SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK: ADAPTATION TO CLIMATIC CHANGE

CHANDANA KONIDALA

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK:

“Top of the world”, is what UNESCO named Sagarmatha National park, an

114,800 hectares national park that houses the Mt. Everest situated in the Himalayan mountain range in Nepal (UNEP, 2011). Sagarmatha is a scenic beauty of dramatic mountains and valleys. It’s a great reserve of rare animals species such as Red Panda,

Snow Leopard, also hosts over a thousand plant species. Along with the one of the world’s highest ecological flora and fauna, it preserves the rich culture of Sherpa tribe

(Nepal S. K et al, 2002). The Sherpa culture is an important characteristic of the park, which forms the foundation for sustainable protection and management. The strong bond between Sherpa culture and the nature has enabled successful management of the park by local communities.

Figure 1: Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal (UNESCO) Sagarmatha is the first UNESCO world heritage site in Nepal with an area of 114,800 ha that covers the high mountain ranges with deeply incised valleys and glaciers. With over

25 peaks out of which seven are above 7,000 m high (UNESCO, 2016), it’s an outstanding natural beauty. It also covers the rivers Bhote Kosi and Dudh Kosi, which are fed by the glaciers Nangpa and Ngozumpa respectively (Bhuji U.R et al, 2007). The mountain range is geologically young formed since the convergence of India and Asia’s tectonic plates about 50 million years back. The national park was created in 1976 under the type II national park conservation criteria. It was given the status of a World Heritage

Site by UNESCO in the year 1979.

CONSERVATION VALUE OF SNP:

Sagarmatha national park (SNP) is not only a great landscape but also contains several species of flora and fauna that have been categorized into 8 different types of ecosystems and vegetations(UNEP, 2011). Being a newly formed mountain range, it only contains 33 species of mammals, 208 species of birds and 13 species of reptiles/amphibians but houses over 1000 species of flora. Some rare animal species include the snow leopard, Musk deer, Red Panda, Impeyan Pheasant, Lammergeyer,

Bearded vulture, Snow cock, the Yellow-Billed Chough (UNESCO, 2016). Since 69 percent of the land is above 5000 m, the flora is spread over lower altitudes and dominated by Black junipers, Sikkim willow, several creepers and grasses. Above 5000 m, the land is barren and is covered with snow.

Figure 2: Wildlife significance of Sagarmatha National Park. From left: Snow Leopard, Red Panda, Danfe Pheasant

The SNP is of high cultural significance owing to the Sherpa community living in the area since early 1530s (Nepal S.K, 2002). They carry out agriculture and support life with limited usage of resources. They have known to be originated from the Tibetan province of Kham as a solace from political pressures. Since the community belongs to the Nyingmapa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, several traditional monasteries can be found in the national park, which signify culture value of the area.

Sagarmatha National park is one of the best tourist destinations for several countries surrounding Nepal. The tourist population has increased from 1,400 in 1972 to more than 20,000 in 2004 (UNEP, 2011). The entry fee for visit varies from 1500 to

10,000 dollars and it has become a main economic benefit for the Sherpa community and other local residents. Several activities such as sightseeing guide service, porters, lodges and trekking services provide employments for the local people. Along with the economic benefits the park offers to the people residing, it also provides excellent research opportunities for the ecological studies and studies related to natural hazards such as earthquakes. It is also a subject for climate change studies since the direct effects of global warming surface in pristine nature forms (Stevens, 2008). The rich scenic beauty, ecological value, cultural significance and economic benefits make Sagarmatha an area with high importance. It is a ‘Conservation

International Designated Hotspot’ and a UNESCO world heritage site. The park was established under the National Parks and Wildlife conservation act of 1973 as type II national park. The legal support is provided by the Himalayan National Park regulations of 1979 and Buffer Zone management guidelines of 1996 and 1999. UNESCO announced Sagarmatha as a world heritage area under natural criteria VII, which addresses Sagarmatha as a superlative natural phenomena area of exceptional beauty and aesthetic importance. In 2002, seven ecological corridors were established and a buffer zone was added to the protected area. In 2007, the Gokya lakes were recognized as a

Ramsar site (UNESCO, 2016).

GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF SNP:

The park is managed by Sagarmatha National Park authority of the Department of national parks and Wildlife conservation with an aim of sustainable protection of the park, while safeguarding the livelihood of local communities. The management category can be identified as Nested governance which involves official management by

Government and unofficial voluntary protection by the ICCAs (Lausche, B et al). Since their settlement in the area, Sherpas have respected the land and sustainably utilized the resources with a sense of responsibility (Nepal S.K, 1995). Along with respect for the nature, the economic value generated by the park has encouraged local communities to organize a park advisory committee of local leaders, village leaders and authority representatives to improve management of the park. Several conservation projects such as afforestation and regulation of firewood usage are regularly performed. The projects are funded by several national and international organizations such as SNV Netherlands

Development Organization, UK DFID and The Himalayan Trust (UNEP, 2011).

ICCA GOVERNANCE:

The local community of Sagarmatha, the Sherpa community (also known as

Sharwa) is widely recognized and praised as the ideal form of ICCA governance by several international organizations including IUCN and parties of CBD (convention on biological diversity). The usual form of management by government restricts the local communities from access to the resources of protected areas and these raise conflicts over ownership between locals and authorities (Nepal S.K, 2002). The ICCA form of governance is widely recognized because it exercises “predominant and exclusive control and management” along with sustainable protection of the area. IUCN and CBD have described ICCA as an integral and critical component of global conservation of biodiversity (CBD, 2016). ICCA in Nepal has not received appropriate recognition due to the poor status of indigenous people and has marginalized their power and authority.

However Sherpa community is seen as an “outstanding example of regional ICCA” around the world (Heinen J. T, 1992). The SNP, christened as Khumbu by the local people contains a rich diversity of endangered species of flora and fauna, aesthetic beauty.

Figure 3:The Sherpa community in SNP involved in various activities that support their livelihood

Protection and natural resource management are not legally delegated by the

ICCA but are solely operated under the Department of National Parks and Wildlife conservation (DNPWC). The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation authorize the conservation policies approved by the DNPWC (UNEP, 2011). The Sherpa community leaders feel the need to protect SNP by dealing with both internal and external challenges because they perceive SNP as their cultural identity, heritage and a representation of their achievements (Nepal S.K, 2002). So the ICCAs operate as independent self-governing culturally based organizations within the protected region. Since Sherpas view SNP as sacred mountains with cultural values, the monasteries, caves, temples, shrines, monuments and other cultural sites have been given exceptional protection. In some villages Nawa (village officials) have enforced forest regulations to pay attention to sacred forests (Stevens, 2008). Agro-pastoral management, a form of multi-zone system, which allows specific areas to be used for human activities such as transhumant pastoralism, multi-additional crop production and hay cutting. Other human activities such as collection of deadwood, grazing, tree felling have also been regulated by enforcing policies through customary village laws. Inclusion of buffer zone into the protected area in 2002 has given rise to several buffer zone institutions that administer permit systems for several activities. Some of the examples are firewood gathering by local households restricted to no more than 2 seasons per year and decision making process on dead wood gathering sites (Stevens, 2008).

Local households and residents actively participate in the administration and governance by taking turns as Nawas of the villages. SNP protection by the active crowd is a distinctive example of collaborative management between SNP administration and

Sherpa community (Nepal S.K, 2002). Along with local patronage, the Sherpa community has been involved in international workshops and conventions to exchange views on ICCAs and Nepal ICCA networks (Stevens, 2008). Some of the international conventions they have attended are IUCN IVth World Conservation Congress, 2008; 10th conference of the parties of the convention on biological diversity, 2010 and World heritage site village of Shirakawa-Go, 2010. Though ICCAs have been largely responsible for protection of the SNP, they are still trying to receive official acceptance from the Nepal Government. Two national ICCA gatherings were held in Nepal in 2009 and 2010 and ICCA gathering is looking forward to creating a National Federation of

ICCA, which requires the participation of at least 6 organizations under the National

Federations Act of Nepal. The climate of Sagarmatha varies from semi-arid subtropical to a temperate season with rainfall, and a mean temperature of 0.40C in the coldest temperatures with heavy snowfall (UNEP, 2011). Since the mid 1970, global warming has caused increase in the average temperature by 10C which is twice as the average rise in temperature around the world. This increase has resulted in glacier melting, which eventually leads to lake outbursts and floods due to falling ice-breaks (Dawadi A, 2013). Loss of snow reduces the water available to people in India and also alter the growth of vegetation and may also trigger alien pest and diseases. A change in the management plan is necessary to deal with the increasing effects of climatic change. This paper aims to discuss the impact of climatic changes on governance and management system of the Sagarmatha national park.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS EFFECTS:

Climatic change is one of the biggest environmental challenges in the planet that has affected several natural areas including the highest peak on earth, Mt. Everest. The

Himalayas are a pristine form of nature and are currently being affected by the increasing temperatures. Temperatures have increased by 10C since 1977, double of global temperature increase, which is 0.6 C. IPCC and OECD, project an increase of 1.2 C by

2013 and 1.7 C by 2050 (Sherpa A, 2013). Since three fourths of the Himalayas are covered with snow, increase in temperatures poses a danger to the ice caps, glaciers and lakes arising out of the glaciers. Currently, Nepal’s glaciers are melting at an alarming rate leading to most outrageous lakes. High rains, which usually accompany the melting glaciers, might lead to catastrophic effects in the country. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) are a major threat to SNP. Deglaciation and growth of glacier lakes, lead to weakening of the walls of lakes, and have the potential to cause severe floods. In the past

90 years, the Sagarmatha has declined 330 feet vertically owing to the glacier melting and formation of new glaciers (Dixit A, 2016). Several GLOF incidents are expected in future in dangerous lakes such as Tsho Rolpa, Imja, Thulagi and Barun which are biggest and most prone to GLOFs (Sherpa A, 2013).

Glacier melting has also affected wildlife and ecology in the area disrupting the entire ecosystem of the national park. Along with melting of glaciers, increase in temperatures has led to severe changes in climatic conditions and have caused ice storms, droughts and wind hails. Glaciers melting can directly affect human life in the area by reducing the fresh water available for human consumption and other activities (Dawadi,

2013). This can be result of rivers eventually drying due to insufficient volumes available for constant make-up of ice on the mountains. According to the WWF 2003, the freshwater from Himalayan region serves around 2 billion people living in Nepal and

India through several rivers such as Ganges and Brahmaputra. Any deficit in the fresh water can affect about one-third of the world’s population.

The climatic change also affects the development scenario in SNP. As the tourism increases in SNP, human pressure also increases day by day. The number of amenities and concrete structures aimed at visiting travellers and trekkers add to the deteriorating

Himalayan aesthetics (Kaur K, 2014). Along with added pressure from human activities, the climatic differences affect the protection and development goals of the SNP protection agencies. The ICCAs protect the area but can also be viewed as major threat to the virginal beauty of the park. RESPONSE TO CLIMATIC CHANGE:

Several attempts have been made to analyze the cause and effects of climate change in the Himalayas by the Nepal government. Some of the policy frameworks that were established to address the climatic change effects are National adaptation Plan of

Action (2010), National framework for local adaptation plans for action, LAPA (2011) and the climate change policy (2011) (GoN, 2011). The government established Ministry of Environment in 2011 under the leadership of Nepal Prime Minister Madhav Kumar, which prepared LAPA for adaptation programs. To participate and collaborate in the action plan and adaptation measure, several private players, academia, donors and organizations joined with the ministries to form Climate change initiatives collaborative committee (MCCICC). Funding efforts are in the process to develop robust adaptation procedures to meet the climatic change effects.

Some other efforts to address the issue are tabulated below:

ACTION PLAN DATE AND PLACE OBJECTIVES

Summitteers’ Summit December 11, 2009 Draw attention of international community towards the impacts of climate change on the Himalayas

Kalapatthar Cabinet December 4, 2009 Commitment of Nepalese government Meeting towards the burning issues of climatic change and the mountain environment

Eco Everest 2008,2009,2010 Encounter climbers to climb in eco- Expeditions sensitive manner, promote usage of alternate energy solutions like parabolic solar cookers, and SteriPENS for water purification

Beat the GLOF action June 18, 2009 Create international and local concern run on the risks posed by GLOF in SNP Table1: Efforts to manage climatic change in SNP (Ref: Sherpa A, 2013) ICCA RESPONSE TOWARDS CLIMATIC CHANGES:

Indigenous communities and local communities have been voluntarily involved in

SNP protection for cultural and economic interests (Dawadi, 2013). To make the local communities be further involved and aware of situations, several community efforts have been organized such as “Beat the GLOF Action Run 2010” and Save the Himalayas-

”Khumbu festival”(Sherpa A, 2013). The Sagarmatha Buffer Zone management committee, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal Tourist

Board, WWF Nepal, Asian Trekking, The Himalayan Trust and Agri Airlines, have supported these efforts. GLOF action run focused on the risks of GLOF both locally and internationally. The run was held at places where local population can participate. Locals were made the focal point of the run such that they motivate and encourage the campaign.

Local communities also came forward to flaunt their culture such that the tourist and youth are motivated towards protection of the Himalayas. Khumbu festival was held in 2009 and focused on the rich cultural values of the tribe and the traditions of mountain communities. It was performed to instill a sense of inspiration in the younger generation who are majorly responsible for area protection in the future (Kaur K, 2014). Several stalls, native cultural activities, local delicacies and handmade products were displayed to display the rich cultural value of the Sherpa community of Nepal to the tourists and foreigners.

Global warming and other climatic changes are a result of human actions from several decades and cannot be changed or reversed over a night. The effects of climatic change can be managed and the Himalayas can be protected from further damage by proper administration of human activities. This requires collective effort by locals, government, tourists and other involved people to prevent further damage. Creating awareness is one of the best possible ways to bring change in the minds of stakeholders involved.

CLIMATE CHANGE INFLUENCING THE LEGAL PROTECTION AND ACTION

PLAN:

The drastic changes in climate and urgent need for protection and prevention from catastrophic results require rapid adaptation in the governance of SNP area. The results of climatic changes such as Drought, floods, GLOF threat and loss of vegetation form basis for developing different strategies in management. Nepal’s action towards climatic change began in 2007, since when the government started forming policy and regulations to address the issue.

Prior to 2007, the government was involved in promoting tourism and encouraging local communities for conservation (GoN, 2011). When climatic change concerns were included in the protection plan, the government started actively participating in improving the condition of Himalayas. Prime Minister heads the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MoSTE), which is responsible for coordinating the action plan against climatic change and allocated finances for the activities. Under the

LAPA, several local bodies and climatic change units operate towards conservation techniques (GoN, 2011). Several stakeholder including the private players, bank and local bodies are grouped under thematic work groups, which are involved in separate functions. So far Nepal has largely changed its protection plan to adapt to climatic changes (Kaur,

K, 2014). The government has developed and approved NAPA for resilient planning and local disaster management. Development plans are divided into two sectors: agriculture and forest, and LAPA forms steps and methods for considering local interests and priorities to national developmental processes. Finances are separately received from the total GDP (3.1 percent) every year to deal with the climate change activities. Local participation is encouraged and Nepal is in the way to achieve sustainable protection strategies.

Along with government strategies, autonomous adaptation is an important tool to combat climatic changes. Autonomous approaches include individual and collective responses by the locals, business holders (Dixit A, 2016). These kinds of adaptation strategies are voluntary actions and are informal without the involvement of the government. The Sherpa communities have several businesses and perform agriculture in the SNP area. They depend on the park for living and protection of the Khumbu region is important for their own survival. Addition of buffer zone to the SNP region in 2002 has been very helpful in inspiring the locals towards sustainable living strategies.

ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:

Sagarmatha National park was privileged as World heritage site in the year 1979 for its aesthetic and natural beauty. It was the first world heritage site for its natural beauty in Nepal and the status has gained immense attention from tourists and visitors from around the world. The Khumbu region consists of upper and lower Khumbu which contain Dudh Kosi, a 1,200 sq.km renowned trekking destination famous worldwide (Salerno F et al, 2010). The Sherpas have settled farming villages in the valleys and have protected the high altitude regions from risk, crop losses and loss of animal habitat

(Sherpa A, 2002). Eventually, economic profits increased to the local businesses and now the entire community lives from the natural resources from SNP and tourism profits. This prestigious world heritage status has not only increased economic benefits from the park but also inspired the local communities and governing bodies towards conservation.

As climatic changes started showing effects in the Himalayan region, which has less than 0.25% of the world population, several international organizations responded towards appropriate action (GoN, 2011). The world’s highest peak Mt. Everest is seen as world heritage and the status has attracted several communities to participate in the process of adaptation. Formal establishment of SNP was a recommendation by the FAO

Wildlife management advisor in 1971, which was officially declared in 1976. The REDD programme (Reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) in developing countries has shown interest in increasing funding for the Nepal forest considering the improvement in the conservation techniques (UNEP, 2011).

Since the establishment of World heritage site, Nepal ICCAs had minimal contact with UNESCO and are now trying to reach out for formal recognition and formalization of KCCA (Khumbu community conservation area). The international organization, particularly IUCN and UNESCO have encouraged the ICCAs towards active participation in the governance of SNP (Stevens, 2008). They support ICCA and involve the Sherpa management lessons in several conferences and meeting to provide substantial support for recognition by government and also inspiration for the locals. Until 2002,

ICCAs living area was not included in the SNP after which a buffer zone was created. Government of New Zealand funded the SNP conservation for a 5 year period from 1975 restricted ICCAs from entry into the park after which the park advisory committee loosened the rules and allowed access to forest resources (UNESCO, 2002). The Asian

Development Bank, World Wildlife fund, Eco Himal and the Himalayan Trust have funded conservation procedures in SNP and have aided the ICCAs in protecting their native territory. International organizations such as The “Sagarmatha International

Organization” gather people from several countries to support the Sherpa community for their livelihood and well-being. This has not only protected the ICCAs but also protected their interests in SNP conservation.

CONCLUSION

Sagarmatha National Park is renowned for the excellent ICCA governance even without formal recognition. The Sherpas have protected their cultural value and ecosystem by using sustainable practices since the sixteenth century. As the SNP started attracting tourists and adventurers from around the world, tourism flourished in the park.

The local communities adapted to the changing scenario and received formal acceptance into the park through buffer zone inclusion in 2002. The intention of buffer zones is additional protection of the protected areas and Sherpa buffer zone in SNP was aimed to encourage the community towards better conservation practices. However, it can be noticed that as the tourist population increased in the area, Sherpas started settling in the park by setting up businesses and other forms of income generating jobs. This has immensely increased the revenue generated from the park and have provided a better livelihood to the Sherpa community. Climatic change is global, but the effects of climatic change can be observed the most in pristine areas where human activities are considerably less. Sagarmatha National park is considered such a model for analyzing climatic change. As the human pressures increased, the land has become more vulnerable to impacts of anthropogenic activities.

More concrete for the roads and residential or commercial construction, usage of plastics and other non-renewable energy sources have made a negative effect on the pristine beauty. This cannot be named as the reason for climatic change in the Himalayas but is a significant contributor to damage of aesthetic beauty of the park. Effects of warming on the park are very catastrophic and have the potential to directly affect several billion people. Therefore, immediate response to changing climate is necessary and several efforts have been made by the government, international organizations and local communities to protect the park.

To deal with the negative effects of climate change in the Himalayas, the Nepal government has developed governance policies and measure by involving several stakeholders and communities. But the GoN (Government of Nepal) has not officially recognized Sherpa tribe or their dedication towards conservation of natural park. Even though their efforts and conservation techniques have been globally acclaimed, they are still lobbying for their rights in the country. However, the GoN interacts with the ICCAs to operate at the community level. This has been possible only because of the voluntary action of Sherpa community and their respect towards nature and preserved culture.

Further official recognition by GoN and allotment of specific responsibilities to the

ICCAs can improve the adaptation process. It also has to probability to decrease negative effects of excessive human pressure on SNP if local businesses are made to follow sustainable practices.

To ideally deal with the dramatic effects of climatic change, the entire world should aim to take control of the situation. Climate change is a reaction to unsustainable practices over several decades and immediate prevention of the effects is not practically possible. Till the entire globe responds to growing global warming, its effects can affect any pristine natural form.

However, measures taken by the GoN towards climatic change are challenging and require collaborative effort from all sectors involved. The direct measures should include resource management techniques, public awareness, adoption of sustainable and eco-friendly products and practices and regulation of human pressures. The most practical approach would be promotion of sustainable practices to local businesses as well as trekkers and tourists visiting the park. Attracting international organizations to invest in ecosystem and cultural preservation approaches can be useful for raising funding. Some other advanced approaches such as institutional development, GHG measurement and technology development are useful to convey the information about

“alarming effects of climate change” and promotion of conservation methods.

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