in the trailer and aggregates 44,847 whereas the number of employees per industry and a further 78,000 in companies firm dropped by 34.5% from 12.2 to 8.0which supplying parts and accessories. reflects, amongst other things, the fact that newly set-up businesses are smaller. The significance of the commercial vehicle for employment is, however, far greater than these A comparison of the number of motor vehicles on 214,000 jobs directly associated with the com- the road with the number of people employed in mercial vehicle would suggest. Due to the close- the motor vehicle repair and sales sector shows knit links within the commercial vehicle industry,that since 1949 the figure for the former has another 190,000 people are employed in theincreased six times more than the figure for the areas upstream of commercial vehicle production. latter.Itisthus no surprise that although the In addition to that, there are 200,000 employeesnumber of vehicles registered is continuing to rise, who owe their jobs to distribution and sales of albeit more slowly, the number of people working commercial vehicles and the knock-on effects ofin the sector is stagnating and could even drop (cf. investments in the commercial vehicle industry.Figure 4.2). Over 600,000 people in Germany thus have something to do with the production of commercial As it can be assumed that the number of motor vehiclesinthebroadestsenseoftheterm vehicles on the road in Germany has more or less production. reached saturation point and that car manufacturers are aiming for a further reduction in repair The use of these products (repair and servicing,and maintenance work and in costs, a further fuel supply, insurance, road construction, traffic reduction in the number of people employed is controletc.) creates a further 300,000 jobs.inevitable. BMW estimates are based on an Added to that are another 1.6 million people increase in intervals between services for their employed by operators of commercial vehicles. new models following the introduction of"in- With afigureof some 2.5millionpeopledividual servicing" to an average of 40,000 . 34 employed currently almost 8% of the working kilometres. If this goal is attained and ifafter a

1 Table 4.1 - Number of employees (including owners and corresponding change in the used car market - it trainees) and average size of business in the motor vehicle affects automotive technology in general, some 30 sector to 40% fewer people will be employed in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector by the turn of Year No. of No of Average size employees businesses' of business the millennium. in 1000s Employees per business These quantitative trends which have occurred since 1950 reflect qualitative changes inthe 1975 360.1 29,448 12.22 relation of automotive technology to the work 1976 359.9 30,133 11.90 normally carried out on motor vehicles. However, 1977 367.9 31,244 11.80 itis not possible to predict precisely at what 1978 384.0 32,410 11.84 average size of firm the trend towards smaller 1979 400.9 33,500 11.96 firms will stop. The necessary capital investment 1980 403.9 34,461 11.72 for equipment does, however, place limits on this. 1981 393.9 35,480 11.10 Table 4.1 would suggest a stabilization of the 1982 357.5 36,479 9.80 1983 337.1 38,558 8.74 trend at just less than 8 people per firm; a firm 1984 335.4 39,049 8.59 which is too small will barely be able to offer a 1985 337.7 40,899 8.20 comprehensive range of services which customers 1986 341.0 41,895 8.10 on the whole expect: they do not want to have to 1987 351.5 42,535 8.30 go with each problem to a different firm. The 1988 348.8 43,380 8.10 adherence to an increasing number of regulations 1989 353.4 44,155 8.00 andtheobligatoryparticipation intraining 1990 350.9 44,502 7.90 courses in order to be entitled to carry out certain 19912 357.0 44,847 8.00 jobs in the repair shop, such as exhaust tests, testing of compressed air brakes, also make a Authorized dealerships/repair shops and independent certain size of firm inevitable. repair shops including those specializing in automotive electronics. The latter account for approximately 5% of all businesses. A clear division of work between large and small 2 Provisional figures, as of: 1.3 1992 firms does, however, exist in the field of bodywork Source: ZDK firms and paintshops. Smaller firms come up

Figure 4.2 - Trends, automobile production, fleet, firms andemployees

Thousand 5.0

451

4 0

3.5 --1

3 0

2.5

2.0

1.5 motor vehicle , businesses

1.0 employees

0.5 production stock

0.0 1 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

cf. Rauner/Zeymer 1991, p. 47 35 against limits due to the high cost of equipmentdiffer from all other figures in this report because needed in these fields. For example, 100% of thenot all employees are required by law to pay firms in category V (over 50 employees) and onlyNational Insurance contributions, e.g. self-em- 10% of firms in categoriesI andll(up to 9 ployed owners or part-time employees or family employees) carry out bodywork which requiresmembers with low incomes, i.e. at present less special straightening equipment. Riihl et al. (1984) than DM 500 (cf. Table 4.2). point out that "in the case of difficult mechanical repairs, to aggregates for example, the larger firms The relatively high proportion of women employed still carry out a wider range of services." and the clearly rising trend (1991: 18.1%) is striking. They are mainly office workers and wives On the other hand, the small firms are enjoying a of the owners of small businesses who carry out certain popularity with owners of old or used cars. administrative but also management tasks; only a The field of used car repair is tending to expand small number of women are motor mechanics. and the lower overheads which smaller firms have to pay makes it possible for them to constantly step Itisalsostrikingthatintheperiodunder in and fill a gap in the market. For instance, forobservation the proportion of unskilled workers some 20 years it has not been customary and to has increased considerably (by 37.5%). Thus some extent it was not allowed for authorizedpeople in this group are probably employed to dealerships to carry out engine repairs becauseclean cars or carry out other menial tasks. This thecostsof repairs under the terms of thepolarization trend - if it continues - will be highly guarantee were clearly higher than the costs ofproblematic because it reduces the chances of replacing the engine. On the other hand, enginebeing able to introduce modern organizational repairs to old and used cars still represent a large concepts (such as the team concept). part of the work of independent dealerships. Due to the low overheads of the smaller and independ- The proportion of foreigners employed is relatively ent dealerships and the possibility of individuallow (1991: 5.6%). It will, however, rise in the order processing, they have a flexibility which future because the percentage of foreign appren- ensures them a considerable share of the market. Ittices has almost doubled since 1987 (cf. Table istherefore probablethattherewillbe an4.3). Between 1987 and 1991the absolute increased division of labour belween the largenumber increased by a disproportionate 33%. and small authorized dealerships and the inde-Their integration into initial and continuing .voca- pendent dealerships. tional training is of particular significance in order to ensure that this group of employees does not Groups of employees increase the proportion of unskilled workers.

The social structure of the employees in the motor The sharp drop in the overall number of appren- repair sector, which always includes distribution, tices is also striking. This is without doubt due to (age distribution, sex, qualifications, nationality)the general shortage of apprentices, particularly can only be determined usingtheNational intechnical occupations and trades, and the Insurancestatistics.Thesefiguresnecessarily competition on the training market. This trend

Table 4.2 - Employees in the motoi repair sector liable for National Insurance contributions

Age group Total Women Foreigners Engaged in Unskilled workers vocational training

Under 20 48,427 5,573 4,749 42,970 875 20 - 24 66,318 11,594 3,565 17,677 4,181 25 - 29 48,968 8,535 2,422 1,537 4,228 30 - 34 39,567 6,525 2,039 395 3,225 35 39 31,206 5,935 1,621 130 2,441 40 - 44 28,828 6,252 1,539 78 2,095 45 - 49 22,294 5,453 989 57 1,723 50 54 21,294 5,273 748 45 2,222 55 - 59 11,436 2,629 415 23 1,608 60 - 64 3,554 515 110 8 474 over 64 875 213 21 266

Total 1991 322,767 58,397 18,218 62,923 23,338

Total 1987 299,141 49,120 13,668 73,178 16,968

Source: Federal Institute of Employment 36 As of 30.6.1987 and 1991 3 Table 4 3 - Training of foreigners in the motor mechanic Bearing in mind that the proportion of trainees trade amongst the under 24-year olds is high, Table 4.2 shows that the work in the motor repairs sector, No. of foreign apprentices especially in the mechanics trade, is carried out 1987 1989 1991 predominantly by the under 40 age group (on average 13% per age group).

Total Number 6,125 7,891 9,701 The trade organizations in the motor vehicle repair Proportion of total and sales sector give as the reason for this the high no. of motor me- demands and the need for constant continuing chanic apprentices 7.8% 11.3% 14% training due to rapid technological changes which young people can cope with better. Rauner/ Source: KHKT/ZDK Zeymer (1991) come tothe conclusionthat professional knowledge has to be completely can to a certain extent be counteredby an revised every six years, proof of the high dynamics upgrading of qualifiedskilled work, by the inthis sector. The permanently changing pro- introduction of the job of service engineer andcedures for problem-solving place high demands the opportunities for promotion provided by it on the abilities of employees. There areonly a small (cf. 6.3.4). number of repetitive jobs. Older employees do not want to continually have to deal with this situation. More precise figures about the percentage ofWe have no answer to the question as to where women motor mechanics are not available. It is,older employees will be employed in future and however, very low and is probably less than 1%. what type of work they will do. The proportion of female trainees in the technical trades has doubledat a low levelsince 1984: People who are familiar with this sector estimate a from 0.76% (absolute number: 625) in 1984 to particularly high fluctuation amongst 25-30 year 1.55% (absolute number: 996) in1990. Theolds (up to 50%). This concurs with the figures in number of commercial traineesinthe motorTable 4.2 which show a marked reduction in the vehicle sector are available to us but not brokennumber of employees over 30. Other fields of down according to sex. The proportion of female work which are popular with motor mechanics trainees is probably higher (cf. overall figures ininclude stockkeeper, invoice office, driver, used Table 4.4). car salesman, fireman, caretaker and inthe case of master mechanics, official vehicle inspectors or Table 4.4 - Total number of commercial trainees independent assessors.

Yeari Number Change in % In the study, which is now slightly out of date, RAI et al. (1984, p. 69) categorize staff by profes- 1984 20,747 - 2 sionol qualification. This clearly shows the dis- 1986 21,027 - 10 tribution of technical and commercial staff in the 1988 18,000 - 14 sector. The proportion of white-collar workers + 1 1989 18,200 inci eases inrelationto the size of the firm, 1990 18,700 + 3 whereas no similar increase in technical staff can 19,500 + 4 1991 be identified (cf. Table 4.5). Data collected in Februory/March of each year Source. ZDK

Table 4.5 - Qualification of personnel by vocational training completed

Number of Master Journeymen Commercial/ Apprentices Trainees in Other staff employees mechanic technical learning commercial white-collar a trade occupations workers

4 I : 1 -4 32 32 18 14 il. 5 - 9 17 36 19 25 1 2 III: 10 - 19 10 36 23 22 4 5 IV. 20 - 49 0 33 25 22 5 7 V:over 50 8 39 27 14 6 6

all firms 11 36 24 19 4 6

Source: Rühl et al., 1984, vol. 2, p 69 :17

37 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 5. CHANGES IN THE TYPE OF WORK AND ITS INFLUENCE ON REQUIREMENTS AND TRAINING

The wide-spread introduction of new technicalmechanics and automrve electrical systems and systems into the motor vehicle since the mid- electronics has, on the other hand, lost signifi- 1970s and the rapidly growing variety of models, cance. sparked off by quality-driven competition and an intense customer-based approach, have resulted If this trend is observed over a longer period of in a change in the work carried out in the motor timeit becomes clear that there has been a vehicle repair and sales sector. This change is fundamental shift in the main type of work carried described on the basis of the investigation carried out in the dealershipeven if the specific nature of out by Rauner/Zeymer (1991) and the findings ofthe work carried out in the four areas is ignored our case studies. for the moment (Fig. 5.1). The area of motor mechanics, which dominated all others until the 5.1 Changes in the work carried out in 1960s and which at the beginning of this century, the motor vehicle repair sector inthe early days of repair shops for motor Table 5.1 shows the distribution of work into fourvehicles, accounted for 80% of the total range of main areas in the firms investigated by Rauner/ work, will finally lose its position of dominance in Zeymer (1991, p. 62 f): the 1990s. On the other hand, that are:-.1 of work which was the last to be born, in fact did not Service, maintenance and repairs in the fieldemerge until the 1930s, will clearly dominate: of: servicing as a preventive measure for vehicle motor mechanics maintenance. It is striking, and in the first instance automotive electric systems/electronics surprising, that growth in the area of automotive bodywork electrical systems and electronicsinthe early decades of automotive technology has beer The field of motor mechanics was further dividedslowing down slightly since the 1960s, although into six areas of work: the proportion of electronic components in cars is growing exponentially. The relatively low rationali- Brakes zation potentialin the area of bodywork, the Bumpers number of accidents and the relative rise in the Exhaust systems used-car market are the essential reasons for the Gear transmissions steady growth of the bodywork field of activities. Engines and engine transmissions Clutches If the dealerships studied are compared in terms of sizeitis noticeable that hardly any of the A division into areas of work of this kind permitsdifferences in the range of work carried out have cross-reference to other studies which have been anything to do with size of firm. Striking deviations carried out on the subject of structural change in the range of work are linked to the make of within the motor vehicle repair and sales sector. vehicle or the particular specialization of the firm. The further division of work within the area of motor mechanics furtherfacilitates a detailedOnly when a large random sample was used to investigation of the changes which have taken investigate differences in the range of work as a place in skilled specialist work over a long period function of size of firm were some characteristic of time. differences between small and large firmsre- vealed (fig. 5.2). Motor mechanics is the only field If one compares the distribution of work in the of work carried out by firms of all sizes. In all ot.,er dealerships studied, as documented in Table 5.1, areas there is a trend, applicable to a greater or with the way the work has developed over the last lesser extent, indicating that the larger the firm 30 years it is possible to identify some character-the more likelyitisto offer the full range of istic trends (Fig. 5.1). It was not until the 1980s maintenance and repair services performed by that the area of "motor mechanics" dropped to skilled workers specially assigned to that job. The second place (35%) behind the now largest areamost evident shift is in the area of body painting. of work which is servicing (37%). The small firms employing fewer than 9 people carry out this kind of work in less than 10% of The shift in emphasis has taken place despite the cases. fact that the intervals between servicing have become longer and the length of time spent ona It is particulnrly interesting that the larger the firm service shorter due to low-maintenance technol-the more likely itis that the area of automotive ogy and efficient diagnosis technology.That electrical systems and electronics will berepre- means that even greater improvements can be sented but that only 60% of large dealerships expected in the area of motor mechanics andemploy specialists in this field. A tendency for repairs..In the major areas of work: service and repairshopstospecializeeitherinmotor maintenance, motor mechanics, automotive elec- mechanics or automotive electrical systems and trical systems/electronics and bodywork there has electronics cannot, however, be detected. The fact been ashiftinworkloadto 38 servicingand thatnotalldealershipshavespecialistsfor bodywork. The classical emphasis on motorservicing and maintenance and that here too Table 5.1 Distribution of jobs in the types of repair shop studied in %

Size of firm' Very small Small firm Small medium- Large medium- Large firm firm sized firm sized firm Jobs (4) (7/8) (16) (40) (55)

Maintenance 38 45 33 33 37 33 Service (28)

18 Brake repairs 15 12 8 (18) 15 12 2 Bumpers 1 1 (1)

Exhaust systems 6 5 6 8 10 5 (5)

6 Gear systems 5 1 1 3 4 (10)

Engine 4 2 2 3 9 (transmissions) (6) 5 6 Clutches 6 8 10 10 (10)

Electrics 12 10 18 14 10 12 Electronics (14) Systems technology

12 8 Bodywork 18 15 18 10 (8)

I Number of employees Source: Rauner/Zeymer (1991, p. 63)

Figure 5.1 Trends in distribution of work in the dealership

70 1

60 1

Mechanics 50

30 Maintenance/ servicin 20-1 Electrics/electronics 10

Bodywork

_ 0 1 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Source. Rauner/Zeyrner (1991, p 64) 3 there is a significant difference between them and must,however,betakenintoaccountthat small firmsisclso surprising. That does not, particularly in firms with fewer than 10 employees however, mean that over 30% of firms in category there is often no one single person responsible for III (10-19 employees) do not include servicing sales. Often the sales function is carried out either and maintenance intheir range of work. This by the owner of the firm, by the foremen who also tendency is clearly a result of less rigid division of have administrative duties or by administrative labour in smaller repair shops. staff." (RAI et al., 1984, vol. 2, p. 61). "If a further distinction is made according to occupa- The fact that the car cleaning departmentis tion groups, the results for all firms questioned for proportionately larger in larger firms can also bethe dealership area showed that 79% of repair explained by the used-car business which is also shop staff were trained as motor mechanics, 8% closely connected to sales of new cars. Used cars as auto-electricians, 6% as bodyworkers and 2% have to be "put back into circulation" which is whyas body painters.In many firmsthemotor more attention is paid to cleaning used cars. The mechanics have, however, also participated in larger the firm the more extensive their sales ofcontinuing training in other areas. They are still new vehicles and as a rule this is financed by a officially classed as motor mechanics but are often part-exchange deal on a used car. The preserva- also skilled auto-electricians, bodyworkers and tion of the vehicle's value is reflected in largerpainters. Especially in small firms they are mainly firms by the increased emphasis on this work and employed in servicing and repair work and only the larger number of specialized employees. use their other skills when the need arises. The other 5% are unskilled or miscellaneous employ- The staff structure in the firms studied corresponds ees." (RAI et al., 1984, vol. 2, p. 70). to the generally observed trend. (Figure 5.3)

The relative proportion of staff in the repair shop Conclusions decreases as the size of the firm increases, from over 80% in small firms to around 50% in large In order to gauge the extent of the change in the firms. The proportion of commercial and technical nature of work in the motor vehicle repair and employees in the sales and administration depart- sales sector three findings must be interpreted ments increases at the same rate (cf. Table 4.5). "It together:

Figure 5.2Jobs in firms in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector, studied by size category

IA 11-91 111110-191 IV 120-491

! Serv.cma Mechon,c s Bodywoik Cat leonmg

40 Source Rauner/Zeymer 11991, p 66) Figure 5 3 - Jobs in firms in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector as a function of size category

100riri

V (>50) Size categories l.-11 Repair shop rig Administration EL-.1 Stores ED Sales

Source Rauner/Zeymer (1991, p 65)

1. The average volume of servicing and repairsthe motor sector. That area on the other hand per vehicle has decreased six-fold between which at the outset did not e..en exist in its own 1950 and now. right, the area of service and maintenance, has become the dominant area. Service and main- 2. This development was accompanied by a shift tenance fulfil the function today of supporting the in areas of work, characterized by a relative motor vehicle sales sector and are only part of the increase in the "service and maintenance" and traditional motor firm to a lesser extent. "bodywork" areas and a relative decrease in The change in the nature of work is clearly visible the motor mechanics and automotive electrics in the modern repair shop. It is now designed first areas. and foremost for diagnosis and servicing and mechanical repair workisonly a secondary 3The increasing application of electronics in the function.Itssignificance for the turnover of a motor vehicle industry advanced ininverse motor vehicle firm, particularly medium-sized or proportion to the amount of the work carried large firms, has dropped to a level often not more out in the field of automotive electrical systems than 10 to 15%. However, as this study demon- and electronics. strates,this does not in any way diminishits importance for the smooth functioning of the motor These conclusions show that in the motor vehicle vehicle distribution business. repair and sales sector there has been a far- reaching change in the nature of the work, both This in turnis reflected in the composition of for the individual skilled worker and for the firm as employees in the motor vehicle repair and sales a whole. The metalwork and fitting jobs, which sector. In the medium-sized and large firms it is still dominated clearly in the early days of motorthe case that around 50% of employees are either engineering, started to lose significance as soon employed in the repair and servicing department as a motor repair sector began to crystallize in its itself or directly responsible to it. A further interim own right. Although this area of work, whichresult which should be emphasised is the glaring formerly dominated so clearly, has in the mean-discrepancy between the electronification of the timefallen behind the areas of service and motor vehicle which is advancing relentlessly and maintenance, the traditional image of the motor the falling trend of this area of work in the repair mechanic is still uppermost in the consciousness of shop. 41 41 5.2 Changes in automotive technology andotherin-carelectronicssystems, which and tools formerly were confined to the radio, now include The change in the work carried out in the motorcellular telephones, electronic management sys- vehicle repair and servicing sector is essentially tems and high-tech sound systems. Variable servo determined by developments in automotive en- aids for steering, active suspension systems and gineering, the way work is organized in the repair anti-blocking systems are some of the components shops and the tools used in them (including testing which are now used to increase comfort and and diagnosis equipment). The design of the tools safety. In the long term, developments are working used has a significant influence on the forms oftowards integration of the individual systems. To work organization in the repair shops and thus on perfect data exchange between the sub-systems the changes in the work itself. The most dramatic Bosch has developed the CAN system (controller technological change has taken place in the area area network). Data are transferred in a bus using of automotive electronics. This has of necessity led a specific protocol. to the further development of the tools used in repair shops. Butitis not just electronic systems which are bringing about technical changes in the motor The electronic systems for vehicles can be divided vehicle. New materials, complex mechanical, into four categories: hydraulic and pneumatic systems are also being used and have effects on the qualifications now control electronics for the drivetrain needed. in-car consumer electronics electronic systems for increased comfort andTable 5.2 shows the technical and management safety sectors which are particularly affected by the instruments and display panel changes, the effects for the motor repair and servicing sector and the measures which will have Figure 5.4 illustrates the structural relationshipto be taken as a result of these changes. between certain applications and the current trends towards integratedelectronicssystems. The development of new technology for motor The electronics for the drive train includes all vehicles is always accompanied by the develop- functions which are connected with the control ofment of new "tools'!. New mechanical tools need the engine, such as engine management, elec-not be discussed here. The focus of attention tronic ignition and electronic gear control. Audioshould be on how the testing systems for:

Figure 5 4 - Trends towards integrated electronic systems

1 r-Sniconductor ABS I Traction I 1 ignition control 1 \.\\ [ Electronic Electric I

steering steering 1 \--N _If Computerized I suspension control1

Engine I Suspension

control I control / NI> [Interface

2nd-generatici Active drive [suspension I Drivetrain Pectronic fuJI [control j Lriliection I. Progressively variable], I transmission Torqu.t. Lconverter

1 1 I I I I I I 1 i i I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

42 Source. Motorola 42 the engine and transmission systems This willlead to a considerable demand for the comfort and safety systems training, which in Germany is required by law in the engine management systems order to acquire the license to carry out these new exhaust emission tests. are changing. The use of computer-aided testing systems for the engine management systems or5.3 Changes in technology and tools laser testing systems for running gear adjustment used in the motor vehicle servicing and will soon be part of the normal working day in arepair sector and mobility of the labour repair shop. force Standardization of automotive technology has The development of these systems fortesting been given tremendousimpetus due tothe engine management systemshasalsobeen influence of rationalization measures in the motor influenced by the EEC guidelines for exhaustindustry, the increase in integrated technology, emission testing. The introduction of the exhauststandardized test procedures for exhaust emis- emission test II, which is based on EEC regula-sions and brakes and international standards or tions, requires specially designed testing systems. standards imposed by particular manufacturers. The skilled workers will have to be trained to use On theother hand,however,theparticular these new systems and in particular learn: philosophies of the individual manufacturers have lead to both products themselves and tools, testing to use the testing systems systems,diagnosis equipment,data and the to access the data provided by the manufac- employees having features very specific to the turers either on CD ROMs or via a network make of vehicle. The conclusion can be drawn to interpret and analyze the values displayedthat, although automotive technology, that is to say by the testing systems. the technological systems and components,is

Table 5.2 New technology in the motor vehicle servicing and repair sector

Examples

Electronic and microelectronic Ignition system Transmission control systems Fuel-injection system Four-wheel drive On-board computer Running gear Check control Power steering Service interval indicator Anti-lock braking system ABS Engine management system Electronic tractior control ETC/ASR Navigation systems Seat-belt emergency tensioning sys- Programmed seat adjustment tern Heating control Airbag Closed-loop-controlled three-way catalyst

New materials Plastics Higher-strength steel sheeting Body parts Ceramics Spoilers Spark-plug insulators Bumpers Port liners Interior fittings Piston inserts (future) Galvanized metal body parts Catalysts Exhaust-gas turbochargers

Complex mechanical, hydraulic and New drive technologies (hydrogen, Four-wheel drive pneumatic systems hybrid) All-wheel steering Multi-valve engines ABS and ETC/ASR Superchargers (turbo, compressor) Shock absorbers (variable) Automatic transmissions Conti lyre system Infinitely variable transmissions Procon-ten

Effects on technology management Market penetration of new technolo- Disappearance of the second-hand gies car market with vehicles without new Advertising with new technologies technologies among specific categories of buyers Widespread use of catalytic con- verters

1.4 41 3

, Effects on the motor.vehicle repair and Action sales sector

Electronic and microelectronic Specialist knowledge required in the Standardization of the interface be- control systems fields of electronics and microelec- tween electronic control units and tronics computer-controlled test devices New measurement and test Teaching of fundamentals in the fields equipment required of electronics and microelectronics New computer-controlled test equip- Instruction in the use of the necessary ment, different for each car model new test equipment Many circuits are designed as black Provision of information about the boxes and therefore cannot be re- state of the art in motor-vehicle paired, only replaced electronics

New materials Difficulty in identifying the type of Promotion of collaboration between plastic manufacturers and dealerships so that Special repair methods for plastics new materials can be repaired cor- Special pointing methods for plastics rectly Information and instruction: latest methods of identification and repair

Complex mechanical, hydrculic Growing range of knowledge Initial and continuing training of and pneumatic systems Specialized knowledge required employees to ensure that their knowl- In some cases special tools required edge matches the state of the art Modern test and diagnostic technology required

Effects on technology management New areas of activity Training of employees in the repair of Possibility of repair by independent new technologies repoil shops greatly restricted Monthly CD-ROM disk providing dealerships with the necessary non- manufacturerspecific data

becoming increasingly standardized,the carscations that can be applied to different work themselves are more varied than ever. processes and levels of competence in general methods (such as how to carry out a diagnosis) as Standardization must be seen, however, in thewell as competence and skills in using instruments context of the individual manufacturer. There is no (such as diagnosis equipment) which can be evidence at present of any standardization from transferred with ease to other kind!, of equipment. one manufacturer to the next. Diagnosis interfaces are not standardized,nor are the diagnosis Inorder to counteract the mobility problems procedures which are not specific to a particularcaused by skillswhich are confined to one make of vehicle. For comparable jobs, such as particular make of vehicle, we would recommend engine testing, different test procedures are used that diagnosis systems harmonized, which in turn and thesurfacesofthetestand diagnosiswould require standardization of interfaces. On equipment vary from manufacturer to manufac-the other hand initial and continuing training turer. courses should focus on teachingskills which relate to general procedures. The result of this development is that within a repair shop the level of skills in using the tools and Impediments to mobility on the single European diagnosis equipment required for different but market resulting from differences in environmental comparable jobs varies enormously. The extent to legislation,licensingrequirementsformotor which these operating skills can be applied to the businesses owners and language or other barriers apparatusofothermanufacturers is limited. cannot be discussed here. Whenever an employee changes job and works on a different make of vehicle his operating skills have to be re-developed in continuous training5.4 Organization of work courses. This requires a high number of training A further factor influencing the demands placed staff, case studies 2 to 5 in particular demonstrate on skilled workers in the repair shop is the way this, who are urgently needed to develop qualifi-work is organized.

4 4 Rauner/Zeymer (1992) came to the conclusion This concept aims to re-organize the dealerships. that the dominant model for organization of work V.A.G. had realised themselves that there was 1. is characterized by a horizontal division of tasks room for criticism, calling them "repair factories" and work, albeit to a degree which varies from which had become difficult for the customers to case to case. The allocation of jobs to each understand. They were thus divided into a number employee or group of employees is based on the of smaller units (teams). The teams are groups main aggregates of the motor vehicle. working independently, each responsible for a pool of repair jobs,looking after them from Bodywork and body painting and reception to the returnof the vehicle to the Automotive electronics customer. V.A.G. believes that these teams should be introduced in al; larger firms - the authors ure very stable, well-defined areas of work. believe that this should happen in category III firms (20 employees or more). Each team consists of: Whilstinthe area of aggregates and sub- assemblies used in motor mechanics there is a a master mechanic in charge of customer certain amount of permeability, these two areas of service work involve clearly defined, specific jobs. In this a head mechanic automotive electronics, an indispensable part of three to four mechanics the increasing integration of systems, requires two to three apprentices. particularly intensive further training. Often a qualification as mastercraftsman or technician isThe foreman is the head of the team, in charge associated with these jobs. The division of labourboth of disciplinary action and technical decision- within a firm corresponds to the way teaching ismaking. He is responsible for job reception, job organized at the customer service training centres. scheduling, technical advice and team leadership Regarding which employees takeupfurther as well as final checking of the vehicle and training places at the customer service training returning it to the customer. The head mechanic is centres, it is generally true to say that specialists in his deputy. 15 to 17 jobs are dealt with by the particular areas attend the corresponding special team each day. training classes offered. The changes in organization of work or the In addition to this, at least two other models can beintroduction of an entirely new organizational found in repair shops. One is the so-called "all- concept is, as organization trends in otheireas roundmodel",inwhichallemployees arehave indicated for a long time, a task which can qualifiedasall-roundmechanics and eachonly be solved ifitis accompanied by relevant mechanic can do each job,the otheristhe furthertrainingforemployees andifthose concept which V.A.G.introduced,calledthe involved are brought into the process very early "team concept". on and in an intensive way. It must also be said that it did not meet with unqualified acceptance in The increased volume of repairs in the urbunall firms. An example of this can be seen in the conglomerations has caused V.A.G. to increase V.A.G. case studycase study no. 5. It will only the size of their dealerships carrying out servicing. be possibletostabilizethisforward-looking As a result of this, the system of job-scheduling by development if firms are given a high degree of the foremen in the repair shops reached its natural support in these organizational processes from: limits. A central job-scheduling department was considered the only appropriate response to this manufacturers and their customer service train- development. The separation of reception from the ing centres work of the repair shop proved, however, to be a programmesforrelevantexperiment and serious disadvantage. This affected the dealer- introductory trials on a national and EEC level ships and the manufacturers at a very sensitive economic programmes and programmes of point,namely thelackofcontact between action and also employment and technical customers and repair shop staff which accompan- programmes initiated by the federal states. ied this development. The so-called team concept was introduced as a response to the prohlerns this Of course, an innovation of this kind which affects posed to successful marketing. both competition and the labour market depends on a high standard ofinitial and vocational continuing training.

45 45 6. INITIAL AND CONTINUING VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN THE MOTOR VEHICLE REPAIR AND SALES SECTOR

6.1 The organizational basis required 6.2 Legislation governing vocational for school and vocational qualificationseducation in Germany3 Since 1969 vocational training has been regu- To facilitate understanding of continuing training lated by the Berufsbildungsgesetz BBiG (Voca- strategies in this sector we shall first of all describe tional Education Act). This act stipulates basic the essential features of the German school system requirements for vocational training, further train- and vocational training system (cf. Figure 6.1). ing and re-training.Vocational trainingmust provide broad, basic vocational education and The German system is essentially a three-tieredspecialist training and facilitate the attainment of system, i.e. put simply, there are three types of work experience. It must also teach the specialist school: the Hauptschule (9 or 10 years compul- skills and knowledge needed to carry out a skilled sory attendance depending on theparticular job. federal state), the Realschule (10 years) and the Gymnasium or Gymnasium stream of the compre- The purpose of further vocational trcining should hensive school (13 years). be to preserve or expand the knowledge and skills acquired or to adapt them to new technological The Realschule leaving certificate and a certaindevelopments. It should also facilitate promotion type cf Hauptschule leaving certificate open the possibilities.It therefore includes further training way to a range of vocational schools, furtherwith adaptation goals and promotion goals. education collegesof a general nature and specialist institutes of higher education. The Abitur Themainfeatureofvocationaltraining in (leaving certificate from a Gymnasium) isthe Germany is that it takes the form of in-house university entry requirement. training (on the job,in teaching workshops or offices or in training centres outside the company) In recent years vocational training has increas- accompanied by attendance at a Berufsschule ingly become a minimum requirement for entry (part-time vocational school). This is known as the into working life. Nearly all young people attempt"dual system". The educational regulations which to undergo some form of vocational training in govern the in-house part of the training apply on a schools, colleges or their workplace; the propor-nationwide basis whereas the curricula for the tion of those who attain no vocationd qualification vocational schools are drawn up by each German has dropped to less than 10%. Around two-thirds state (cf. figure 6.2). of young people in a given school year receive vocational training at the workplace. Since 1969 the Vocational Education Act has created a statutory education ordinance for all Access to careers with in-house trainingisin occupations. Itstipulatesfor eachindividual principle organized in such a way that it is open to occupation what subject matter must be taught in allpupils leaving a Hauptschule.Inpractice, the firms within what time frame and is constantly however, the situationis increasingly such thatupdated inline with changing demands. The careers with vocational training, particularly theeducation ordinances contain a framework cur- more popular ones, are being taken by pupils riculum, which is co-ordinated at federal level by from Realschulen or those who have passed their the KultusministerkonferenzKMK (Conference of Abitur. The main reason for this is that the general Ministers of Education and the Arts) in order to level of education of all school-leavers has risenensure a minimum of uniformity for all educational enormously over the lost 20 years. A "downward requirements. The individual German states base trend" began which severely reduced oppor- their curricula on this outline curriculum and often tunities for pupils from Hauptschulen. Whilst insimply adopt it without change. These education former times it was virtually only school-leavers ordinances draw up minimum requirements ap- from Hauptschulen who went into vocational plicable to in-house training. They are open to education, now only 40% of trainees in the dual new technological and organization develop- system belong to this category. Pupils leaving ments. The firms themselves can also provide Realschulenand youngpeoplewithAbitur training for additional qualifications. The private qualifications now occupy the majority of training training .contract can formallywithin the limits of places in firms. A large number of school-leavers the legal regulationsbe designed at will, but in with Abitur decide to combine vocational training practicemodelcontracts drawn up bythe with university studies which gives them good competent authorities are normally used which prospects of promotion to management positions. closely follow the stipulations of the Vocational Many companies have developedtheir own Education Act (cf. Figure 6.3). training schemes for this group of school-leavers.

3 This section has been taken from the Force Sector Report by G. Kbhn lem. "The retail sector in the Federal Republic of Germany" (sfs). 4 6 Figure 6.1 - The German School System

I Eve ning I Fachschule7 Universities college 1

Upper Gymnasium-level schools2 13 18 (Gymnasium, Vocational training in Berufs- Berufs- vocational Gymnasium, a Berufsschule Fachober- 17 aufbau-fach- specialized Gymnasium, and place of work schule schule6 schule5 2 Gesamtschule) 16 (dual system)2 Basic vocational training year 15 in school or school/firm2

10th school year 10 15 9 14 Special Hauptschule Realschule Gymnasium Gesamt- school2 schule4 8 13

7 12

6 11 Orientationstage3 (dependenton or independentof type of school) 5 3 u 10 o 9.?

4 9

3 Special 5 8 Primary schooll school2 2 7 0

1 CE 6

5 Nursery school (voluntary) 4 E 71, w 3

Not described in the text Division within a level of schooling - Alternative beginning or end of a level of schooling

Diagram of the system as of September 1990. Within the limits of this basic structure there ore some deviations in individual German states. Since the reform process has not yet been completed the educational system in the five states of former East Germany which became part of the Federal Republic ot Germany on 3rd October 1990 have not been included in the diagram. 1 There are different types of arrangement for the transition from nursery school to primary school in the individual states (pre-school classes, nursery classes). In Berlin primary school education lasts for six years and there is thus no orientation stage. 2 Education for disabled children in special kinds of general and vocat;onal schools according to the kind of disability. 3 In all individual states with the exception of Bavaria where the orientation stage is being tried out (5th and 6th year primary school). 4 In some states a standard form of schooling which co-exists with the Hauptschule, Reolschule and Gymnasium; in other states it is an optional kind of school, pilot school or combination of schools. 5 Full-time vocational schools with different admission requirements, duration of training and final examination. 6 Part-time in parallel to or full-time on completion of the Berufsschule 7 Duration of 1-3 years. Source: Eurydice/CEDEFOP 1991, p. 40 4 7 The educationordinancesfortheindividual of Industry and Commerce or the Chambers of occupations are issued by the federal Minister Trades). Article 45 of the Vocational Educotion Act responsible for that particular field of work. Thestipulates that they have the particular respon- education ordinances are prepared by expertsibility of monitoring the implementation of voca- representatives of labour and management with tional training and promote this by counselling the participation of the Bundesinstitut für Berufsbil-apprentices. The implementation of the vocational dung - BIBB (German Institute for Educationaltraining takes place in the firms themselves. Training). Unlike the initial vocational training, only particu- TheBIBBconsistsofanequalnumberof lar areas of continuing training are regulated in representativesofemployers and employeesGermany. Only those parts of continuing training (trade unions) and of representatives appointedand re-training schemes which terminate with an by the German states and the German govern- examinationare coveredbytheVocational ment. At regular intervals it reviews whether theEducation Act (Articles 46 and 47). education ordinances continue to reflect the reality of education and modern vocational require-The most important part of continuing vocational ments. Most occupations have been re-organized training,in-housecontinuingtraining(which in recent years. accounts for over half of all continuing training activities), is, on the other hand, subject to very The control of in-house education is transferred to few regulatory measures. There are no compre- the responsible authorities, i.e. the self-adminis- hensive curricula developments. Here too, the tration organs of industry (such as the Chambers regulations on further training apply only to that

Figure 6.2 Structure of the dual training system

Uniform general conditions and The contract between the firm and the The Vocational Training Act specifies requirements for vocational training young person specifies conditions such that trainers must be suited fot the are laid down for the entire Federal as the start date ond length of training, task both in terms of qualifications Republic of Germany in the Vocational remuneration and rights and obligationsand personal qualities (trainers) Training Act and in the area of craft ( vocational training contract) trades also by the Crafts Trade Code ( legal basis) Chambers (e.g. Chambers of Trade and Commerce) look after the interests Training for individual of the different sectors of industry occupations is regulated and occupational categories. These for the whole country by independently-run institutions have the Training Ordinances mandatory duties to fulfil in the ( regulations on training) field of vocational training.

Vocational Chambers Vocational In-firm Training Act Training or other TraiMng Training Trainers Training and the Craft Ordinances competent firm Contract Trades Code institutions

Legal basis

Branch for the Advice/ Training for the for the Financing of training particular Monitoring personnel entire area of conditions of occupations training training trained for

Schools Acts Mandatory Government Federal states Training Berufsschule passed by Curricula attendance of or other and local in school teachers German states Berufsschule authorities authorities

In the Federal Republic of Germany This part-time mandatory schooling Teachers with university degrees are the individual states are responsible for applies to all young people, usually responsible for the theoretical subiectb, education. There are framework curricula until they are 18 years old. teachers with training qualifications for which are agreed at federal level the practical instruction (Berufsschule 48 teachers) 48 part of continuing training in the firm which leads cance which companies have been attaching in to a new vocational qualification with a recog-recent years to the qualification of their employ- nized certificate(e.g. mastercraftsman, techni-ees. Virtually all companies, 92%, stated in the cian). IDW study that they carry out or make available further training schemes (R. Weiss, 1990). In terms Apart fromthat,thefirms make their own of the participation of certain groups of employees decisions about courses, the criteria for selecting in vocational continuing training, the following employees to participate in in-house continuing trends must be mentioned: training and how the courses taken affect the further career of an employee within the firm (cf. Generally speaking, the significance of con- Kühnlein G./Paul-Kohlhoff, A., 1991). tinuing vocational education has increased dramatically in recent years: 18% of Germans Whenever firmsconsider continuingtraining were involved in some form of further vocation- courses to be necesscry for on employee to al training in 1988, which is double the figure enable him/her to fulfil the requirements of their for 1979, i.e. ten years previous. job, the company usually finances either a large part or all of the continuing training. The time is A disproportic nately high number of manage- also counted as part of the working hours. ment and academic staff areinvolvedin continuing vocational training. Qualified The money spent by firms on continuing training white-collar workers take part more frequently isvery difficulttoestimate because thereis incontinuingtrainingcourses thanskilled no generally applicable basis for calculation. workers. Involvement is lowest amongst semi- The Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft (German skilled and unskilled workers (in 1988 only 6% Economics Institute) has calculated that in 1987 of "simple workers" took part in continuing alone industry spent over DM 26 thousand million education). The gulf between the individual on continuing training. Other experts consider this groups of employees has tended to become figureto be a wild exaggeration'.Itdoes, wider rather than narrower in recent years. however, clearly demonstrate the great signifi-

Figure 6.3 The legal and organizational structure of the vocational training system

Co-ordinating committee

Central government

German Institute German Ministry German state for Vocational of Education committee Education and Science on vocational educction

General Secretary German Ministry Ministries of Education Principal committee of Employment and Social Affairs Ministries respon- and the Arts Federal state sible for the sector at federal committee in question at state level Specialist German Ministry federal state level committees of Trade and Industry

Competent authority 1 Specialist Ministries respon- Firm Beruf schule committees sible for the sector in question Committee on vocational educe- 1' lion within the competent authority

Guidelines, Ordinances Advisory role, recommendations Implementation, legal supervision, monitoring Co-operation, co-ordination

4 For more details see Kiihnlein G./Paul-Kohlhoff, A., 1991, p. 11ff. 49 Theinvolvement of womenincontinuing The whole range of continuing vocational educa- vocational training is lower than that of men. tion is shown in Figure 6.4 with a small degree of Thisparticularlyappliestothosecourses differentiation. Even this shows that a wide variety needed to gain access to promotion, that is of continuing education activities exist besides that courses and schemes lasting several days orwhich is offered by the state schools. Essentially several weeks. there are six pillars which continuing training in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector rests upon: 6.3 The system of continuing vocational training and its implications Customer service training centres aad in-house As has already been mentioned above, vocational training training in Germany is regulated by the Vocational Education Act (BBiG). Article 1 of this act defines 2. Meisterschulen (mastercraftsmen schools) and the scope of the act. As stated in this articleit Technikerschulen (technicalschools)for the covers: trade (Guild Associations and Chambers of Trades) university degree courses school courses which come under the jurisdic-3. Academies and Bundesfachschulen (Federal tion of the federal state school legislation and Vocational Schools) run by the regional Associa- vocational education, in so far as it is carried tions of Guilds, the ZDK, and the Chambers of out in an employment situation governed by Trades (training courses in business manage- public law. ment and organization systems)

Vocational education as defined by thisact 4. State Technikerschulen (technical schools) includes initial and continuing vocational training (Article3).Article1,however, excludes an5. Private and semi-private facilities aiming to important component of vocational education in train technical or managerial staff, business the dual system fromthe regulationsof the administrators etc. BBIG, namely the Berufsschule. The Berufsschule is subject to the schools legislation of the individual 6. Courses offered by the Chambers of Trades German states. This act also regulates continuing (office organization, bookkeeping, word pro- vocational training (Article 46). Article 46 is the cessing). basisfor numerous activitiesinthefieldof continuing education today, which were initiatedThe individual institutions differ considerably in by labour and management but are not connected their general objectives,recognition of certifi- to the state school system, and are therefore quitecates, training activities,extent of training of- separate from the vocational education in state fered, and importance, measured in terms of how schools.

Figure 6.4Overview of main areas of continuing education in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector (1TB)

t1n-house certificate State certificates Training for heads of businesses

Business administrator in the motor '5" '5 vehicle sector

Assistant as administrator -a 72 Training for in the motor oD mastercrafts- vehicle sector 5). as men Service (1 year 6 months technician Federal (4) cs=': (1,200 hours) 200 hours Academy) LL:t2)

In-house After-soles Training by cenval associations, guild associations, chambers of trades State Private training service schools schools training

Secondary schools

Dual system

50 Certificate of Intermediate Education many people they train. This is discussed below inThe owners and staff of the 799 firms surveyed greater detail. attended the courses listed in Table 6.2:

Nevertheless, all insitutions have in common that they are based on a remit to provide vocational Table 6.2 Subject matter al. the courses attended training within the dual system, regardless of whetherthatbecontinuingtraininginthe Owners Employees technical,commercialormanagementfield. There are virtually no exceptions in the technical New technology 9 20 field. At management level, however, more and Courses for technicians and more employees in larger firms have not com- master mechanics 3 7 48 pleted their vocational training in the dual system Other specialist courses 27 Data processing courses 14 22 but at a college or university. Bookkeeping courses 5 13 Purchase 2 5 The entrance requirements, however, also differ Distribution/sales/marketing 25 19 from one institutionto another and from one Management 21 7 training programme to another work experience, courses already attended, approval of the firms etc. The admission requirements to individual programmes vary from one year to six years work 6.3.2 Continuing training for staff experience. employed in independent dealerships The problem of continuing training is particularly 6.3.1 Participation in continuing acute for the employees of independent dealer- vocational education ships.If these dealerships want to survive they The BiBB carried out a survey on participation in need people to service and repair the vehicles in continuing training courses in the motor vehicleuse today. They cannot make use of the continuing repair and sales sector.Itsresults indicate that training courses offered by manufacturers because works managers and other employees in motorthey are not eligible for them. vehicle firms have participated in a large number of continuing training courses. The motor vehicle Employees of independent dealerships can make repair and sales sectoristhe leaderinthis useonlyofcoursesofferedby component amongst all the trades classed in Germany as manufacturers such as Bosch, ATE, SKF etc. (cf. craft trades. also Case Study No. 1 Independent Dealership). They can also participate in courses offered by In terms of the extent of the continuing training andstate-run continuing training centres or the Cham- the areas focused on, the figures in Table 6.1 bers of Trades, guilds and crafts academies. Fees show clearly that the majorily of courses lasted for these courses are, however, normally quite several days and there were also a large number high whereas manufacturers have not so far of 1-2 week courses. The main place where the required their dealers to pay anything for the courses took place (65%) were the manufacturers'courses at their customer service training centres. customer service training centres (cf. 6.5). TheThese courses normally provide a basic level of remaining 35% ofcourses weredistributed qualification but are less directly tailored to the amongst thegrouptrainingcentres(11%), immediate needs of the dealerships than is the specialist vocationalschools(Fachschulen)or case with the customer service training centres run schools for mastercraftsmen (Meisterschulen) and by manufacturers. others. These training facilities are described in the sections below. 6.4 State and state-approved Technikerschulen (technical schools) Table 6.1 Length of attendance in continuing twining courses There are at present only six state and state- approved Technikerschulen(technicalschools) Days spent in Days spent in operating in the Federal Republic of Germany. continuing training continuing training Two of those opened in the last two years. An Heads of businesses Employees average of 350 technicians are currently being (%) trained. The number of students applying is not very high. Table 6.3 gives on overview of the Less than 1 day 14 6 technical schools and student numbers. This shows 1 6 days 49 28 clearly: the state and state-approved technical 1 2 weeks 28 25 schools inthe motor vehicle repair and sales 2 weeks to1 month 7 29 Over 1 month 12 sector do not play a very important role, neither in 111 terms of quality nor quantity. Firms questioned 489 567 51

St Evidently firms in the motor vehicle sector have not inspecificsubjectssuchastechnicalskills, been quick to recognize students from technical companyadministration,after-salesmanage- schools. There are many different reasons for this. ment, behaviour when dealing with customers, Small firms are organized in such a way that they service and sales. They are mostly organized by predominantly need people with a good deal ofthe Chambers of Trades and guilds of the motor "practical training". An education at a technical vehicle sector or the numerous privately run school does not necessarily provide this. academies.

The curricula of the technical schools are struc-The manufacturers'customerservicetraining tured on thebasis of subjects and a high centres, Meisterschulen and the training scheme proportion of their teaching focuses on basic for service technicians also fall into this category. knowledge and metallurgy. The specific relevance to the motor vehicle sector is thus quite low. This is 6.5.1 Mastercraftsman training reflected in the timetables (cf. Table 6.4). ThereThe mastercraftsman training in Germany has a are no essential differences here between the state long tradition. It evolved out of the medieval guild and the state-approved schools. system. Today it is regulated by the a-dinunce on Mastercraftsmen in the Motor Vehicle Sector under The entrance requirement for the technical schoolthe responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Trade is the Hauptschule leaving certificate, vocational and Industry (last ordinance issued on 18 August training in the motor vehicle repair and sales 1988). A distinctionis made inthe training sector, and two years work experience. between a mastercraftsman in the field of motor mechanics and electronics. The mastercraftsman 6.5 Continuing training outside the diploma entitles the holder to run a recognized state schools motor vehicle repair and distribution busine:s. Outsidethestateorstate-approvedschools numerous continuing training courses are offered

Table 6.3 Overview of state and state-recognized Technikerschulen in the motor vehicle sector

Name Admissions per Drop-out Comment Run by Certificate rate 1/2 year Year

Rheinische FT I FT 40 approx. Figure constant Non-profit State Technikerakademie 10% for 5 years making approved Köln e.V. organization (state recognized)

Fachschule für PT PT: approx. Figure rising State State Technik Köln Formerly 64 10% approved From 1993: 96

Fachschule für FT FT: 70 approx. Figure constant State State Technik Essen PT PT: 55 20% approved approx. 30%

Westfalen- FT FT: 60 Figure constant Limited Private Technikum company but state Dortmund (state approved recognized) Staatliche Fachschule Technik Saarbriicken

Ferdinand-Braun- FT FT: 20 approx. Bodywork and 3tate State Schule Fulda since Sept 92 20% vehicle technology approved (newly set up in 1991)

Berufsbildende FT FT: 30 approx. Newly set up in State Stale Schule Germersheim (PT: 28) 15% 1990; no more approved part-time applicants. Total 379 52 I FT: Full-lime; PT: Part-time mwm1IFT

Table 6.4 - Timetable for technician's training in automotive engineering (Full time course)

Subject 1st year basic level 2nd year advanced level Total no. of hours No. of hours based on 40No. of hours based on 40 teaching weeks a year teaching weeks a year

Scientifically-based working methods 40 40 Mathematics 280 280 Basics of data processing 80 80 Experimental physics 120 120 Statics and dynamics 120 120 Strength of materials 80 80 Chemistry 80 80 Materials science 160 160 Technical drawing/descriptive geometry 120 120 Electrical engineering 120 120 Measuring technology and control engineering' 120 120 Basics of mechanical engineering 120 120 Design and calculation 200 200 Machine tools and processes, bodywork' 200 200 Combustion engines' 120 120 Vehicle technology' 120 120 Automotive electrics' 120 120 Work scheduling 120 120 Occupational sociology/labour law 80 80

1,200 1,200 2,400

I Written examination required

The main subject of the ordinance is the job outline 45-51). The entrance requirements are impor- and examination requirements. The main areas tant: covered in the job outline are listed below (Figure 6.5) in the form of key areas. These key areas and People who: the number of hours also describe the courses have passed a journeyman's examination and which prepare for the mastercraftsman examina- can prove that they have worked at least three tion at the Meisterschulen. years in the trade in which they wish to take the Further details on the mastercraftsman examina- mastercraftsman examination tion are set out in the Craft Trades Code (Articleswill be admitted to the examination.

Figure 6.5 - Main subjects studied in the master mechanic training

Number of hours Mechanic Electrician

Running gear technology incl. car brakes 80 80 Commercial vehicle brakes 80 80 Aggregate technology (power transmission) 60 60 Combustion engines 100 100 Diesel engines 80 80 Bodywork 80 40 Paintwork 40 General electrical engineering, automotive electrics/electronics 80 160 Electronic systems in vehicles 40 120 General hydraulics and pneumatics 60 60 Materials science 80 80 Welding, soldering, adhesion techniques 80 Business organization, guidelines for places of work 80 80 Business studies 120 120 Road traffic licensng regulation 60 60 Environmental protection 80 80

1,200 1,200 53 Source: Gemeinschoftsinitiative 1992 The title of mastercraftsman enjoys high recogni- servicing and repair work. When vacancies arise tioninthe motor vehicle sector.Virtuallyall they often either become manager of the after- positions in middle management cre carried out sales department or the repair shop or they by master mechanics and they have a broad become assessors. range of responsibilities in the firm. If the master mechanic is not also the owner of the firm he can People interviewed for the case studies said that carry out the function of head of the repair shop, master mechanics in firms make an important after-sales manager, sales manager or general contributiontomaintainingthehighlevelof organizer. He is responsible for job processing, qualifications and improving the communication organization of workloads, after-sales, staff man- between the repair shop and the customer. agement, general management, sales etc. 6.5.2 The non-state training for The profile of the mastercraftsman in the motortechnicians in the motor vehicle repair vehicle sector and the programmes designed to and sales sector train people for the job is based on this broadThere are a number of forms of trainingfor range of requirements. On a full-time course thetechnicians in the motor vehicle repair and sales trainee master mechanic will participate in 1,200 sector, apart from the state school training already hours of training in just under six months whereas mentioned: the technician mentioned above has 2,200 hours spread over two years. An exclusively technical a. Training as a service technician, initiated by training would be inadequate. He is also required the ZDK, VDA, and VDIK in September 1992, to carry out management functions and thus needsb. Training as a diagnosis technician- and managerial skills. The job outline is based on this comparable levels - inthe manufacturers' broad-based qualification.If an attempt were customer service training centres, made to put a figure on it based on the number c.Initiatives on the part of the ZDK and trade of hours in the curriculum, about 28% of the union (IGM) to modify the service technician training is concerned with managerial and other training (point a) and acquire state approval general aspects, whereby special training in staff for it. management, after-sales and sales play only a small part. Models a. and b. are described below. Model c. is still in the stage of preliminary discussion which The mastercraftsman training courses which take is why no further reference to it is made. the form of continuing training have two main features: Motor vehicle service technician

a. The subject mattertaught has a clear vocation- The service technician trainingisa form of al orientation (seethe overview in Figure 6.5) continuing training which was launched by the and is not linkedto any particular make of Verband der Automobilindustrie- VDA, (Associa- vehicle tion of the Automobile Industry), the Verband der b. The practical partof the training is 50% Importeure von Kraftfahrzeugen - VDIK (Associa- tion of Motor Vehicle Importers) and the Zentral- The number of trained master mechanics has been verband Deutsches Kraftfahrzeuggewerbe- ZDK steadily rising in recent years (cf. Table 6.5). In the (Central Association of the German Motor Trade). meantime thereis a surplus of trained masterThe aim of this continuing training is to create a mechanics. Many of them set up their own small qualification level between the mastercraftsman businesses, others work as foremen in repair shops diploma andtheskilledworker/journeyman (experts estimate that this applies to about 15 to certificate. In terms of the extent of the technical 20%) and are responsible for more high-leveltraining thereislittledifference between the

Table 6,5 Master mechanics/auto-electricians trained between 1984 and 1990

Year Motor mechanic Auto-eledridan

Passed Failure rate Passed Failure rate

1984 3,673 30 4°,, 244 18 1% 1985 4,177 27 3% 290 27.5% 1986 4,207 29.4% 294 20.1% 1987 4,303 30.0% 342 30.8% 1988 4,544 29.7% 374 23 2% 1989 5,092 27 0% 385 20 0°. 1990 4,890 27 0°. 401 20 0%

54 Source: DHKT As of 30 12.1990 4 15111=11

service technician and the mastercraftsman train- individual wishing to improve his career prospects ing. he will have to finance himself.

The associationslistthe following motives forThe key areas of subjectsinthiscontinuing initiating the service technician training schemes: training scheme are:

1. Thedevelopmentofthe newTraining Service communication Ordinances for motor mechanics and master- t,Basics of motor vehicle engineering craftsmen in the motor vehicle sector demon- Basics of automotive electrical systems and strates the dichotomy in the repair shop. Next electronics toa mechanic with a basictrainingin Fuel induction/ignition automotive engineering is a master mechanic Comfort and safety electronics who is mainly involved in middle-management Diagnosis tasks. These subjects are taught for a particular make The basic training is not sufficient to enable theover a total of about 200 hours. Table 6.6 shows mechanic to reliably service and repair newerthe structure of the subjects using the example of "vehicle systems" and the master mechanictwo makes of car. This training has a clearly does not have enough time tosolve thetechnical orientation and is not very extensive at detailed technical problems. 200 training hours. The link to a particular make of vehicle reduces the extent of training required in 2. There is not enough new blood in the sector. that it is only necessary to deal with the special The younger generation are not motivated features of that particular make. However, the because of a lack of career prospects, promo-planners belief that there would be no problems in tion opportunities and pay incentives. transferring the material learnt to other makes has remained an unconfirmed hypothesis. The ma- 3. The job of motor mechanic is not attractiveterial taught during the continuing training has enough to graduates of higher schools such as been organized into uniform modules which are the Realschule or pupils from equivalent types then "tuned" to fit each specific firm. of educational background. The training can be undertaken over a period of As a consequence of this the idea of setting up a up to three years. It ends with a final examination. training system for service technicians had three Ifthe candidate passes he gains a certificate main aims: jointly awarded by the ZDK, VDA and VDiK. The finalexaminationincludes awritten and a 1. To create a pool of newcomers to the sectorpractical test. During the practical test, diagnosis who are technically better qualified than thoseand measurements on at least three different produced by the current vocational training systems of automotive electrics (e.g. ABS, Mo- system. tonic, level regulation) should be carried out. The practical diagnosis in the final test is considered to 2. To create a pool of technical experts who havebe more important than the theory. (Table 6.6) as extensive a technical training as the master mechanic but work in the repair shop only. The salary of the service technician corresponds to the level of continuing training and the formal 3 To open up career opportunities for motivatedgrading of the job between journeyman and young people who have just finished their mastercraftsman (cf. Figure 6.6). Collective agree- initial training, in order to reduce the loss ofments have stillto be concluded. Labour and particularly capable skilled workers to other management representatives are expectedto sectors. reach an agreement in the next round of collective bargaining at the beginning of 1993. This continuing training iscarried outinthe vocational training centres of the croft and at the Not only the formal qualification gained but also the manufacturers' after-sales centres. way the service technician is employed influences the grading of the job. The intention is that the The requirement for the service technician training service technician should work in all areas which to is vocational training in the vehic:a repair sector. date required highly or very highly qualified motor This includes motor mechanics, auto electricians, mechanics. These are jobs which demand extensive motorcycle mechanics, car mechanics and body- special knowledge in the field of: workers. No additional work experienceis required. electrics/electronics hydraulics/pneumatics The firm may assume the costs of this training if it ABS/ETC automatic transmissions has a vested interest in the continuing training 55 schemes.Ifitispurelyinthe interest of the running-gear electronics etc. Table 6.6 - Overview of continuing training schemes linked to a particular make of vehicle

Training plan for motor-vehicle service Training plan for motor-vehicle technicians VW/Audi passenger cars service technicians Mitsubishi

1 Basic vehicle technology' 1. Basic vehicle technology3

44 K-Jetronic Petrol and diesel engines 56 Digijet in Transporter with water-cooled Design and operation opposed-cylinder engine Setting and test work 87 Digifant in passenger cars 93 Five-cylinder 20-v engine Automatic transmissions Course 10 h 94 Mono-Jetronic 95 KE-III-Jetronic 2. Fundamentals of vehicle electrical 102 KE-Motronic in 16-v 2.0-lengine systems/electronics2 3 103 18-1 engine with G-blower 105 VC8 engine Ohm's law 111 Motronic in 5-cyl. turbo engine Connections, terminal designations, 121 MPI in 20-v naturally aspirated engine cable colours, graphical symbols, 127 VR6 engine cable installations 130 MPI in Audi V6 engine Electrical and electronic components 134 Mono-Motronic Trouble-shooting on a prepared vehicle 143 Motronic '92, 20-v engine, V8 engine Handling measuring and test equipment 150 MPFI in 2 6-IV6 engine SSP approx. 32 h Basic electrical and electronic circuits Course 30 h

2. Fundamentals of vehicle electrical' 2 3. Fuel induction/ignition" systems/electronics FBC carburettor (0) Vehicle electrical systems 1 SOHC Basic circuit, circuit diagrams, cable DOHC colours, conductor cross section, relay, Pollutant check diagnosis (D) Course 64 h circuit with relay, ignition-starter switch, light switch, generator and turn-signal 4 Convenience and safety electronics control, brake-light system Course 18 h Vehicle electrical systems 2 Electronically controlled automatic transmission (0) ABS (0) Voltage measurement, voltage-drop Electronically controlled suspension - ECS (D) measurement, testing alternator and Traction control - TCL (D) voltage regulator, measurement of ETACS system (0) hidden loads, troubleshooting on Multiplex wiring (0) practice model Course 18 h Automatic air-conditioning (0) Cruise control (D) Vehicle electrical systems 3 Airbag (0) Basic electronic components, sensors, Course 75 h analog/digital variables, basic logic operations, systematic Final test 8 h trouble-shooting Course 24 h Certificate

3. Fuel induction/ignition' Total hours; 203 h

Mixture formation, fuel-injection engines Course 24 h Trouble-shooting in fuel-injection systems Course 24 h

4 Convenience and safety electronics 104 018 4-speed automatic in Audi V8 I 12 4-speed automatic transmission, electro-hydroulically controlled 131 Audi 100 air conditioning system > '91 132 Central locking with remote infrared control 135 Climatronic 144 Theft-warning system for Passat and Coirado 149 HP 18 4-speed automatic transmission 81 Anti-lock braking system (Teves) in Golf 86 Anti-lock braking system (Bosch) 114 Airbag in Audi 115 Electronic traction control (ETC/ASR) 117 Anti-lock braking system (Teves) with electronic differential lock SSP approx. 24 h

Final test 8 h Certificate Service communication 12 h 2 Diagnostics 3 Service communication 16 h Total hours. approx 184 h 56 Quelle: Gemeinschaftsinitiative 1992 56 As mentioned above,Article 46(2)ofthe clear indications that the manufacturers will not VocationalEducationActpermitscontinuing extend thematerialtaught beyond thehigh training schemes to be formally regulated at standard already reached.If the extent of the federal level.Itis expected that the labour and further training is projected onto a single employ- management representatives of the motor vehicle ee in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector it sectorwillobtainstaterecognitionforthis can be concluded that each technical employee in continuing training scheme from the competent the motor vehicle business has to re-learn his trade German minister. First steps in this direction have every six years. Given a working life of 40-45 already been initiated. Labour and management, years that means a total of seven cycles(cf. under the leadership of the ZDK and IGM, are Rauner/Zeymer1991). working on a uniform continuing training concept which would apply to the whole country and be The freezing of central after-sales training at 2.5 independent of any particular make. If a uniformtraining days has meant that there has been a shift agreement is reached, state recognition of the in emphasis in response to the increased need for occupation of service technician from the German further training for repair shop staff with the iesult MinisterforTrade andIndustrywillinall that further trainingis now increasin9iy being probability ensue. The qualification for the occu-carried outinthe repair shops. Our survey pation will be organized by the motor vehicleshowed that in the case of a German manufac- sector and the unions outside the state school turer the training volume has in the meantime system . reached the level of four days of de-centralized training. Manufacturers concede only unwillingly This situation will probably make it very difficult for that there is a great demand for de-centralized the state-run vocational schools to put forward a further training. The conflict of interests between competitive offer for a successful service techni-manufacturers and repair shopsisgradually cian training scheme. coming to a head.

6.5.3 Customer service training centres The resistance to a further shift of further training As has been mentioned several times, automotive into the repair shops is growing. Further training technology is becoming increasingly complex.carried out alongside the normal servicing and The customer service training centres have in- repair work of the firms is seen as a disturbance itiated a number of different schemes designed to and, although attempts are being made to force train people to deal with the work which that employees to use self-study learning aids in their produces. free time, this approach offers limited scope for solving the further training problem. Further and continuing training by the manufacturer The actual volume of further training is well over a week, as the amount of training time spent in the Since the1930s,car manufacturers have been repair shops and in the employee's free time steadily expanding their training courses in after- (working through training material) is somewhere sales service, initially they were all centralized butin the region of3-4days a year. This applies later they became decentralized. The car manu-primarily to manufacturers, who have taken up a facturers have constantly increased the scope ofpioneering roleinthe implementation of MC topics covered by the further training and continu- technology and are selling a particularly broad ing training, the number of tutors and the amountrange of vehicles. The move to decentralization of training each employee receives (MTD man and the shift of additional further training to the training days).In addition to this, component repair shop is being underpinned by provision of manufacturers and othersuppliersalsooffer programmed learning materials and multi-media training for repair shop staff,tailored to theirsystems (learning programmes, learning kits for particular products. electronics,programmedaudio-visualmedia, computer-aided learning). These media concepts The technical training offered by German carwere developedinthe60s and 70s.The manufacturers comprises over 100 days. In the expectations which were attached to this method case of Daimler-Benz itis at present 167 days.of training have long since been replaced by a The Opel customer service training centres offers a more sober estimationthat the value of pro- training course which lasts for a total of191days. grammed instruction for solving skilling problems Of that,113days are reserved for technical is very limited. In the motor vehicle industry only a instruction. The centralized further training pro- few individual companies have embarked on this vided by German manufacturers has reached method. approximately 2.5 training days per technical employee. This figure seems to be the ceiling level The essential criteria here are an understanding of which - at least in terms of further training in the problems in their broader context and the ability to manufacturers' central training facilities - cannot master the entire range of measuring, testing and be exceeded for reasons of capacity. The scope of diagnosis technology. There is no simple answer material covered has visibly levelled off. There areto the question of at which formallevelthis 57 specialist training should be placed. The answeranti-blocking systems etc. The main focus of his will differ depending on the internal organization work is fault diagnosis. The entrance requirements of work within a company and the structure of for the course are previous training as an auto- courses/policy for awarding certificates practised electrician, several years work experience and by the customer service training centres. What in well-grounded knowledge of systems technology one case, almost naturally, remains pajt,of the job gained as a skilled worker. The systems techni- of the motor mechanic is in another case carried cian training is spread over a two-year period out only by: and involves 10 weeks in the Bosch customer service training centre. the specialist auto-electrician the master mechanic, or The training covers all well-known electrical and the "service technician" or "diagnosis techni- electronic systems as well as electronically-aided cian" who has a certificate from the customer systems developed by Bosch automotive technol- service training centres ogy. In addition to this, the trainees are taught how to deal with customers and given opportunity tc The particular status of specialists for automotive practice. The first part of the training is a foa electrical systems and electronics in the 80s has week training in electronics. been replaced in the 90s by greater emphasis on repair shop staff specializing in specific aggre- Each of the one-week courses begins with a test gates.For example, Opel has adoptedthe and ends with an interim exam. At the end of the followingcategorizationofspecialistsin its basic electronics training there is a comprehensive concept for staff development. final examination to conclude the first stage of the systems technician training. Only those partici- Specialists for: pants who passthisfinalexamination can continue the systems technician training. Comfort and safety electronics Fuel induction, electronic engine management In the second stage of their training which and diagnosis consists of 6 courses the systems technicians Opel servicing systems acquire the specialist knowledge they require fol Body painting and corrosion work the main components of the automotive systems Light commercial vehicles and all-terrain vehi-technology: cles Jetronic This new orientation is consistent since electronics Digital engine electronics have become an "across the board" area of Anti-blocking systems technology within automotive technology and Electronic ignition systems. basing further and continuing training specialization onparticularsubject areas,suchas Short tests are also held throughout this phase of electronics,hydraulics,motor mechanicsetc., the trainingto check the system technician's would reduce the opportunities for the skills to be progress. used in practice. In stage 3which consists of a one-week course Generally speaking,itcan be saidthat Carthe trainee systems technician attends an intensive manufacturers who have concentrated their range two-daybehaviour-orientedseminar, during of models in the middle or luxury class area andwhich he learns how to deal with customers. were quicker to follow the trends towards increas- During the rest of this week the systems technician ing use of electronics have already introduced theprepares for the extensive final examination which informal job title of technician and a correspond-lasts for two days. ing training programme. Service technician (BMW) As far as we know at present, these manufacturers will maintain their qualification principle in theThe stated aim of the training course for service future. It is generally accorded higher status than technicians is: to teach an understanding of the the service technician who is the product of atechnical and economic aspects of the business, "joint initiative". an overall knowledge of the technology involved, and to enable the service technician to pass on The following section describes three of these new knowledge in his area of work. further training models. The BMW service technician has all the technical Systems technician (Bosch) know-how at his fingertips and can "provide information" on all aspect's of the business. He can The Josch systems technician is a "specialist" in act as customer advisor and is deployed as a the Bosch after-sales service for systems technol- "mediator" between the business and the cus- 58 ogy and components such as Jetronic, Motronic, tomer. Theentrancerequirementsforthiscustomer The main jobs of the diagnosis technician consist advisor training are previous training as a motor of carrying out servicing and repairs ofall mechanic or auto-electrician, several years work electronic systems in the vehicle using the BMW experience in one of these two jobs and continu- service testing system, the testing instructions and ing training up to technician level. The training all the integrated diagnosis techniques and tests takes place in three stages: usingrepair shop testingsystems,on-board diagnosis and central computers. the training for customer advisors comprises topics such as how to receive customers, diagnosis, advisor/customer role-play, writing orders, The training focuses on: cost estimates, warranty/guarantees, customer, time and deadline management, return of vehi- Automotive electrical systems with a practical cles, contact between customers and the repair component shop. Automotive electronics with a practical component the training for customer service managers Measuring and diagnosis work on BMW comprises, as well as the topics mentionea above, vehicles using service tests,testinstructions additional seminars in the area of "dealership and Modic. management" and "financial report". There are also seminarsfor customer advisors such as Mobile training is carried out in 32 centres (BMW "Basics of active selling in the after-sales depart-dealers). The length of training is 3 times 40 hours ment", 'techniques for refunds" and "dealing with for3stagesoftrainingover aperiodof complaints." The seminars for after-sales man- approximately five months. The training is organ- agers focus on topicssuch as "Managerial ized in two sessions of 3 hours per week (from techniques for after-sales managers" or "Staff4.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m.). The central training aid management". is a BMW teaching and diagnosis set.

In part I of the service technician training, instruction is given in: the position of the service Conclusions technicianinthe busine: s,hisresponsibilities, duties,field of competence and exchange of The comprehensive range of courses offered by information with the employees in the repair shop the customer service training centres and the strain on new automotive technology and new working placed on firms having to carry out further training and measuring processes. themselves reflect the fact that the initial training is not based on realistic ideas of what is involved in Inpart II of the service techniciantraining, the sector today and also the low level of general instructionis given in: new BMW models, new education of the applicants (leaving certificate engines, special fitting of central locking systems, from Hauptschulen). Job outlines must be brought EH transmissions, on-board computers, anti-block- into line with future demands and implemented in ing systems, servotronic, he ting and air condi- all trainincentres. tioning systems and all the diagnosis, adjustment and testing work connected with these systems. Unlike the specifications in the training ordinances and the curricula they prescribe,the Diagnosis technician (BMW) curricula in the customer service training centres are designed with the complexity of computer- To complement the work of the service technician,aided systemic automotive technology and tne BMW has introduced the job of diagnosis techni-reality of the modern repair shop in mind. At the cian for the following reasons. The aggregates of a same time they are organized in modules so that motor vehicle, such as the engine, running gear, initial and further training can be integrated. They transmission, steering and electrical signalling and are, however, very much based on particular lighting technology are to an ever-increasingmakes of vehicle or even particular models. In degree controlled by computers and electronics. some areas ofthe customer service training In addition to this there is a trend towards increasing centres, which sometimes use very school-like comfort such as electronically controlled locking for teaching methods, teaching basic electronics, for the doors of the car, electronic windows, electronic instance, by abstract experiments which are thus sliding roof. On-board diagnosis has also been far-removed from daily reality, the effectiveness of widely introduced. Seen as a whole, electronicallythe customer service training centresiscorre controlled systems in vehicles require knowledge spondingly low. The subject matter of the customer that goes beyond understandingthe engine, service training centres is based entirely on the transmission, running gear, brakes etc. A mechanic ;atest technology and the needs of the motor must have knowledge and skillsin the field of vehicle repau shop and the training is based or, systems technology, in order to be able to test and particular makes. This restriction is not permissible detect faults using specially programmed testing under the training ordinances related to the BBiG 59 devices and manuals. and its curricula. In terms of teaching and learning methods, theThe Chambers of Trades offer courses designed customer service training centre is more innovative for administrative staff which aim to facilitate the than the Berufsschule and the initial training in administration of businesses. The courses range firms. Further training will acquire a new quality in from the "business letter" to PC word processing the area of implicit learning by the introduction of and data management. new computer-aided work systems.Itisto be expected that, in the second half of the 90s, motor For owners of businesses, coursesingeneral vehicle repair shops will become one of the major management, public relations, financing and staff centres for vocational educationwithin the work management are offered. process. Most Chambers of Trades offer courses to train The question of the training ordinances and the people to become "business administrators for the horizontal and vertical division of labour is ofmotor vehicle sector." Thisisthe commercial particular importance for initial and further trcin- counterpart of the service technician. ing. Our study has shown that the most differing organizational concepts compete with each other, Apart from the Chambers of Trades and guilds, a situation with great similarities to the develop- therearenumerous academies whichoffer ments in the general range of products on offer. continuing training seminars for owners of busi- Ranging from the team concept (VW) to the all- nesses. The subject matter of the seminars depends round mechanic conceptinindividualrepairon demand but the central topics are management shops to the strict division of labour and thus shift questions, public relations and general principles in workload organization in a job-processingof management. centre at a distance from the repair shop (with a master computer), a wide variety of concepts for Continuing training as an aid to promotion is work organization compete with each other, inoffered by the BundesfachschulefürBetriebs- order to promote a more customer-based ap-wirtschaft for business management in the motor proach to ensure customer satisfaction, a very real vehicle repair and sales sector. This institution, necessity today, those models for work organiza- financed by the ZDK and associations of guilds, tion which support this must take priority. Models offers a 1-year training course leading to the based on a rigid division of labour are increas- qualification of business administrator or adminis- ingly being abandoned. trative assistant in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector. Admission to the business adminis- A summary of the essence of this comparison trator courseisfor people with a commercial leaves no doubt about the fact that the customer trainingin the motor vehicle repair and sales service training centre has clearly overtaken the sector and to the course for assistants a journey- Berufsschule in its significance for training employ- man's examination. In both cases one year's work ees in the motor vehicle repair and sales sector. It experience is required. has in!ffect become the "vocational school" for this se or. Apart from detailed knowledge aboutThe ZDK runs a "Car Academy" and from 1991 the systems technology of motor vehicles, thethe "Technical Academy of the motor vehicle customer service training centres also provide anrepair and sales sector" (TAK). The former offers understanding of the overall context of thesea similar range of courses to the Chambers of specificareasof knowledge and how theyTrades, whereas TAK offers courses mainly in connect to each other. environmental protection.

Other approaches which cor manufacturers are Summary taking to solving the training problems include: The continuing training schemes on offer within the motor vehicle repair and sales sector are very reduction in the complexity of diagnosis andvaried and wide ranging. They cover the entire repair work area of technical, commercial and managerial introduction of computer-aided work and infor- areas; they are very much oriented towards niation systems with a strong tutorial quality. demand and promoting the motor vehicle repair and sales sector. The major training providers, the Due to lack of space it is not possible to describe customer service training centres, are, however, these systems in more depth. Details can be found very much linked to particular makes or sometimes in Rauner/Zeymer (November 1991, p. 7f1). even particular models. The courses offered by the different institutions have acquired a high degree 6.6 General continuing training for of recognition by motor vehicle businesses. managerial staff The Chambers of Trades, Associations of Guilds, The state training institutions have to date not been private interest groups and the ZDK run numerousable to compete with the wide range of activities centres for continuing training which do not haveand courses offered nor have they achieved the a technical orientation and have a number of same level of recognition by the sector. 60 different aims.

G CASE STUDIES

PART 2:

1. Independent dealership N.

2. Mazda

3. Mercedes-Benz Autohaus K.

4. BMW agency

5. VW-Audi agency

6. Conclusions from the case studies

1 no 1. INDEPENDENT DEALERSHIP N.

Size of the Firm: I systemsare occasionally refused or passed on to a specialist firm if insurrnountable difficulties arise Car Manufacturer: All after a job has been accepted. All repair and maintenance work which comes under a manu- Type of Vehicle: A, B facturer's warranty agreement ("guarantee") are refused as a matter of course unless the work Type of Firm: D involves rectifying accident damage to a chassis.

1. General description of the case This is a second speciality of the firm repairing This is a small motor vehicle repair shop to the accident damage since they have both a north of a city in the Ruhr region of Germany; it is straightening jig for chassis repairs and a modern not attached to any particular car manufacturer. spray-painting booth. They use the straightening The firmhas beeninexistence since1985, jig and even more the spray shop for sub-contracts currently employs four people, and has concen-from other businesses, in the motor vehicle sector; trated on servicing, general repairs and body firm N. regularly receives sub-contracts from four painting. It specializes in mstoring vintage cars. Itbusinesses including a nearby authorized Ford recently abandoned its second-hand car business. dealership. Firm N. does not itself sub-contract work on a regular basis. The owner says that the In its continuing training activities it has to rely on third speciality of his firm is restoring vintage cars, courses offered by the Bosch customer servicebut points out that from the point of view of training centre, the Chambers, component sup- economics this has to be seen more as a hobby. pliers and paint manufacturers. The employees doUntil recently the firm also dealt in second-hand not have access to the training provided by car cars but abandoned this since this area of the manufacturers, but after a time lag of approxi- businessisnot financially feasible due toits mately one year's the firm has sufficiently detailed location (see below). knowledge to feel confident in carrying out normal servicing work, even on newer cars, particularlyFirm N. is situated on a side road on the edge of Opels. This knowledge is mostly acquired through a small industrial estate in a suburb of a city in informal contacts (such as during purchase ofthe Ruhr region. Its premises are compact; the spare parts or through personal acquaintances) boundaries are marked by the front of the repair and to some extent from what can be gathered or shop and a wall with an entrance gate to the interpreted from copies of documents from com- street, by other firms on either side and to *le rear panies. A second important source of information by a railway line. On the site, which is divided in about new technological developments are tradeIwo, there is an outdoor car park with space for journals. Sometimes it can help a great deal to use 15 vehicles and a shed build;ng covering the simple common sense and have sufficient time to whole length of the site which houses an office, try things out on the basis of previous models. store,repair shop and paint shop.10 more vehicles can be parked here. Given what is normal and possible in terms of continuing training for businesses of this type inThe locationis quite unfavourable for a motor Germany, this firm considers its own policy to be repair business which by its very nature has a exemplary. In its opinion, other comparable firms large number of individual customers: there are have relied for too long on knowledge acquired several firms nearby which recycle scrap or other some time in the past. waste materials and cr,:iate quite a run-down atmosphere.Itisat least a 500-metre walk 2. General description of the firm through this inhospitable area to the main road The firm is a limited company with four employees and tram stop which is important for the customers

and thus belongs to type 1 in the classification bringing their cars to be repaired and collecting system chosen for this project. It is not attached tothem again. any particular manufacturer, does not aim to be and would probably not be given the opportunity; Advertising on the premises is relatively ineffective it does, however, say that it specializes in Opelgiven that the majority of traffic on the road which engines. That is connected with the fact that one of runs past this firm has a specific destination, in the employees worked for a long time in an Opel other words haslittlepotentialforproviding repair business and still has good contacts there random customers. Advertising is thus confined which enable him to keep abreast of new to an illuminated sign with the firm's logo directly developments and pass his knowledge on to hison the side of the building facing the street. The colleagues. Sometimes itis possible to use this proprietor has also rented advertising space at a informal channel to look at documents which the sports ground. manufacturer has circulated for internal use only. Signposts on the main road would not significantly All common makes and models of vehicles are improve the situation since there are at least ten serviced and repaired. Only difficult cases motor vehicle businesses on this road near the particularly in the area of diagnosis of electronic junction with the side rood. They include author- 61

_ izeddealershipsfor Japanese makes, motor attracted almost without exception through word vehicle repair firms, a large filling station, a tyreof mouth. To date this form of attracting custom specialist and other businesses involved exclu-was sufficient, in fact often to the extent that the sivelyin the second-hand car sector.But the firm was workingatfullcapacity which is proprietor nevertheless does not see these firms as approximately 10 vehicles per day. competition, on the contrary: some of them pass jobs on to him which they are unable to deal with As already mentioned above, the firm is a member themselves due to lack of the right equipment and ofthe Chamber of Trade andIndustry. Its with others there is an exchange of professional proprietor does not belong to any other organiza- experience. tion (employers' or professional association). The employees are not members of a trade union. Due There is an unusual accumulation of motor vehicleto the size of the firm (less than 5 employees) it businesses in this city on the edge of a former coal would not be entitled to form a staff committee, mine, a location which until recently was con- quite irrespective of whether any of the employees sidered to be highly unappealing and attracted a consideredit necessary to have either a staff number of second-hand car dealers of a suspect committee or a representative. nature.Itremainstobe seenwhether the redevelopment of thepitsite whichisinthe At present four people, including the owner, work planningstageatpresent,willchange this in the firm. A fifth person, a master mechanic, is structure. due to be taken on shortly. All the employees are German and have a relevant vocational qualifica- The firm was started by the present owner in 1980tion: a paint-sprayer, car mechanic and master as o one-man business. He began working alone, mechanic, an automotive electrician, who has in the first instance at a different site in the sameundergone further training in electronics, and a borough of the city. At the time the firm did not bodyworker. Two of the employees are under have any employees with a master mechanic forty, two are over forty years old. One of them qualification and thus was not entitled to train has been with the firm for over 10 years, two apprentices nor be registered on the Craft Trades others for more than five years, and one began Register. 1' was therefore counted as a commercial work with the firm this year. business and became a member of the Chamber of Trade and Industry (IHK).It has not to date The owner reports that the age of his employees is changed its registration although it is now entitled ot present not a problem. On the contrary: he to train apprentices. estimates thatthestaff have increasedtheir efficiency by a remarkable 25 percent. He says, Inthe following years the firm was able to however, that he will have to start to think about consolidateitspositiontoanextent which taking on younger people again. His son has now enabled it to expand. In 1985 it became a limited started his apprenticeship and is due to take over company, took or two employees, bought the site the business in a few years time. He is confident of the present premises and built the shed on it. that he will then bring young people into the When the paint-spi aying booth, the straightening business. jigand the Boscf compact tester went into operationit became possible to deal with the Wages and length of annual holiday are based on entire range of repoirs and these are infact the conditions in other firms. All the employees are carried out today. A second-hand car business full-iime, working eight hours a day,in other was also incorporated but due to a lack of words a forty-hour week. Overtime is an excep- possibilitiesforpresentation,the unfavourable tion (on average 20 hours per employee per location for random customers and fierce competi- year). tion in the immediate surroundings this proved to be uneconomic. The only trading in second-hand There are virtually no differences in functions in the cars which occurs now is when occasionally afirm, and a carefully worked out organizational vehicle is found for regular customers. structure is unnecessary. The commercial side of the business (purchasing, invoicing) is mainly the 90 percent of the customer: have been regular responsibility of the owner but other employees customers for many years. When they buy a new carry out this work as well. Any division of labour car they take it for servicing to the authorized is on the basis of particular skills but even this is dealerships during the guarantee period but then not strictly adhered to because jobs often involve return to N. The vast majority of these customers people with different skills working side by side. (some 80%) are from the same city, most of them Each person masters their own special area of from the same borough. There are, however, a work and is responsible for care and maintenance number of regular customers who live in neigh-of the equipment, but the different amount of use of bouring cities and who travel 20 kilometres or different apparatus and the necessity to help with more. Inview ofthe"advertkingsituation" certain activities alone necessitates co-operation described above it is not surprising that custom is between the employees with different skills. 62 63 Apart from professional ability and proficiency, hand, it is not really necessary since the employ- social and communicative skills are also needed ees themselves look for possibilities when they are because each of the employees has direct contactconfronted with new demands and findfree with customers. Spontaneously the owner evenplaces for themselves. Their motivation to take describes his priorities when employing a newpart in continuing trainingissufficiently high. person as follows: "First of all he has to fit in with ("The mechanic is absolutely mad about continu- us. We are a family business. He must not be petty, ing training," says the proprietor). must be flexible and must, of course, know what he is doing. He has to be friendly to the customers. Continuing training began in1985. When the We are an unusual case: the paint-sprayer and I limited company was formed, new paint-spraying served our apprenticeships together and the fitter booths were put into operation and entirely new is a relative of the paint-sprayer." This recruitmentprocedures and techniques had to be learnt. The policy, choosing staff with care to make sure that introductionof new paints,especially more they get on together, explains why there is littleecologically acceptable kinds, has once more difference in the social background and functions necessitated new specifications for using them of the staff. correctly and economically. In addition to this, the rooir '.developmentsinautomotiveelectronics Thereis ample opportunity forthiskindof makes continuing training necessary on a virtually recruitment policy in the Ruhr region due to thepermanent basis."Particularlyinthefieldof situation of the labour market there: the unemploy- electronics: every one to one-and-a-half years ment rate here has been over 10 percent for more each of us has to go on a course. Developments than ten years and has on occasions risen wellare not quite so rapid for mechanics." above the 15 percent mark. In addition to that, the number of people trained, particularly in the motor The owner estimates that the independent motor vehicle sector,far exceeds the number subse-vehicle repair firms do have their basic training quently employed by the firms who trained them. needs fulfilled albeit with a time lag or not until This explains why even firms with such specific after a new product or procedure has been wishes have never encountered difficulties in theintroduced. This is not so significant in the case past in finding qualified staff. studied because vehicles do not have to be serviced and repaired while they are still under 3. Provision of continuing vocational guarantee. It is, however, a fact that they have no training influence on what kind of training is offered. "You To cover its continuing training needs, firm N. have to take what is on offer." At best a sales uses the Bosch customer service training centre, representative might occasionally enquire about special courses run by the manufacturers of spare specific needs for continuing training; it is doubt- parts or suppliers and the local training events ful, however, whether he can then influence at organized by the Chambers. In addition to this, short notice what his firm offers. the employees read relevant trade journals to keep themselves informed about the latest developments The basic courses on offer are often not adequate in their field of work. (Cf. Appendix, programmefor special problems since "we have to figure for '93). things out for ourselves, we have to search for a long time and learn from our mistakes." Often 4. Training practice at the firm they do not have the documentation, describing The firm does not train apprentices itself. Require- possible reasons for faults and how to rectify mentsforemploying a new personinclude them, which car manufacturers provide for their relevant vocational training and the willingness vehicles and firm N. usually receives much later, to fit in with the customs of the firm. Given the way if at all. staff are selected, experience has shown this to be sufficient for this firm. Presentations by firms or visits to trade fairs are also seen as opportunities for continuing training: Continuing training within the firmis based on for example, certain suppliers often run three to what is available and what interests the employ-four-hour information sessions locally (Sachs, for ees. When it is a question of cost, the owner, of instance, a brake and clutch company). The course, decides which training courses can becustomer service training centres also provide attended,butmostlypeople come forward information about new technical developments, themselves with suggestions for courses which particularly in the field of automotive electronics, they consider to he important and necessary for usually with a delay of a year. "We do not have their own work. access to the latest developments, it usually takes a year." The owner, accompanied by the electri- There is no specific planning of continuing training cian, often visits trade fairs which can prepare in the firm. It is not really possible, since they have them for new problems which might arisein to rely on what is offered by the suppliers or practice.They decide onthebasisofthe whether there arefreeplaces at the Boschimpression gained at the trade fair whether a customer service training centre. On the other new generation of equipment or apparatus for the repair shops is necessary or whether it is possible Participation: Participation is voluntary; to manage for another year with what they have. Obligatory or The spray-painter was voluntary? informed by the paint The introduction of a new generation of equipment How is informa- sales representative. is accompanied by a leap forward in continuing tion provided, training: "Next year we will probably get another how is participa- new diagnosis system. Sum to be invested: DM tion organized? 70,000, the old appliance will be taken as part- payment. Software and training on the appliance Goals of the firm? Economic and functional are included in the price but any extra training use of new (low-solvent) coursecostsmore. Advice onproblems or paints difficulties, either by telephone (usually sufficient) or by a visit from a technician, is free. There are, Expectations of Correct use of the new however, additional costs for the different modules participants? paints, learning tips needed for different models (approximately DM about its use. 700 each)." Course 2 Apart from technological innovations which ne- cessitate increased continuing training but to some Topic: Airbrush design: a tech- extent are only ever presented to the independent nique for applying post- firms in the finished car, new legislation also ers or similar designs necessitates continuing training. An example of directly onto a surface this is the new exhaust emission regulation due to come into force in 1993 which also applies to Participants Spray-painters diesel engines. Up to the time of the interview the details of this regulation were still not known and Length in units of One week therefore the design of the test was similarly not time/over what known. period of time?

Apart from spontaneous events organized by the During or outside During working hours; Chambers, which deal with commercial or tax working hours; paid for by the firm, questions, the continuing training courses in this paid? normal wages paid firm concentrate on technical training. Something in the order of one percent of working time and Type of course/ Practical instruction in the labour costs are spent on cor.tinuing training. methods; firm by a mastercraftsman Certificate? employed by the manufacturer; certificate of at- 5. Evaluation of the training concepts tendance Below is an example showing which courses were taken in 1991/92: Internal or exter- Internal with external nal course? teaching staff Continuing training courses in 1991/92 Participation: Since the firm had pro- Course 1 Obligatory or vided the venue for the voluntary? training participation was Topic: Colour mixing and spray- How is informa- a matter of course; it was ing techniques for new tion provided, offered by the paint man- paints how is participa- ufacturer; it was provided tion organized? free of charge by the Participants Spray-painters supplier.

Length in units of 3 days compact: Fri., Goals of the firm? Introduction to the tech- time/over what Sat., Sun. nique in order to be able period of time? to sell it in the future (e.g. for advertising slogans) During or outside Partly during, partly out- working hours; side, working hours; paid Expectations of Simplification of signwrit- paid? for by the firm, wages participants? ing on vehicles paid

Type of course/ External course run by the methods; Certifi- paint suppliers; seminar cate? with practical exercises; 6 cettificate of attendance Course 3 This number of courses is not, however, typical for the continuing training policy of firm N.; there this Topic: New applications for the was above-average attendance of courses in compact tester. period. Mostly only one employee per year attends a course; for updating on applications of Participants Automotive electricians the compact tester it is actually adequate to attend a course every two to three years. Apartfrom that, Length in units of Four Saturdays this particular year does reflect the most important time/over what elements in the continuing training policy of the period of time? firm: the courses offered by the paint manufacturer and mastering the diagnosis system. These are the During or outside Outside working hours; areas where the highest number ofchanges take working hours; paid for by the firm place,requiringregularcontinuingtraining; paid? changes in the area of mechanics and bodywork repair are very much slower. Type of course/ Practical instruction at the methods; Certifi- Bosch branch establish- 6. Applicability to other firms cate? ment; certificate of The proprietor believes the continuing training attendance activities in his firm to be applicable to other firms. He also believes, however, that it is true to say that Internal or exter- External on the premises "many firms of a similar size to mine shy away nal course? of the supplier from the costs involved; they think they can manage to keep up with the knowledgethey Participation: Participation is voluntary, have. Many are living from hand to mouth. If they Obligatory or but the participant wished don't understand something any more they just voluntary? to take part; these courses bluff their way through or try to find out from How is informa- are offered at regular colleagues." tion provided, intervals by the supplier, how is participa- with an increased number He is convinced that particularly the small firms tion organized? when changes to the will only be able to survive if they prepare for new testers are introduced; developments as they arise. That does cost quite a normally the sales repre- lot of money, but equally saves time infault sentative draws attention detection and thus saves money in the long run. to these courses. He says thatisparticularly true because the independent repair shops in any case have to Goals of the firm? Introduction to new appli- live with delays inherent in the system before they cations in order to be can catch up with new technicaldevelopments. able to satisfy customers Any firm which does not want to establish a with newer models. reputationfordealingonlywithtechnically obsolete vehicles cannot survive withoutthis Expectations of Correct working methods constant continuing training. But in o couple of participants? for new models, certaintyyears it will not even be possible to repairthe of diagnosis. vehicles which are by then technicaly obsolete without extensive knowledge of elect! onics.

00 Example of the continuing training programme of a Bosch branch establishment in cooperation with the local Chamber of Craft Trades ACourse Seminar oscilloscopeEngine testers and with AutomotiveMotorTarget mechanicgroup electri- Dates19931st half-year of 2ndDates1993 half-year of Duration5 evenings of course from 8.45 p.m. CourseDM fees275 Syllabus of courses MeasuringDemonstration technology and use used of current to locate equipment defects in batteries, starter (Useranalysisexhaust training) emission cian every1. 4.Thursday - 29. 4. 93 every26.8. Thursday - 23.9.93 5.30 system,OscillographicExplanationmotors and mixture dynamos of interpretationthe formation basic oscillograms and used engine for componentsmechanics of the ignition systemsElectronic with ignition fault withMotor basic mechanic knowl- 19931st half-year of 2nd1993 half-year of 4 evenings from DM 210 Overviewemissions,MeasuringBasic functions of techniquesAU ignition II: latest of systems the and specifications TZ-1, correction TZ.H, EZ-K,of defects VZ, VZ-Kin exhaust systems and of ofdetection testers and use technologyedge of measuring every20.1. Wednesday- 10.2.93 every30.9. Thursday 21.10.93 5.30 - 8.45 p.m. TestinglocatingDemonstrationignition components systems defects and within by the use measuringRUV timing of current angle voltage, equipment control current system, and checkingresistance the DiagnosisignitionOscilloscopictiming and system on adjusting vehiclesevaluation the with ofangle memorydynamo forsignals storing and defects components in the C Motronic,LEjectionElectronic Jetronic, systems fuel-in- AutomotiveMotoristcian knowledgemechanic with electri- special- and every6.419931st - Tuesdayhalf11 -year5.93 of every2nd12.10.1993 half-year Thursday - 16.11 of 93 5.306 evenings - 8.45 from p.m DM 290 UsemeasurementsPeripheralDemonstration of appliances checking ofond feed, to use ofevaluate pressuresystems of current stored andusing equipment possibledefects a universal inleaks systems test in the adapter withfuel self-system and withLambda use ofcontrol ter:ters mixtureencepractical in theformation experi- field of effectivenessAdjustmentdiagnosislambda control and of testingcatalytic of converter,exhaust emissions, idling speed, exhaust pulse behaviour, ratio and L., AU II: latest specifications Course Seminar Target group Dates Dates Duration of course Course fees Syllabus of courses Mono-Jetronic,jectionElectronic systems. fuel-in- MotorcianAutomotive mechanic with special- electri- 19931st half-year of 2nd1993 half-year of 5.305 evenings - 8.45 from p.m. DM 275 measurementsPeripheralDemonstration checking of and feed, useof pressuresystems of current andusing equipment possible a universal leaks test in the adapter fuel system and withLambdaEcotronic, use controlof testers mixtureencepracticalist knowledge in formationthe experi- field and of every17.2. Wednesday - 10.3.93 every28.10. Thursday - 25.11.93 effectivenessAdjustmentdiagnosisUse of appliances and of testingcatalytic to evaluate of converter, exhaust stored emissions, idlingdefects speed, in exhaust systems pulse behaviour, withratio self- and Electronicjection systems:fuel-in- AutomotiveMotor mechanic electri- 1st1993 half-year of 2nd half-year1993 of 5.306 evenings - 8.45 from p.m. DM 290 AUlambdaPeripheralDemonstration II: latest control specifications checking and useof systems of current using equipment a universal test adapter and Motronic,w,thLombduK, KE use Jetronic, controlof testers encepracticalistcian knowledge with in the experi-special- field and of every Tuesday19.1. - 02.3.93 every31.8. Tuesday - 05.10.93 AdjustmentdiagnosisUs e. of appliances and testingeasurements to evaluate of exhaust stored of feed, emissions, defects pressure in exhaust systems and possible behaviour, with self-leaks in the fuel system tlecliona. systems mixtureMotor formation mechanic 1st half-year of 2nd half-year of 2 evenings from DM 110 AUlambdaeffectivenessDemonstration II: latest control specifications of catalytic and use converter, of current idling equipment speed, pulse ratio and useABSModern of for testers cars measur- with MotoristcianAutomotive knowledge with mechanic special- electri- every06.5.1st1993 Thursdayhalf-year- 13.5.93 of every2nd23.11. 1993Tuesday half-year of 30.11.93 55.30 evenings from 8.45 p.m. DM 265 DemonstrationOscilloscopicconjunctionPeripheral checking with evaluation and a brake useof the of oftest systemcurrent dynamo stand usingequipment signals an LED test adapter in Electronicseltechniquesing enginesand testing analysis for die- cilnAutomotiveknowledgemakers and body- with electri- basic every07.4.1993 Wednesday 05.5.93 Thursdayevery02.12.1993 Tuesday - 21.12.93 and 5.30 - 8.45 p.m. testingExhaustcontrolTesting ofsystems and analysis exhaust adjusting and asemissions specifiedstart procedures of (AUfeed; in theII) adjustingfor legal motor provisions equipmentmechanics, governing engine of running gear 2nd1993 half-year of 5.302 evenings - 8.45 from p. m. DM 110 EvaluationExplanationDemonstrationDigital diesel of stored of electronics theand defects terms use of(DE) steering current geometry,equipment king pin angle, on request AnalysisdriveRequirementssteering vehicles angle,of measurements and inclination preparation of steering for wheel knuckle alignment pivot, ontrailing all-wheel effect 0, 70 2. MAZDA

Size of the Firm: II staff, a store, an office, and a vehicle reception area on an adjacent plot of land. At that time the Car Manufacturer: Mazda staff consisted of three motor-vehicle mechanics and the head of the business. A showroom was Type of Vehicle: A, B added in 1988. A repair shop for body repair work with a lifting platform and a frame-type Type of Firm: B straightening jig was built in 1990, and finally, in 1991, an up-to-date paint shop was put into 1. General description of the case operation and two further employees were taken The Mazda dealer Autohaus M. GmbH, in a small on. Today the firm employs two people in the town in North Hesse, employs seven staff. Theyoffice, two mechanics and a master mechanic in selland repair theentire range of vehiclesthe repair shop, and two further staff in the paint marketed by Mazda in Germany. The dealership shop, thus making a total of seven people. also trains its own employees. The premises cover approximately 3,800 m2 and, The Japanese car manufacturer Mazda has a in addition to the buildings mentioned above, has European training centre in Brussels, where the about 50 parking spaces for second-hand vehi- full-time employees of the customer service train-cles and 70 parking spaces for customers' vehicles ing centres in the various European countries are brought in for repair. The repair shop is operating trained. at full capacity; about 8 vehicles per day pass through the repair shop. The bodywork depart- The German customer service training centre forment and the paint shop are also constantly Mazda is located in Leverkusen. This is where the working to capacity. staff of the more than 100 Mazda dealers and repair shops in Germany are trained in motor-Advertising for the firm is controlled by Mazda vehicle technology, customer service and data Motors Germany. The firm receives an annual processing by seven full-time trainers. In the eventadvertising budget in accordance with the manu- ofmodelchanges, specialone-to-iwo-day facturer's marketing plan; this year (1992) this courses areheldforallvehicle dealersin amounted to DM 28,000. This allows the financ- Germany (attendance is obligatory); these run ing of newspaper advertisements, brochures and for about six months. other advertisingactivities.Other advertising material is also supplied by Mazda. Specifically In addition (on account of the limited capacity at targeted newspaper articles about the firm's new the customer service training centre), video units, products appear at certain intervals in co-opera- each running to about 20 minutes, are made tion with other Mazda dealers. available to the dealerships for the purpose of self- study in model technology (especially in view ofThe proportion of regular customers at the firm the growing importance of chip-controlled vehicle amounts to 95%. The firm is known for its expert, technology). reliable work on vehicles and for its customer- friendly service. Random customers occasionally Apart fromeveningcoursesforthemaster arrive from the nearby motorway. Usually these mechanics' qualifying examination at the respon- customers'vehicleshaveseriousdefectsor sible Chamber of Trades, the firm rarely makes use damage, entailing lengthy repair. of other training opportunities because of the time and cost involved. The owner refers to the location of his firm as virtually ideal: it lies directly alongside a federal 2. General description of the firm highway with a large volume of traffic. As a result, Autohaus M. GmbH is an authorized dealershipthe fillingstation thatstillbelongs to the firm and repair shop for the Japanese car manufacturer receives above-average custom. The showroom is Mazda in a small town in North Hesse. All cars eye-catching and cannot be missed, as it is in a and small vans marketed by Mazda in Germany slightly elevated position opposite the roadway. (including the sports-car range) are sold, serviced The advertising impact of the showroom is also and repaired by the total of seven employees. The repeatedly confirmed by the customers. According firm has specialized particularly in the repair ofto the owner, a large proportion of the vehicles are electronic components, engines, ignition and fuel- sold as a result of this advertising signal alone. injection systems, and in body repair and painting work. The firri djes not sense any competitive pressure. On ui e contrary, it faces up to the competition with The firm was founded in 1981 as a filling station tne necessary degree of self-assurance, on the on an arturicl road in the town. The workforce lines of: "Competition is good for business. That is initially comprised the only master motor-vehicleny attitude:if customers can't find a car at my mechanic M., the proprietor then and now. Inrival's place, they will find one here On the other 1985 thefirm underwent expansion with the hand though, pressure to sell on the part of Mazda 68 construction of a repair c!..)p designed for threeis, of course, very high." V I Mazda Germany has divideditsdistribution 3. Provision of continuing vocational channels into two according to qualitative cri-training teria: of the more than 1000 Mazda dealers, only about 400 are allowed to market the sports-car 3.1 Structure within the firm range ("Plus-X Programme"). They must exhibitApart fromthetrainingavailablefromthe particular eligibility for this,including a show- responsible Chamber of Trades, where the young- room, holding of stocks of spare parts for the er son is currently attending a master mechanics' range, appropriate technical equipment for servic-course at evening school, Autohaus M. GmbH ing and repair, and the repair shop personnel's relies mainly on the continuing vocational training know-how. This is all checked before a dealership provided by the Mazda customer service training such as in this case Autohaus M. GmbH is centre in Leverkusen. Given the size of the firm, permitted to market these vehicles. in-house continuing training does not take place in any organized manner but usually on an ad-hoc The partnership interests of the GmbH (private basis to deal with problems as they occur. limited company) are held jointly by Mr. M. and his two sons, who also work in the firm. Mr. M. 3.2 Structure of the customer service senior is responsible for management of the firmtraining centre as a whole and has the specific function of being Within the Mazda Germany corporation, each incharge of commercial and administrative division is responsible for its own training: matters together with sales. He is assisted in this by iwo office staff, who, in addition to internal After-sales service (technology) accounting and personnel administration, also with a standard range of 14 courses over a perform the written work relating to the accept- total of 38.5 training days (see Appendix 1) ance of repair jobs and the sale of spare parts. and special courses covering new technical The elder son, a master motor-vehicle mechanic, is developments or model changes (generally one in charge of the technical department, which is to two days) divided into two areas: Parts and accessories with a basic three-day course (see Appendix 2) repair,servicing,maintenance,spare-part Data processing procurement with six courses over a total of 13 days (see (two mechanics, one of them training as a Appendix 3) master: the younger son) Each of these divisions holds theii training courses body repair shop and paint shop in Leverkusen. Some divisions, such as marke'ing, (one mechanic and one semi-skilied worker) also make use of professional educational '.istab- lishments, to whom they transfer responsibility for The technical manager, the elder son, is respon- development of the content and implementation of sible for accepting repairs and for carrying outthe courses at other locations.Insuch cases repairs. "Sales, customer advice and so on, he Mazda takes care of organization and invitation does all that as well, by the way. It depends on of the participants. what is needed at the time." It obviously does not make sense to enforce a strict division of labour The courses in ihe after-sales service (technology) given this size of firm. The younger son takes care division are devised and updated by the seven of the procurement and ordering of spare parts.full-time trainers (master mechanics or techni- Both of them deputise for the senior partnercians). This is done on the basis of specifications whenever he is not on the premises. contained in Japanese training manuals from the parent company, which the German (and other Apart from one semi-skilled worker, all employees European) trainerslearn aboutina kindof have relevant vocational training behind them, preliminary training at the Mazda Europe head and three of them previously passed the Abitur office in Brussels. (final school-leaving examination). Of the four mechanics, two are master motor-ve,licle me- The European training centre in Brussels issCll chanics, and one is currently attending evening accommodated at the main European establish- courses to attain the same qualification. The firm ment there; a large new schr lis currently being also trains motor-vehicle mechanics itself(cur- built. There is a regular teaci working at the rently two), but usually does not take them on customerservicetrainingcentreinBrussels, subsequently, as it is not economic to increase the among them experts from Japan who keep close number of persons employed. contact with the development department at the parent plant.Itis from these that the German There is no staff committee. trainers obtain the basic information from which the specific German course is then constructed.

Thetrainingmanualisin Englishand is comparable to a repair shop manual; the focal 69

A areas of interest to the German participants are The current focus in the customer service training filteredout,those that inthe opinion of the centres's training strategy is on new products, with trainers are important for the repair and servicing the objective of passing on knowledge about the of vehicles.Important new developments,in repair, servicing and maintenance of the vehicles particular, are constantly incorporated into cur- and of teaching the skill of making the benefits of rent courses. innovativetechnology comprehensibletothe customer. This aim is addressed by means of a The customer service training centre is committed broad range of specialist courses bolstering and to the maxim that itis necessary to coi.'ribute to further improving the mechanics' level of knowl- guaranteeing the high quality of vehicles th.nughedge and by the rapid response which ensures service. "Service on the vehicle must be as c,.odthat appropriate training is conducted when new as the vehicle itself. This means that the vehicle productsareintroducedinvolvingreal new must always be serviced and repaired under developments that cannot be covered by previous economically sound conditions. The top priority knowledge.Attendanceatthesecourses is in ot..r work is customer satisfaction; that means obligatoryforatleast one member of the that customers who opt for our cars must be dealer's staff. safiFfied with the service as well as the product. This is the basis for the way we decide on the form A variety of indicators are used when planning the and content of our training programme." (Head ofrange of training on offer at the customer service the customer service training centre) training centre:

The capacity of the customer service training A certain trend can be determined from the centres, however, is highly limited, amounting to frequency of queries and recurring problems about 3,000 to 3,500 participants per year (for (the hot-line advice service for Mazda dealer- 1,000 dealers). This figure is greatly exceeded ships is also based in Leverkusen) when a new model is due: in such cases the one- The technical advisory field service is able to day, or at the most two-day, courses for that determine when visiting dealers where the purpose areall pushed through within three main problems lie as far as the mechanics are months, while the specialized courses, which on concerned average last three days, a few five days, are On theother hand,theresponse tothe deferred during that time. customer service training centre's course range signals current requirements: The run-up time available for technical training of What is accepted by voluntary response the dealers and their staff before the introduction from dealers? of a new model is not very long. Usually the first What does the field service have to draw training courses are provided when the introduc- dealers' attention to by express comment? tion of the vehicle begins, that is when the first demonstration vehicles are available to the deal- Inaddition, by way of preliminary instruction ers. The reason for thisisthe relatively longbefore a new model is introduced, each dealer "translation time". "Unfortunately a certain lengthreceives a video tape showing the most important of time is needed before training can begin at the maintenance topics for the new technical devel- European head office and the manual (in English) opments, so that the technical staff at the firm but is available. We are not able to start preparing also the sales staff can familiarize themselves with our training documents until then. It is also very the contents. This approach has proved necessary much dependent on when the vehicle appears on now that motor-vehicle technology is becoming theEuropeanmarket. Assuming that we in ever more complicated. Germany are the first to put the vehicle on the market, then time is extremely short.If we are There are therefore videos about the operation of somewhere in the middle of the timescale, we power sunroofs and power windows, for exam- have a longer advance period. Itis guaranteed, ple, or central locking systems and so on. though,thatatleast one person from each dealership will have been here by the time aMoreover, these videos put the "multiplier", i.e. new model is introduced." (Head) the person at the firm who has got to know the vehicle at the introductory course, in a better Everyeffortismade tokeep thedatesofposition to explain the technical details of the new presentation at the dealership and start of training model to all other members of staff. as close togethei as possible. There is always a three-month gap between presentationtothe The video tapes come from Japan. The trainers at press and delivery to customers. By that time the the customer service training centre rework them introdUctory trainingforthe new model hasfor German conditions and prepare a German text generally been completed. These training courses in a joint process of discussion and in collabora- all take place at the customer service training tion with dealerships which have the necessary centre in Leverkusen. 70 know-how. "Even in technical information such as 73 this, mentality is very important when you want to models are introduced. Special courses can then explain something to a Japanese per.3n, an be held to catch up on the training requirements American or a European. There are subtle details that had to take a back seat in the years in which that you have to take note of, otherwise if younew rr,odels were launched. have German or European training you can work on the wrong assumptions when approaching the It was stated that it is difficult to predict the course information originating from an American teach-strategy for the near future; the customer service ing film and let errors slip into your work. Just one training centres is only able to respond to events. example: the Japanese recently showed a video of "We don't know what technological developments how to repair a folding roof. The roof had been we can expect in the future; we concentrate on the slashed with a knife, and a patch was simplymodels that are available on the market." With attached from above and below. That is what theyregard to methodology, there are thoughts of using showed. You can show that to the Japanese ormore computer technology and other media for Americans, because they aren't so concerned teaching instead of direct instruction at the central about the visual impact, but if you were to suggest school. One idea is to offer employees the option that to a German customer...I" (Head of customer of learning on the spot at their place of work, service training centre) for example with a disk containing the most important technical information in graphical form. This As with most other manufacturers, there has been would be a possible way of a large number of staff an enormous expansion inthebreadthofobtaining the necessary level of knowledge in the technology used in Mazda vehicles today when shortest possible time. At all events, these are compared with ten years ago. As a consequence, ideas thatare' being worked on by outside great demands have been placed on the will-companies who devise such teaching systems ingness of staff to engage in continuing training inand who are attempting to sell them to Mazda. order to master the new technology. "Let's take as an example the transition from breaker-triggered A more company-related training concept of this ignitiontotoday's breakerless semiconductortype could also gaininimportance forcost systems, largely determined by exhaust emission reasons. At Mazda, trainingis available at no control. These systems are controlled by computer charge for the employees of the dealers. Dealers with the use of ignition maps, and operate withoutonly have to cover the wages, accommodation contacts. This is a move that demands a quiteand travel costs of the participants.If training different approach. It used to be the case that youmeasures continue to expand, however, and the would have a look at the contact and see that it is costs become too much for the dealers, meaning burnt, so you would change it and set the correct that they are no longer able to pay for continuing contact gap. Easy to check electrically andtraining, then thought must be given to finding a mechanically by the way it looked. Today we lower-cost training method.Itistrue that the have systems that need no maintenance and are number of dealers has grown and that hence the also relatively insusceptible to failure. If I do get a capacityoftheschoolhasindirectlybeen fault there, I need a mechanic who knows exactlyreduced, but thatisnot the real problem for what's what. For rn..Iy mechanics this means that training but rather the rapid pace of innovation they have a lot of catching up to do in terms of and therefore the frequency of training required technical qualifications." for each individual.

The dealers are faced with the problem that more 3.3 Other forms of continuing training and more different models are being built and, atThere are also opportunities for continuing voca- the same time, each model is becoming moretional training with Chambers of Commerce or complicated. To cope with this, the mechanics Trades, associations, and public institutions. At the require extensive specialist knowledge of details moment, for example, the proprietor's second son and interrelationships.Thiscallsforintensive is attending a master mechanics' evening course training. "Just one example: in the last year-and- at the Chamber of Trades, every working day from a-half we have had five new engines. You can't 6.00 to 9.30 p.m. say an engine is an engine; you have to go wider and deeper into the matter with the technical4. Training practice at the firm training courses. The technology has to be learned systematically, and trouble-shooting has to be4.1 Training plans at the repair shop taught systematically." level There is no specific planning of continuing training In view of this trend the question ha5 to be asked in the repair shop. However, complicated repairs whether the training capacity in Leverkusen is not are used for internal training, often with the aid of too limited. According to information from the trainingmaterialthatthe Mazda after-sales customer s,rvice training centre, thisis not the serviceorganization hasprepared(videos, case, at teal not in those years in which no new course documents etc.). 71 .7 4 4.2 Link between training concepts and new vehicle or a new system or assembly so that demand the repair shop personnel can handleitfor Allnewly-recruited employees or apprentices maintenance, servicing and repair. There is also taken on after their apprenticeships at Autohausconstant reference to selling points in the form of M. GmbH are sent as soon os possible, depend-beneficial technology, equipment and ride coming on the space available in Leverkusen, to the fort." customer service training centre to attend the basic courses appropriate to their job. Later, too, theyMazda introduced a diagnostic system a number are registered for technical courses at regularof years ago. "This is a kind of memory in the intervals, according to what isoffered by the vehicle in which faults are recorded and can then customer service training centre and the quota be called up with a digital code checker. It makes apportioned to the firm on the basis of its number it possible to locate faults in various circuits and of staff (see Appendices for range of topics). components. For example, you can determine whether a lambda sensor is faulty and if the car If Mazda does not offer any appropriate courses has been running with the fault for some time. It itself,employees attendseminarsatoutside also helps to locate faults which the customer companies if the contents are tailored to Maz- describes as: 'there was a sudden jerk about four da's needs. weeks ago, but nothing since.' This device can then show where the cause of the fault is to be 4.3 Target groups of vocational found." (Senior partner) training The senbr partner together with the two co- Mazda stipulates clearly which technical equip- proprietors of the firm, his sons, choose which ment has to be procured. When a new product is employees are selected to attend which training brought onto the market, the firm is obliged to buy course. This decision is binding for the employees. the associated special tools to be able to perform If employees claim the need for new training repairs and adjustments on the vehicle. These themselves, they can attend the course providedincludethe relevantmeasuringinstruments, that there are no operational reasons to prevent gauges etc. The corresponding further training them.Itisfirst checked, though, that they can courses are also made available as soon as a new actually cope with the performance expectations vehicle appears on the market, approximately at on the technical side. the same time. "It can happen, of course, that a course might be held up to four weeks later," was The main emphasis of continuingvocational the comment of the owner. training at the firmis placed on the technical field, 90%, with only 10% on the commercial The firm is not currently considering expansion, side. neither in terms of space nor staff numbers. The priority in the immediate future, it is said, is to keep 4.4 Training plans control of costs. At times of high interest rates, Motivation for continuing training is not really a intensified competition with ever bigger discounts problem. The senior partner does, however, make on vehicles and ever smaller profits, it is necessary it plain in no uncertain terms that training is ato look for even more rational working methods at requirement for each and every one: "If the staff of.he firm. An attempt must be made, we were told, the firm decide that a certain employee is to attend to increase productivity in repoir and sales. "We a course, then he must do so.It is training thathave to reach about 90%. The slack must be safeguards his job and is to the benefit of thereduced. What bothers us is the extra work on firm." The only time that problems might occur isvehicles that is effectively carried oui as on act of in summer, when staff shortages occur due to goodwill. This time is then missing for the rest of holidays. It may happen in such cases that there is the work on the vehicle. But you can't charge the no alternative but to miss a particular training customer for everything. Let's take the case that a event. customer wants an auxiliary heating system fitted. There is usually no space for it in the car. First you Changes to continuing training become necessary have to look at the components and study the as new products arrive on the market; newfitting instructions. Then you need two days to technologynecessitatesstafftraining.Asa install it. What appears on the customer's bill? Two customer, the firm has only an indirect influenceor three hours' work!" on the structure of continuing training. A technical adviser, in some ways a district manager, visits the 4.5 Costs of continuing vocational firm at regular intervals. If deficiencies or difficul- training ties in dealing with the technology in the repairThe amount of time expended on training per shop are detected, there is a discussion as toemployee of the firm amounts to about one week whether a course can be held on tha relevant or approximately Ar. working hours per year and topic."Otherwise courses are always entirely mainly takes the form of courses at the customer product-oriented. Trainingis carried out for a service training centre. 72 75 Mazda provides the trainingfor the dealers' technical systems, such as four-wheel steering, employees at no cost. Dealers only have to meetwhich are already being marketed by Mazda. the costs of the wages, accommodation and travel Relevantcoursesarealsoavailableatthe expenses of the participants.The costs for training customer service training centre. Mazda makes at other establishments are usuallyborne by the use of appropriate measuring equipmentfrom participants, unless the firm has an express interest third-party manufacturers such as Bosch or Sun for in the employees attending particular courses. the purpose of electronic measurement.

4.6 Evaluation of costs Itseemsthat Mazda informs the dealership The firm's current training policy problems lie inorganization sufficiently quickly and thoroughly the financial area. It has to pay for the costs ofof the current technical innovations. Adaptation of board, lodging and travel. Wage payments also the standard courses to technical developments in continue for the days of the training course. A daythe medium termalso appearstoproceed at a seminar therefore costs DM 1,000. Extra-satisfactorily. Mazda therefore also giveslittle polation of this figure to take account of thethought to how continuing technical training might average attendance at training events gives an need to be configured to suit future requirements. annual cost to the firm of DM 35,000, or DM The only visible changes in this direction are the 5,000 per employee. video-based decentralized learning system and the beginnings of a computer-aided learning 5. Evaluation of the training concepts strategy, but both of these are founded on the If the training activities undertaken by Autohausbasis of the central pillar of the customer service M. since 1987 are looked at more closely,itis training centre. However, it does appear ques- noticeable that the trend is for all employees to tionable to us whether Mazda's chosen form of make slightly more use of the training on offer at centralized training of "multipliers" supported by the Mazda customer service training centre (with decentralized accompanying materialwillbe regard to the length of the courses), with the adequate in the future, when faced with an even greatest concentration by far on the long-servingbroader range of products and accelerated staff,the sons of Mr. M., who are also co- innovation cycles. proprietors of the firm. Itis difficult to determine whether itis the duration of their employment orChanges in content are usually introduced at the their status in the firm which leads to this state ofinstigation of the technical side. The technical affairs; presumably itis both. These two people department has the task of gathering problems hold key technical positions in the firm, but at leastand facts from the dealerships (obtained via the from the choice of course topics it is not obvious fieldservice and hot-line queries) and then that they are specializing in a particular area. reporting them to the manufacturer. They also Such specialization applies in particular to thelearn from the guarantee department's reports mechanic in the bodywork and painting depart-what technical problems have occurred. The ment; his courses did not form part of thestandard customer service training centre, too, tries to use programme atthe customerservicetraining its information from course participants to con- centre.Itis also noticeable, however, that new tribute to the encouragement of improvements to employees complete the basic course for theirvehicles. There is very close contact between technicalfieldwithinthefirstyear oftheir training staff and the technical department. As a employment. consequence, the customer service training centre isalways informedrelativelyquicklyof the It is also a matter of course and by now almost ameasures taken to counter technicalproblems, tradition that the senior partner attends a dealers' and can pass on that information inits courses. conference and a seminar for sales personnelThe prerequisite for this, however, is good co- every year. operation between the technical department and th e. customer service training centre. Inthe experience of Autohaus M., technical changes are causing the emphasis to increasingly 6. Conclusions shift from repair to electronics. It was said that only In Autohaus M. we have probably found an those who have acquired the necessary technical exemplary case of above-average training qual- skills and have undergone continuing training areity at a small dealership within the framework of able to carry out repairs. A background of Mittlere the Mazda dealership network. This is indicated Reife (the intermediate school-leaving certificate) not only by the lad that it has qualified for the Plus or even Abitur (the final schcol-leavingcertificate) X programn- e (sports cars), but also that it takes makes it easier to cope with the tasks. This canpart in the Mazda organization's business man- apparently be seen in work on the vehicles. An agement competition. It is also suggested simply unskilled worker is only able to carry out certain by the firm's training figures: if it is assumed that specific jobs. Autohaus M. is an average-sized firm, given 1,000 companies and 3,000 course placesit would be entitled to about three courses per year There is said to be a major need for continuing 73 training in the future as a result of foreseeable new at the customer service training centre. Even :f the dealers' conference and sales seminars attendedDespite this unusually good educational back- by the boss are disregarded, employees have ground, there is nothing to prevent the assumption always attended four or more courses in recent being made that the system developed by this firm years. and the high frequency of training could not also be adopted by other companies. The !imitation Withinthe Mazda organization,thisfirmis cippears to us to be more an external matter: the certainly among the front-runners in continuing cvacity of the customer service training centre training for its size category, as is also shown by and the high costs associated with centralized the fact that a third member of staff (out of seven) is training for many companies, especially those on the way to qualifying as a master mechanic. some distance away. However, it does appear This has to be rated as a special case, however, questionable to us whether Mazda's chosen form and probably only works because the functions of of centralized training of "multipliers" supported o master mechanic (or future master) and the status by decentralized accompanying material will be of owner ore identical. Nevertheless, there isa adequate in the future, when faced withan even remarkable concentration of technicalcompe- broader range ofproducts and accelerated tence in one small firm. Three staff members also innovation cycles. have the Abitur and at least one other has the leaving certificate from a Realschule.

74 APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Dealer's stamp:

Mazda Motors (Deutschland) GmbH Schulungszentrum Postfach 100 960 5090 Leverkusen 1

Request for after-sales service courses:

hereby give notice of my firm's requirement for courses on the following topic(s):

Course topics Number of persons

1. "Basic course"

2. "Electrical systems l"

3. "Electrical systems II"

4. "Electrical systems III"

5. "Electronic fuel-injection systems I"

6. "Electronic fuel-injection systems II"

7. "RX-7 Turbo (FC and FD)"

8. "Manual trcIsmissions"

9. "Automatic transmissions"

10. "Four-wheel drive"

11. "Running-gear alignment and balancing"

12. "ABS systems"

13. "Diagnostics and repair of supplementary, luxury and safety equipment"

14. "Basic seminar on job acceptance"

Place, date, signature

Scheduling of courses is carried out at the Mazda Training Centre after receipt of your request. You will be informed of the dates in an invitation that will be sent to you separately.

73 Appendix 2

Mazda

Training Centre

Parts and Accessories

Basic course

Target group: Employees of dealerships responsible for the following duties:

Sale of parts and accessories Ordering of parts Inventory management

Training goal: After attending this course it is intended that participants should be able to carry out their work even more productively and with greater relevance to service than before. The work in parts and accessories training is intended to train experts in stages for the field of parts and accessories.

Duration: 3 days

Contents: Familiarity with models Catalogue training Ordering methods Information about organizational procedures at MMD Communication with MD

76 73 Appendix 3

Mazda

Training Centre

MACH

MACH Seminar concept

Introductory seminar (Planning and preparation for use of MACH, 2 days)

Basic training (Practical introduction to the essential basic fundions of the MACH programme, 3 or 2 days)

rContinuation seminar: Motor-vehicle sector and sales promotiori, 2 days

Continuation seminar: Inventory and materials management, 2 days

Continuation seminar: Entry journal and accounting interface, 2 days

Special seminars Specialized questions relating to the use of MACH

Mazda after-sales school Leverkusen

Courses available

After-sales service Parts and Data processing (technology) accessories

14 courses over a Basic course 6 courses over total of 38 5 training 3 days a total of 13 days days (see Appendix) (see Appendix) (see Appendix) + special course on Introduction of a new vehicle model. 1-2 days training time 77

" 3. MERCEDES-BENZ AUTOHAUS K.

Size of the Firm: IV operation with other companies in the field of special-purpose commercial vehicles. Car Maker: Mercedes-Benz The firm was founded as long ago as 1918 in a Type of Vehicle: A, B village to the south of Kassel, and in 1935 moved to a neighbouring village in which the proprietor Type of Firm: B had a farmhouse converted to a motor vehicle repair shop and car dealership. At that time the 1. General description of the case firm employed 10 people. In 1964 the firm moved 30 people work at the Mercedes-Benz dealer toitspresent location, and at the same time Autohaus K. KG in a small town in North Hesse became an authorized dealership and repair shop (including the proprietor but not including appren- forpassenger andcommercialvehiclesfor tices). They sell and repair the entire range ofMercedes-Benz AG. The foundations were thus Mercedes-Benz AG vehicles: passenger cars, laidfor the present-day firm. Major changes trucks and off-road vehicles. The range of repairs worthy of note since then are,in1981, the covers all specialist areas and a variety of makes, installation of a brake test bench and enlargement as the firm also deals in second-hand vehicles of the truck shop, and, in 1984, the construction of which it also services and repairs. The firm trains a display hall and a vehicle test bench. its own employees. At the same time the firm has, of course, always Mercedes-Benz AG has its own Service Training implemented the constant changes necessary to Centre (STC)inEsslingen-Brithl,with branch stay in line with the manufacturer's models as they establishmentsinGaggenau and Mannheim, have continuously been updated; as a result of the and 57 decentralized STCs in 39 countries. All rapid growth of electronic systems in the vehicles, after-sales service training for Mercedes-Benz AG particular'y in luxury cars, it has moreover recently around the world is controlled in Esslingen, and a had to m ike considerable efforts entailing invest- major proportion of German training is conductedment and raising the level of qualification. As do there. About 350 people are employed full-time in all Merce des-Benz partners, the firm receives the continuing training at Mercedes-Benz throughoutnecessary set of new tools virtually automatically the world, 123 of them in Germany. when a new model is introduced. A computer system was purchased, and now all internal and A new project, a distance learning concept viaexternal operations and services are processed satelliteconferenceswithregionalbasesin electronically(repair acceptance, repair shop Germany, is currently being developed, installed performance, staff work records, work costing, and tested. In future it is hoped to be able to trainspare-part procurement, invoicing etc.). up to 300 participants at 15 stations at the same time. Mercedes-Benz AG has had experienceThe firm is located alongside a major trunk road with computer-aided forms of decentralized con-close to a motorway and is therefore also easily tinuing traininginthe repair shop (combined reached by customers from the transport sector. video and PC schemes) for some considerableWith its imposing showroom building, company time. flags always flying, transparent company signs and illuminated advertising, it draws attention to Autohaus K. makes use of everything available itself and its prcducts at all times of the day and from the customer service training centre, but night. mainly tries to send staff to courses in the region as provided by the STC at the branches. Thanks to its commercial vehicle branch and its location in the catchment area of a number of 2. General description of the firm spas,ithas a relativelylarge proportion of Autohaus K. KG is an authorized repair shop andrandom customers, over 10% in fact: "Because dealership for Mercedes-Benz AG in a small town we are in a health resort region, many customers in North Hesse. There are a total of 30 employees come to us who link their stay at the spa with a visit (including the management) who sell, service andto the repair shop. They come once a year and repair the entire range of Mercedes-Benz AG make up about 10% of the clientele." (Member of vehicles, from passenger cars through off-road the management) vehicles to commercial vehicles. They also deal in second-hand vehicles of other makes, which inThe managing director and proprietor, or general some cases at the customers' request are subse- partner, of the KG (limited partnership) is Mr. K.; quently serviced and repaired at the firm. This his daughter is responsible for commercial matters service is part of the company strategy, binding and co-ordination, and his son for repair shop customers to the firm for the longest possible time. supervision. They are assisted by an accounts Apart from painting work, which is contracted outclerk. At the next level, the firm is divided into a to three other companies, all types of repair aretechnical department and a commercial depart- dealt withintherepair shop; no particular ment,eachcomprisingthreesub-units (see 78 specialities ore highlighted. Thereisalso co- organizational chart in the Appendix) On the technical side there are the passenger car repairthose who have dealings with the employee. So it shop with two master motor mechanics and nine is not the case that the boss says: 'That apprentice motor mechanics, the truck repair shop with one is staying!', but rather that those who know how master mechanic and four mechanics, and the thepeople concerned work alwaysdecide spare-parts store with three employees. In thewhether they are to stay on at the firm." commercial department a master motor mechanic (from the technical department), an after-sales3. Provision of continuing vocational serviceadviser and aclerical employee fortraining invoicing work under a mandger in the after- sales order acceptance unit, two car salesmen and 3.1 Structure within the firm a clerical employee work in car sales, and twoContinuing vocational training within the firm is clerical employees for finance and accountancy concentrated greatly on the courses available at work in the accounts unit. the customer service training centre, above all on courses at the closer regional branches of the All employees have received relevant training forschool. There are no fundamental problems of theiroccupation; about half completed basicmotivation among the employees, but importance secondary modern school (Hauptschule), while is attached to everyone participating in continuing the other half have a leaving certificate from thetraining more or less regularly, even if not to the other type of secondary school (Realschule) or a same level of intensity. final school-leaving certificate (Abitur). The section head is responsible for selecting the One of ihe employees comes originally fromcourses and who is to attend; in the technical Turkey.Thefourfemale employees areall department, therefore,thisisthe repair shop assigned commercial and administrative tasks. foreman. In addition to selecting suitable employ- With regard to the age structure, two of theees for the training which necessarily accompa- employees are not yet twenty, seven are over forty, nies the introduction of new products, his deci- and the rest are in the age group between 20 and sionsarealso based on any shortcomings 40. Overall, one of the features of the workforce is detected in the employees' work. Wishes ex- the length of service with the firm: of the ten pressed by employees themselves are also taken employees who gave us precise details, only one into consideration,ifthis can be justified on had been with the firm for less than 15 years, but organizational and financial grounds. three for more than 25 years. On many occasions, attendance at courses is There is a company section of the IG Metall tradetaken as a prompt to hold in-house training: when union with about 20 members from all depart-someone returns from a course, it is arranged as ments and age groups. A staff committee with soon aspossiblethatatleasttheperson's three members is also in place. immediate working group and other specialists who would be helped in their work by learning The working conditions conform to the collectiveabout the contents of the course are informed of agreement: 30 days' holiday, 37.5-hour workingnew developments by the person who attended week, but with overtime in urgent cases, especially the course. Other documents and supporting in the truck sector. "Transport and supply vehicles, material (video films) produced by the customer for example, have to be ready to be put back on service training centre are often also available in the road immediately. We work on two Saturdayssuch cases, in addition to the course documents per month, for example, because the commercial themselves. vehicles are only available for repair on Friday afternoons and Saturdays as they are in use3.2 Structure of the customer service during the week." training centre The most important partner in continuing training The firm trains its own staff. At the moment there forAutohausK. isthe Mercedes-Benz AG are eight motor mechanics undergoing training. customerservicetrainingcentre,theService Apart from attendance at a Berufsschule (part-time Training Centre (STC) in Esslingen-Bruhl with its vocational school), additional in-house training isbranch establishments in Mannheim and Gagge- regularly provided: two to three hours every two nau, and a further 57 decentralized training weeks. This is supplemented by "the 'K' courses, establishments ("satellite schools") in 39 countries which are stipulated by the Central Association ofaround the world. (See Figs. 2 and 3inthe the Motor Vehicle Trade (ZDK). They are held at Appendix for details of staff and training activ- the Chamber of Trades training centre in Kassel." ities.) Only about 10% of the apprentices are taken on in the firm, because far more are trained than areThere is a long tradition of after-sales service required. The department in which the person is to training at Mercedes. Long before the Second work makes the choice as to who is to be retained. World War there were training opportunities for "In the technical department it is up to the masterchauffeurs to enable them to maintain and take mechanics, and in the commercial department allcare of the cars in their charge. "They were given 79 the chance of being present during ine productionThis is a social problem. Because you get yourself of "their car" so that they could get to know thedirty in the repair shop, the best people don't technical ins and outs." After the war, the firstcome to us. Today's technology can no longer courses for staff of the after-sales service and the tolerate unqualified staff." With regard to the sales organization were held as early as 1949. youngergeneration,however,thematter is The big training centre in Esslingen-Brühl was relativelyhopeful. !'They understand the new opened in 1978; 400 people can be trained theremeasurement techniques and what electronics is at any one time. Training courses are also held at all about, either because of their own interest or the branches, however, and media are produced because they have learned the fundamentals at to allow decentralizedlearning closetothe school." workplace. The STC's annual programme is initially updated The original inducement for "mobile", i.e. decen-accordingtotheexperience gainedinthe tralized, training was the need to support the previous years, and is constantly adapted to new partner organizationsinother countries, now technical developments. Queries received in large totalling 173. numbers from the sales organization are also taken into account. It can even happen that the In the course of time, the target group ot ihetraining planis overturned in the event of an customer service training centre has expanded accumulation of technical problems at the dealer- considerably and become more differentiated. ships, and a special scheme is fitted in to cover an The range on offer includes: urgent topic. These problems are detected by contact with the after-sales service managers at Business conferences for managerial staff of the the dealerships, from observations made by the after-salesserviceorganization,subsidiary guarantee department, or from reports from the companies and general agencies instructorsinthe decentralized STCs. Special Seminars for managerial staff of dealerships schemes that are planned at least to a certain and their customer-support personnel extent are those for model changes or major Briefing of training managers and instructorsmodifications to existing models which call for from decentralized training establishments special training efforts in a short space of time for Trainingfel:specific target groups, such as large numbers of people. major customers, public authorities, authorized experts, and members of trade associations The trainers at the STC are generally professional Development of teaching programmes for its practitioners with an engineer's training, broad own training courses and those of the decen- background knowledge about automotive technol- tralized training centres ogy, teaching skills and knowledge of foreign Pilot courses for new teaching programmes and languages. Special information weeks (for both teaching media still under development technical training and foreign-language teaching) are planned and held for the trainers on their own; The primary task, of course, remainse technical the STC is closed during that time. At the time of training of dealership personnel and sales train-model changes, for example, when the introducing, comprising the following three main areas: tory courses for the sales organ;zation are being prepared, it may be the case that the school is Passenger car service training closed for two weeks: first the trainers have to be Commercial vehicle service training instructed, and then the course documents pre- Service management training pa.-ed. This all has to happen within a very tight time schedule, because it does not make sense to To meet this aim, a host of different courses are onbegin internal training before series production offer, and they are constantly updated or re-has commenced. By then, however, the dealer- designed (by woy of an examp.e refer to theships also want to be briefed on the new model. course plans for commercial vehicles (Fig. 4) in the "We can only start preparing the training docu- Appendix). Particularly the extension of the use ments when thefirstcars are beingbuilt. of e.lectronic components in vehicles and their Differences still appear between pilot production systematic integrationin networks has recentlyand mass production. That means that we can't necessitated a growth in training requirements for start de, using the training documents untilsix repair shop personnel and constant chang- s in theweeks before the start of production. Then the content of courses. staff of the decentralized training centres come to us and get their material, above all thcse from The after-sales service notices shortcomings in the other countries in the relevant languages. Bel-ween understanding of these new systems in a numbersix and eight of our staff then also travel around of participants, but in generol is unable to makeand give instruction at our satellite schools, for up for them. "The demands made of the employ-example in the new electronics in the model.' ees at the authorized dealerships are constantly rising. We don't always have the qualified people Instructionofthetrainersisprepared and 80 at the dealerships, though, who we really nced. performed by trainerswithresponsibilityfor specific subject areas or by appointed traininginstructor and trainees anywhere in Germany (in experts, who obtain their qualifications by close principle anywhere in the world) of the experience contact and constant talks with the developmentand problems encountered during the exercises department and the component suppliers. Thewhich can also be illustrated by video presenta- appointed training experts are obliged to keeptions from the connected locations, as cameras themselves up to date in their fields. ark; ;..ansmission equipment will also be available there. Mercedes-Benz hopes with this system to Despite expansion of the trcining capacity, there achieve cost-efficient training of a large number are not enough places to train each member ofof people which will be effective within a short dealershipstaffsufficientlyregularly.For thatspace of time.Itis above all the large number reason, and because of the shortcomings noticedof connections and the removal of the need for among some employees as mentioned above, thefrequently time-consumingjourneys, combined Mercedes-Benz SIC has actively concerned itselfwith the possibility of dealing with up-to-the- with the development and use of new computer- minute problems, that are given as reasons for the aided media in recent years. As part of this, there expected effectiveness of this system, which is to is a teaching computer available at every deder-enter its final stage of completion this year. It is ship (see Fig. 5 in the Appendix for the config- viewed by Mercedes-Benz as a pilot project with uration) on which everyone can choose and a high advertising impact (probably above all for controltheirdirection and pace of learningdomestic advertising,.'We arestill one step themselves, to suit their own wishes, abilities and ahead: ..."; "The only ones still in the race". opportunities(includingtimeavailable).This method of computer-based learning, now referred 3.3 Other forms of continuing training to as computer-based training (CBTsee Figs. 6 To our knowledge, no use is currently made of the and 7 in the Appendix), is intended mainly topossibilities for continuing training specific to the cover standard topics that every employee has tomotor vehicle sector offered by the local Cham- master and which he or she can study at their bers of Trades or trade associations (such as place of work as required, according to the training courses for master mechanics or service amount of time available.Infutureitisthe technicians). Neither do we have any information intention that the STC's courses are to be Itoredabout attendance at general or commercially on this medium and then made available to the oriented continuing training courses provided by dealershipsforstaffself-instruction when the institutions such as the Chamber of Industry and courseis no longer running at the STC (afterCommerce, adult education centres or similar about two years). establishments.

Mercedes-Benz is taking a spectacular step with 4. Training practice at the firm its research project known as AKUBIS (a German acronym forautomotive after-sales-oriented 4.1 Training plans at the repair shop broadband information system) in co-operation level with the German Federal Post Office, a Fraunhofer The breakneck pace of technical development Institute and SEL. In this system, training is to be makes in-house training unavoidableIt is mainly conducted in a direct dialogue transmitted by organized in conjunction with the attendance of video between various locations, which can be far courses at the customer service training centre by removed from each other.It will be possible to individual members of staff: each visit to a course connect video conferences between the STC in is used for internal training. "When mechanics Esslingen and up to 15 stations, using either a have been on a course, we get together again at broadband network (ISDN) or satellite (to foreign the firm for an internal training event, with a small countries) for transmission. According to present group of employees with relevant interests. The plans,upto 300 people could be trained contents of the course are passed on to the other simultaneously and enter into dialogue with theemployees. That is the most important thing, that instrucior in Esslingen (see Figs. 8 and 9 relating to the knowledge does not remain a monopoly for an AKUBIS in the Appendix). individual, but that the information circulates to all concerned." (Master mechanic) A training unit might then look something like this: after an introductiontothe problem by the In-house training following on from courses is instructor and initial queries from the group of supplernen'ed by staff self-instruction with the aid participants in the remote video studios at an of video tapes covering technical and marketing agency via the video dialogue system, the trainees informaticn, and tricks of the trade such as image would begin practical exercises that would have training. The tapes ("at !last two per month") are been prepared for that purpose at all conference provided to the dealerships by Mercedes-Benz locations; the conference connection would beThey generally run for15 minutes, und are interrupted to allow for that. After the exercises,watched by the staff during working hours or the STC would go back online,giving the sometimes after the end of work; some employees oppertunity for detailed discussion between thealso take them home. 81 There are no major problems of motivation for training beforehand but it usually all takes place at participatingincontinuingtiaining. Itdoes quite short notice. At least one employee has happen from time to time that individual employ-attended a training course, though, before the ees approach a foremanwiththeideaofmodel arrives at the firm. attending r course that would help them to deal with problems with which they are confronted as a 4.3 Target groups of vocational result of the rapid changes in technology. On thetraining other hand, however,the management does New employees or trainees who have been token consider it necessary to constantly draw employ-on from another firm are sent as soon as possible ees' attention to the need for continuing training, on the bmic training courses offered by the as they say that the only way of surviving in the customer service training centres:for instance face of competition in the future is by joint effort "Parts and Accessories", in the case of staff on the with work of an excellent quality. commercial side of the business, or courses for up- and-coming sales personnel. Wherever possible they are sent on courses in the branch establish- 4.2 Link between training concepts andment in Kassel in order to save time and money. demand Employees have (sometimes unspoken) expecta- These basic courses account for about 5% of the tions that further training will give them personaltraining in the firm. Another 5% take the form of advantages. This is particularly tree of the "juniormanagement training, roughly 10-20% are sales master mechanics", that is employees who have training courses and the remainder, the vast attained their master mechanic qualification but majority, are technical courses. for whom no suitable post is available. The service technician job is seen as one way of solving this Essentially all employees are eligible to take part problem of qualifications not being duly acknowl- in the courses offered by the customer service edged: "This creates an interim position between training centres. Capacity is however, limited, so the ordinary motor mechanic and the master most courses offered when technological innova- mechanic/foreman. We have informed our em- tions or new models are introduced normally ployees that this qualifiLetion exists, but so far concentrate on the foremen who then use in-house none of ihem has shown any interest in the further training to ens,.:.-e the knowledge permeates to all training For it." (Member of the management). parts of the firm.

In recent years the demand for further training has4.4 Training plans increased rapidly, both on the part of the firm and Virtually the entire continuing training in the firm the individual employees. This is true cbove all in apart from the "private" activities of individual the area of improved quality of technical services emple,yees (e.g. the courses for master mechanics carried out on the vehicle but also in the area ofat the Chambers of Trades) or isolated exceptions customercare,after-salesservice andsales is based on what is offered by the Mercedes- advice. "Technologically innovative products with Benz customer service training centres. No secret complicated electronic systems designed toin- is mcde of the fact that preference is given to the crease comfort, found for example in S-class cars, decentralized courses in the branches which are have inevitably given rise to an immense need for geographically c!.,ser(Kassel, Hannover, Dort- further training of mechanics in the repair shop. mund, Düsseldorf), although employees are, of Primarily, what is required is systems analysis, course, also sent to Esslingen-Brühl. troubleshooting for integrated electronic systems with fault storage, the ability to read citcuit andThe selectionof participantsinthe technical connection diagrams and locating the computerdepartment is made by the foreman responsible systems, sensors and actuators in the vehicle. This after consulting the annual plan issued by the has inundated us with new fields of knowledge to customer service training centre. He recommends be mastered." certain employees to the management tor relevant courses. One of the criteria used by the foremen is Inherent in this increase in technology is, however, the shortcomings he has noticed in individuals but the problem of a certain amount of selection: some the mein one is the desire to keep the level of employees, with the best will in the world, simply qualifications of his department up to scratch and cannot keep up any more. Furthermore, even the mcke sure that his staff are qualified to deal with firms themselves are always running to catch up. special developments (inthe fieldof off-road For example, the repair shop, like others too, has vehicIes, for instance). "a diagnosis procedure. We had to buy a new engine tester in order to be able to locate faults. 4.5 Costs of continuing vocational One of the staff had to go on a training course. He training then had to pass on immediately what he hadOn average the amount of time spent in continuing learnt to a colleague." Also when a new model istrainingiz,according to the management, 56 introduced,thepreparation time availableis hours per year for each employee: seven full 82 usually pretty short. Theiare opportunities forworking days a year. They say that costs have rocketed in recent years. We gradually formed the impression that this firm A member of the management estimates the rise in mainly promotes concepts of decentralized train- costs from 1991 to 1992 alone at some 30 to ing and learning on the job from colleagues, 40% and explained it by the increased demand seeingit,however, as a complementary and for qualifications brought about by rapid changes economic way of passing on knowledge gained in vehicle technology but also by the high costs ofin centralized learning situations. This firm, in any external training courses: continued payment ofcase, strongly emphasized the costs involved in wages, travel costs and board and lodging. continuing training not that they were considering not paying them, but saying that the limit was 4.6 Estimation of costs in sight beyond which they would not be able to We have no information about the absolute costs cope with further e;:pansion, either in costs or the to this firm of participatingin courses at the number of continuing training activities. customer service training centres nor about other costs of continuing training.Itisnot known 6. Conclusions whether the costs are calculated to include in-In this case efforts are being made to conduct house continuing training. continuing trainingin a decentralized manner (across the globe) whi'st maintaining the central 5. Evaluation of the training concepts role of the group in its :ontrol. This has been put In the standard written questionnaire on participa- into practice in trainin3 sessions in the branch tion in continuing training courses, those ques- establishments. It remai is to be seen w'.iether the tioned have unfortunately given very differentambitious project of global video :irojects will responsesoverrecentyears.Most confined overcome the deficits in the repaii shops which themselves to referring to "the constant continuing they themselves are seeking to overcome by training in Kassel and throughout the country" and means of "home made training drawing on the mentioned at best only one or two titles of coursessnowball effect" and the use of self-learning from the past two years. A few others named a media. Initial attempts are being made this year. whole list of courses from the same year: a fitterWhat does seem certainisthat,even with had taken part in four in 1992 and three in 1991, AKUBIS, it will not be possible to regularly reach one master mechanic had even attended seven all the employees in the repair shops. We believe course:,in 1992 (but only two in 1991). This that an inflation of the system of this kind would not survey thus provides a poor basis for an evalua-only cancel out the cost advantages aimed for, but tion. One thing is, however, clear: all concerned would, without doubt, also cause considerable took permanent continuing training for granted. problems of organization and therefore failin practice.

83 APPENDIX

Figure 1 - Organization chart of the firm Autohaus K. KG

Owner of the firm

Manager and full partner

4 Daughter and son of the owner

Co-ordination and management of commercial area and supervision of repair shop

L Technical department Commercial department

Manager

L Truck repair Spare parts After-sales and Car repair shop Car sales Accounts shop store administration

2 master 1 master 3 employees 1 master 2 car sales 2 clerks for mechanics mechanic mechanic from personnel accounts and the technical bookkeeping department 9 mechanics 4 mechanics 1 clerk

1 service advisor

1 invoicing clerk

Figure 2 - Mercedes-Benz Service Training Centre

Central Training Staff

VP/PST (67) and VN/TST (46) 113

UKD Gaggenau 6

KD Mannheim 4

123

Decentralized

In 39 countries 57 service training centres 232

Totcl 355

84 Figure 3 Training activities Mercedes-Benz Service Training 1991

Central Service Training Schools

VN/TPT VP/PST UKD KDR Decentralized Total (not incl. Gaggenau Mannheim Service non-technical Training topics) Centres

Courses 1,054 1,501 216 112 6,165 9,048

Course days (Activities) 3,630 4,733 630 292 18,797 28,082

Participants 13,081 21,061 1,943 1,642 63,145 100,872

Man training days (Effectiveness) 45,325 63,535 5,593 4,469 192,352 311,274

Figure 5 - How do you use the learning system?

Monitor w i th arrow (cursor)

Computer

MIN r, rtnn v4. PRR Video disk record player 'V" 'fVsv '

Mouse Keyboard

Electronically-controlled Pneumatic Gear Shift - EPGS MB gear transmissions

85 ca Figure 4VN/TSTTraining courses in the field of commercial vehicles: 1993

Category of course Model-specific courses

Topic t General Pick-up Trucks Buses Engines Manual gear Type of course trucks transmission

Introductory course Provided as required and for new models or aggregates included in he planning

Basic courses for repair shop NAND ,egc-Ky personnel in the MB organization scA.:c 011121

NA:A.; NNAN .r-1 M8 tn,...o.v ,c,ng cif Ives

2 i''21 2 11 2 41

t t----Course Page no. Length of course (days)

Courses on innovations/changes NEAN ".MNA ENGNA 1.)M :103 uno MB goo, Ond for repair shop personnel in the 40) EPOS MB organization 2 rat ..77F27F-7, 2 H., 21

AJOA1, 0 435, 4C7 408

Courses for managerial staff and Ake, after-sales advisers in the MB fld .1 organization

Courses for commercial customers, Mu,sq,,3 government authorities and VU4 assessor; '7F-T4

./A. Per,: i

-- Courses specific to aggregates, systems and component groupr

Body Automatic Axles Brakes AirElectrics andElectrics and Running Body work Accident painting gear trans- Steering suspension Electronics Electronics gear Fittings repairs missions Trucks Buses adjustment

n oppropriate numbers and correspondinglyannounced

... N NBAG rNNEG svi 8 SNFM SNUT SNt. 1 NAGB Cornmeecar we B.okei Comore,. we SNT1 Pak up tr.aks 0 A.10,10.. MB Rep, al cc, hales. Repots 0005n0.13.00s as hoc'es e:ectrocs Runrtng pat aolustment dent &stooge to poontwor: .fl teg.sttoon - Bala Stage I 4 11 2 9 1 A 1 3 2 1, WilIEEMP CI linfiiM 1111311WItil , 4 101 1 4 6 -ts / : NBUB MLA NOER 1.5NUF N NAFB Twas SNt 2 Aerantata tams. § 29 E and V B10,0.3 and aot Electtas and a. Repo, al OCC.. COMmerCia, o0, mos ons ZN condotoonong - condotonong - CO 7Ncks Coaches dent donage to hales Rep6m V0,1 Os .." done. s cabs to pontwor1 tea sttotoon 4 1/ 2101 ot,4 11321 ,, 4 11331 4.5 4 4 , S199. 2 311 2 81 t. - CNSRS "NOES 4.101 4 6 § 29 V Elcar as and or SOUP SPK 01.1s C000.,0,,ng - Buses C.; buses Repo, ol occo. ID dent darnoge , 4 11 2 1 1 1 , 4I1 3 3 1 MIEDIECEINIP NABS l ABS ASR SNUR Repot ol

, 21 1 2 1 2 1 , .2 1 - 4 1 . N ts SNI 3 - Corn w N NAIN NBIN NtEN ..\ NOEN SNKN NAGF Rep te peon' Brakes Eicatoocs and a.. Elocteas atttd a., Tstaks and Aotonvta MB 1 Aras and svotk Ba.nt no r ABS; ABR condo et S ,9 - tond...0^,9 - P.tk op ',KA s .rog systems a , stseens on To oaks Bose's Bodywotk ona on regostoakon Stage 3 11711§1011111 2 4r2 121 ,. 211 3 21 , 211 3 31 ,, ''' ^95 .7.T1T77 . 2 11421, 4./01/ ,1 7j , SOKN 'SN1 4 - Corn . EA ses Rep a pc,. 9*d:two: ad wook innoso toons/thanges 3 5 WNW s 211 4 71 .., 'SNI. 4 - Cott' w N Rep ,o Pa c', ao0,k IO, Gaon, states ow.tit to goona' trackage , 211 4 81 /

,SN1,2 - Rep, of accod darn oge te con, lot a'ter sales oda.sors eo.pao

s.4 5 1 2 4 1 . SNUK - Rep of\ MC &wane te corn w §a, &too so'es ad: lam 4 51 2 4 1 , \ \ r5.01 , § 29 I .3,1V eLA, , ol act ,-ti + dent damage to cans veh0OS CD) kleom, ele. ,2.1...i.1 1_, 0,1C1Vs NBOK s., 21461 ., 4 2a F a-odO

(Th

4 1 4 5 1 , Figure 6CBL (Computer-based leorning system)Learning concept

What are the target groups of the CBL system for teaching EPGS?

Skilled repair shop employees Repair shop managerial staff Service advisors Fleet managers Sales personnel Only certain parts of the programme

What are the teaching objectives of the CBL for EPGS?

The teaching objectives cover the theory and practice of:

Driving with EPGS Naming the components of EPGS and identifying them on the vehicle Describing how the components ond systems in EPGS work Devising methods for diagnosing faults (using the latest repair shop literature) Describing and carrying out test procedures for EPGS using the latest repair shop literature.

Figure 7What is the philosophy behind the learning system?

How can the individual control the learning process in the learning system?

beginning & end "41

duration

sequence i The learning determines individual I (controls) of learning

1 pace

HLthe practising periods

supervision

Pre lit:iinary remark: "Learning" is a process, an activity such as "seeing", "recognizing", "feeling", "perceiving" of which we cannot be robbed. It is our very own activity and capacity to learn, in the some way as we breathe. The philosophy of the learning system Since kirning is an activity pursued by our personality then we should be in a position to control this learningprocess

88 91 Figure 8 - AKUBIS: (automotive after-sales-orientedbroadband information system)

Applications for after-sales personnel, parts management,sales staff, commercial areas, management

To compile this we contacted within Mercedes-Benz: Training Technical subjects Non-technical subjects MBVD/PN (car sales training) Innovations/changes MBVD/PN (commercial vehicles sales training) Introduction of new models MBVD/PV (coordination systems for sales ond aggregates/electronics personnel) Training in behaviour MBVD/OD (organization and data processing) Communication with customers ODV/R 1 (0DV/retail systems 1) Computer software ZBI/NDL (training for branch establishments and authorized dealers) Technology Current technical problems and aids to solving them Changes which have gone into mass production/feedback from the field After-sales activities/feedback from the field Campaigns

Parts Marketing of parts. Presentation of new special extras Presentation of new collections/feedback relating to new collections Administration New computer programmes/up-dates Conferences Conferences in the MBAG on a broad range of areas Public relations Presentation of a new model, new colour, options etc. for foreign subsidiaries

Figure 9 - The AKUBIS concept for a national communicationnetwork is ready

We still have an advantage. Mercedes-Benz is theonly company in the motor vehicle sector which has such an ISDN wideband network at its disposal E:3 branch offices works internal services

connection of a further five stations and broadcast system in the pilot year-a

-: technology

previous i I, centre studio i point-to-point connections with three locations technology centre studio FL] I Former training building _J EiJ

shops] 1±JELILt[ti

8 stations simultaneously ELlt-±11 80 -120 individuals 15 stations can be Berlin -- 3 stations can be contacted contacted simultaneously Introduction of a nationwide network following a initial phase 1989 -1991 pilot year 1992 N> as of 1993 [ decision of the bureau

89 02 4. BMW AGENCY

Size of the Firm: Ill This firm both repairs and sellscars. It markets the entire range of BMW models and also sells Car Manufacturer: BMW second-hand BMW vehicles as wellas other makes. The repair shop primarily repairs BMW Type of Vehicle: A, B cars but in individual cases does accept other makes of vehicle if &ley have been sold by its Type of Firm: B own sales department. Tne repair shop doesnot have any particular specialization but most of its work is in the area of automotive electronics and the drive 1. General description of thecase train (gears, engine including ignition and fuel- The firm H. Automobile is an authorized BMWinjection). Body painting jobsare passed on to (Bayerische Motorenwerke, Munich) deakrship other specialized firms. Thespares for their own and repair shop in a small town in Central Hesse. make of vehicle are either collected personally The firm was established in 1985 and employs from a BMW branch establishment inKassel ninestaff, not counting the owner. The firm (approximately 70 kilometres away)or ordered specializes in repairing BMW vehicles but alsoby fax and delivered the next day. repairs other makes of second hand vehicle from their own sales department. The firm also sells newThe technical equipment in the repair shopmeets and used BMWs and used vehicles of otherthe standard required ofa small firm authorized to makes. carry out repairs of this make of vehicle. The manufacturer, BMW, imposes certain standards of BMW has at present a central Service Training technical equipment on its appointed firms; for Centre in Munich and six decentralized training example, the company automatically deliversa schools (five in Western Germany and one in corresponding set of tools whenevera new model Eastern Germany). is introduced if there have beenany changes. In this context the firm's last major investmentwas the BMW provides its dealerships with "TIPs" (Train- purchase of a new measuring device forcarrying ing and Information Programmes). Thecompany cut electronic measurements on vehicles. produces around twelve of these TIPsper year for use in the dealerships. The firm deals with around fiveor six vehicles per day. 95% of the customersare regulars; the other Another special feature of thecar manufacturer5% are one-off customers who for the BMW is that most part itis currently developing a newhave had a breakdownon the nearby trunk road diagnosis information system (INS) which isto bewhich has a heavy traffic flow. used in the dealerships from 1994. This DISis intended to enable the staff of the dealershipsto The firm was founded in 1985 byMr H. The provide qualified and economic servicingofworkforce initially comprisedseven employees: vehicles,in other words maintenance, service, Mr H.,his wife who was in charge of the fault detection and repair of integratedautomotive administration, a master motor-vehicle mechanic, electronics. The development ofan information a mechanic, a bookkeeper and two car salesmen. system of this kind is a response to the rapid In 1986 the number of employees increased:on increase in technological changes in the motor additional mechanic for the repair shop andan vehicle sector. office clerk were takenon. At the end of the eighties they were joined by anothermotor The training courses attended by the employeesof mechanic. firm H. ore primarily those offered by BMW.The firm itself plays a part in the initial training of its The internal organization of the firmis as follows employees. (cf.figure 1 inthe Appendix). beneath the management level (proprietor of the firm) there 2. General description of the firm ore three departments: Autohaus M. GmbH is an authorized dealership and repair shop for thecar manufacturer BMW technical department (repair shop) (Bayerische Motorenwerke, Munich). Itconsists of customer after-salesservice,sale of spare a motor vehicle repair shop with a spare-parts store, parts, administration an office and administration building (for customer car sales. reception and administration) and a showroom for the car sales department. The prestigious building Apart from the proprietor, Mr. H., the firm employs and showroom pavilionare eye-catching and a at present nine people (not counting trainees): four good advertising feature for the firm. employees in the repel shop (onemaster motor- vehicle mechanic and three motor-vehicleme- Itis at a well-chosen location on a major trunk chanics),three employeesinthe department road and therefore easy for customers to reach. dealing with customer after-salesservice, sale of There are no other vehicle repair shops 90 or sales spareparts andinternaladministration centres nearby to provide competition. (the proprietor and head of thefirm,Mr.H., a D3 , bookkeeper and a clerk; from the point of view ofthe proprietor or - in the case of the technical his function the master mechanic would have to be department - to the foreman. included in this category) and two sales personnel in the car sales department. 3. Provision of continuing vocational training There are also currently three trainees in the firm: a young woman is being trained as an office clerk 3.1 Structure within the firm and two young men ore being trained as motor-The firm relies almost exclusively on the continuing vehicle mechanics. vocational training provided by the BMW Service Training Centre. This comprises, on the one hand, As the organization chart shows, the proprietor is the courses they offer but also the media they responsible for the management of the er.tire firm distribute for learning in the repair shop (TIP). In and in particular for the areas of organization,addition to this, whenever an employee attends a customer service, administration and vehicle sales. training course the opportunity is used for in-house He accepts the incoming jobs, is responsible forcontinuing training to take place. Thisis both procurement of spare parts and decides which necessary and sensible because the mojority of employees should take oart in the continuing continuing technical training focuses on the fore- training courses at thr central customer service man.Itisthe proprietor who decides which training centre and the decentralized continuing employees and how many of them should take training courses offered by the manufacturer. The part in training (the foreman proposes people from iwo car salesmen are responsible for negotiating the technical department). The staff are not offered sales of both new and used cars. The master motor- any other continuing training opportunities - for vehicle mechanic is the foreman in charge of thereasons of cost and also because of the small technical department (motor-vehicle repair shop); number of employeesinthisparticularfirm. he is responsible for the distribution and super- Individual employees do, however, make use of vision f the workload, organizing continuing other continuing training courses offered in the training within the firm and manages the customer region(e.g.by the Chamber of Trade and after-sales service. Industry) "off their own bat" (and at their own expense). All employees have relevant vocational training behind them: the three mechanics have completed Of the continuing training courses attended by their training and have the journeyman's diplomaemployees over recent years, 10% were in the issued by the Motor Vehicle Guild, the foreman management field,another 10% were sales has passed the master mechanic examination ofcourses and 80% were technical training courses. the Chamber of Trades, one mechanic is currently attending the master mechanic's course at the 3.2 Structure of the BMW Training Chamber of Trades. The proprietor has undergone Centre commercial vocational training, the bookkeeper is The manufacturer BMW has a central training trained as a commercial employee for industry schoolin Munich which provides all types of and the clerk has completed the commercial training courses; some seminars are, however, training for office workers. 13-.+11 car salesmen also run decentrally at 31 specially selected and have commercial qualifications (one of them in theequipped repair shops (external training centres) wholesale sector,theotherinthetechnical- and atsix regionaltraining centres(fivein commercial field). Western Germany, one in Eastern Germany; cf. figure 2 in the Appendix). Each of these training With regard to age structure thereis a clearcentres is responsible for the authorized dealer- division into two groups: the employees who have ships within a radius of 120 kilometres. From the been with H. since the firm was founded are 40 middle of 1993 teaching will continue at only six years of age or older (the proprietor and foreman decentralized training schools and the central are over 50; the bookkeeper, at 39, is a little training school. younger), the employees who came to the firm in 1986 or later are, in contrast to this, all under the The troiring courses offered cover both the after- age of 25. sales service area (discussions with customers and advising customers) and the technical work of the The employees are paid in accordance with the repair shops collective agreement. Hours of work and annual holiday are similarly in line with the provisions of Inaddition tothisthe manufacturer provides the collective agreemelt. All employees woi k full training and information programs (TIPs) for the time, i.e. 37.5 hours per week. employees of all authorized dealerships. These teaching programmes on video orteaching The employees are not trade union members nor is computers have a dual function: fir stly they enable there a staff committee. All personal and profes-employees intherepair shops tofamiliarize sional matters are dealt wish by talking directly tothemselves throunk independent study "on the 91

(Jzi job" with new technical developments introduced 4. Training practice at the firm by BMW (for example new engines, automatic parking distance devices, a new sliding roof etc.) 4.1 Training plans nt the repair shop and secondly they are intended to enable employ- level ees to prepare themselves before they take part inThe firm's plans for continuing training are based seminars at the training centres. This preparationentirely on what is offered by the BMW Training is obligatory for all participants. Centre and follow what is provided there and whatever is necessitated by the latest changes. The In each firm an information representative (IR) is concrete decisions on which employee will be sent responsible for liaising with the central serviceon which course and when, are taken by the training schoolin Munich. His or her jobis proprietor after consulting the foreman in charge. described as follows: to deal with all correspond- It is usuaily the f oreman who attends courses about ence withthemanufacturer BMW, toselect the latest technical changes; he then passes on the suitable employees from the firm to participate in knowledge he has acquired to the other employ- courses at the training centres and ensure that the ees in the form of a short training session. pal ticipant follows the preparation required using theTIP. A reporting form, which has to be Apart from external training courses, the firm also completed at regular intervals, asks for details of makes extensive use of the TIP, seeing it not only as problems which arose during the use of thepart of the obligatory preparation for the courses teaching material. There are specific questions at the training centres but also as a medium for on- concerning the participant's assessment of thegoing further training in a form which is closely quality of the course attended. related to what goes on in the repair shop and as a way of finding solutions to problems as they The TIP consists of a teaching film (approximately arise. The TIP is also used as a way of passing on 25-30 minutes long), which can be viewed and the knowledge acquired by one of the employees worked through by the employee using a teaching who has attended a training course: it helps him to computer and a video recorder at the workplace impart what he has learnt to others in the firm. and a written instruction programme which has been developed to accompany thefilm.The learning steps in working through a particular4.2 Link between training concepts and subject aretechnically programmed and the demand success of the participant is displayed on the The foreman chooses courses to be attended on computer screen. These learning protocols are the basis of his experience of the capabilities of his reported back to the training centre. staff but also his knowledge of their shortcomings. He and the proprietor also take care to ensure that Approximately 12 TIPs are produced each year.each employee "stays on the ball" within their The number and content of the teaching pro-particularfunction,in cher words thattheir grammes depend on the volume of technicalqualifications are constant'', adapted to the new innovations which are launched in that particular demands arising in an ar c.of work. For reasons year.The dealershipreceivestheTIPvideo of cost it is not possible for employees to take part automatically. voluntarily in extra courses at the BMW training centre. 3.3 Other forms of continuing training The BMW Service Training Centre also offersOnce a month the service representative (sales evening seminars for employees wishing to qualifyadvisor) from head office visits the firm. This visit is as diagnosis technicians in the field of electricalalso used to inform the firm about training courses systems and electronics. They involve 120 hours of on offer and to pass on to the training centre the training, and classes are three hours twice a week. firm's wishes for particular topics to be covered in the continuing training courses. A certificatefromthefirm isawarded on completion of this form of continuing training. Any regional opportunities for continuing training, 4.3 Target groups of vocational apart from those offered by the training centre (attraining the Chamber ofTradesorAdult Education Essentially, all employees may take part both in in- Centres, for instance), are not included in thehouse continuing training in .the firm and in the firm's continuing training plans. There are, how coursesatthetraining,:entre;thedecision, ever,employees who voluntarily use relovant however, about who should be selected to attend continuingtrainingfacilitiesoutsideworking the external training coursesistaken by the hours and at their own expense. In this context management. Almost all the employees of firm the example of a commercial employee is striking: H. have attended continuing vocational training she reported that she has been attending evening courses inrecent years. Only the bookkeeper courses related to :ler profession at the Chamber reported that he had not attended any form of of Trade and Industry for years without interrup- continuing training course. All other employees 92 tion. have undergone continuing training,predomi- 05 nantly within the BMW organization, as far as we The job of diagnosis technician, the courses in could gather from what they told us. All continuing vehicle service technology (recognized by ZDK) training courses mentioned by the employees tookand the BMW service technician diploma are place outside the firm. qualifications which offer the mechanic good career prospects(seefigure7:seminar pro- An important exception to this.was the clerk, who gramme for.'93, nos. 13 and 14). since 1990 has attended several evening courses (ten inall), each lasting between one and four The firm's concept of continuing training has not months. These courses, which were run by the fundamentally changed in recent years; the only Chamber of Trade and Industry, covered topics difference is the employment of the new media such as "Accounting", "Personnel management", (TIPs) provided by the training centre which can be "Sales", "Business organization", "Statistics" etc. used in close conjunction with the daily work of the They were all courses which did not provide a repair shop. It is, however, becoming necessary to certificate. take action at increasingly short intervals to keep up with the latest technologicaldevelopments. For No information was available concerning thethis reason the intensity of training needed is volume of and participation in internal continuing increasing and thus the numerous decentralized training, apart from the use of the TIP video which training opportunities available within the BMW the firm is obliged to report to headquarters via the organization are very welcome. information representative (in this case the repair shop foreman). In 1991 eight teaching films wereThe training centre's continuing training concept each used by three employees and in 1992 (up tohas a modular structure structured along the lines September) six employees had used four films. We of the different subjects(cf.figures 7 and 8, can assume that all employees, inparticular thoseannual plan for 1993); there are, however, other in the repair shop, regularly took part in theconcepts which are designed toaid career internal training courses. development and for some skilled employees can even lead to a (company) diploma (cf. figures 3 to Apart from this general programme offered by the 6 in the Appendix). training centre to employees and management (on the structure see figures 3 to 8 in the Appendix) in In addition to this, it is also the job of the training technical subjects and sales, the foreman also centres to prepare dealerships for the launching of takespartinone-daymeetingsofmaster new products. This takes place inclose consulta- mechanics four to five times per year in which tion with the relevant department. First of all, TIP the service representatives from the distributionfilms are produced and, paralleltothis,the centres demonstrate new technological features on technical courses for the decentralized training the vehicles. Following each of these meetings the schemesaredeveloped.Approximately two opportunityis taken to hold a short interncdmonths before a new productismarketed, training session. training can begin - in the case of the introduction of the "Seven Series"six months were even availableand each firm is obliged to send one 4.4 Training plans employee. This initial instruction normally lasts one Each year every authorized dealership in the or two days. After this round of teachinghas been BMW organization receives an overview of thecompleted, more in-depth courses to cc,,er repair continuing training on offer at the central and procedures or look at certain assemblies or decentralized training schools(cf.the relevanttechnical systems are offered and all standard parts of figures 7 and 8 in the Appendix). Theytraining courses in the annual programme which contain the entire programme available to man- areaffected by theinnovations arerevised agement and skilled workers in the technical fieldaccordingly. and in the commercial and administrative area. The future development of continuing training will The aim of the firm is to use continuing training to to an even greater extent than in the recent past ensure that the qualifications of the employees concentrate on repair shop personnel mastering remain oi a level which enables them to be able to integrated electronic systems and their compo- service and repair the vehicles economically and nents, automotive mechanics will increasingly take to be able to master the ever more complexa back seat. "We started with sevendifferent systems which are now found in new models as a systems to which diagnosis procedures could be result of constant technological innovations. The applied (1985), now there ore between 20 and employees themselves also see continuing training 25 and that figure will have probably risen to 60 more as a necessary tool to keep uptheir standard by the mid-nineties. Apart from that, there are of of qualification rather than as a means to gaincourse constant changes and improvements,such promotion within the firm - inthis small firm as the ABS system, airbags or automaticparkina promotion chances are not possible anyway asdistance systems. Technological changes of that there is no foreseeable mobility for years to come. kind arefirstofallpresentedinpreliminary 96 training courses and are then integrated into the 5. Evaluation of the training concepts seminars." (Member of the service training staff). The vast majority of employees at firm H. have attended training courses run by BMW either at BMW vehicles had five times as many electronic their central training school in Munich or in one of fnctions in 1990 as they did in 1983 and by the the regional training centres. Without exception year 2000 there will be 6.5 times as many as the they were courses to enable employees to up-date 1983 figure,after which they willprobablytheir skills;in other words none of the courses remain constant. The top model of 1976 had were being used to prepare an employee for four electric molars, today's equivalent, the 750, promotion. One exception was the"private" has 73. A similar increase can be seen in the caseactivities of a mechanic, who was following a of control devices, connections and switches. training as a master mechanic, and the clerk who Previously one simple circuit diagram was suffi-was attending courses at the Chamber of Trade cient for the whole car, today the number of and Industry. diagrams needed for the 750 i,for example, would fill the drawer of a filing cabinet. Further-The majority of courses between 1987 and 1992 more,thereishardly asingleindependent were attended by the repair shop foreman: he electronic system any more. Today virtually all completed 14 training courses in this period, each electronic systems are integrated. lasting between one and five days. The mechanics on the othel hand attended a five-day course One response to this development isthe DIS every two years at best; one of them had not been concept (diagnosisinformationsystem) whichon a training course since 1986. should be installed in all repair shops by 1994. This is an expert system for diagnosis of complexThe head of the firm, Mr H., attended seven five to systems. The mechanic can work on the basis of eight-day courses during this period. The two his experience, following his intuition, yet at the salesmen took part in three and four BMW sales same time using machine-guided fault detection training courses respectively, each lasting several techniques. The mechanic says for instance: "I am days. The last one was a course in 1991 to train in sure that the fault is here."If his hunch is notselling the new product, the BMW 3 series. confirmed he can go back and let the machine guide him. (Figures 9 and 10). The courses attended by the technical employee's of the firm (master mechanic and mechanics) were 4.5 Costs of continuing vocational almost exclusively on technicalsubjects. The training coursesprovidedforthemarevirtuallyall The costs of in-house training are borne by the designed to familiarize them with technological firm; they are not, however, specifically accounted innovations,such as engines, new diagnosis fr r as such, which makes it difficult to assess them procedures, new models of vehicle etc. The two accurately: often the training takes the form of salesmen took part in training courses in selling. short instruction sessions, sometimes spontaneous The subjects covered by the courses which the instruction when a complicated repair arises. proprietor attended related to the different aspects of his job: they included sales techniques as well Since the proprietor considers participationin as seminars for employers, a seminar on taxation, external training courses to be indispensable, all on service reception etc. costs incurred are paid for by the firm. This includes the cost of the course (there is no charge As a rule, a certificate or sticker specific 'AD BMW for those at the training centres), travel expenses, is issued to testify attendance at these codrses and board and lodging and payment of wages. For is intended to be filed in the employees "training financial reasons the firm is unable to sanction passport". additional training courses which an employee might attend voluntarily. The proprietor considers In addition to this, the employees of the firm also thequalifications demand tobe adequatelyused BMW's self-teaching programme (TIP). A covered by the continuing training courses offered total of 12 films had been used, eight in 1991 and by BMW to its authorized dealerships in central- four up to the date of enquiry in 1992. Three ized and decentralized training schools which his employees made useof theeight TIPfilms firm take advantage of. He does not believe that availableinthefirmin1991.In1992 six there is a qualification deficit amongst his employ- employees had to date viewed four TIP teaching ees. films.

4.6 Evaluation of costs These TIP programs are principally used in the firm On average the firm calculates external training atduring working hours; a film lasts between 25 and a total of six working days per employee per year. 30 minutes. The use of these TIP coursesis For reasons mentioned above no estimate of the recorded by the firm's information representative, amount of internal training was available. We in the case of firm H. by the repair shop foreman. were unable to obtain an assessment of the cost toThe report is then passed on to the main service 94 the firm of continuing training. training centre to enable them to deduce what .97 qualification needs firms still have from frequency not need a huge amount of media support are of use and the problems people encountered in theheld. A new trainingcentrewithincreased course of the self-sludy programme. capacity is to be opened in Munich in 1993.

The firm's expectatir-ns of continuing training are that it should ensure the quality of work in theThe policy of the firm elder investigation here repair shop and the efficiency of both the repair showed clear tendencies to shift the emphasis of shop and the sales personnel even given thetraining for their employees towards in-house increasing complexity of products. They believe schemes. The role of the central service training that this is the only way to ensure good servicedepartment focusesmore ondesigningthe and customer satisfaction. courses,preparingthedealershipsfornew developments, producing new media to support The close interplay between internal and external the work of the decentralized training institutes, training, centralized and decentralized courses, co-ordinatingschemes,andidentifyingand seemstosuittheneeds ofthissmallfirm counteracting any diverging developments. Exter- particularly well.Inparticular theup-to-date nal observers are having more and more doubts standard of the self-teaching programs can be ofas to whether new media alone, with knowledge value to small firms which do not have special passed on within the firm via an employee with a trainers, enabling them to qualify their employees multiplier function, which is what largely happens regardless of the scarce capacities of the training in this firm, will really be able to deal with future centres. There is possibly a negative consequence requirements. in that they might believe the TIPs could replace entirely the work of the training centres, as is suggested by the fact that external training courses The long-term polarization of the qualification concentrated on the foreman. It would certainlystructure within the workforce which thiswill have dire consequences for the efficiency of theprobably cause would counteract the trend for firmif they put their faithin the long term ineach individual to be able to work in a highly- ensuring comprehensive qualification for the fore- qualifiedindependent manner.This isbeing man and confined continuing trainingfor the identified as a necessary tendency by many mechanics to video and computer-aided training. experts. This media-aided decentralization of the work of continuing training down to the repair 6. Conclusions shop level also conceals the inherent danger that In the central training schoolin Munich basic important groups of employees will be deprived seminars and advanced training courses which do access to essential continuing training.

Figure 1

Head of the firm Proprietor

Technical department 1 SeMce Vehicle sales After-sales Vehicle repair shop Sales of spare parts 2 car salesmen Head: Master mechanic NeW and used Head of firm car sales Distribution of workload Master mechanic In-house continuing training Bookkeeper After-sales service Clerk 3 motor mechanics Repairs, Service and maintenance of vehicles

95 I)a Figure 2

Head of regional training- Mr. Hohler Mr. Hermann Maier

To be appointed Run from headquarters

Mr. Lehmann Mr. Lochner

Mr. Garharnmer

Heod of central training Diameter of circles approx 300 km Mr Aschenbrenner

96 figure 3 - Training service (after-sales/parts), Training programme for managerial staff - 1993

Active leadeiship

1 Customer service as a management task 2.

IService management Ports and sales management I

j Personal quality.' Quality ofworic-27 Product knowledge'

I Self-management- Marketing in the PMT accessories' 1 sales sector

; Time management' Personnel management'

Training for post of heod of parts sales

These programmes provide basic training for all personnel at managerial level in the ark] of service (after-soles/parts) 2 These training programmes offer personal qualification tailored to your individual situation

Figure 4

Managerial staff Manager Service Repair Parts Sales Owner/ in the service field of firm manager shop soles manager managing R 1 -M-42 foreman manager director Programme 1993

Personal Basis quality Customer service as a manacement task A A A A A A

Active leadership A A A A

Service management B A

Management of parts sales department B A

Individual qualifications Self-management

Time management

Quality Marketing in the sales sectoi of work Personnel mai keting

Product Product marketing knowledgeAccessories training

framing Manager of parts sales

A- necessary for qualified performance of job B. Indivichial sopplementary qualification courses C: comprehensive training scheme leading to diploma 97 Figure 5 - Training service (after-sales/parts) Training programme for non-managerial staff in service, parts sales and administration - 1993

Welcome to BMW'

Optimum customer service through personal attention'

Basic principles of service' Basic principles of parts sales'

Organization Service Parts sales of service' support' logistics'

Personal quality2 Quality of work2 Product knowledge2

Mastering difficult2 mplementation of marketing PMT accessories2 discussions with customers activities in the sales sector2

More effective use Increased success using Technology specific of the telephone2 active sales discussions2 to BMW 2

Service applications of IV systems2

Basic and advanced courses in MBD2

Training for the post of skilled salesperson in parts and accessories

' These programmes provide basic training for all personnel at managerial level in the area of service (after.sales/parts) 2 These training programmes offer personal qualification tailored to your individual situation

98 1 011 Figure 6

Non-managerial Service Comrner-Commer- Service Salesper-Orders Inventory MBD staff in the service field advisor cial cial foreman son for clerk cierk clerk service service parts and employee employee acces- with without sories R1 -M-42 customer culomer Programme 1993 contact contact

Basis Wekome to BMW A A B A

Optimum customer service through personal attention A A A A

Basic Organization of principles service A A of service Service support A

Basic principles of parts Basic principles of sales parts sales logistics A A A A

Personal Individual quality qualifications Mastering difficult discussions with customers A

More effective use of the telephone

Quality of Implementation of work marketing activities in the sales sector B A

Increased success using active sales discussions B A

Service applications of IV systems A B A

Basic and advanced courses in MBD A

Product Product marketing knowledgetraining for accessories A A

Technology specific to BMW

Training Skilled salesperson in parts and accessories

A: necessary for qualified performance of lob B: individual supplementary qualification courses C. comprehensive training scheme leading to diploma

99 102 Figure 7Overview of seminars for 1993, Service Training Centre, central, service

Title Seminar no.

Service practice I 0024 Service prociice II 0025 Service practice III 0026 Service practice IV 0027 BMW Service test 0003 Automotive electrical systems and electronics 0004 Diagnosis training I 0030 Dicgnosis training ll 0031 Diagnosis training III 0032 Running gear, suspension geometry and alignment 0039 E36 entire vehicle 0037 Fuel mixture 0006 Automatic transmissions 0038 Gear box, rear-axle and transfer gear boxes 0007 Body work maintenance I 0008 Body work maintenance Ii 0009 Repairs to painlwork I 0010 Repairs to paintwork II 0011 Air conditioning 0012 BMW vehicle service technician 0013 BMW service technician diploma 0014 Technology for foremen and service advisors 0016

Figure 8 Overview of seminars for 1993, Service Training Centre, decentralized, service

Title Seminar no.

Basic training for new BMW empl -yees ..01 Basics of vehicle technology for non technical staff ..02 Diagnosis systems ..03 Diagnosis for spark-ignition engines ..04 Diagnosis for diesel engines ..05 Diagnosis for running gear systems ..06 Diagnosis for electrical systems and electronics in vehicles .07 Current issues in diagnosis ..08 Exhaust fumes technology . 09 Technology for service advisors .. 10

Information representatives . 11

NB- STC South 05 . South/West 06 . Central 07 West 08 . North 09 .

e.g Seminar no for Diagnosis systems in Central STC --- 0703 (07.. for Central STC, 03 for seminar on diagnosis systems)

100 103 Figure 9 - Memory requirement for technical information and data on a CD ROM to be run on PCs in 1994

Solution: Technical Information System

CD ROM

1 CD-Rom approx. 270,000 DIN A4 pages 1 CD-Rom approx. 550 MB' 1994 approx. 4-6 GB

Figure 10 - Diagnosis ir,formation system using a circuit diagram, connector assignment and voltage measurement

Print Change End Services Help

BMW diagnosis - test information Lambda probes - measuring circuit - circuit diagram X6200 View of connector

r-r"" )Tatemeenuarievol OCHDOOGULDOCAZICH;g1C10126:1(2 .(

Lambda probes - circuit / DME input test k4ossmou.1.10 11,. Voltage measurement DME input Measure PIN 70 and 71 j Desired value: 450 mV +-10 mV

443 mV 1 ..... 1.1.14.+.4 -1 r WI( 111.)11 Myosin my1 denKel 11106.1 411111-1 [ iDmumeIts L'efiel ule [ selection test plan1 4 0. [technology functions

101

. 104 5. VW-AUDI AGENCY

Size of the Firm: V 2. General description of the firm Car Maker: VW-Audi 2.1 Main details of the firm The firm takes the form of a private limited Type of Vehicle: A, B company (GmbH), and is an authorized VW- Audi dealer.All VW and Audi vehicles are Type of Firm: C included in the firm's range, through to commercial vehicles of up to 5.5 t. Seat and Skoda, which 1. General description of the case also form part of the VW programme, are not This firm is an agency solely for VW-Audi in GroB marketed by this firm. Gerau, a town in the southern part of the Rhine- Main region, sufficiently far removed from theRepairs and sales conurbation to be in rural surroundings. The firm's activities are not restricted to the sale of new vehicles (sales volume approximately 400 The basis for this case description was providedvehicles per year), but also include the following: by a detailed interview with the manager of the firm, who is also the owner, and conversations a large second-hand car dealership with the training foreman and staff. The training (sales volume approximately 500 vehicles per passports of a number of members of staff were year) also examined. The results of the evaluation are a repair shop with the standard set of VW included in the Appendix. equipment a body repair shop The firm is integrated in the distribution network of a paint shop the VW-Audi organization; an interview .was a filling station therefore also conducted at the distribution centre for the Rhine-Main region, and the associated All types of servicing and repair work are carried customer service training centre was visited. Twoout in the repair shops. Belween 40 and 50 training executives were available for interview, vehicles pass through the repair shops every day. the head of the customer service training centre and the head of service and marketing. Location and distinctive features The firm is located in GroB Gerau, directly on the It also proved possible for one of the interviewers, major trunk road from Darmstadt to Riisselsheim. in another connection, to take part in a 1-day training event at the distribution centre's customerThe following distinctive features are worthy of service training centre. note:

In addition, a lengthy talk was held with the head There are no further possibilities for expansion of the central after-sales service at the manufactur- whatsoever.Allavailable spaceiseither ing plant, together with two of his members of already built on or used as parking space. staff. The nearby car manufacturer, Opel, in Rüssels- The case can be represented diagrammatically as beim, proves highly attractive to local special- follows: ized personnel in the motor vehicle sector on account of its lucrative pay. , Company Dealer and service The majority of the customers come from the predominantly rural surroundings (despite the location on the southern periphery of the Rhine- I. 1 Main region) and can only be retained if good, Distribution centre 1 r Manufacturer reliable and persona. service is provided. customer service I After-sales service training centre i Personnel and training The owner has unde, taken major experimenta- 1 . tion in inventor y ma:lagement and teamwork in the past. The case description is based on the information given during these talks and theinsightsso The firm has intensified in-house training on obtained. account of the scarcity of training opportunities al the distribution centre. The characterization of the case focuses on the VW-Audi agency in GroB Gerau, while the The numerous engine versions (up to 150) and distribution centre and manufacturer are also associated spare-part types and settings were included in the observations particularly in the recorded on computer at a very early stage on six subsections on the labour/management dia- 102 the initiative of the owner (long before this was logue (Sections 4.1 to 4.6). permitted by the manufacturer). The repair shop 10,5 staff were therefore able to have printed copies 2.3 Structure of the firm of the correct values at their disposal immediately, without being held up by waiting timesOrganization and search times. According to the owner, the The firm is made up of the management and the manufacturer and distribution centre did not following departments, shown in the dicgrom. permit the use of computers until about four years ago. The servicing and repair department is the largest department, and comprises vehicle repair, body Size of the firm repair and paint shop, spare-parts supply, and the The firm employs a total of 53 staff, which puts it in filling station. size class V. All types of VW and Audi vehicle are serviced and repaired. Other makes of vehicle are the excep- 2.2 Brief history of the firm and latest tion, mainly being dealt with when taken by the strategies and developments firm as part payment for new vehicle purchases. The firm is roughly 100 years old. It began with mechanical engineering and the construction ofEmployment structure saw frames around the turn ofthe century, andThe servicing and repair sector has the highest untilafter the Second World War generatednumber of employees (10 mechanics including electricity for the region of GroB Gerau. The body specialists, 3 body painters, 13 apprentices, electricity generation business was sold to a utility4 storekeepers). Body repair workisalways company after the war. A haulagebusiness with a carried out by a motor mechanic. number of trucks was run in parallel. Of the Iwo master mechanics in servicing and By 1949 a metalworking shop had been set uprepair, one is at one and the same time repair and the haulage business expanded. The VW shop foreman/training foreman and problem agency was taken up in 1949,and 10 people solver. The second master mechanic is deputy to were employed. Two years laterthe firm was the other in his capacity as repair shop foreman. established on the present site, and was progressively enlarged by the acquisition of further land. The problem solver is a position introduced in the VW organization for the purpose of accomplish- Between 1950 and 1980 the workforce grew to ing difficult tasks. The training foreman conducts 50, and has remained virtually constant in the pastin-house training. 5 years. There has been rn large-scale personnel turnover. All departments were af!acted by theOrganization of work increase in staff numbers. A certain degree of specialization occurred over that period, with Dealerships concentration on sheet metal working and body-The individual specialist sections of the servicing work (accident repairs), the paint shop and theand repair department have their own repair shops breakdown service. The full range of repair work and rooms, but co-operate at a technical level was then finally covered in thefirm. wherever necessary. The firm operates with staggered starting times for various groups of employ- The firm's status as an authorized dealer meansees. This makes it possible to extend the opening that the equipment must be supplied entirely, down times to stretch from 6.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m. to considerable detail, by Matra on behalfof VW. Major items of equipment include modern com-Mechanics begin and end their working day in the pact testers, fault-readout units and, for certain repairshopsatthreestaggeredtimes.This types of customer vehicle, SUN testers. provides forbetterdistributionof the"rush

Figure 1 Organizational Chart

Management

Sales Seivn.ing/repoir Administration New/second-hand vehicles

Spore-patts supply1 Point shop F i Ding station Vehicle repair Body «pair (store) 103 . . _ . tag Figure 2 Employment structure

Position NumberProfessional Length of employ- Nationality (otherNo. of fe- background ment (years) than German) male staff

Management 1 Master mechanic and More than management training 30 years

Sales New vehicles 3 1 commercial clerk 20 40

Second-hand vehicles 1 2 motor mechanics

1 master mechanic

Administration Invoicing, cash desk 8 All with commercial 6 empl. fewer 7 Accounting training than 5

After-sales service 3 2 service foremen More than 5 years 1 service adviser (average 15 years)

Servicing and repair

Foremen 2 Master mechanic More than 5 years 3 Vehicle repair (mechanic) 10 Motor mechanic (average 15 years)

Body repair (coachbuilder) Motor mechanic Paint shop 3 1 foreman Store 4 2 body painters Filling station 2 Motor-trade clerk (part-trained)

Apprentices Motor mechanics 13 Less than 5 years Commercial clerks 1 8

Total 53

hours". The repair shop foreman shares out the Staggered working times were alreadycom- jobs among the individual mechanics. The inten- mon at this time, and they made co-ordination tion behind the staggered working times isto within and between the teamsmore difficult. avoid idle periods in work distribution and to offer One of the reasons given for this was that itwas customer-friendly opening times. not possible to moke the teams sufficiently homogeneous on account of the personnel This concept has so far proved worthwhile. The structure. introductory phase lasted two years. This method of organization was introduced after the firm had The customers from the rural areawere happier abandoned the team concept, whichwas origi- with the conventional conc:-.;;t than with the nally rated positively. The majorreasons for the team concept. change were: The team concept was tested for almosta full year5. As the firm does not shut down for annual holidays, the teams were repeatedly brokenup The service foremen and service advisers keepin during the times when individual employees close contact with customers and accept their were on vacation; customers also then sud-vehicles for servicing and repair Their individual denly missed their familiar contact person duties are:

There were frequent problems of co-operation making appointments for repair work and co-ordination within the teams, brought clarifying the extent of the servicing andrept.. about by the close collaboration required work with the customer

104 According to a sales representative, the team concept has been adoptedby some 25% of VW repair shops 0 7 handing over therepairedvehicle tothe In relation to the customer, the objectives of the customer flexibleworkorganizationmodeldescribed above, concerning the deployment of individual Many customers attachimportancetobeing memL ers of staff, were as follows: served by the same after-sales service adviser every time. to promote close contact between customers and the after-sales service advisers Two repair shop foremen are responsible for to safeguard reliable customer support in the proper processing of the jobs. One of the two long term foremen also has the role of training foreman and problemsolver.Bothofthesefunctionsare According to the owner, the fruit of this approach customary in VW-Audi agencies. is a large number of regular customers, good results from the image analysis performed by the In order to be r:bie to respond sufficiently flexiblymanufacturer, and long periods of employment to technical demands in the repair shop, there is with the firm for many staff members. multiple staffing in certain ;mportant areas. For example, there are four specialists for electrical 2.4 Workforce and electronic diagnostics, three body painters, and two sheet-metal workers. It is the aim of theDevelopment and age structure of the firm to increase the number of employees forworkforce individual duties so as to allow for rotation and to The number of employees reached its present level ensure that sufficient skilled staff are always on in the early 1980s, as already mentioned. There hand.Itisalso theintentionto securestaff have been no notable changes since 1985. A satisfactionbyprovidingmore varied worktable providing an overview of the workforce, structuring. This is only possible with the aid of showingtheirfunctions,sex,nationality and additional training measures. length of service, is included in Section 2.3.

An estimated 25 per cent of cases are classifie.d as It is striking that many of the employees have been difficult, and for these cases especially there has to with the firm for a considerable time. The core be a sufficient number -)f people available to solve workforce has been at the firm for some 30 years. the problems. Accorc ig to the repair shop fore-The oldest employees (6) are about 50 years old. man, these cases are related to electronics and The majority,if one disregards the apprentices, peripheral devices, and primarily occur in new, are between 40 and 50 years old. Almost all unfamiliar models at the time of model changes. passed through their training periods at the firm. The age structure also has the effect of attracting Sales older customers.Itis 4 years higher than the Sales activities for new and used vehicles are averageforthe VW-Audi organization. The handled relatively independentlyb.,the sales owner of the firm is now concerning himself with personnel, who have been with the firm for a measures to attract young people. very long time (two of them for about 30 years). Three of the four salesmen have a background as Working conditions motor mechanics; the other was trained as aThe working hours and length of holiday are commercial clerk. regulated by collective agreement. The hours of work are fixed at 37.5 hours per week, with 30 The repurchase of second-hand cars as part of the working days holiday. The business is open from process of selling new cars is just as much a task of 6.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m. every day. The firm does the sales personnel as the preparation of offers for not close for annual holidays. financing. Pay structure Given the wide range of models it is difficult for the Payment is performance-related. For top employ- sales staff to be able to answer all customers' ees it can be as much as 30% above standard technical questions immediately; they often find itrates, reaching about DM 25.- per hour. The basis necessary to consult the relevant brochures. for pay increasesis provided by an in-house bonus system. This is intended to motivate employ- According to the information of one salesman, the ees. Pay increases are always agreed in talks with cars are primarily sold by word-of-mouth odver employees. tising relating to product quality, by advertising efforts on the part of the firm, and (particularlyAccording to the owner a high level of pay is important) by the quality of after-sales service in necessary because the employees would other- the repair shops. wise drift off to the nearby Opel plant.

It is estimated in- housc that as many as 3/4 of newTraining standards of employers vehicles can only be sold if the aftei -sales service All employees at the firm have obtained a training proves satisfactory to the customer. qualificatinn, most of them at the firm itself (see 105 Section 2.3). In the technical field, this is training Management training as a motor mechanic, which is a prerequisite for Manufacturer recruitment. A commercial traineeship is a pre- Training the trainers requisite in administration.

The owner of the firm is prepared to depart from Distribution Training for training foremen these prerequisites if it is ensured that a worker is centres Mechanics/man( arial staff/ adequately qualified. technology; marketing, logistics In addition to the two foremen who have their particular functions (training foreman and repair shop foreman),thereisalso another master In-company Trcining personnel by training mechanic. foremen Main areas: service It is usually the case that only staff who have been technology/bodywork/paint- trained at the firm are taken on. work

If there is a need to recruit staff, the head of after- sales service, the foremen and the owner discuss how many and which newly-trained personnel Instruction covers the training of technical person- should and can be engaged. nel,trainingforemen and after-salesservice managers, and the training of sales staff and Employee representation management/marketing personnel(partlyper- The size of the firm means that the existence of a formed externally). staff committee is mandatory. It consists of three people and a youth representative. The staffThe customer service training centre at the Dieburg committeeisinvolvedinimportant decisions distribution centre in the Rhine-Main region has at relating to personnel. One member of the staff its disposal three instruction rooms, three trainers, committee is a trade union member. the VW self-study programme (SSP),videos, recent versions of vehicles, testers, and standard 3. Provision of continuing vocational training equipment6. training 36 people can be trained per day from the 3.1 Structure of the firm roughly 400 dealerships in the area served by the The firm conducts a great deal of continuing school. training on its own premises and takes every opportunity to participate in continuing training The manufacturer considers 2.5 man training days schemes at the customer service training centre in (MTDs) training per year necessary for technical the distribution centre. training,but,because of capacity shortages, specifies only1.5 MTDs and recommends 4 Participation inthecoursesofferedbythe hours in-company training per month. distribution centreis obligatory for the sales, marketing and management personnel.In the According to information provided by the firm, technical field it is primarily the training foreman however, usually only 0.5 MTDs per year remain and,ifthe capacity at the customer service available for firm personnel, which is considered training centre so allows, the mechanics who clearly too little. attend the courses. The VW organization's training requirements it, In-house technical training is undertaken by thethe fields of technology and dealing with custom- training foreman, who trains all employees. Theers amount to 155,400 MTDs per year for all materials for in-house training are provided by the dealership personnel (from office staff through to manufacturer (video recordings, self-study pro. after-sales service managers); due to capacity grammes, repair guides). The focal areas and limitations, however, only 74,000 MTDs currently extent of this training can be derived from thetake place(refer also to the pyramidinthe evaluationofthetrainingpassportsinthe Appendix). Appendix. 3.3 Structure of continuing training 3.2 Structure of the customer service centres run by trade associations training centre Continuing training centres run by associations The structure of continuing training at VW can be (chambers/guilds) provide continuing training, represented in simplified form in a diagram: trainservice technicians, and offer additional -_ 106 6 The SSP is a series of booklets prepared according to a didactic system; it is intended for self-study by employees. 109 courses on all conceivable topics related to motor technological developments (see Appendix: vehicles. More details are enclosed in the sector excerpts from training passports). 2. report. On account of the lack of capacity at the There was no indication of advantage being taken customer service training centres, such periods of these opportunities in the training passports are also used by the training foreman to pass belonging to the staff of the firm in question. on knowledge obtained in courses to other members of the workforce. This takes place in Other courses are available from the Chambers of small groups directly on site, and is highly Trades, the Chambers of Industry and Commerce, practically oriented. The participants then have adulteducationcentre and numerousother to prepare a report so as to reinforce what they establishments. The majority of these course5 are havelearnt.Instructionisfollowed up by not so much concentrated on vehicle-specific application in practice. topics but rather on subjects such as "Funda- mentals ofElectronics","Working withPCs", No more than I/c, of employees engage in self- "Office Organization" etc. improvement at home with the aid of the SSP.

Employees are free to decide themselves whetherDue to the lack of capacity at the customer service to attend such courses. Thereis no financialtraining centre, mentioned earlier,itis primarily support from the firm for attendance. thetrainingforemen andafter-salesservice managers who are trained there. The newly-introduced service technician training course has attracted the interest of the firm. The Notwithstanding the training measures at the firm, owner sees in this an opportunity to promote the great importanceisattached to the customer further training of employees and to reduce in-service training centres because: house continuing training efforts. that is where the ins and outs of new systems 4. Training policy of the firm can be learnt most quickly asystematicintroductionto symptomatic 4.1 Training plans at the repair shop trouble-shooting is essential; this is not some- level thing that repair shop personnel can learn by The firm examined here undertakesintensive self-education in-house continuing training. This is considered a general self-educationistoo complex and basicprerequisitefor good service and the expensive retention of customers for the firm. In summary it can be stated that a great variety of The training foreman plans the main areas of training activities take place at the firm with the training and sets the dates. aim of being able to offer customers sound service even for the very latest products. Trainingis carried out in accordance with the following concept: The capacity limitations at the distribution centre customer service training centres, and in the VW New recruitsto the operation work for a organization as a whole, force the Erm to take number of weeks under the supervision of a such action because otherwise it would not be master mechanic and are then instructed in possible to guarantee reliable service and the various fields in-house by the training foreman. result would be loss of custom. The new recruits are then also registered for courses at the customer service training centre. The central company philosophy is: "Performance deficiencies throughout the firm must be kept to a The training foreman holds company training minimum; training plays an important part in courses to accompany the introduction of new achieving this." models. According to the owner, the training activities at During times of low workload in the repairthe firm will be increasingly necessary because shops, the training foreman instructs individual "VW has been indulging in experiments in the groups with the aid of the SSP. At such timescontinuing training sector for 10 years and still has particular emphasisisplaced ontraining no efficient concept". This situation has frequently mechanics with a limited breadth of knowl- been the subject of analysis,but the works edge in various specialized areas, primarily in representatives try to cover too broad a scope order to diminish their fear of things new. withtheir ideas for implementation while the dealerships' actual problems and proposals are Inaddition, as many staff as possible arerarely taken into account. In other words, feed- trainedinelectronics and diagnostic tech-back from the dealerships to the manufacturer is 107 niques and are familiarized with other new unsatisfactory. 4.2 Link between training concepts and The company workforce(storekeepers,office demand workers, after-sales service advisers) took part in external courses on customer care held at other Analysis of required skills companies a number of years ago, with great As mentioned in 4.1, the main areas of interest of success. new employees, in particular, are established by the foremen (by observation) and in talks. The owner estimates the share of training as follows: in-house training and registration for courses at the customer service training centre takes place in management/customer care 20% accordance with the company philosophy, which technology 80% aims to ensure that each employee is capable of employment in a number of fields. There is no precise recording of such figures.

Company employees' interest in attendance of Relationship between required skills courses is divided: and training concepts In line with the manufacturer's philosophy, every top-line mechanics wish to attend all available new employee has to attend basic training courses courses (see 4.4). other mechanics often have only little interest in courses The tirm (Leafter-sales service manager and training foreman) decides on the basis of theirThere can be no obligation for all employees to main areas of work which continuation coursesengage in continuing training, as demanded by staff should attend. the manufacturer and distribution centre, because thereisinsufficient capacity at the customer service training centres. 4.3 Target groups of vocational training 4.4 Training plans Each firm receives the VW/Audi training pro- Participation of company staff grammes for every calendar year. They contain Basicallyitispossibleforallemployees to the full range of programmes for managerial staff, participate in continuing training at the firm andspecialized staff in sales, repair shops, service at the distribution centre.Priority,however,is and accessories, and marketing. given to those who work as the problem-solver or training foreman, or who have to deal with Management training is offered by an external particularly complex technical matters (electron- company. ics, diagnostics etc.). The training organization is described below.

There is a range of general initial and continuing Objective of training training schemes availableatthedistribution As mentioned earlier, training in modern technol- centre for specio: ,ts and managerial staff ogy, primarily electronics and diagnostic techniques,isof central importance at thefirm. in sales, service and accessories Mechanical engineering has become an insignifi- and specifically for commercial vehicle exr erts cantsubjectthere.The mainareasinclude inthe sale of commercial vehicles, service diagnostic technology and handling the late:4 test technology, body maintenance and painting equipment,likewise trouble-shootingfor ABS, Digijet, Mono-Jetronic, electronic ignition, Companies are able to select from the range on electrohically-controlled transmission shift etc. offer (see Appendix, overviews). Further training relating to new technical compo- Representativesofthefirmgenerallyattend nents and systems is intended to ensure that repair courses for after-sales service advisers and master shop personnel are able to service and repair mechanics/training foremen onthetopicof vehicles with modern electronics efficiently so as to dealing with customers. Interest in these courses, continue to offer reliable service to customers. however, has become very low, because "the contents of the courses in this field have become The sales and after.sales service staff must be in a banal". The opinion of the staff is that "it is always position to explain the special feature's of new the same old claptrap". products withextensiveelectronicsystemsto customers, to their satisfaction. This course is held three times per year, each time lasting half a day for 6 participants. In 1991it Development since 1987 occupied about two days per man,in1992 The training concept has not changed since 1987. 108 noticeably less. The contents, however, are adapted to the new .1114 1 requirements every year. The programme now It can be seen from the contents of the courses and takes account of all systems that have achieved the vertically graduated concept that the courses can production readiness for vehicles, or whose use be divided into two categories, in similar fashion to has been extended, as a result of technical the current form of company organization: development in recent years, for example central electrical systems, circuit diagrams, testers, elec- courses coveringtopicsinvolving customer tronic injection, electronic management systems, contact ABS, semiconductor and breakerless semiconduc- courses dealing exclusively with motor vehicle tor ignition systems, central hydraulic systems, technology automatictransmissions,andair-conditioning systems, to name but a few. The seminars covering customer contact are designed for staff from after-sales service, soles, Relationship between training and and company organization; seminars with techni- careers cal content are primaniy intended for mechanics Thereisiorelationshipbetween continuing but also for repair shop foremen. training and professionalcareers.Continuing vocational trainingis considered necessary inWhen new products are introduced, training of order to be able to meet the challenges of personnel of the various companies takes place technical developments and to safeguard jobs. when the product is available. Efficient, product- Further training and the successful application oforiented training is not possible before that. newly-acquired skills and capabilities result in better pay above the agreed scale. Plans for the future development of training Description of the training system All three establishments consulted, namely the The system of in-house training has already been firm, distribution centre/customer service training described. centre and manufacturer, clearly recognize the high demand for continuing training on account of In the following there is an outline of the currentthe rapid developments in concept as stipulated by the manufacturer and distribution centre/customer service training cen- motor vehicle technology tre. repair shop technology (tesi equipment etc.) after-sales information systems involving elec- The training system comprises three stages (see tronic data media also Appendix): The manufacturer concludes from this that dealers' Stage 1: Basic Trainingintended for all managerial staff and mechanics require training at Objective: short intervals (at least twice per year). Above all for new employees and to extend range of skills Given a total potential number of participants of 36,000 people in Germany, and a training time Stage 2: Continuing Training I of 2.5 MTDs per person, the total requirement is Objective: 90,000 MTDs per year. Improving and extendingskillsand expertise In the estimation of representatives of the distribu- Stage 3: Continuing TrainingII Stage 2is ation centre and manufacturer, the only way of prerequisite coping withthis demandistoincrease the Objective: relocation of training to the dealerships. Development of trouble-shooting strategies A model that is so far still at the discussion stage has been developed for practical implementation; In the technical sector, mechanical engineering is its basic features are described below. The model, now less important than it used to be in all training known for short as T-TiB (a German abbreviation schemes. Electronics and diagnostic technologyfor Technik-Training im Betriebin-house technol- are of central importance. ogy training), is based on the following ideas:

There is a similar graduated system for sales and training is to be conducted by full-time T-TiB marketing to that shown above, but apart from trainers (supported by the distribution centre basic training and continuing training there is also and manufacturer) a degree of specialization. This specialization (for example in business administration or personnel, suitable conditions for theoretical and practical or, in the case of sales staff, in products or second- work hand cars) is not, however, based on the basic and continuing training courses (see also overview classroom for 12 people in Appendix). workshop for practical exercises M9 id 2 Ii

dealerships andrepair shopsspecifythe full overview of the problems that are troubling the training programme and cover the costs companies.

The co-operating companies are to agree on aQualifications of training staff permanent T-TiB base for training, with classroom The trainers at the customer service training centre and workshop area. This is where the T-TiB trainer are generally qualified mastercraftsmen or fore- is to work. men and have a good command of the technology, and are given training in teaching methods Some 400 VW-Audi mechanics are to be linked to by the manufacturer. each T-TiB base. The manufacturer is covering the initial investment for T-TiB training. Itis intended Advance training of training staff and that these funds be recovered by payment for theemployees training services. When new technical developments areintro- duced, trainers are invited to visit the manufac- The customer service training centres shall con-turer for training on the new products. tinue to hold courses, but possibly to a reduced extent. These courses willbuild on the T-TiB A more recent variant of this is that trainers meet in courses. small groups to familiarize themselves with new developments and are then trained at the manu- P.,ere are also thoughts of incorporating training facturer so as to further deepen their knowledge. in the electronic network for the parts catalogueTrainers receive instruction about four to five and literature at some future date. months before the introduction of a new product. The employees of the companies are not trained Curricula until the product is available. The contents and levels of the courses are largely determined by theself-study programme, the Participation of trade union and other video programmes, and other written documents representatives (such as repair manuals). These documents areTrade union representatives are present at all drawn up by the manufacturer.Itis up to the levels investigated: firm, distribution centre and training staff to select the methods used in themanufacturer.They areinformedof training courses. activities but do not exercise any influence over them. Feedback system There are three different types of specialist adviser Employee representatives are includedinthe in the VW organization, for: planning of the overall concept at the manufacturer level. technology accessories Collective agreements about training marketing There are no such agreements.

These advisers visit the companies regularly, and are intended to provide advice and support in4.5 Costs of continuing vocational technical discussions in the event of problems. training All costs of in-house training are covered by the Companies are called upon tostipulatethe firm. There is no precise assessment of these costs. necessary focal areas of training in conjunction with the specialist advisers. The firm does not have to pay fees for employees' attendance of courses at the customer service The specialist advisers also carry out a check of training centre.It does, however, have to com- work quality. They report their findings to the pensate the participants for loss of earnings and relevant department at the manufacturer. travel costs.

The firm examined here still sees certain deficien- According to an estimate by the service manager, cies in the feedback system. They say that to date the costs incurred by the customer service training there has been no noticeable improvement in the centre for holding the courses amount in total extent of training at the customer service training (personnel, facilities, maintenance, new acquisi centre, arid while thereis support for trouble- tions, catering) to about LW 1million per year. shooting with new products, it is often necessary to This figure has to be financed from the trading approach a number of people in order to obtain volume of the sale of spare parts by the distribution adequate assistance. centre.

One reason for gaps in the flow of information 4.6 Evaluation of costs may be that as a result of feedback returning to There is no more specific evaluation of the costs of 110 various departments, no single department has a continuing vocational training. S. Evaluation of the training concepts the provision of product information limited training of the trainers from the customer 5.1 Evaluation of the staff service training centres questionnaire Refer to the Appendix: "Evaluation of Training Thecustomerservicetrainingcentreoffers passports". important courses, above all on recent developments, for sales, marketing and managerial staff, 5.2 Best practice, standard practice but for cost reasons is unable to expand the The firm examined here carries out training on-site amount of training to the necessary degree. This is with the prime aim of keeping customers satisfied why the training foremen and problem-solvers are by a good standard of service, and thus binding the primary targets for training. Standard training them more closely to the firm. relatingto conventional technologyisto be transferred to the companies to an even greater The objective of the training scheme is to improveextent than before. The firm is facing up to this the skills of individual employees on as broad andchallenge, as far as it is able in terms of cost and varied a basis as possible. The customer service capacity, for two reasons: trainingcentreconcentratesontheaimof achieving higher qualifications, above all in new a. In order to be able to cover costs on work in the technologies such as electronics and diagnostic workshops,or even operateat aprofit, technology, and on providing an adequate range appropriately qualified skilledstaff must be of leadership, marketing, management and sales available so as to be able to perform efficient training courses. servicing and repairs,even on high-tech vehicles. 5.3 Future requirements of continuing vocational training b. The only way of retaining a large number of regular customers over a long period of time is Need for mobility to provide good service and good, but above By broadening the range of skills of as many allreliable,customer support bothat an employees as possible itis intended to ensure a organizational level and at the servicing and reliable level of service at the firm and enable staff repair level. to be employed in a number of fields. The transfer of training activities to the firm has the In the opinion of representatives of the manufac-effect that there is less and les's communication turer and the distribution centre, the in-house between company staff and the manufacturer, the training policy is generally transferable and will in consequencebeing,onthe one hand,that future be a necessary way of meeting training important informationisnot available tothe requirements. manufacturer and, on the other hand, that the firm cannot receive sufficiently targeted support from The high cost of in-house training does, however, the manufacturer or the customer service training constitute an appreciable burden for the firm in centre when confronted with unfamiliar faults in question. new products.

The tendency on the part of the manufacturer isThe result of this is the establishment of an informal to extend in-company training by introducing a information network between individual firms who modified form of organization. This would have provide mutual support in trouble-shooting and the effect that the manufacturer would be further diagnosis whenever the manufacturer or customer distanced from the training activities, whereas the service training centres is unable to help. individual firms would be more closely integrated in training schemes than before. To enable themanufacturer anddistribution centre/customer service training centre to 6. Conclusions in the context of best achieve a certain levelof information despite practice and normal practice this, additional specialist advisers must be de- Theinterviews and discussionsheldatthe ployed for the fields of technology, organization manufacturer, the distribution centre and the firm and marketing. Considering that these advisers gave a clear indication of a tendency to transfer also check the quality of work, however, they are certain parts of the training programme to the at one and the same time partners of the firm but companies. also inspectors reporting to the manufacturer. To a certain extent this diminishes the collaboration that The manufacturer is concentrating on the perform- is potentially constructive for both sides, which has ance of tasks such as: the aim of providingsuccessfultraining and efficient service in all areas. overall co-ordination of the training procedure (help with problems, financial assistance etc.) From the discussions with those parties mentioned 111 preparation of media for training aboveitcanbe concludedthatcontinuing 4 vocational training is characterized by a relatively increasing the quality of training in the context of large amount of experimentation in content and conditions as they exist in firms.Itis necessary, organization, and no "ideal" model has yet been however, to safeguard the general conditions that implemented. make this possible, for example qualified trainers, training materials and premises. This concept at Alongside the concept described above, the the same time offers the opportunity for practical service technician training programme newly- evaluation of the products. The extent to which this introduced to the motor vehicle sector (see sector proves successful is dependent on whether itis report) isseen by allsides asoffering an possible to develop a relationship between the additional opportunity to play a certain part in manufacturer and dealerships that is more strongly meeting requirements. oriented towards feedback and co-operation Finally, it can be stated that continuing vocational againstthe widespreadtrendof acontrol- training is aimed at and capable of considerably oriented tradition.

112 4.10ow APPENDIX

Overview of required training capacity

Training capacity

Requirements Technical training Total Pays/employee) MTD AS 2 2,600 mancrgers 5,200

Repair shop 2,800 foremen 1.5 1.5 8,400

4,700 AS osers 2 2 18,800

Vehicle service 4,000 technicians 5 1 24,000

Trained mechanics 24,000 2 48,000

.11 441 5,000 4 20,000

Apprentices 11,000 2 22,000

Offite sioff/qhers 9,000 1 9,000

Total actual: Technology 55,000 Target: 155,400 Service + marketing 19,000 74,000 47 % No training

I I Insufficient training available

Source: VW-Audi course programme

Overview of the range of continuingemployees who have not had experience of vocational training schemes available in Volkswagen and Audi products for some time. the VW-Audi organization This basic training is also aimed at employees who Source: VW course programme need additional technical training, e.g. moving from mechanical to electrical engineering, car Theinitial and continuing vocational bodywork repair and paintwork. training programme for managerial staff and specialist personnel in sales Continuing training, stage 1 Repair shop staff can improve and extend their Training of sales staff: training in routing repair shop work. Training at this stage is organized for different components, Basic training, stage 1(2 weeks) e.g. engines, fuel and ignition systems, transmis- Basic training, stages 2-4 (31 week) sions, car bodywork, electrical system, paintwork. Second-hand car seminar Action training/regional product training Continuing training, stage 2 Training in dealership business Stage 2 is designed for employees who have to Special training meet particularly high levelsin motor vehicle repair.It enables participants to develop inde- Information on the seminars "service technol- pendent trouble-shooting skills. Training is devoted ogy, car bodywork and paintwork" to dealing with customer complaints under the heading: Basic training It is aimed at new employees, e.g. who have been Clear-cut recognition of the source of trouble recruited from competitors' firms, or at former and its correct repair 113 116 A prerequisite for stage 2 is knowledge of the skills Notes on the service technology, bodywork imparted in stage 1. and painting courses

information on seminars for rublicly-owned Basic training undertakings This is intended for new employees, coming from competitors for example, or for former employees When notifying the training needs of vehicle fleetwho have not worked on Volkswagen or Audi owners (publicly-owned undertakings) the follow- products for some considerable time. ing should be taken into account: Basic trainingisalso intended for employees an expressed need for training does not alwayswhose range of technical skills is to be expanded, involve course attendance. It is possible that this for example from automotive mechanics to auto- lack of knowledga can be made up through motive electrics, body repair or vehicle painting. customer service literature(repair manuals, self-learning programmes, etc.) or the provi- Continuing vocational training, stage 1 sion of video training sessions. This is the stage at which specialist repair shop personnel can improve and extend their skills for to guarantee the success of a course, partici-day-to-day repair work. Training at this stage is pants should only attend courses relative tooriented towards component groups, for example their routine tasks. engines, fuel and ignition systems, transmissions, bodywork, electrical systems, paintwork. Technical courses: Continuing vocational training, stage 2 Basic training, Stage 1 Stage 2 is intended only for employees who have General product technology to meet particularly demanding requirements in VW/Audi inspection service vehicle repair. Stage 2 gives participants the Audi V8 inspection service abilitytodeveloptrouble-shootingstrategies Engines (spark-ignition and diesel) themselves. The topics are based entirely on Mixture formation, carburettor engines customer complaints, the underlying philosophy Mixture formation, fuel-injection engines being: (naturally aspiroted and turbo) Mixture formation, diesel engines(naturally Unambiguous identification and correct repair aspirated and turbo) of all causes of faults Ignition systems Familiarity with the relevant topics from stage 1is Manual transmissions a prerequisite for participation in stage 2 Transmissions (manual and automatic) Running gear, general Notes on courses for publicly-owned enter- Running gear, specific prises Temperature regulation (air-conditioning systems) For the purpose of registering the requirement for courses amongfleetowners(publicly-owned Vehicle electrical systems 1 enterprises)withtheresponsibledistribution Vehicle electrical systems 2 centre, we ask you to note the following:

Continuing vocational training, Stage 2 A request for training does not always mean General product technology that participation in a course is necessary. The Systematic trouble-shooting on carburettor provision of after-sales literature (repair manu- engines als, self-study programmes etc.) and the loan of Systematic trouble-shooting on fuel-injection operational training video tapes can often engines make up forany existingdeficienciesin Systematic trouble-shooting on diesel engines knowledge.

Manual transmissions In order to ensure the success of the courses you Systematic trouble-shooting on air-condition- should make certain that the course participants ing systems are assigned specifically to those courses for publicly-owned enterprises from the range on Vehicle electrical systems 1 offer that match their duties in their particular Systematic trouble-shooting on electrical and enterprise. electronic systems

114 Bodywork and paintwork courses: Theinitial and continuing vocational training programme for managerial staff Basic training, Stage I and specialist personnel in the fields of Bodywork service marketing and logistics (for after- Assembly and adjustment work on vehiclesales service organization, parts service bodies and accessories) Body in white Sliding/removable roofs Specialist Training (Basic Training): Non-positively mounted bonded glasswork Service Golf Convertible Finding the correct part number PS Audi Convertible Finding the correct replacement part number PS V.A.G. jig system 1365 Auto-part data acquisition and evaluation PS Determining the correct service order AS Painting Organization in the company office AS Vehicle paintwork, painting of .plastic bolted-on body parts Specialist Training Shading (continuing vocational training): Marketing: Service Continuing vocational training, Stage 2 Parts service marketing PS Bodywork Service marketing AS Systematictrouble-shootingonbodywork, Advice and sales in service AS/PS leaks, noises Service to the customer AS/PS Telephone communications AS/PS Painting Poster typefaces Accessories Defects in paintwork and how to correct them Presentation of goods Accessories Individually designed vehicle painIwork Business Administration: Service Commercial inventory management PS Courses for publicly-owned enterprises: Contribution margins in the parts service PS Inspection service for Polo/Golf/Passat type Cost-effective repair shop management AS series Analytical instruments for cost-effective Inspection service for Audi 80/100 iype series company management AS Industrial engines Contribution margins in the service field AS

Demand-oriented action training: Personnel: Service As a supplement to initial and continuing voca- Planning, organizing and holding tional training, service technology training will in-house training events AS also respond selectively to major events in 1992. Time scheduling and coping with stress AS You will be informed in good time of the dates and topics covered. Organization: Service Orderly parts storage PS In-house training/self-study programmes: Rational work organization in serviceAS/PS This training channel gives every firm the oppor- Location PS tunity of conducting individual or group training Handling exchanges PS. events via their after-sales training foreman, in Team concept as an organizational form AS accordance with their particular requirements. Working Groups: Service In-house training mainly uses video asits Parts service working group PS medium, althoughthereisalsoprovision Repair shops for after sales where needed for the use of accompanying service managers AS material such as exercise booklets, self-study Regional training for after-sales programmes, and training or demonstration service managers AS parts. In-house Training: Service Learning from self-study programmes can take Training within the firm AS/PS place outside working hours.Ifthey have Support in Ihe firm AS/PS difficulty understanding the material, learners can turn to the after-sales training foreman,As a supplement to initial and continuing voca- who also sees to it that it is possible to consulttional training, service marketing and logistics the self-study programme at the firm whentrainingwillalso respond selectively to other necessary. major events. You will be informed in good time of the dates and topics covered. 115 Specialist Training (Basic Training) 6. Transmission - manual Finding the correct part number automatic 7. Motor mechanics Objective 8. Bodywork Teaching the skills of finding part numbers quickly, Total 100% correctly and reliably Product training and mixture formation are ranked Content highest. The means available for finding part numbers - Spare part reference books and what they 2. Customer service training centre contain - Microplan films and their layout - The MPF reader and how to use it Proportion in % - Working with the ETKA keyboard - What ETKA offers 1. Customer support 53% 2. Trouble-shooting Mixture formation Finding the correct part number with MPF or ETKA (diesel/petrol engines) 13% Basic data 3. Components (various) 13%, - Structure and meaning of part numbers 4. Air-conditioning systems 7%. Determining part numbers 5. Electrical systems 7%0 - Special points when determining part num- 6. Bodywork 7% bers Total 100% Practical exercises with MPF or ETKA Product training and carburationareranked Participants New employees who have been working in the highest. parts service for less than 6 months and apprentices Extent of training Location Distribution centre Customer service training centre

Duration Average participation in the full range of courses Dependent on the needs and existing knowledge available by employees of the firm between 1989 of participants and 1992: between 1 and max. 1.4 MTDs Costs The distribution centre bears the costs of holding 2. In-house training courses. Travel costs, and if appropriate board a. Regularly documented trainingby training and lodging are covered by the firm. foreman (usuallyinsmall groups) between 1988 and 1992: Seminar code average 1 MTD G1 TNB b. Training in the form of instruction directly at the object in question while working on a job - Evaluation of Training Passports calculation .of job cost accounts is reduced accordingly (referred to in-house as W6) Main elements of training estimated figure approx. 1.5 MTDs (this figure cannot be calculated precisely) I. In-house 3.Total amount of training Proportion in % a Customer service training 1. Product training 38% centre approx. 1.2 MTDs 2. Carburation - particularly b. In-house approx. 2.5 MTDs electronically controlled fuel-injection Total 3.7 MTDs systems and diesel mixture formation 20% This data was obtained from the training passports 3. New components for the period from 1988 to 1992 and entered in (e.g. airbag, multifunction display) 14% the enclosed sample of the questionnaire. 4. Measurement technology (testers, suspension alignment etc.) 9% No significant changes in the amount of training 5. Circuit diagrams / on-board computers 8% 116 could be detected during the period in question. 6. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE CASE STUDIES

Despite careful selection, we are still not really in a inco-operation withthelocal Chambers of position to register and describe all the differencesTrades. They do benefit inthis sense from a 2. and various facets of continuing training practices training which is not linked to a particular make in the sector on the basis of five case studies. There butitisvery much based on theparts or is no question that anyone expects that from the componects and teaches little about systems. It is case studies. Nevertheless, we should ascertain very diffice to predict whether this deficiency will which part of the sector our selected cases are inin the long term reduce the importance of the fact representative of and to what extent theyindependen' dealerships, and thus their numbers, reflect conditions in the sector as a whole. or whether the number of people they employ will simply drop. They will have a good chance of Of course, we can use the case studies to illustratesurvivingincertain areas (such as repairing continuing training in the sector, but the selection accident damage or older models). cannot make any claim to be statistically representative of the sector. The cases have, however, But the manufacturer-based organizations are been selected on a basis which permits qualitativealso faced with a similar problem: the capacity statements. of the central customer service training centres does not fully meet the repair shops' demand for Our sample differs from the sector as a whole incontinuing technical training. Nevertheless, man- the following respects: ufacturers and importers seem to have no desire (and certainly no concrete plans) to adapt the our firms have more employees than is usual incapacity in the customer service training centres to the sector; meet the demand ofthedealers. Whatis our employees are older; happening instead is that the limited capacity is our sampleincludestoo few independent being used increasingly for three target groups: dealerships for the total number of firms; of the firms in our selection which are under to provide a basic training for young skilled contract to a particular make of vehicle the workers in their first journeyman's year or other upper segment of the market predominates; new workers; it is not possible to make any comment on the to train specialists; particular problems of eastern Germany. to provide training that will be passed on to colleagues. As far as the öge of the firms is concerned (year of establishment), the structure, the organization of This concentration on certain central target groups the work and the level of union membership, we is accompanied by different forms of organiza- have probably chosen the "social average." tionaldecentralizationofservicetraining- particularlyinthe case of German manufac- Despite this slight imbalance in our choice of firms, turers. On the one hand, many manufacturers general conclusions can, of course, be drawn onare moving their courses from the central training the basis of the case studies which apply to the facilitiestowell-functioningrepairshopsor whole sector. branch establishments and create as a side effect (limited) opportunities for the dealer to influence For all dealerships, including the "independent"the structure of the training (BMW, VW) ("need- ones which are not linked to a particular make, theoriented regionalization"). On the other hand, capacities for continuing training are limited. This technical communication networks are used to applies less to the commercial and customerreach greater numbers of participants ("physical- service qualifications. In this area there are fewertechnical decentralization"), which is what Mer- quantitative problems as it is more a question here cedes Benz is, for example, trying to do with its of training c, ,rses which are not linked to a make major project, AKUBIS. of vehicle but are offered by independent institutions and the local Chambers of Trades. Here the In view of this situation the internal training within difficulty for the dealerships is probably more of a firmsintheiri vnrepairshopsisgaining financial nature since these courses have to be considerably more significance. It is particularly paid for. We do not want to speculate any further beingsupportedbythemanufacturers(and and will confine ourselves to continuing training importers) by specific use of media such as for technical staff about which the people wemanuals or teaching books, videos, video discs, talked to in our study commented. computer-based learning programmes or tele- conferencing. Use of these media is intended to The situation of the independent dealerships whichensure that uniformity of methods within one make are not linked to a particular make of vehicle isis maintained even when the training takes place especiallyprecarious, astheyarebasicallyin individual repair shops. excluded from the training provided by manufacturers. They have to fall back on the courses whichThere are different approaches to whether the use component manufacturers (particularly Bosch) and of these media is compulsory. Some manufacturers 117 suppliers of parts and equipment offer - frequently require participants in the central training courses ioprepare themselves beforehandusingthe Despite this widespread decentralization there are videossupplied(BMW), othersproduce the no specialist trainers in the repair shopsnot even material solely for the personal use of their repair in the large firms in our sample. Only VW has shop staff or to reinforce internal training (Mazda) taken asteptowardsprofessionalizationof and others see the videos simply as a fall-backinternal training by appointing voluntary training which the mechanic can call uponifheis supervisors (who are simultaneously problem- uncertain about something. Mercedes Benz, forsolvers). BMW have professional trainers in their example, makes videos of completed courses at branch operations (i.e. the middle level of the their customer service training centres and dis- dealer structure). tributes them to dealers. There is a close link between the organization of Correspondingly these media are formalized towork and qualifications. For example, the differ- different degrees within the continuing training encesintheorganizationoftraininghave systemoftheindividualmanufacturers.For consequences for the organization of work and Mazda, for example, they are used purely at the the structure of qualifications on the repair shop discretion of the dealers they send them to.In level. Concentrating continuing training too much addition,theintroductionof new models or on particular people leads in the medium term to a important technical innovations are accompanied polarization of qualifications and impedes the by a centrally produced video. BMW, on the other establishment of homogeneous teams.Itthen hand, requires that the information officer ap- becomes obvious that complicated tasks will be pointed in each dealership reports annually to the carried out by the special problem-solvers and the central customer service training centre about the other employees will mainly deal with routine use of the self-study programme in his dealership work. In other words, if a firm wants to implement and experiences with it, whereas in VW dealer-a team concept on the repair shop level (as VW ships the training supervisor decides on She use of has, for instance) it must make sure that it creates the video (e.g.to reinforcehis own internal equal qualification opportunities for all members trainingwork) and which employees should of the team and maintains this practice in the long participate in the video training. term.

1 10 TRENDS

PART 3:

Conclusions

Bibliography

a 1.CONCLUSIONS

This study has examined the development of work The consequences that thiswill have fo;-the and continuing vocational training in the motordevelopment of the market inthe sales and vehicle repair and sales sector. In this sector the service area of the motor vehicle sector cannot firms are organized in such a way that they are be estimated with any degree of precision, as involved in the sale, servicing and repair of motor developmentsinthis area are influenced by vehicles. This sector is closely linked to the most numerous factors, some of them conflicting, and important industry in Germany's economy, the are only in a very indirect way dependent on the motor industry. The job of every sixth employee number of vehicles on the road. Although the depends directlyorindirectly onthemotor number of dealerships rose by a third between industry.Nevertheless,the developments and 1979 and 1990 (virtually steadily by 3% each structures in this sector, which is downstream ofyear to 44,500), the number of employees fell in car manufacture, have been largely cut out of the the same period dropping from over 400,000 to public and academic debate, although clearly one335,000 in 1984, and since thenit has been sector could not exist without the other. rising again slowly to its present level of just over 350,000. This means that the average size of Despite the fact that modern vehicles and their firms shrank from 12 to 8 employees; a conse- aggregates are now of better quality, last longer, quence of redundancies particularly in the first half need fewer repairs and that intervals between of the 1980s (and of course a reflection of the fact services are longer, the complexity of the car that new businesses are always smaller initially). means that the dealership in its role as mediatorAt the beginning of 1993 there were clear between manufacturer and customerismore indications that this sector would not experience crucial than ever. Nevertheless these two sectors any more growth; on the contrary firm closures are far from being accorded equal significance are becoming increasingly more commonplace. and equal rights: both economically and function- ally, the motor vehicle repair and sales sector Butitis other factors which will influence the depends on the manufacturers, be they German or development of the sector in a lasting way: importedmakes.Thisisdocumentedinthe contracts, for example, with which the manufac- With higher quality of vehicles andtheir turers/importers intervene in the internal organi- aggregates, the intervals between services get zation of the service companies linked to them, longer and the time a vehicle spends in the sometimes influencing even the smallest details. repair shop shorter;

1.1 Economic developments and This means that the time and money spent employment servicing and repairing each car is reduced; The number of motor vehicles on the road in Germany is at present over 46 million; every Ifthesalescrisisisaccompanied by an second inhabitant (statistically) owns a car. This increase in the useful life of cars, the volume would suggest that the market is to some extent of repairs would increase for the cars which saturated.Whereas thenumber ofvehicles would by then be older; registered in 1991 rose to 4.5 million, it dropped the following year to around 4 million and is There is a direct link between frequency and expected to be well below this figure in 1993. gravity of accidents and repair works, albeit modified by the customers (quality) expecta- At the same time there was a parallel development tions; in the manufacture of motor vehicles. After the boom years of 1989 to 1991 (in each year over New environmer'al and safety standards will 4.85 and in 1991 more than 5 million vehicles increase the work for businesses and organi- even), production dropped again in 1992 to an zations involvedin checking that they are estimated 4.7 million and will plunge even further adhered to and making necessary adjustments in 1993 since at the beginning of the year there to vehicles. was a drop in orders of over 20%. These development options overlap with changes This development has, of course, had conse-in the requirements made of repair shop person- quences for employment: whereas in 1991 there nel.Electronically controlled components have werestill780,000 people working incar entered virtually all areas of automotive technol- factories, this figure had dropped to 725,00 byogy and are little by little being integrated into the end of 1992. Experts are predicting that in the complex systems. This applies both to transmission next few years there will be a further shedding ofsystems and engine management and the area of between 300,000 and 1.7 million jobs in the safety and comfort. Thus, higher qualifications are motor industry and supplier industries. According being demanded ofrepairshop employees to a reportinthe Siiddeutsche Zeitung,the particularly with regard to fault detection and Association of the Motor Industry has predictedanalysis. Industry is using increasingly efficient between 40,000 and 50,000 redundancies in diagnosis systems to try and give the employees 1994 alone. who mostly have a predominantly mechanical 119 12A training a tool with which to master these neware, however, being seen in firms which are more demands: an attempt to use electronic aids to interested in deploying their staff across the board master increasingly complicated electronics. A in order to be able to react flexibly to unexpected clear increase in training courses in the customer demands and technical changes. A particular service training centres to teach people how to useexpression of thisis the team concept which is modern diagnosis technology and to develop anpractised in a small number of repair shops. understanding for "integrated" automotive technology is evidence of this. With increasing frequency it can be observed that qualified employees who are interested in further 1.2 Vocational training and selection oftraining, having completed their mastercraftsman personnel diploma, remain without a suitable job for quite a Traditionally this sector has been characterized by time due to a lack of vacancies in the firm in which itsgreat effortstoimprove qualificationsfor they trained. This, of course, does not make employees but in recent years this emphasis has continuing training more attractive to people nor been reinforced as a result of the wider variety of increase their willingness to participate. At the models and the forced technical changes. Onlysame time, however, permanent technological about 7% of employees have no relevant voca-innovations and the increasing complexity of the tional qualification but one in every five employ-car require that everyone working in repair shops ees is engaged in vocational training. Almost a undergo permanent continuing training. quarter of employees in technical or commercial occupations have a mastercraftsman diploma. Almost all employees in the after-sales department 1.3 Change in the work of the motor and repair shop take part regularly in continuing vehicle repair shop training, either in courses offered by the after-salesThe change in the work of the motor vehicle repair divisions of the manufacturers or importers,in shop has been influenced by numerous factors. courses provided by the suppliers or Chambers or The central influencing factors are the new forms in-house training courses. of technology used in cars which have developed into a systematic technology, the new tools needed Despite this high proportion of skilled workers and for repair work and servicing including modern the high continuing training density(ratioof test and diagnosis systems, as well as environ- participants in continuing training to employees), mental and exhaust emission regulations and many people in positions of responsibility within higher customer expectations. the sector do not consider the training activities to be sufficient. The area of motor vehicle mechanics, which dominated all other areas of work in this sector The first problem is that young people with gooduntil well into the 1960s, will have lost its leading qualifications from school do not seem to find the position before the end of the 1990s. This role will occupation of motor mechanic attractive. It is by be taken over in the future by servicing and far the most frequently chosen training occupation maintenance as preventive measures. The area of (1992: 30,000 trainees in 32,000 training firms)electrical and electronic systems will not play the butover 60% ofthetrainees come from central role which had been generally expected of Hauptschulen. The auto-electrician training is of it. Its share in the overall volume of work k uiready only marginal significance. The firms manage todropping and the emphasis hereis now on keep only a minority of these trainees in the longelectronic testing and diagnosis procedures. The term, and often it is the better trainees who leave bodywork areawillcontinuetoincreasein for other jobs or further study at an institute of significance. higher education. A new area of work which is crystallising under This prepares the ground for the negative selection technical aspects is the use of modern testing and which some people in the training profession diagnosis equipment. The modern motor vehicle complain of. Participants lack basic knowledge, repair shop is primarily designed for diagnosis which they were not taught at school or in theirand servicing and only secondarily for mechani- subsequent training and which, of course, cannotcal repairs. Diagnosis with the aim of detecting be corrected in short continuing training courses. faults and correcting them by replacing compo- Thus, more emphasisisplaced on specialist nentsispredominant. From1.12. 1993 new training and training which employees can passexhaust emissionregulations and thetesting on to their colleagues (snowball effect), since in procedures connected withthem, willfurther any case the customer service training centres do expand the diagnosis area of work. not have sufficient capacities to cater forall employees. Thus, a polarized qualification struc- The result of this is that the motor mechanic must ture is gradually being created in the repair shops be able to use modern testing and diagnosis which cannot be mat, hed by the computer-aided systems to check complex and inter-connected self-instruction programmes which all firms use, vehicle technology. He must be able to analyze 120 nor by intensified internal training. Opposite trendsthe diagnosis results in order to deduce where the faults lie. He must adhere to mandatory diagnosis Maintaining and to some extent refining the procedures such as the exhaust emission test and specialization of staff; correctly analyze any defects found in order to Creating the job of all-round mechanic and efficiently rectify faults. This is the only way to providing training (partly with skills in electron- satisfy the ever-higher expectations of customers ics); and keep them as potential buyers. Creating a multi-disciplinary team Deployment of highly qualified problem-sol- In the bodywork area it is primarily the materials vers. and paints, the working methodse.g. increased use of straightening equipment and different sprayIn this there is a close link between the organiza- painting procedures support from data bases tion of work and continuing training. Someone and increasing environmental and safety regula-who thinks he can meet the growing demands, tions that are changing. particularly in systems analysis and fault diagnosis, with only a small number of specialists should It is essential that this extensive range of work on concentrate his continuing training on this group. the modern vehicle be mastered efficiently in order Someone, on the other hand, who prefers a team toguarantee highcustomersatisfactionand approach to work organization must not only ensure that the repair shop continues to develop ensurethatmore employees gain adequate and offer a high quality service. technical qualifications but must also encourage skills such as team spirit and capacity for inter- In conclusion it must be said of the change in work disciplinary co-operation, skills which should be that considerable structural changes are takinggiven special emphasis in the initial training as place in motor vehicle repair shops which, above there is not normally a place for them in continuing all, are due to the reduction in traditional repairtraining coursesexcept in the further training for work, whereas work in the areas of servicing and gaining promotion to foreman or service techni- maintenance and bodywork are showing ancian. upward trend. Due to the tendency now to replace parts rather than repairing them and as a result of Generally speaking, it now seems to be accepted improved working techniques, i.e. rationalization, that a polarized qualification structure amongst a mechanic today can look after many more dealership personnel will not be able to meet the vehicles than 15 years ago. demands of increasing systems integration. The pathway of continuing technical training across Challenges in areas such as diagnosis technology, the board is not, however, possible, due to the environmental regulations and use of data bases limited capacities of the customer service training through on-line networking with the manufacturer centres. Thus all manufacturing companies and mean that the tasks which repair shop staff have to importers are developing different concepts for carry out are becoming much more varied than computer-aided,in-housecontinuingtraining ever before. The response to this can only be using self-study programmes developed centrally flexible employees who can be deployed in a or are providing intensive further training to some broad range of jobs. This demand in turn hasemployees who can then teach others. implications for the way work is organized. Building on the experience of different after-sales organizations in training company-specific ser- 1.4 Organization of work and the vicetechnicians as anintermediateposition repair shop and perspectives for between foreman and skilled worker, the parties continuing training to the collective agreements in the motor vehicle Traditionally a model of horizontal division of repair and sales sector have agreed to advocate a work has dominated,orientedtothemain service technician training which would be valid elements of the vehicle: throughout thesector and not linked to any particular make of vehicle and for which a state- automotive electronics recognized diploma would be awarded.At automotive mechanics present, however, people are still being given bodywork and body painting manufacturer-specific training for this position and it is not state-recognized. The introduction of the Whilst the body and body painting areas (partly service technician is meant to solve h o problems: forreasonsof workerprotection)areoften training highly qualified problem-solvers in the separate from the other areas of work, the first repair shop, who can relieve the foreman of these two areas are continually becoming more closelyresponsibilities and the creation of an attractive linked and particularly intensive further training is (also in *.:"' 2. of pay) new position, which will put required in the area of electronics. Dealerships are a halt to thefluctuationinstaff,particularly trying to cope with this development in various qualified skilled workers. This diploma can also ways (partly under instruction from the manufac-loosen the grip of one particular make of vehicle turer) and are sometimes adopting a mixture ofon the employee which, at present, has become ways: entrenched due to the fact that continuing training 121 125 has been virtually exclusively manufacturer oriented. However, at the same time there is a risk that many dealerships will concentrate continuing training so much on these key positions that they will create or stabilize a situation where the workforce isinflexible and has apolai ized qualification structure and thus, where efficiency is relatively vulnerable (e.g. due to absence of these specialists or fluctuation).

122 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development ofSpottl, G., (1992) ABC der Kfz-Technik, Stem- Vocational Training. Verlag, Cologne (2nd edition). Eurydice Information network on education in the European Community, (1991) Strukturen der allge- Statisches Bundesamt (publisher), (1992) Datenreport meinen und beruffichen Bildung in den Mit- 1992, Zahlen und Fakten Ober die Bundesrepublik gliedstaaten der Europaischen Gemeinschaft, Deutschland. Bonn. Luxemburg, p. 40. Talsohle durchschritten, Die Automobilindustrie in DAT-Kundendienstreport, Wartungs- und Instand- den neuenBundesländern,Krafthandno.17,5 setzungsmarkt mit stabilisierenden Tendenzen, September 1992, p. 1400-1404 Krafthand, no. 20, October 1992. Verband der Autornobilindustrie e.V. (VDApublisher), Gemeinschaftsinitiave der deutschen Automobilherstel- 54. Internationale Automobilausstellung, Nutz- ler, der Importeure und Zulieferer von Kraftfahrzeugen fahrzeuge, Hannover 9-17 May 1992. sowie die Zentralverbandes Deutscher Kraftfahrzeugge- werkes (ZDK) (publisher), (1992) Kfz-Technik Pur Verband der Automobilindustrie e.V. (VDA publisher) Eine Herausforderung fur den Kfz-Service- (1992) Das Nutzfahrzeug - Leistung und Ver- Techniker, Bonn. antwortung.

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G ;Kastor, M.; Schneider, A., Die Zukunfts-Zeyrner, H., (1992) Der Tarifvertrag, mot-journal, A chancen der freien Wt-Werkstaften, Zentralver-edition, no. 20, 1992, p. 1. band Deutsches Kraftfahrzeuggewerbe (ZDK); o.J.

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