ASSESSING THE IMPACTS OF NATURAL ENEMIES AND CANOPY STRUCTURE ON ORANGE WHEAT BLOSSOM MIDGE, SITODIPLOSIS MOSELLANA (DIPTERA: CECIDOMYIIDAE), IN THE PEACE RIVER REGION OF ALBERTA SHELBY VICTORIA DUFTON Bachelor of Science, University of British Columbia, 2016 A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of the University of Lethbridge in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Biological Sciences University of Lethbridge LETHBRIDGE, ALBERTA, CANADA ©Shelby Victoria Dufton, 2019 i ASSESSING THE IMPACTS OF NATURAL ENEMIES AND CANOPY STRUCTURE ON ORANGE WHEAT BLOSSOM MIDGE, SITODIPLOSIS MOSELLANA (DIPTERA: CECIDOMYIIDAE), IN THE PEACE RIVER REGION OF ALBERTA SHELBY VICTORIA DUFTON Date of Defence: April 17, 2019 Dr. Robert Laird Associate Professor Ph. D. Co-supervisor Jennifer Otani Research Scientist M. Sc. Co-Supervisor Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Beaverlodge, AB Dr. Kevin Floate Research Scientist Ph. D. Co-Supervisor Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Lethbridge, AB Dr. Owen Olfert Research Scientist Ph. D. Thesis Examination Committee Member Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Dr. Cameron Goater Professor Ph. D. Thesis Examination Committee Member Dr. Igor Kovalchuk Professor Ph. D. Chair, Thesis Examination Committee i To my parents, who have long supported my passion for science and entomology. iii ABSTRACT Orange wheat blossom midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana, is an invasive, economically important pest in spring wheat in the Canadian Prairies. In the Peace River region of Alberta, little is known about this pest and its natural enemies. Impacts of crop type and canopy structure on assemblages of carabid beetles and, in turn, their impact on wheat midge populations were assessed in a field plot trial. Few effects of canopy structure and crop type influenced carabid assemblages, though high plant densities in wheat resulted in lower carabid activity density and species richness in 2017. A survey was conducted where wheat midge larvae were collected throughout the region and reared to assess wheat midge parasitoid distribution and diversity. All parasitoids recovered were identified as Macroglenes penetrans, with the exception of a single individual in the genus Inostemma. Future research should investigate impacts of specific carabid species on wheat midge populations in this region. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project would not have been possible without the limitless support, guidance, and encouragement of many people. First, I would like to thank my three supervisors, Dr. Robert Laird, Dr. Kevin Floate, and Jennifer Otani. Throughout my thesis, Rob provided much advice and insight. I would have been lost without him in my statistical analyses and he has always been patient with me, despite my never ending questions. In Kevin, I have found a fellow carabid enthusiast to discuss the many “pitfalls” of working with such a fascinating beetle family. His wisdom and guidance relating to carabid and wheat midge biology have been second to none. Jennifer placed a sweep-net in my hand as a co- op student and has continued to guide me in all things entomology for the past five years. I am grateful for the mentorship and the many opportunities she has provided for me. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Owen Olfert and Dr. Cam Goater. Owen, you have always taken the time to share your infinite knowledge of wheat midge and entomology with me and I will always appreciate it. Cam, thank you for advice and guidance throughout this project. I would also like to thank the many people who put in countless hours beside me, often dealing with dirt, grime, and all manner of unpleasant things. First and foremost, to my partner in wheat midge crime, Amanda Jorgensen, who has stood by me through thick and thin for the last five years. There is no one else that I would rather have had by my side pulling pitfalls, threshing wheat heads, and collecting insects. I don’t know what I would have done without your help, advice, and friendship throughout this project. Thank you to Greg Semach for guiding me through all the “trials” (plot related or otherwise) of managing such a large agronomy-focused project! Thank you to Dr. Breanne Tidemann v and Patty Reid for conducting analyses for wheat and canola seed quality! Thank you to Scott Meers and Shelley Barkley for helping me locate field sites and all of your advice! Thank you to all of my producers and cooperators for generously allowing us to collect on your land! Many thanks to Holly Spence, Janelle Barbarich, and many summer students who helped to make this project possible! A multitude of people have taken the time to provide their guidance and wisdom relating to wheat midge including Dr. Bob Elliott, Murray Braun, Dr. Curt McCartney, and Ian Wise. Thank you to my collaborators Dr. Tyler Wist and David Giffen. Thank you to Ross Weiss, Sheila Wolfe, Brent Elliott, and the Canadian Grain Commission. It has been an immense honour to speak with such knowledgeable people throughout this project. A big thank you to my parents who have provided constant love, support, and even excellent thesis editing throughout this project. You have always pushed me to pursue my interests, even when those interests have included hordes of parasitoids bursting forth from cutworms or thousands of “black beetles”. Funding for this thesis project was provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada A-base funding. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v TABLE OF CONTENTS vii LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 Objectives 1 CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW – INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND PATTERNS OF ESTABLISHMENT OF ORANGE WHEAT BLOSSOM MIDGE IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 2 1.1. Introduction 2 1.2. Biology 2 1.3. Wheat Midge Control 6 1.3.1. Cultural Control 7 1.3.2. Antibiotic Resistance 8 1.3.3. Antixenotic Resistance 11 1.3.4. Chemical Control 12 1.3.5. Natural Enemies 13 1.3.5.1. Generalist Predators 13 1.3.5.2. Parasitoids 14 1.3.6. Forecasting Models 17 1.3.6.1. Phenological Models 18 1.3.6.2. Bioclimatic Models 19 1.3.6.3. Forecast Maps 20 1.4. Historical Presence and Management of Wheat Midge 23 1.4.1. Asia 23 1.4.2. Europe 24 1.4.3. North America 27 1.4.3.1. United States 27 1.4.3.2. Canada 30 vii 1.5. Conclusions 32 1.6. Future Directions 34 CHAPTER 2: EFFECTS OF CANOPY STRUCTURE AND CROP TYPE ON ORANGE WHEAT BLOSSOM MIDGE AND GROUND BEETLE ASSEMBLAGES IN THE PEACE RIVER REGION OF ALBERTA, CANADA 36 2.1. Abstract 36 2.2. Introduction 37 2.3. Materials and Methods 41 2.3.1. Natural Enemies Plot Trial 41 2.3.1.1. Natural Enemies Plot Trial: Site Description and Experiment Design 41 2.3.1.2. Natural Enemies Plot Trial: Carabid Collections 47 2.3.1.3. Natural Enemies Plot Trial: Wheat Midge Collections 48 2.3.1.4. Natural Enemies Plot Trial: Canopy structure 49 2.3.1.5. Natural Enemies Plot Trial: Tiller Susceptibility 52 2.3.1.6. Natural Enemies Plot Trial: Harvest Parameters 52 2.3.2. Insect Identifications 53 2.3.3. Data Analyses 54 2.3.3.1. Data Analyses – Agronomic Parameters and Carabid Communities 54 2.3.3.2. Data Analyses – Agronomic Parameters, Carabid Communities, and Wheat Midge Larval Populations 55 2.3.3.3. Data Analyses – Harvest Parameters 56 2.4. Results 57 2.4.1. Canopy structure 57 2.4.1.1. Canopy structure – Paired Wheat (Treatments 1-6) 57 2.4.1.2. Canopy structure – Paired Wheat and Canola (Treatments 7-12) 62 2.4.1.3. Canopy structure – Paired Wheat and Peas (Treatments 13-14) 64 2.4.1.4. Canopy structure – Paired Wheat and Lambsquarters (Treatments 15-16) 65 2.4.2. Carabid Community Structure 65 2.4.3 Wheat Midge Populations 73 2.4.4. Harvest Parameters 76 2.4.4.1. Harvest Parameters - Paired Wheat (Treatments 1-6) 76 2.4.4.2. Harvest Parameters - Paired Wheat and Canola (Treatments 7-12) 80 2.4.4.3. Harvest Parameters - Paired Wheat and Pea (Treatments 13-14) 83 2.4.4.4. Harvest Parameters - Paired Wheat and Lambsquarters (Treatments 15-16) 84 2.5. Discussion 86 viii 2.5.1. Crop Type and Canopy structure 86 2.5.2. Carabid Assemblages in the Peace River Region 88 2.5.3. Agronomic Parameters and Wheat Midge Populations 92 2.5.4. Carabids as Predators of Wheat Midge 93 2.5.5. Harvest Parameters 94 2.6. Conclusions 95 CHAPTER 3: EVALUATION OF THE DIVERSITY, DENSITY, AND DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT MIDGE PARASITOIDS IN THE PEACE RIVER REGION OF ALBERTA, CANADA 96 3.1. Abstract 96 3.2. Introduction 96 3.3. Materials and Methods 102 3.3.1. Insect Collections 102 3.3.1.1. Sticky Card Collections 102 3.3.1.2. Wheat Head Collections 102 3.3.2. 2016-2017 Overwintering and Rearing 105 3.3.3. 2017-2018 Overwintering and Rearing 106 3.3.4. Insect Identification 107 3.4. Results 109 3.4.1. Sticky Card Collections 109 3.4.2. 2016-2017 Parasitoid Survey 109 3.4.2. 2016-2017 Overwintering Mortality 110 3.4.3. 2016-2017 Parasitoid Rearing 110 3.4.4. 2017-2018 Parasitoid Survey 111 3.4.5. 2017-2018 Parasitoid Rearing 111 3.5. Discussion 112 CHAPTER 4: GENERAL DISCUSSION 116 REFERENCES 122 ix LIST OF TABLES 1. Assess the effects of crop type and canopy structure on carabid assemblages in this region. This will help determine if predatory species likely to feed on wheat midge larvae may become more or less dominant in the carabid assemblage.