Section 5 | 229

Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 229

effects observed in the nervous, haematopoietic and reproductive systems and the carcinogenic effect /129/.

Mercury is found in the environment in one organic form and three inorganic forms (methylmercury, di-and monovalent ionic mercury and metallic mercury). In the aquatic environment, microbial transformation of inorganic mercury to organic mercury takes place. In the marine ecosystem, mercury accumulates in mussels and biomagnifies in the food chain. Top predators, mainly seabirds and marine mammals, have been identified as most sensitive to mercury /128/. Critical effects observed from ingestion of inorganic mercury include effects on the kidneys, whereas the ingestion of methylmercury effects the development of the nervous system /129/.

Mercury, lead and cadmium are included in the HELCOM and OSPAR conventions and the EU’s programme for prioritised reduction of hazardous substances in the marine environment /130/. Safety levels are derived for sediment and water as part of the OSPAR regulation of all metals of concern in the Baltic Sea: As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn.

Metals in the Finnish project area

Surveys of metals in the Finnish project area has been conducted by Nord Stream project in 2005 – 2007. In 2008 environmental field investigations were carried out on the Kalbådagrund area. FIMR has conducted surveys in 1992-1993 and GTK in 2004 on metals in sediments in the Gulf of Finland.

Finnish dredging manual /131/ classifies two concentration limits which define where the bottom material can be deposited. Concentrations of harmful substances below the lower level (limit 1) indicate background concentrations of the aquatic environment. Concentrations above the lower level indicate slightly contaminated sediments. These sediments may be deposited into the sea, but the procedure needs to be approved by the environment authori- ties. Concentrations above the upper level (limit 2) indicate heavily contaminated sediments that are generally not allowed to be deposited in the sea.

According to Finnish guidelines for dredged sediment, the metal concentrations in recent sediments (0-2 cm) for arsenic (route 16), cadmium (both routes), chromium (centerline 2005), copper and zinc (route C16) showed exceedance of the lower level (limit 1) (see Table 5.13) which in cases of dredging in the coastal areas demand an approval from appropriate authority. Any exceeding of upper limit values (limit 2) of investigated metals was not observed, This indicates that these concentrations represent average concentrations of recent sediments along the Finnish coastal areas /131/. Concentrations of one or more harmful substances along the pipeline route as well as in the major part of the Gulf of Finland exceed the limit 1 but stay below the limit 2. However, the effect of pipeline construction cannot be compared to dredging and dumping, because the re-suspended sediments settle down practically to the same area where they orignate.

According to OSPAR ecotoxicological assessment criteria (EAC) the mean concentrations of all studied metals except mercury, nickel and lead exceed the threshold value /132/. 230 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Metal concentrations are in line with previous studies on metals in the sediments /108/. Concentrations of metals in the sediment in the Finnish project area are in the mid-range compared with the overall variation along the pipeline route. Route C14 and Route C16 do not differ significantly with respect to sediment concentrations, although Route C16 has more areas of harder seabed and fewer sedimentation areas than Route C14.

FIMR surveys in 1992-1993 on metals in sediments in the Gulf of Finland are shown on Atlas Maps GE-8 to GE-16. Results from surveys in 2004-2007 on metals and nutrients in sediments are shown on Atlas Maps GE-17-F, GE-18-F, GE-20-F and GE-22-F. Chromium was not analysed by FIMR in 2007 and 2008; therefore, chromium results are from PeterGaz survey (2005 and 2006) of 2 km wide route corridor (samples taken from 0-5 cm). These results provide an overview of the present level of metal concentrations in sediment.

Table 5.13. Concentrations (mg/kg DM) of metals in recent sediments (0-2 cm) according to investigations carried out in the Finnish project area in 2007 and 2008 along Route C14 and Route C16 (taken from area where the routes deviate).

Abbreviations and acronyms: Route: Samples taken either along route C14 or C16. For chromium, samples were taken along the centerline drawn in 2005.

N > LOQ: number of samples with concentration above limits of quantification; N: total number of samples. Mean: arithmetic mean value. Min: minimum value above limits of quantification. Max: maximum value. Limit value / Finnish dredging manual: Metal concentrations in sediments below the lower limit indicate harmless concentrations to aquatic environment. Mean concentration value above the lower limit value (limit 1) indicates sediments with concentrations that may be deposited but needs a approval from appropriate authority. Mean concentrations above the upper limit value (limit 2) indicates sediments that are generally not allowed to be deposited in the sea. If the mean concentration value exceeds the limit value, it has been bolded. Limit value / OSPAR dredging manual: Concentration values above the limit value indicate sediments with such concentrations that may be harmful if sediments are deposited into the sea. If the mean concentration value exceeds the limit value, it has been bolded.

Mean concentration, Limit value / Finnish Limit value / Metals Route N>LOQ (N) mg/kg DM dredging manual OSPAR EAC (min - max) (Category 1 -2)

Arsenic C14 29 (29) 9.4 (1.2 – 21.4) 15 – 60 7.2 (As) C16 25 (25) 16.7 (2.4 – 55.1) Cadmium C14 29 (29) 0.9 (0.1 – 4.4) 0.5 – 2.5 0.7 (Cd) C16 25 (25) 1.6 (0.6 – 2.3) Chromium Centerline 238 (238) 68 (16.5 – 116) 65 – 270 52 (Cr) 2005/2006 Copper C14 29 (29) 51 (5.6 – 123) 50 – 90 19 (Cu) C16 25 (25) 40.3 (10.4 – 57.1) Mercury C14 23 (29) 0.04 (0.02 – 0.14) 0.1 – 1 0.13 (Hg) C16 21 (25) 0.08 (<0.04 – 0.13) Nickel C14 29 (29) 37 (4.6 – 66) 45 – 60 16 (Ni) C16 25 (25) 37.2 (11.2 – 51.5) Lead C14 29 (29) 31 (14.9 – 62) 40 – 200 30 (Pb) C16 25 (25) 32.6 (11.2 – 53.8) Zinc C14 29 (29) 173 (32 – 429) 170 – 500 12 (Zn) C16 25 (25) 181 (70 – 247) Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 231

Intermediate sediment levels for some of the metals (e.g., lead, nickel and arsenic) indicate an increasing trend towards the Swedish project area of the Baltic Sea, thus coinciding with the sedimentation areas.

Figure 5.39. Cadmium (Cd) levels in the sediment according to the Nord Stream field survey carried out in 2008, along one section where Route C14 and Route C16 diverge. This map shows how seabed type affects sampling: No samples can be taken from hard seabed.

5.3.5.2 Organic contaminants

There have been substantial inputs of organic contaminants in the Baltic Sea from numerous sources over the past 50 years. Organic pollutants reach the sea via river runoff, atmospheric deposition and direct discharge of effluents. Sources include industrial discharg- es, such as the organochlorines in effluent from pulp and paper mills, runoff from farmland, dumped waste and special paints used on ships and boats. Inputs of several organic pollutants, notably certain organochlorine pesticides, such as DDT and technical-grade hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH isomers), have decreased because these substances have been completely banned since the 1980s. The main sources of dioxins are combustion processes, such as waste incineration and metal smelting and refining. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and furans and dioxin-like PCBs, which are often called ’dioxins‘ as a group, are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. The total concentration of dioxins is usually present- 232 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

ed as a toxicity equivalent (TEQ), which is comparable to the most toxic dioxin compound, 2,3,7,8-TCDD.

Many of the organic contaminants are resistant to biological degradation or only very slowly degradable, and they have a high potential for bioaccumulation in organic material. Based on these properties, the organic contaminants tend to accumulate in the food chain. The hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) deviate from this general observation, as they do not tend to be bioaccumulated and tend to persist in the water phase rather than in sediment. Also, PAHs (polyaromatic hydrocarbons) do not tend to bioaccumulate due to the metabolism of the substances. However, PAHs have a low water solubility and high affinity for organic matter.

The organic contaminants in this study are included in the HELCOM and OSPAR conventions and the EU’s programme for prioritised reduction of hazardous substances in the marine environment (see Table 5.14) /130/. As part of OSPAR regulations, safety levels have been established for some of the organic contaminants in sediment. Due to the organic contaminants’ high affinity for organic matter, safety levels for the substances in the water phase are in general missing. However, safety levels of lindane, TBT and some of the PAHs have been established /133/.

Table 5.14. Substances regulated in HELCOM, OSPAR and EU programmes for hazardous substances (indicated by X).

Chemicals HELCOM OSPAR EU

CHTOT Sum of cis- and transchlordane X X HCB Hexachlorobenzene X X DBTIN Dibutyltin XXX MBTIN Monobutyltin XXX TBTIN Tributyltin XXX SUMDDT Sum of DDTs (p,p) (o,p), DDE (o,p) and DDD (o,p) X X SUMHCH Sum of hexachlorocyclohexanes (alpha, beta and gamma) X X X SUM16PAH Sum of 16 PAH congeners XXX SUM7PCB Sum of 7 PCB congeners XXX SUM9PCB Sum of 9 PCB congeners XXX

Each of the organic contaminants is described below in terms of toxicity and properties in the marine environment. The organic contaminants in the baseline study, with the exception of the PAHs, are listed on the EU’s list of endocrine disruptors /134/.

Chlordane (CHTOT) was produced in the period from 1945-1988 and was used as a soil insecticide and termiticide. Chlordane is of high concern because high levels of its toxic metabolite, oxychlordane, have been found in top predators /135/.

Chlordane is very toxic to aquatic organisms /135/ and harmful if it comes into contact with skin or is swallowed. There is limited evidence of carcinogenic effects from chlordane. The critical effects following ingestion include effects in the liver, carcinogenic effects and developmental effects /129/. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 233

Hexachlorbenzene (HCB) is a by-product from the production of chlorinated compounds, including several pesticides. Productions with HCB as a by-product started 1920. HCB had a limited use as fungicide in the 1960s /135/.

HCB has a high potential for bioaccumulation (log Kow =5.5) and a long half-life in biota (estimated from 2.5 up to six years) /135/. The critical effects following ingestion of HCB include effects in the liver, skeletal and immune systems; carcinogenic effects; and reproductive and developmental effects /129/.

Tributyltin, Dibutyltin and Monobutyltin (TBT, DBT, MBT). TBT production started in the 1960s, when it was used in agriculture as an algicide or fungicide. Subsequently, it was used as a marine antifouling agent and as a wood preservative. The use of TBT as antifouling agent on boat hulls and marine installations has been very popular due to its very high effi- ciency and slow release from the surfaces /135/.

DBT and MBT have been used as stabilisers in PVC, and they have been shown to be released over time to surroundings such as food, drinking water, municipal water and sewage sludge /135/.

TBT as well as DBT and MBT belong to the organotins group. Organotins are characterised by low water solubility (< 50 mg/l) and a log Kow in the range of 3–4. In the aqueous environment TBT is degraded into DBT and MBT with a half-life ranging from days to a few weeks. Under anaerobic conditions, e.g., in sediment, degradation is much slower, with a half-life of two or more years /135/. TBT binds strongly to suspended material, such as organic material or inorganic sediments, and precipitates to the bottom sediment. Marine organisms such as oysters and fish immediately bioaccumulate TBT upon exposure to low concentrations /136/.

The toxicity to aquatic organisms is very high, and TBT has a very high bioconcentration factor (>1,000). The toxicity of TBT to crustaceans is very high. Exposure of TBT in low concentrations may cause effects on structure and growth of mussels, clams and oysters in addition to reproductive and gender disorders /137/.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) has been used widely as an insecticide since the 1950s. DDT is of high concern because high levels of its toxic metabolites have been found in top predators. The metabolites of DDT are DDE and DDD.

DDT is very toxic to aquatic organisms and has a very high bioconcentration factor (>10,000). Due to the slow degradation of DDT it will accumulate and biomagnify in food webs. In the marine environment, DDT and its metabolites interfere with the production of eggshells in bird species. Piscovorous seabirds and terrestrial predatory birds are most sensitive /128/. There is limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect from DDT /137/. Critical effects following ingestion of DDT and its metabolites are observed in the nervous system, the liver and the reproductive system /129/. 234 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Hexachlorohexane (HCH) was used as an insecticide from 1948-1997. The group of HCH consists of eight different isomeric forms with different properties. Lindane, belonging to the group of isomers of HCH, has gradually replaced the technical grade of HCH and is still used as an insecticide /135/.

The fate of HCHs in the environment is determined by their high volatility, low affinity for particles and resistance to degradation in cold water /135/. HCH will be found in the water phase rather than in sediment. Beta-HCH is toxic to aquatic organisms. It is toxic to humans if swallowed and harmful in contact with the skin. There is limited evidence of carcinogenic effects. Lindane is very toxic to aquatic organisms. In the marine environment, some crustacean species appear to be particularly sensitive to lindane, whereas molluscs and algae do not appear to be very sensitive /128/. Lindane is toxic to humans if it is inhaled or swallowed or comes into contact with skin /137/. Critical effects following ingestion of HCH include effects in the liver, the immune and the nervous systems; carcinogenic effects; and reproductive and developmental effects /129/.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) constitute a large group of compounds of multiple aro- matic rings with either petrogenic, pyrogenic or biogenic nature. PAHs of petrogenic origin are related to crude oil and refined petroleum products, and those of pyrogenic origin are generated by the combustion of fossil fuels and organic material. Biogenic PAHs are generated by biological processes. PAHs in sediments are mostly of petrogenic origin, whereas airborne PAHs mainly are a result of the combustion of fuels, forest fires and industrial activities, such as metal industry and fertiliser production /135/.

Many of the PAHs are degraded rapidly by vertebrates and thus do not bioaccumulate. The susceptibility of PAHs to biodegradation is inversely correlated with the number of aromat- ic rings in the PAH /135/. The PAHs are genetoxic, carcinogenic and affect the immune and reproductive systems.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) had widespread industrial use from the 1930s to the beginning of the 1990s.

There are more than 200 different PCBs with different chlorine substitutions on the biphenyl ring. All PCBs are highly lipophilic (log Kow >5) and extremely persistent in the environment, with half-lives ranging from three weeks to two years /135/. In natural water, PCBs are predominantly associated with particles due to their lipid solubility and very low water solubility. Due to their ability to bioaccumulate and magnify in marine food webs, PCBs pose the greatest risk to animals at high trophic levels /128/. Effects observed following ingestion of PCBs include effects in the liver, stomach, thyroid, adrenals and skin and eyes; in the haematologi- cal, immune and nervous systems; carcinogenic effects; and reproductive and developmental effects /129/.

Organic pollutants are usually adsorbed onto fine-grained organic particles in the water column, where sedimentation processes carry them to the bottom, trapping them in the sediment. The concentrations of organic contaminants in the sediment in sediment-accumulation areas (see Atlas Map GE-3-FI) are generally several orders of magnitude higher than those Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 235

in the overlying water mass. The concentrations of organic contaminants may vary widely both between and within sub-regions of the Baltic Sea because they are mainly associated with organic matter in sediment /138/.

Organic contaminants in the Finnish project area

Organic contaminants in the Finnish project area can be described using data on contamination of sediments (Table 5.16). All concentrations of analysed compounds are adjusted to amount of organic carbon (to 1%), and the adjusted concentrations are shown in Table 5.16. The adjusted concentrations are compared with Swedish values, classification of current conditions (see below). The concentrations of analysed compounds are very low; most of the results are below the quantification limit (LOQ) of laboratory. For example, all concentrations of chlordane (chlordane total) and hexachloro-cyclohexanes (sum of hexachloro-cyclohexane) in the analysed sediment samples were below LOQ of laboratory. Among the organic pollutants, the high levels of HCB and organotin compounds clearly correlate with the carbon contents (total organic carbon, TOC). The results of surveys on organic pollutants in sediments for 2005-2007 are illustrated in Atlas Maps GE-19-F, GE-21-F and GE-23-F.

The Swedish classification of organic pollutants in sediment is based on measured levels in Swedish coastal and offshore sediments (Table 5.15) /123/. The classification system (classes from 0 to 5) does not address about the possible relationship between measured values and anticipated effects in the environment. The class into which a measured value is placed indicates only how the levels in a given area (or sediment) compare with those in other sections of Swedish waters. The reference value (class 0) for organic compounds has been set at zero. The boundary between classes 2 and 3 (levels low to moderate) is equivalent to the 5th percentile of all offshore measurements, which is believed to represent observed minimum levels in offshore sediment samples taken from the areas far from the point source of pollution. The boundary between classes 4 and 5 (levels high to very high) is equivalent to the 95th percentile of all measurements. These Swedish classification values are very small, and it should be taken into account that for almost all analysed compounds the given values of Class 5 are at same level or even below the to the quantification limit (LOQ) of laboratory. The comparison of analysed concentrations is carried out for the upper values of Class 3 (moderate level of contaminants). It can be noted, that the factor of those contaminants with several detected concentrations above LOQ (e.g., PCBs, PAHs and DDTs) are below 1, indi- cating that the analysed concentrations are small. 236 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Table 5.15. The Swedish quality classification criteria on some organic pollutants in sediments by the Swed- ish Environmental Protection Agency, mg/kg dry weight, adjusted to 1% organic carbon. These values are based on statistical classification of present conditions along the Swedish coast /123/.

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

level none low moderate high Very high

Sum of 16 PAHs 0 0–0.28 0.28–0.8 0.8–2.5 >2.5 (SUM16PAH)

Sum of 7 PCB 0 0–0.0013 0.0013–0.004 0.004–0.015 >0.015 (SUM7PCB)

Hexachlorobenzene 0 0–0.00004 0.00004–0.0002 0.0002–0.001 >0.001 (HCB)

Sum of DDTs (SUMDDT) 0 0–0.0002 0.0002–0.001 0.001–0.006 >0.006

0.00002– Chlordane total (CHTOT) 0 0–0.00002 0.00008–0.0003 >0.0003 0.00008

Sum of Hexachloro- 0 0–0.00003 0.00003–0.0003 0.0003–0.003 >0.003 cyclohexane (SUMHCH) Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 237

Table 5.16. Concentration levels of organic pollutants and other parameters found in recent sediment (0-2 cm) during an investigation carried out along Route C14 and Route C16 in the Finnish project area in 2007 and 2008. The results of surveys on organic pollutants in sediments for 2005-2007 are illustrated in Atlas Maps GE- 19-F, GE-21-F and GE-23-F.The values are given in mg/kg DM, adjusted to 1% organic carbon. The analysed concentrations are compared with the Swedish values (classification of current conditions for organic pollutants in sediments along Swedish coast; Class 3 is moderate level of contamination) or to OSPAR EAC-value (tributyltin, TBTIN) or Finnish guideline levels for dredged sediments (DDTs and tributyltin).

N>LOQ = number of samples with concentration above limits of quantification; N = total number of analysed samples; MIN = minimum value under limits of quantification (LOQ); MAX = maximum value; MEAN = arithmetic mean value.

a: OSPAR EAC Organic pollutants / Mean concentration, mg/kg DM b: Swedish values Route N>LOQ (N) Organic carbon (min - max) (Class 3) c: Finnish values

Chlordane total C14 0 (29) 0.0005 (<0.0001 – 0.003) 0.00002-0.00008 b (CHTOT) C16 0 (26) 0.0003 (<0,0001– 0.0015)

Hexachlorobenzene C14 0 (29) 0.0005 (<0.0001– 0.003) 0.00004-0.0002 b (HCB) C16 1 (26) 0.0003 (<0.0001– 0.002)

Sum of DDTs C14 5 (29) 0.0006 (<0.0001– 0.003) 0.0002-0.001 b 0.01- (SUMDDT) C16 12 (26) 0.0004 (<0.0001 – 0.002) 0.03 c

Sum of Hexa- C14 0 (29) 0.0005 (<0.0001– 0.003) chlorocyclohexane 0.00003-0.0003 b (SUMHCH) C16 0 (26) 0.0003 <0.00009– 0.001)

Sum of 16 PAHs C14 26 (29) 0.10 (<0.01-0.63) 0.28-0.8 b* (SUM16PAH)* C16 25 (26) 0.08 (<0.01-0.5)

Sum of 7 PCB C14 5 (29) 0.001 (<0.0001- 0.02) 0.0013-0.004 b (SUM7PCB) C16 9 (26) 0.004 (<0.0001-0.1) C14 29 (29) 0.003 (<0.0007 – 0.02) Dibutyltin (DBTIN) - C16 22 (26) 0.01 (<0.001 – 0.11)

Monobutyltin C14 20 (29) 0.006 (<0.0008 – 0.03) - (MBTIN) C16 21 (26) 0.01 (<0.001 – 0.03) C14 27 (29) 0.006 (<0.01 – 0.03) Tributyltin (TBTIN) 0.002 a 0.003-0.2 c C16 26 (26) 0.02 (0.0003 – 0.18) C14 0 (29) 0.003 (<0.0004 – 0.015) Triphenyltin (TPTIN) - C16 6 (26) 0.001 (<0.0005-0.01)

Organic carbon C14 29 (29) 55162 (3300 – 130000) (CORG) C16 26 (26) 66835 (6700-110000)

In all calculations, the values of limit of quantification (LOQ) are used when the analyzed concentration was below the LOQ (e.g., PCB <0.001 mg/kg). All concentrations have been adjusted to 1% organic carbon. * In Swedish classification, sum of PAH compounds is given to the sum of 11 PAH compounds instead of the sum of 16 PAH compounds. 238 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Dioxins are a concern from a human health perspective. High concentrations of dioxins have been found in herring and salmon in the Gulf of Finland. It has been suspected that dioxin in fish stems from atmospheric deposition /139/. Dioxin concentrations in sediment /139/ (see Table 5.17) ranged between 2.8-38 pg/g. These concentrations are mainly below the lower Finnish criteria for dredged sediment, which implies that the sediments are not contaminated with dioxins /131/.

Table 5.17. Average normalised dioxin concentrations (pg/g) in sediments from different depths in sediment from two sites in the open sea of the Gulf of Finland /139/. Loss of ignition was about 17% /140/. The lower Finnish criteria represent the concentration of non-contaminated sediment, and higher Finnish criteria represent contaminated sediment. These criteria are established for the assessment of dredged sediment and cannot be directly implemented. However, they offer a perspective regarding concentrations. (WHO-TEQ, DM)

Sediment Site JML1b Sediment Site LL3a Finnish depth (cm) (pg/g) depth (cm) (pg/g) criteria (pg/g) 0-1 6.0 0-1 14.0 2-3 9.0 10-11 24.0 4-5 15.0 17-18 30.0 6-7 14.0 20-21 38.0 less than 20

9-10 7.5 25-27 37.0 500 or more 12-14 2.8 29-31 14.0 33-35 7.7 37-39 7.7

5.3.6 Air quality

The emission of air pollutants in the Baltic Sea is highly affected by the volume of ship traffic. The magnitude of emissions loads from maritime traffic in the Baltic Sea was analysed based on AIS (Automatic Information System) data on ship intensity during the periods of 1 August 2006 – 30 September 2006 and 1 January 2007 – 2 February 2007 (see Chapter 5.6.1 for details on shipping data) /141, 142/. The AIS data covers about 95% of the ship traffic in the Baltic Sea. The results, therefore, have been scaled up to 100%.

The emissions of the three main pollutants carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) from the existing ship traffic has been estimated based on the fuel consumption of each vessel type and appropriate emission factors (see Chapter 8.1.3 for details on the method).

The fuel consumption has been estimated based on data on the capacity (power output) of the engines onboard typical vessels. The fuel consumption has then been estimated based on a conversion rate of 190 g fuel/kWh /143/.

CO2 and SO2 are emitted due to the carbon and sulphur content in the fuel, while NOX is emitted due to the nitrogen content in atmospheric air. The remaining compounds are a result of incomplete combustion. The CO2 emissions are proportional to the fuel consumption and Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 239

have been estimated by an emission factor of 3.2 t CO2/t fuel. The NOX emissions have been set at 12 g NOX/kWh based on investigations of /143/ and /144/. For evaluation purposes, NOX is treated as NO2. The estimates of SO2 emissions have been based on limit values of sulphur content of the used fuel according to EU Directive 2005/33/EC on the sulphur content of marine fuels. The maximum sulphur content permissible is 1.5% by mass. The results are presented in Table 5.18. The majority of the emission loads from ship traffic is CO2.

Table 5.18. Total estimated emissions loads from existing ship traffic in the Baltic Sea (2006 level).

Fuel consumption Estimated emissions loads [tonnes/year] Vessel type [tonnes] CO2 NOX SO2 Cargo 72,853,981 12,770,295 252,045 59,861 Tanker 25,151,014 4,839,521 95,517 22,685 Passenger 14,750,392 1,572,519 31,037 7,371 Other 2,868,431 2,328,625 9,509 2,258 Unknown 26,415,146 4,583,233 90,459 21,484 Combined (95% of traffic) 24,247,352 478,566 113,659 Total (100% of traffic) 25,523,529 503,754 119,642

It should be noted that the estimated emissions loads are only rough estimates. This is due to the fact that the emissions of pollutants from ship engines can vary significantly from ship to ship, depending on, e.g., the age and condition of the engine. Still, these data are a good indication of the level of air emissions caused by ship traffic in the Baltic Sea at present.

Air quality in the Finnish project area

Emissions loads originating from existing ship traffic in the Finnish part of the Baltic Sea are shown in Table 5.19.

Table 5.19. Total estimated emissions loads from existing ship traffic in the Finnish EEZ (2006 level).

Estimated emissions loads [tonnes/year] Activity

CO2 NOX SO2 Total 3,091,748 61,021 14,493

5.3.7 In-air and underwater background noise

When considering sound conditions, it is important to understand the characteristics of the environment of interest. For example, sound travels differently in air than in water and as such the proportionality between sound pressure and intensity in air is not the same as in water. Sound measurements are presented as ratios relative to a standard reference pressure. Because the interest for sounds lies mainly in their loudness, and ears respond log- 240 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

arithmically in judging the relative loudness of sounds, acousticians adopted a logarithmic scale for sound intensities, the decibel scale (dB). In both air and water the sound pressure level and sound intensity are expressed in terms of decibel (dB). However, because the reference pressure for airborne and waterborne sound is different the dB levels cannot be compared. The commonly used reference pressure level for underwater sounds is 1 μPa and in air 20 μPa. In relation to the dB-value this means that sounds with the same measured pressure are 26 dB higher underwater than in air /145/.

Sounds in the environment consist of combined natural and man-made (or anthropogenic) sounds, also referred to as ambient or background noise. In oceans and seas, natural sounds arise from rain, wind, waves, surf, ice, earthquakes, volcanoes, organisms, and more. In addition, noise from distinct and identifiable anthropogenic sources, such as ships and mechanical installations, contribute to background noise. There is no specific single source or point source, background noise is present everywhere in the medium.

The main sources of underwater background noise are: (1) distant shipping, industrial, and seismic-survey activities, (2) wind and wave noise, and (3) biological noise. The contribution of these sources to the background noise levels differs with their spectral components and local propagation characteristics, e.g. water depth and bottom conditions. In deep water, low- frequency ambient noise from 1-10 Hz is mainly comprised of turbulent pressure fluctuations from surface waves and the motion of water at the boundaries. At these infrasonic frequen- cies, noise levels depend only slightly on wind speed. Between 20-300 Hz, distant anthropogenic noise (ship traffic, etc.) dominates wind-related sounds. Above 300 Hz, the ambient noise level depends on weather conditions, with wind- and wave-related effects mostly dominating sounds. Biological noise arises from a variety of sources (e.g. marine mammals, fish and shrimp) and ranges from ~12 Hz to over 100 kHz. Depending on the situation, biological noise can be nearly absent to dominant in over narrow or even broad frequency ranges /146/ /147/.

It is clear that the seas and oceans are noisy environments, with highly variable background levels. Background noise levels can vary 10-20 dB at a given frequency depending on location, season and time of day.

Sound sources can be transient or continuous. Transient sounds are of a relatively short duration with an obvious start and end. Examples of transient sounds are airguns, pile driv- ers, explosions, and many sonars. Continuous sounds are ongoing, such as most of the background sounds (waves, wind, distant shipping), but also sounds from a fixed point, e.g. an operating drillship. Whether a sound is transient or continuous is in part dependent on the location of the receiver in relation to the source. A vessel may emit a continuous sound while traveling but might be transient for an animal inhabiting a certain location. Even at the source, sounds might be less continuous than they appear.

To enable comparison between sound levels generated by various sound sources the concept of source level was introduced. Source level is defined as the pressure level that would be measured at a standard reference distance (usually 1 m) from an ideal point source radi- ating the same amount of sound as the actual source measured. A standard distance is nec- Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 241

essary because sound levels generally decrease with increasing distance from the source. Field measurements of sound sources are conducted at much larger distances than the standard reference distance. This means that in determining source levels the propagation loss between the measured and standard distance needs to be taken into account. Source levels are expressed in dB re 1 μPa @ 1 m. In comparing different source levels from liter- ature, one must be aware of the potential use of different reference distances, units or frequency bandwidths. Some examples of noise source levels in dB re 1 μPa at 1 m are presented in Table 5.20. The spectral components of these sound sources are not provided. Underwater sound-pressure spectral distribution, showing different frequency ranges of noise source groups is presented in Figure 5.40.

Table 5.20. Examples of underwater noise source levels /145/. The table presents level values only and not the spectral characteristics of the various noise sources.

Maximum Source Noise Source Remarks Level re. 1 μPa at 1 m Magnitude 4.0 on Richter scale Undersea earthquake 272 dB (energy integrated over 50 Hz bandwidth) Seafloor volcano 255+ dB Massive steam explosions eruption

Airgun array 255 dB Compressed air discharged into piston assembly (Seismic)

Lightning strike on 250 dB Random events during storms at sea water surface

Seismic exploration Includes vibroseis, sparker, gas sleeve, exploder, water 212-230 dB devices gun and boomer seismic profiling methods

Container ship 198 dB Length 274 m, speed 23 knots

Supertanker 190 dB Length 340 m, speed 20 knots

Offshore drill rig 185 dB Motor vessel Kulluk oil/gas exploration

Offshore dredge 185 dB Motor vessel Aquarius

Estimate for offshore central Calif. sea state 3-5; Open ocean 74-100 dB (71-97 dB in expected to be higher (= or > 120 dB) when vessels ambient noise deep sound channel) present. 242 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.40. Underwater sound-pressure spectral distribution, showing different frequency ranges of noise source groups /147/.

5.3.7.1 Background Noise in the Finnish project area

Due to intense ship traffic, the existing background noise in the Finnish project area, both in air and underwater, is most of the time dominated by sounds generated by ships. Ship traffic on primary sailing Route A (see Figure 5.66 in Section 5.6.1) comprises approximately Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 243

30,000 ship movements annually, or approximately 50 – 80 ships per day. Ship traffic in this area consists mainly of cargo and tanker vessels.

Underwater noise

As described earlier, underwater background noise consists of combined natural and man- made sounds that varies with location, season and time of day. In the Finnish project area, especially for sound sources within a frequency bandwidth of approximately 10-500 Hz, sounds from ships are most of the time the main contributor to background noise. Other sounds that contribute to the sound field, and occasionally might have the ability to mask some of the vessel sounds, are waves and wind during stormy weather conditions or break- ing of ice /147/.

Figure 5.41. Tanker in the Gulf of Finland.

However, no specific acoustic measurements of background noise exist for the project area. Therefore, sound level characteristics of typical vessels operating along Route A in the Finnish project area were summarized to provide more information on sound sources that contribute to background noise.

In general, underwater shipping noise is in the frequency band between 10-100 Hz. Measurements of the M/V Overseas Hariette, a bulk cargo ship of 173 m length and 25,515 tonnes displacement and powered by a direct drive low-speed diesel engine, indicated a source level of 192 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m at a typical service speed of 16 knots /147/. This kind of vessel is a typical example of a large, modern merchantman.

In /147/ a 25 m tug pulling an empty barge is stated to have a source level of 170 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m and a spectrum peaking between 100-1,000 Hz. 244 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Measurements of commercial ship traffic at the US National Marine Sanctuary located off the coast of Massachusetts showed that average source level estimates (at 71-141 Hz) for individual vessels ranged from 158 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m (research vessel) to 186 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m (oil tanker) /148/.

The underwater noise in the Baltic Sea has increased in recent decades. There are no com- parative measurements in the Baltic Sea, but recent measurements from the north-east Pacific illustrate increases in ambient ocean noise over the past four decades /149/. Results showed that noise levels at 30-50 Hz in 2003-2004 were 10 to 12 decibels higher than in 1964-1966, an average noise increase rate of three decibels per decade. The number of commercial vessels plying the world‘s oceans approximately doubled between 1965 and 2003, and the gross tonnage quadrupled, with a corresponding increase in horsepower. Increases in commercial shipping are believed to account for the observed low-frequency ambient-noise increase. Based on these results, an increase in underwater noise levels is expected in the coming decades if ship traffic increases remarkably.

Airborne noise

There are no known published measurements of airborne noise in the open sea in the Finnish project area. Natural background noise in the open sea consists of sounds from sea waves, birds, wind and rain. Sound levels can vary largely depending on conditions, probably between 20-70 dB. Anthropogenic sound sources, such as ships or aeroplanes, can have a local effect on sound levels. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 245

5.4 Biotic environment

Because of reduced salinity compared with, e.g., the North Sea, the biotic environment of the Baltic Sea is characterised by relatively low species diversity but large populations of individual species. The number of species decreases in accordance with decreasing salinity, from the Kattegat in the south-west towards the Gulf of Finland and the Bothnian Bay in the north- east. Baltic Sea species consist mainly of saltwater species tolerant of reduced salinities and freshwater species tolerant of somewhat increased salinities. There are only a few brackish water species that have adapted to the prevailing and varying salinity conditions in the Baltic Sea. Therefore, living conditions are far from optimal for a large number of Baltic Sea species. This means that the ecosystem is relatively sensitive to disturbance because most species are already stressed due to non-optimal salinity conditions.

In addition to being a unique and important aquatic ecosystem, the Baltic Sea also plays an important ecological role above the water surface. The Baltic Sea is an important migration route and includes breeding and resting areas for birds. The Gulf of Finland, for example, is one of the most central flight routes for Arctic birds, and the numerous islands in the extensive archipelago provide nesting habitats for many bird species. Some 20 seabird species nest along the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Numerous islands and islets also provide important resting habitats for seals. During normal winter conditions, ice cover extending throughout the Gulf of Finland provides an important seal breeding habitat.

Figure 5.42. The razorbill (Alca torda) rarely feeds in shallow open sea areas of the Gulf of Finland (Photo: Antti Tanskanen). 246 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

5.4.1 Benthic environment

The Baltic Sea is characterised by relatively strong horizontal and vertical gradients in many chemical and physical factors, which affects biota /150/. The most important factor is salinity /151/. Both diversity and density of macroscopic species declines with decreasing salinity, from the Danish Straits to the northern and north-eastern gulfs /152/.

5.4.1.1 Benthic macrophytes

Macrophytes (aquatic plants and algae growing on the sea floor large enough to be seen with the naked eye.) occupy the bottom areas and the lower part of the water column, down to a species-specific depth that depends on the availability of light. The boundary for macrophytes in most areas of the Baltic Sea is between depths of approximately 18 - 20 m to about 30 m; at greater depths, macrophytobenthos (higher vegetation living on the bottom) is completely absent /153/.

In the Baltic Sea, the depth at which algae is found decreases in a north-eastward direc- tion. For example, the lower boundary of algae distribution in Kiel Bay is 30 m. In the Central Baltic, the lower boundary of algae distribution is 25 m /152/. At the mouth of the Gulf of Finland algae are distributed down to 27 m /154/. In the central Gulf of Finland, the maximum depth of flora is 10-15 m; and in the easternmost Finnish archipelago, macroalgae have been found down to a depth of 15 m at many sites /155/. In the easternmost Gulf of Finland, the maximum depth of flora is only approximately 6 m. This gradient mainly reflects decreasing water transparency due to increasing eutrophication (see Chapter 5.3.4.10), but it is also due to decreasing salinity.

Benthic macrophytes in the Finnish project area

In the Gulf of Finland, 93 different macro algae species have been recorded /156/. The total number of macrophytes would be much higher if vascular plants were included. However, the vascular plants are excluded because they are present only in the innermost archipelago areas, far from the pipeline route. Benthic macroalgae are growing in different zones by depth and this zonation is distinct especially in then hard bottom areas in the outer archipelago. From the surface to a depth of approximately 1 m, there is a zone of ephemeral filamentous algae. In this zone, seasonal succession in species composition is remarkable, and the dominant species are the green algae Cladophora glomerata, the brown algae Pilayella lit- toralis and the red algae Ceramium tenuicorne. Below the filamentous algae zone, there is a bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus, Figure 5.43) community down to a depth of about 5 m. This zone also hosts many other brown, green and red algae species. In the western and central Gulf of Finland, there is a red algae community below the bladder wrack zone, with greatest abundance at depths of 5 - 10 (15) m. In the western part of the Gulf there is a number of red algae in the deep zone (e.g. Furcellaria lumbricalis, Phyllophora, Coccotylus and Polysiphonia species) but towards east the only perennial species is often Furcellaria. A typical perennial species in the red algae zone also a brown algae Sphacelaria sp., which in many sites is the deepest growing filamentous algae. In the eastern parts of the Gulf, Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 247

because of low salinity content in water, there exists no red algae zone but this is often replaced by the perennial green algae Cladophora rupestris /157/.

There are diverse vascular plant communities in the sheltered inner archipelago areas and extensive stands of reeds (Phragmites australis) in the bays. However, in the outer archipelago the shallow soft bottom habitats are relatively rare and vascular plants are found mainly in sand bottom habitats but in a significantly reduced species number, also due to higher salinity. In the westernmost Gulf, off Hanko peninsula, the marine seaweed Zostera marina can form dense stands in shallow water. However, the species is absent east of Helsinki. The main, widely distributed vascular plants occurring in the outer archipelago are Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Zannichellia and Ruppia species. However, communities dominated by them are often locally restricted to sandy habitats and small, sheltered bays. Only a few species of Chahophytes (green algae that grow on sandy/muddy bottoms) are typically found in the outer archipelago (e.g., Chara aspera and Tolypella nidifica) /157/.

The benthic macrophyte communities also support a high number of invertebrate and fish species and biodiversity is especially high in the Fucus zone and Zostera stands. The invertebrates include a number of crustacean species (e.g., Gammarus amphipods, Idotea isopods), snails (e.g., Theodoxus, Lymnea and Hydrobia spp.), bivalves (e.g., Mytilus, Cerastoderma) and several polychaete worms and chironomid larvae. In addition, there are a number of small, benthic fish species whose distribution and stocks are still relatively unknown. The phytobenthic zone is also known as an important feeding, spawning and nurs- ery area for many commercially important fish species (e.g., perch, pike, sea trout, Baltic herring).

Figure 5.43. Brown algae Fucus vesiculosus (left) and green algae Cladophora glomerata (right) (Photo: Ilk- ka Lastumäki & Anu Hirvonen, FIMR).

The pipeline corridor in the Finnish project area avoids crossing shallow macrophyte areas. Figure 5.44 shows the modelling results of photic zones, where at least 1% available light reaches the seabed /9/. Benthic macrophytes can be found only in this area. In general, the shortest distance between the pipeline route and the shore areas supporting macrophytes is approximately 10 km. Few offshore shallows are closer than 10 km. Due to the manner in which the modelling was carried out and the scale of the map, these shallow areas are 248 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

not shown in the figure. However, these open sea shallows are important underwater areas because of their hard-bottom communities (see Kalbådagrund area in Chapter 5.4.1.2).

Figure 5.44. Photic zones in the Gulf of Finland (based on modelling results) and the location of the pipeline route (for explanation of offshore shallows, please refer to text).

5.4.1.2 Benthic fauna

Salinity, dissolved oxygen and organic matter content in sediment have been identified as structuring factors of the macrozoobenthos communities /158, 159/. Salinity and oxygen conditions vary due to hydrographical changes that are partly linked to climatic variability. On the other hand, oxygen conditions and organic content in sediment are also influenced by anthropogenic eutrophication /160/. In most parts of the Baltic Sea, only a few macrofauna species are found in deep, sub-halocline soft-bottom habitats /158, 160/. In the northern Baltic, typical species are the polychaete worm Harmothoe sarsi, amphipods Pontoporeia femorata and Monoporeia affinis, benthic isopod Saduria entomon and the Baltic clam Macoma balthica. Due to the unique physical conditions in the Baltic Sea, where life in areas below the permanent halocline greatly depends on the inflow of saline and oxygenated water, benthic communities in large areas of the sea die out from time to time and re-establish themselves in other periods. The strength of stratification, which affects vertical circulation of water masses, is Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 249

also an important factor affecting oxygen conditions and the state and structure of macrozoobenthos communities in deep areas /159, 161/.

At present in the northern Baltic Proper, the area without macrofauna due to oxygen deficiency is the same size as during the middle of the last stagnation period in the 1970s and 1980s; i.e., about one-third of the total sea area /162/. There is also a general pattern of declining faunal diversity from the south-western regions of the Baltic Sea towards the Gulf of Finland, mainly due to decreasing salinity /163/. This same pattern was also observed along the pipeline route in studies commissioned by Nord Stream AG in recent years /43, 164/.

Figure 5.45. Soft-bottom macrozoobenthos in the northern (left) and south-western (right) Baltic Sea (Pho- tos: Ari O. Laine).

Projected climate changes in the Baltic Sea area are related to global climate change /69/. The most important factor is the global warming. Regional modelling studies of the entire Baltic Sea basin have indicated the possibility of a mean annual temperature increase in the order of 3-5 °C during this century. Changes in hydrographical conditions due to climate change (rising water temperature, increasing freshwater runoff, decreasing salinity content) will have a direct impact on the distribution pattern of many native benthic species. However, in the Gulf of Finland especially, decreased salinity could increase the area of oxic sediments and thus increase the area available for zoobenthos colonisation /69, 159/.

Low diversity of macrofauna communities in the open Baltic Sea means that the bottom ecosystem is vulnerable to hydrographical changes. Most of the deep sea soft-bottom communities are dominated by only five species /160/. Moreover, in the northernmost areas of the Baltic, between only one and three benthic functional groups are found /151/. The disappear- ance of key species would result in the loss of a functional group that, in turn, may lead to more wide-reaching changes, e.g. in the biogeochemical cycling of the system /69/. Under these changing conditions, non-native, more thermotolerant species that can adapt to lower 250 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

salinity may prevail and thereby affect the functioning of the ecosystem. The consequences of these interactions are only roughly understood at the present time /69/.

Benthic fauna in the Finnish project area

The Gulf of Finland has been subject to intense macrozoobenthos research and monitoring since the 1950s, and the variability of benthic communities in the open sea since that time is relatively well-known /159, 165, 166/. The baseline description of soft-bottom macrozoobenthos in the open sea in the Gulf of Finland presented here is based mainly on recent results of regular monitoring by the Finnish Institute of Marine Research (FIMR) (Figures 5.46 and 5.47) and field surveys carried out for the Nord Stream project in 2005-2008 /43, 164, 167/. Soft-bottom communities in shallower areas in the outer archipelago have not been monitored as intensely as the open sea areas, but the prevailing estimation is that there is a greater share of the bivalve M. balthica, the polychaete Marenzelleria spp. and oligochaetes in the shallower areas /168-170/. However, benthic communities inhabiting hard-bottom, offshore habitats in the depth range of 30-60 m are poorly known, largely because they are methodologically difficult to sample and are not included in monitoring programmes.

Long-term changes in the state of soft-bottom macrofauna communities in the open Gulf of Finland

The deep, open areas in the Gulf of Finland have been devoid of macrofauna for most of the monitoring period (established 1964) due to hydrographical conditions and prevailing oxygen depletion. Salinity stratification however disappeared and consequently oxygen conditions improved temporarily during the prolonged stagnation and lack of saltwater inflows during 1977 – 1993, but hypoxia was re-established in the middle of the 1990s. As a result, the abundant macrobenthic communities that were recorded in the early 1990s in the deep central parts of the Gulf were almost completely absent in 1996-1997, and they have not recovered to any larger extent due to continued poor oxygen conditions below the permanent halocline (see Figure 5.47) /159, 162/. It has been concluded that hydrographical changes that happen during long stagnation periods weaken the salinity stratification in the Gulf of Finland and oxygen conditions improve, obviously due to enhanced vertical mixing and transport of oxygen-rich surface waters to bottom areas that otherwise would be situated below the halocline /159, 171/. After that, the halocline was re-established due to saltwater inflows, resulting in hypoxic conditions and, in turn, declining macrofauna in vast areas /159/. In favourable oxygen conditions, deep bottoms can be colonised by abundant communities dominated by amphipods (M.affinis and P.femorata) and bivalves (M.balthica). At the beginning of the 1990s, for example, the total abundance of these communities was in excess of 7,000 ind./ m2 and the total biomass was 100 g/m2 (wet weight) /159, 160/. The most recent development based on monitoring data is shown in Atlas Maps BE-2-F, BE-3-F and BE-4-F.

Monitoring results indicate that greater numbers of benthic fauna have been absent from the deepest parts (60-80m) of the Gulf of Finland for at least 10 years. During the summers 2006-2007, the situation in the deep waters of the Gulf was the worst since regular monitoring is performed (See Chapter 5.3.4.8 Oxygen conditions and Atlas Maps WA-12-F and Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 251

WA-15a-F to WA-15b-F). Accordingly, benthic fauna was almost completely absent in the deep soft-bottom areas (see Figure 5.47) /100/.

Figure 5.46. Standard monitoring stations of the Finnish Institute of Marine Research /100/. 252 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.47. Trends in macrozoobenthos abundance and composition in the Gulf of Finland. The x-axes de- pict the years and the y-axes the number of individuals per square metre. (Please note the differences in scale of the y-axes.) Arrows indicate years when stations were not sampled /100/.

State of soft-bottom macrofauna along Route C14

Sampling of benthic fauna along the planned pipeline routes was carried out in several field campaigns in 2005-2008 by Nord Stream AG. Oxygen deprivation at the seabed was obvious during these studies. The studies revealed that benthic fauna communities were absent in most of the sampling areas deeper than 60 m along the Nord Stream pipeline route in the Finnish EEZ. This was especially the case in the western Gulf of Finland and the northern Baltic Proper, where a halocline is present (depth range 60-80 m). Moreover, at stations where benthic fauna could be found, the number of individuals was generally low and varied between different samples within same station. This may indicate that the living conditions are far from optimal. However, circumstances may vary between adjacent bottoms due to heterogeneous bottom substrate.

During the first field survey in October 2005, samples were taken from 31 stations in the Finnish EEZ (Figure 5.48) /43/. Three samples per station were collected along the survey Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 253

corridor. One sample was taken from the planned pipeline route and two samples were taken to either side of the route, perpendicular to the centreline, at a distance of 300 m. Together these three samples constituted the information from the specific area /43/ (Atlas Map BE-5-F). Supplementary surveys of macrozoobenthos were made in 2006 (Atlas Map BE-6a) and in 2008 (Atlas Maps BE-7c-F to BE-7d-F).

In the Gulf of Finland (Stations 1 – 22) macrozoobenthos was detected as far as Station 17 in the west; macrofauna was absent at stations 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 13 and 15. Therefore, in the Gulf of Finland benthic macrofauna was detected at nine of the 22 stations (Table 5.21). The communities were dominated by three taxa: Oligochaeta spp., M.affinis and M.balthica, which together comprised 75% of the total abundance. M. balthica comprised 83% of the total biomass and Saduria entomon, 11%. The average abundance and biomass of the communities was relatively low, amounting to 342 ind./m2 and 24 g/m2, respectively.

In the northern Baltic Proper (Stations 23 – 41) macrozoobenthos was detected only at station 26 (depth 68 m). The recorded species were M.baltica and Marenzelleria spp.

Four main fauna communities were identified in the Gulf of Finland and in the northern Baltic Proper /43/:

1. The community characterised by M.baltica populated the western part of the Gulf of Finland (stations 17, 16 and 14). In this area, eight macrobenthic species were encountered. The average total abundance was 516 ind./m2 and biomass 108.3 g/ m2, which was the greatest among the communities observed in the gulf. M.balthica dominated in terms of abundance and biomass. 2. The maximum number of species (10) was recorded in the community M.balthica – S.entomon. This community occupied the eastern part of the gulf (stations 8 and 2). The average total abundance and biomass were 995 ind./m2 and 25.1 g/m2, respectively. With respect to density, oligochaetes were the most abundant taxa, while M.balthica and S.entomon were dominant in biomass. 3. In the community M.balthica – S.entomon – M.affinis, nine species were recorded in the central gulf (stations 12, 11 and 6). This community had the highest total abundance (1,294 ind./m2); the average biomass was 49.8 g/m2. The amphipod M.affinis dominated in terms of abundance and M.balhtica, S.entomon and M.affinis in biomass.

In addition, a community characterised by S.entomon was encountered at the very eastern Station 1 in the Gulf of Finland. The species composition (four species), the total abundance (77 ind./m2) and biomass (3.8 g/m2) were lowest compared with the other communities. Oligochaetes were dominant in abundance, while S.entomon dominated in biomass. 254 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Table 5.21. Total number of stations with and without living macrofauna and the depth at which macrofauna were encountered in northern areas of the Baltic Sea in October 2005 /43/.

Stations with macrofauna Stations without macrofauna (October 2005) (October 2005)

Region Number of Number of Depth (m) Depth (m) samples samples

Gulf of Finland 29 43-63 37 60-81

Central and northern Baltic 20 33-78 103 84-184

The second field survey was carried in 2006, during which samples were taken from 15 stations in April/May and eight stations in July/August (Figure 5.49). The locations of the stations and the abundance and biomass of the fauna are shown on Atlas Map BE-6a. As in earlier campaigns, macrofauna was absent in the deeper parts of the Gulf of Finland. The same species prevailed as in the 2005 survey.

Field surveys were also carried out along the pipeline route in 2007 (Figure 5.50) /164/. The results revealed that in the Gulf of Finland benthic fauna was present only in the depth range of 49-68 m. Rapid decline of oxygen content in water deeper than 60 m was the main rea- son for the absence of animals at greater depths. Of the 44 stations studied, macrofauna was observed at 17 stations. The total number of species at the stations was low (seven species) but typical to the sea area. Also, only a few species accounted for most of the abundance and biomass. These were the bivalve M.balthica and the polychaete Marenzelleria spp. Other common species were the polychaete Bylgides sarsi and the isopod crustacean S.entomon /164/.

The results from the 2008 surveys, comparing the alternative routes in the Kalbådagrund area, are presented in a separate section below. The main difference to previous years’ results was that the communities had become strongly dominated by the invasive polychaete Marenzelleria spp., which accounted for 75% of the total abundance of macrobenthic communities. This was also reflected in the results of multivariate classification and ordination analysis based on both abundance and biomass values. Due to the presence of Marenzelleria, the communities could clearly be distinguished from those observed in 2007, that in turn were similar in species composition to the Swedish areas /164/.

In conclusion, macrozoobenthos was found only locally along the investigated pipeline routes in the Finnish EEZ, and most sea bottoms at depths greater than 60 m showed no or strongly impoverished macrofauna communities due to prevailing oxygen deficiency. Macrofauna communities in shallower areas consisted of common species typical to the sea area, but both the total abundance and biomass of these communities were low compared with values recorded in previous monitoring studies. The shallower areas that can host macrobenthic communities (based on the assumption of favourable oxygen conditions at depths less than 60 m) represent approximately 45% of the total length of the planned pipeline route in the Finnish EEZ (Table 5.22). The results of the Nord Stream macrozoobenthos transect stations in 2005-2008 have been summarised in Atlas Maps BE-7c-F to BE-7d-F. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 255

Table 5.22. Summary of survey results in the Finnish EEZ in 2007 /164/.

Issue Finland Year of sampling 2007 Month of sampling Aug-Sep Number of stations 44 Number of stations with benthic fauna 17 Depth range (m) 49-176 Depth range with benthic fauna (m) 49-68 Species: total number 7 Species per station (0.1m2): Mean ± SD 3±2 Species per station 1-6 Abundance (per m2): Mean ± SD 290±220 Abundance (per m2) 9-640

Figure 5.48. Results of 2005 field surveys of benthic fauna at sampling stations in the Finnish EEZ. For details, see Atlas Maps BE-5a-F to BE-5c-F. 256 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.49. Results of 2006 field surveys 2006 of benthic fauna at sampling stations in the Finnish EEZ. For details, see Atlas Map BE-6a. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 257

Figure 5.50. Results of 2007 field surveys of benthic fauna at sampling stations in the Finnish EEZ.

Hard-bottom communities

Hard-bottom habitats (bedrock, boulders, stones and gravel) below the photic zone are typically occupied by epibenthic, non-mobile, filter-feeding invertebrates attached directly to the substratum. These communities extend to a depth of approximately 20-40 m in the Gulf of Finland. Highest biomasses are formed by mussels (M.edulis, Dreissena polymorpha) and barnacles (Balanus improvisus), other groups include hydroids (e.g., Cordylophora caspia, Laomedea loveni), bryozoans (Electra crustulenta) and sponges (Ephydatia fluviatilis). In the western part of the Gulf of Finland, the blue mussel (M. edulis) may form very dense communities (more than 20,000 ind./m2), with a high biomass covering all suitable hard substrates in outer archipelago areas /172/. The distribution of M.edulis is limited by salinity, and the species’ eastern distribution boundary shifts between Helsinki and Kotka, depending on the prevailing salinity level. In the eastern Gulf of Finland, the freshwater zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) becomes more abundant with decreasing salinity and reaches abundance values that are almost to similar levels as those of M.edulis. The general distribution and community structure of hard-bottom communities in the nonphotic zone have been poorly studied, with the exception of the Mytilus communities in the outer archipelago of the western Gulf of Finland. 258 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Hard-bottom habitats and communities were studied in a 2008 survey covering an approximately 10 km2 area south-east of Kalbådagrund lighthouse /47/. In this area, Route C14 and Route C16 cross a more shallow area with a minimum depth of 24 m. The studied area is the southernmost tip of a greater area comprised of shoals that may be of potential value as a reef habitat under the EC Habitat Directive Annex I (1170). In this context, reefs are defined as either biogenic or geological formations that rise from the seabed and can support a higher biodiversity relative to the surrounding area.

The depth of most of the area is 40-65 m. It is relatively flat, with only smooth slopes. Shallow (less than 35 m) and more distinct peak-like formations are found mostly in the northern parts of the area. The general distribution of bottom types is very much related to depth. The deepest parts (greater than 60 m) are characterised by anoxic, soft-bottom sediments and bedrock; boulder and stony habitats are found only in the shallowest areas. At intermediate depths, a variety of habitats consisting of stones, gravel and nodule concretions can be found, and the central part of the studied area is covered by a large sand flat.

According to the survey /47/, the diversity and abundance of benthic fauna was relatively low in the Kalbådagrund area and mainly related to bottom type and depth. The sedentary invertebrates consisted of three bivalve species (M.balthica, M.edulis and Cerastoderma/Cardium sp.), three polychaete species (Marenzelleria sp., Harmothoe sarsi, Nereis diversicolor) and two cnidarian taxa (polyp stages of Aurelia aurita and unidentified hydroids). In addition, mobile crustaceans (S.entomon; Figure 5.51; and mysid shrimps) and two bottom living fish species (four-horn sculpin, eelpout) were observed.

Figure 5.51. The isopod S.entomon is a common inhabitant of sandy sediments /47/.

The bottom living fish were found mostly in the bedrock, boulder and stone habitats common to the slopes. The blue mussel M.edulis was found only in the shallowest areas, mainly from Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 259

24-34 m but occasionally down to 40 m on bedrock, boulders and stones. Blue mussel density, however, was relatively low, at maximum 150-200 ind./m2, and no distinct mussel beds were found. Aurelia polyps and hydroids were recorded in the same habitats as blue mussels.

The area in general exhibits zonation of fauna, which is mostly related to the change of bottom substrate from fine sediments in the deepest parts to coarse, rocky habitats in the shallows. However, the diversity, abundance and biomass of the communities seems to be low, and most of the studied area along the planned pipeline route is obviously too deep for a more rich attached biota, including macroalgae.

As knowledge on biota in the offshore shallows is generally poor, the results to some extent can be applied to other areas, keeping in mind the obviously determinative role of depth (light availability), bottom type and salinity. The hard-bottom habitats represent less than 30% of the pipeline area in the Finnish EEZ, and more than 99% of the pipeline route is located at depths greater than 50 m.

Soft-bottom macrofauna along Route C14 and Route C16 in the Kalbådagrund area

The soft-bottom fauna along Route C14 and Route C16 were studied in a survey carried out by FIMR /45/ and Ramboll Denmark /173/ in May 2008. Samples were taken at depths between 46-82 m along both pipeline corridors (C14 and C16).

It was found that the zoobenthos soft-bottom community is low in diversity, abundance and biomass, which is typical for deeper areas in the Gulf of Finland /159, 162/. The most common and abundant species was the polychaete Marenzelleria viridis. Other observed species were the isopod S.entomon and the crustaceans Mysis mixta and B.sarsi. Species composition and abundance were similar along both routes C14 and C16. Most of the differences between the routes were due to a single sampling station on Route C14 (Station Number 270), where the water depth was only 46 m, i.e., remarkably more shallow than the other stations. The number of species (seven species) and the density and biomass of the fauna were overwhelming compared with the other stations (see Table 5.23).

Despite some differences mainly due to water depth, it has been found that the benthic soft- bottom fauna along routes C14 and C16 is similar. This was also a main conclusion of statistical analysis based on community clustering and ordination by multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) /173/. Most of the similarity is due to the polychaete M.viridis, which was dominant in both routes. Only the shallowest areas (less than 50 m deep) on Route C14 differed remarkably from the deeper areas on both routes. 260 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Table 5.23. The average abundance of species at sampling stations along Route C14 and Route C16 between kilometre points 142-177 /45/ /173/ . Since most of the species (except M.viridis) were found only in one sample each and sample period differs, the values are giving only rough orientation.

Average abundance Average abundance (ind./m-2) on Route C14 in the Species name (ind./m-2) on Route C16 in the Kalbådagrund area Kalbådagrund area (N=8) (in brackets: station 270 excluded) (N=11) Marenzelleria viridis 19.3 363.6 (88.5) Saduria entomon 1.3 3.2 (0) Macoma baltica 0 69.0 (0) Monoporeia affinis 0 25.2 (0) Gammarus sp. 0 46.3 (0) Halicryptus spinulosus 0 1.6 (0) Bylgides sarsi 2.2 1.6 (0) Mysis mixta 1.3 0

Excursus 1: Recovery of benthic faunal soft-bottom communities

The impairment of benthos during pipe-laying will be quite temporary. Regeneration will com- mence after completion of the laying work. A large number of studies have been conducted on the regeneration of benthic communities in the recent years. Among others, /174-176/ provide an overview.

Regeneration, i.e., extensive restoration of the situation before the disturbance for the parameters species composition and diversity, abundance, biomass and age structure, occurs differently, depending on the type of community and the type of disturbance. Communities that experience disturbances naturally, such as ice winters in the Wadden Sea, generally regener- ate more rapidly.

Source populations in undisturbed areas are vital to re-colonisation after disturbance. Larval and post-larval settlement are major colonisation modes for a quick recovery of defaunated sites, but juveniles and adults can also enter via active migration or passive bedload transport /177/. Colonisation mechanisms are species-specific, and a single species can have several possible modes of dispersal. Timing is essential for the course of recovery, as the availability of colonisers varies with season /178/. The prevailing mechanism of recovery varies over the year with larval and post-larval settlement dominating in spring and summer and burrowing or bedload transport becoming relatively more important in autumn. Major colonisation modes can vary with patch size, and bedload transport prevails for small-scale disturbances /179/.

Succession after disturbance depends on the initial colonisers and interactions between species. Abundance overshoots are common during early colonisation due to high recruitment of larvae and post-larvae. Biomass takes much longer to recover and may reach background values only after several years if long-living species occur. Differences in species diversity and species composition as well as the age structure of the assemblage at the disturbed site might be observed for several years after re-colonisation has started. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 261

Recovery time further depends on the size of a disturbed area as well as the type, intensity and frequency of disturbance (including changes in sedimentological and chemical characteristics). While hand-operated bait collection has moderate effects, re-colonisation following sediment disturbances by dredging activities may take several years /174-176/.

After dredging operations on the south coast of the United Kingdom, restoration of species diversity to within 60%-80% of the diversity in the surrounding deposits generally occurred within 175 days after cessation of dredging /180/. However, restoration of biomass by growth of individuals was incomplete even 18 months after conclusion of dredging work. Studies on the impacts of pipeline construction on benthic invertebrates in Ireland showed that six months after the disturbance there was no significant difference in the mean number of total individuals between the impacted site and the reference areas. However, total biomass took almost three years to reach levels of surrounding undisturbed areas /177/. In the North Sea, the construction of Europipe II was assessed as causing only local and temporary reduction of benthic communities. The recovery period was assumed to be within one to three years /181/. In the Gulf of Finland, the main impact of sediment extraction work on macrofauna communities was that the total number of taxa returned to the pre-dredging value within a year. However, abundance and biomass remained low, suggesting that complete recovery of the communities might take several years /182/.

Excursus 2: Colonisation of artificial hard-bottom substrates by benthic faunal communities

Colonisation of fauna on new bottom material (gravel and stones from intervention work) and the surfaces of the pipes will start quite soon after the construction work is finished. Colonisation speed depends on many different parameters, such as environmental conditions at the site and its surrounding area /183/ and the diversity, state and re-colonisation capacity of macrozoobenthos outside the impacted zone.

In the southern North Sea, examination of the pile of a research platform showed that a community with considerable species diversity and abundance had established itself after one year /184/. Colonisation of newly placed hard bottoms (plastic sheets) in characteristic succession within a few months has also been documented in the western Baltic Sea (Darss Sill) /185/. A community comprised of 28 macrozoobenthic species with high abundance and biomass had settled on the test sheets after only eight months. Even the surface of a steel pile lowered into the seabed was 100% covered by macrobenthic invertebrates within 15 months. A similar- ly rapid colonisation was observed on the gravel foundations and scouring protection devices made of concrete and natural stone that were placed at the Danish Nysted wind farm /186/.

5.4.2 Planktonic environment

5.4.2.1 Phytoplankton

Species composition of Baltic Sea phytoplankton (plant plankton) is mainly influenced by salinity. As salinity decreases from the south-west towards the north-east, some essential 262 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

variations in phytoplankton-species composition can be observed. Halophilic species, which prefer saline water, are replaced by brackish and freshwater species /187/.

Phytoplankton biomass (measured as chlorophyll-a) shows a clear seasonal pattern (Figure 5.52). The phytoplankton biomass remains low in winter, when the water in the Baltic Sea is rich in growth-limiting nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, but the surface water stratification remains weak and the available light is limited,. As the surface water stratifies in early spring and the amount of light increases, a massive increase in phytoplankton biomass, known as the spring bloom, occurs. The spring bloom is usually dominated by diatoms (e.g., Achnantes taeniata, Chaetoceros spp., Skeletonema costatum) and/or dinoflagellates (e.g., Scrippsiella hangoei, Peridiniella catenata, Heterocapsa triquetra). The highest concentration peak of chlorophyll-a in the northern Baltic Sea occurs during this spring bloom, and in the Gulf of Finland values can reach more than 20 mg/m3. In the coastal areas of the Gulf of Finland, upwellings of water from deeper layers frequently cause drastic changes in local planktonic food web structure and function, both via flushing or advective transport of the local plankton community and via input of nutrient-rich deep water /188, 189/. The spring bloom ends and the algal biomass decreases significantly when some essential nutrient (usually dissolved nitrogen) is depleted from the surface water. The excess biomass produced by phytoplankton during blooms accumulates on the seabed, and the decomposition of this organic material contributes to oxygen depletion in the bottom waters (See Chapter 5.3.4.8).

In early summer, the smaller phytoplankton community is diverse, with components from several algal groups. As the seawater warms up after midsummer, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (blue-green algae; mostly Nodularia spumigena and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae) become more common, as they are able to utilise the surplus phosphorus remaining after the spring bloom. These blooms have become more frequent, intense and extensive due to the eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. Their intensity has increased since the mid-1990s /190/.

Phytoplankton in the Finnish project area

According to results from long-term monitoring, the phytoplankton biomass (measured as chlorophyll-a) in the northern Baltic Proper and the Gulf of Finland has increased steadily since the 1970s. The increase has been most distinct in the Gulf of Finland, where the mean concentration has more than doubled since the early 1970s /85/. The highest measured phytoplankton abundance and biomass level since 2001 occurred in August 2007. Bloom-forming filamentous cyanobacteria (Nostocophyceae) constituted a considerable portion of this biomass /100/. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 263

Figure 5.52. Annual variation of chlorophyll-a (mg/m3) in the western Gulf of Finland /100/. The chlorophyll-a concentration indicates the concentration of phytoplankton biomass.

5.4.2.2 Zooplankton

The zooplankton (animal plankton) community in the Baltic Sea consists of freshwater, brackish and marine species, most of which are crustaceans. The vertical and horizontal distribution of the various zooplankton species depends on their ecophysiological tolerances and the availability of food resources, i.e., phytoplankton and microzooplankton. Moreover, the species composition and the abundance of the zooplankton community in the Baltic Sea change with the seasons. During the winter period, primary production rates and biomass of phytoplankton in the water masses decrease as a result of scarcity of light, low water temperatures and ice cover. As phytoplankton is the primary food source of zooplankton, there is far less zooplankton during the winter months. In spring, solar radiation increases, the ice cover melts and the water is rich in nutrients. These factors launch a rapid increase in photosynthetic activity and growth of phytoplankton biomass, called the spring bloom (see above). A peak in zooplankton abundance follows the spring bloom with a small delay.

Mid-summer is the high season for zooplankton: growth is fast and generation cycles are short due to high water temperatures and abundant food. The zooplankton biomass reaches its peak during late summer and early autumn, when the waters are still warm. During this time, the predation pressure from larger animals feeding on zooplankton, such as Baltic herring (Clupea harengus L.) and sprat (Sprattus sprattus L.), as well as mysids, reaches its peak. During September-October, zooplankton abundance decreases due to slowing reproduction rates and predation. Changes in zooplankton assemblages are reflected quite rapidly in the growth of planktivorous (plankton-eating) fish species.

Zooplankton in the Finnish project area

In the Gulf of Finland, zooplankton communities show similar seasonal patterns as those described above, although not as clearly /100/. Both the species composition and size struc- 264 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

ture of zooplankton in the Gulf of Finland differ somewhat from the species composition in the Baltic Proper /189/. Copepods like Acartia bifilosa and Eurytemora affinis and small cladocer- ans (e.g., Bosmina longispina maritima), which prefer lower salinities, are more abundant, especially in coastal areas. The dominant crustacean zooplankton are important food items for fish species such as Baltic herring (C.harengus L.) and sprat (S.sprattus L.).

No significant trends in zooplankton overall biomass were observed in a survey from 1979- 2005, but recent variations in the abundance of certain larger species have been observed /85, 189/. For instance, the copepod species Pseudocalanus acuspes displayed a significant decreasing trend. When total zooplankton biomass is high, the proportion of large zooplankton is low. This coincides with periods of decreased salinity, which is the most important factor regulating zooplankton species composition and abundance in the Gulf of Finland /189/. Other direct and indirect regulating factors are predation by certain fish species and human- induced eutrophication.

5.4.3 Fish and fish stocks

The Baltic Sea is host to approximately 70 saltwater fish species and another 30-40 brackish or freshwater species that inhabit the innermost parts of the Baltic Sea and the coastal areas /191/.

The composition of fish communities varies along the gas pipeline route in relation to habitat characteristics. The number of marine fish species is higher at the more saline, southern end of the route, whereas at the northern end in the Gulf of Finland, where the salinity is lower, freshwater species are dominant. Other parameters that influence fish distribution are water temperature, nutrient availability, seabed composition and the state of the phytobenthos in shallow-water areas. The latter two parameters are particularly important for bottom-dwelling fish.

Climate change projections for the Baltic Sea basin indicate higher temperatures and possi- bly decreasing salinity. In this scenario, the present clupeid-dominant regime in the Baltic fish community can be expected to stabilise. The outcome of climate-induced changes, however, can be strongly affected by changes in the food-web structure as a result of the fisheries exploitation level /69/.

5.4.3.1 Fish and fish stocks in the Finnish project area

In the Gulf of Finland, the prevailing environmental conditions are unfavourable to many fish species. Low salinity is a limiting factor for many marine fish species. Living conditions at the bottom of the Gulf of Finland are also poor. The low oxygen content or lack of oxygen in deeper areas limits the amount of suitable habitats for demersal fish species.

Marine fish species that are not found in inland waters but are found in the Finnish EEZ in the Gulf of Finland and in the northern Baltic Proper include /192/: herring (Clupea harengus), sprat (Sprattus sprattus), straight-nosed pipefish (Neropsis ophidian), small sandeel Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 265

(Ammodytes tobianus), eelpout (Zoarces viviparous), flounder (Platichthys flesus), sand goby (Pomatoschistus minutes), bullrout (Myoxocephalus scorpius), lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus), cod (Gadus morhua), broad-nosed pipefish (Sygnathus typhle), great sandeel (Hyperoplus lanceolatus), snake blenny (Lumpenus lampretaeformis), sea snail (Liparis liparis), common goby (Pomatoschistus microps), turbot (Psetta maxima), garfish (Belone belone), black goby (Gobius niger), two-spotted goby (Gobiusculus flavescens), long-spined bullhead (Taurulus bubalis), fifteen-spined stickleback (Spinachia spinachia) and butterfish (Pholis gunnellus). Most of these species are small and live near the coast. Some marine fish species are also found in inland waters, such as three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), which is a major non-commercial species in the area.

In the open seas along the pipeline corridor, the fish community is dominated by sprat and herring but also by three-spined stickleback during winter /193/. Migratory anadromous fish species – which spend most of their adult life in the sea but spawn and spend their juvenile stage in rivers – in the Finnish project area are salmon (Salmo salar), sea trout (Salmo trutta) and whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus).

The commercially exploited fish species in the Finnish project area are sprat (S.sprattus L.) and herring (C.harengus L.). In the archipelago and near the coast there are also other important target species for Finnish coastal fisheries: sea trout (Salmo trutta L.), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca), whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus), perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius) and flounder (P.flesus). Finnish offshore fisheries for Atlantic salmon (S.salar L.) take place mainly in the Bay of Bothnia and in the southern Baltic /194, 195/.

A brief description of the most commercially important fish species in the areas along the pipeline route in the Finnish EEZ follows.

Herring occur in large shoals throughout the Baltic Sea with clearly different stocks in different areas. Herring tend to make seasonal migrations between coastal archipelagos and open sea areas, staying close to the coast during spring and autumn and spending summer in nutrient-rich open seas. Older herring move into deeper waters of the open sea during winter, whereas younger individuals tend to remain close to the coast. Herring feed primarily on zooplankton, although older herring may feed on fish eggs and fry, e.g., cod eggs. The number of Baltic herring has decreased due to falling salinity levels, changes in the amount of zooplankton and over-fishing /191/.

Herring spawn in coastal zones on hard bottoms that are covered by vegetation at less than 10 m depth /193/. The eggs contain an adhesive layer that attaches them to bottom vegetation. The eggs are sensitive to low oxygen concentrations and high concentrations of suspended solids. Herring populations include both spring and autumn spawners. Spring spawners have dominated since the 1960s. Herring spawn in coastal areas in most parts of the Baltic Sea. Only a few specific spawning locations are known, but the potential spawning area (Figure 5.53) covers more or less the same area as the bottoms at the photic zone (zone where there is enough light for algae) (see also Figure 5.44 in Chapter 5.4.1). 266 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.53. Potential herring spawning areas in the Gulf of Finland and in the northern Baltic Proper. For details, see Atlas Map FI-2-F.

Sprat live in shoals throughout the Baltic Sea, though not as commonly in the Bothnian Bay. Sprat is an open-sea species that is rarely found along the coast. Sprat migrate in open waters, seeking out warmer water layers during different seasons because they are intolerant of water temperatures below 2–3º C. During harsh winters sprat distribution becomes more consolidated, and the density of fish increases in some areas. Sprat feed on zooplankton as well as cod fry /196/.

The sprat catch is becoming increasingly important to commercial fisheries, particularly in the northern and eastern parts of the Baltic Sea. The species is mainly used for industrial purposes in the EU and for human consumption in eastern Baltic countries. Figure 5.54 shows the principal distribution of sprat in the Finnish project area /193/ /191/. Contrary to herring, sprat spawn in the open water column, but often near the slopes of the basins. The deep areas of the Baltic Sea, such as the Bornholm Deep, the Gdansk Deep and the southern part of the Gotland Deep, are particularly important spawning areas. Spawning occurs from February to August, depending on the geographical area /197/. Sprat eggs require salinity above 5-6 psu, which limits sprat spawning areas in the Gulf of Finland to the western parts of the gulf. Below this salinity level, eggs sink to the bottom, where the oxygen concentration is often too Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 267

low for egg survival /193/. Sprat in the northern Baltic Proper and the Gulf of Finland spawn in the summer months /193/.

Figure 5.54. The principal distribution area of sprat in the Gulf of Finland and the northern Baltic Proper. For details, see Atlas Map FI-3-F.

Salmon is an open-sea fish that migrates long distances from the remote reaches of the Bothnian Bay and the Gulf of Finland to the more central and southern parts of the Baltic Sea. At sea, salmon usually follow schools of herring and sprat, but they also eat European smelt, three-spined stickleback and small sand eels. Salmon spend the first one to six years of their lives in the river where they are born before migrating to open sea areas. After spending one to four years in the open sea, salmon make their first migration, returning to the river where they were born to spawn. There are approximately 30 rivers in the Baltic Sea region with wild salmon smolt production.

Today a majority of the Baltic rivers are unsuitable for salmon due to damming, mainly for hydroelectric power production. These obstructions prevent the spawning migration. The total number of wild smolt migrating to the sea in the middle of the 1990s was estimated at 400,000 per year /191/. This is to be compared with a potential migration of some 2 million 268 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

smolts. At present, most of the salmon in the Baltic Sea are from hatcheries. Since the late 1980s, annual salmon plantation to the Baltic Sea has been 4-7 million juveniles, of which one-third are from Finland /198/. The salmon catch in the Gulf of Finland has decreased from 400 tonnes in 1997 to 66 tonnes in 2007 /199/. In 2007, 27% of the salmon catch in the Gulf of Finland was from natural Bothnian Bay breeding /200/. While the expanding seal population in the Gulf of Finland has hampered salmon fishery in that area, the magnitude of the impact of seals on the decreasing salmon catch in the Gulf of Finland is unclear. Another factor impacting catch levels is the success of salmon plantation, which has been poor in recent years /198/.

Results of field surveys in 2005 and 2006

Several trawling operations and ichthyoplankton (fish eggs and larva) hauls were performed in October 2005 and April/May 2006 along the pipeline corridor within the framework of the Nord Stream project /43, 167, 201/ (for further details see Chapter 5.1 and Appendix IV).

During the field survey in October 2005, no ichthyoplankton was found in the northernmost part of the survey (ICES sub-divisions 32 and 29). The absence of ichthyoplankton during the monitoring operation is thought to be connected with the finish of the reproduction of the main commercial fish species /43/. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, sprat is the dominant pelagic spawning species in the Finnish project area. Sprat spawning occurs in the Gulf of Finland and the northern Baltic Proper in the summer months.

In the trawl operations, 12 species of fish were registered /43/. The weight of the catches varied from 56-1,500 kg per trawl operation. Most of the catches varied from 100-500 kg (55% of the catches). Regarding the commercially most important species in the 2005 survey, sprat comprised 8%-89% of the weight of every catch. The largest catches of sprat were registered in the Gulf of Finland (850 kg at depths greater than 75 m) and in two trawl operations south of the island of Gotland at depths of 40 m and 49 m (700 kg and 1,300 kg, respectively). Herring were also caught in all trawl operations. Catches varied from 0.5-370 kg per trawl operation (average catch 117 kg). The catch weight of cod, salmon, flounder and other species was insignificant in comparison with sprat and herring. The northernmost point where cod was caught (one cod of 12.5 cm in length) was in the water column over depths of 164- 192 m at the EEZ boundary between Sweden and Finland (ICES sub-division 29).

The herring community within the Gulf of Finland predominantly consists of fish measuring 12-14 cm in length. Further along the pipeline route, where the Gulf of Finland enters the open Baltic, a shift in the size structure of the modal group takes place, with fish measuring 14-16 cm in length prevailing. In the Finnish EEZ in general, the average length of herring was 13.5 cm, and the average weight 14.8 g.

Analysis of age distribution shows that in the EEZ of Finland (ICES sub-divisions 32 and 29) the share of underyearlings of herring in individual trawls varied from 0.4%-11%, which, translated into a catch, was equivalent to about 16-1,822 individuals. In the waters of the Gulf of Finland a stable domination of herring aged two to three years was registered (the year classes of 2002 and 2003). Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 269

The analysis of the size structure of sprat in the waters of the Gulf of Finland (ICES sub-division 32) indicated dominance of the 9.5-10.5 cm size group. A substantial portion of the catch in the gulf was comprised of small sprat (51%). In the EEZ of Finland, the average length of sprat was 10.3 cm and the mass 6.6 g. In the northern part of the Baltic (ICES sub-division 29) the average length and mass were 10.8 cm and 7.8 g, respectively. Regarding distribution, young sprat were confined to the waters of the Gulf of Finland (at depths greater than 19-75 m).

Analysis of age distribution shows that in the Gulf of Finland (ICES sub-division 32) two-year- old sprat prevailed. On average, they constituted 62.2% of the catch of all trawls. The share of the junior age groups (underyearlings and yearlings) in the eastern Gulf of Finland was the most substantial in comparison with the other regions of the route. In the northern part of the open Baltic (ICES sub-division 29), two-year-old fish dominated in two trawls.

In April-May 2006, 18 survey operations were conducted in the Baltic Sea, and sprat and herring were present in all of them. Lumpfish were observed in 12 of the operations; three- spined stickleback were present in eight operations; cod in six operations; salmon in four operations; smelt in three operations; and lamprey, flounder and plaice in one or two operations each.

5.4.4 Sea Mammals

Four sea mammal species – the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), the harbour seal (Phoca vitulina), the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and the ringed seal (Phoca hispida) – are native to the Baltic Sea. Harbour porpoise and harbour seal are found primarily in the southernmost parts of the Baltic Sea, within the Danish, German and Swedish EEZs. Grey seals (Figure 5.55) also occur yearround throughout the Baltic Sea, but only in small numbers in the southern region. Ringed seal are found in areas that typically have ice cover during winter, mostly in the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Riga; small populations are also observed in the Archipelago Sea and the Eastern (Russian parts) of the Gulf of Finland.

Figure 5.55. Grey seal colony in the Åland archipelago (Photo: Antti Tanskanen). 270 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

5.4.4.1 Sea Mammals in the Finnish project area

Grey and ringed seals are the only sea mammal species with populations in the Finnish project area /202-204/; The harbour seal has never been observed, and the harbour porpoise is rarely spotted along the Finnish coastline. A brief description of the distribution of these four species is provided below. However, the impact assessment (Chapter 8) focuses on the grey and ringed seals, because they are the most abundant species in the Finnish project area.

The harbour porpoise population has a low density in the Baltic Sea and comprises only some 600 individuals, which is the smallest harbour-porpoise population in the world /205, 206/. The distribution of the Baltic subpopulation of harbour porpoise is mostly limited to the southern Baltic Proper. Harbour porpoise were rarely observed in the Finnish EEZ, and on these limited occasions they occurred mostly close to the coastline. Finland is a party to the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas (ASCOBANS), which pledges international cooperation to achieve and maintain favourable conservation status for small cetaceans, including the harbour porpoise.

The ringed seal population in the Baltic Sea comprises 6,000 to 9,000 individuals. During the 1970s, hunting and pollution caused the population to decline to approximately 2,000 individuals. However, the population recovered since then and the current annual population growth in the Bay of Bothnia is about 5% /202/, despite continuing chemical pollution /207, 208/. The ringed seal is a protected species in the EC Habitats Directive (Annex II and Annex V) and the Bern Convention (Annex III). The Baltic ringed seal population is furthermore listed as endangered on the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Animals. The ringed seal is classified as a nearly threatened (NT) species in the Finnish Nature Protection Act /203/.

The exact number of individual ringed seals in the Finnish parts of the Gulf of Finland is not known, but recent observations indicate that ringed seals are rare in both the Estonian and Finnish parts of the Gulf of Finland /207/. However, according to observations in late spring in the years 2002-2004, a group of approximately 150 individuals was observed in the southern parts of the Archipelago Sea, which is situated more than 50 km from the planned Nord Stream pipeline route /209/. Also, a group of 200 to 300 ringed seals is known to reside in the Russian part of the Gulf of Finland. Ringed seals have been observed occasionally near the Russian border in the Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park area. The national park is approximately 10 km from the pipeline where it enters the Finnish EEZ, close to the Russian border. In addition, ringed seal individuals were occasionally observed along the Finnish coast.

In general, ringed seal observations are rare in the Finnish EEZ, except during winter when there is ice cover. The main haul out areas for ringed seal are typically around islands or islets where ice cover normally occurs in winter /206, 207/. During ice-covered periods, the Baltic ringed seals leave their usual summer habitats (i.e., islands or islets in the outermost archipelago) for breeding activities in the open sea, where suitable ice formations are available. Ringed seals breed close to the ice edge between mid-February and mid-March /209/. The migration during the ice-covered periods is somewhat irregular; it is therefore difficult to Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 271

predict the exact breeding locations. However, the extent of ice cover is a very important factor in determining potential ringed seal haul-out and breeding areas (see Chapter 5.3.4.7). It is also known that ringed seals are usually alone during this time, spread out across the ice fields. Heavy ship traffic in the Gulf of Finland limits possible breeding areas because the ship traffic breaks up the ice fields (see Atlas Map SH-1-F and from SH-10a-F to SH-10c-F).

From mid-April to the beginning of May, depending on the presence of ice, ringed seals moult on ice or on haul-outs, i.e., undisturbed rocks, islets and islands, for example in Uhtju island on the Estonian coast /209, 210/.

During summer ringed seals are somewhat more gregarious, and at this time they usually haul out on rocks and islets in the outermost archipelago also within the Finnish territorial borders /202, 207/. Ringed seals tend move to new ice near the coast or in the archipelago in late fall, depending on ice conditions. In the Baltic, ringed seals are fairly sensitive to disturbance and they escape into the water if approached at long distances.

In the Baltic Sea, ringed seals feed on pelagic fish and crustaceans. They also feed on benthic fauna such as crustaceans and bivalves, particularly in winter /211/. Herring is among their most important prey, but the ringed seal diet varies according to area and season /211/.

Climate change, resulting in shorter ice-covered periods mostly limited to shallow coastal areas, may lead to local extinction of ringed seal populations in the Gulf of Finland /69/.

The grey seal population is comprised of at least 20,000 individuals in the entire Baltic Sea area, mainly in Swedish, Finnish and Estonian waters /212-214/. The population has recovered considerably since the 1970s, when the population was reduced to 2,000 individuals. Despite recent population increase in the Bothnian Bay and the northern Baltic, the entire Baltic grey seal population is listed as endangered by the IUCN. The Baltic grey seal is also listed as a protected species in Annex II and Annex V of the EC Habitats Directive and Annex III of the Bern Convention /203/. In Finland (except Åland), the Baltic grey seal has been protected since 1982. In Åland, the Baltic grey seal has been protected since the beginning of the 1970s. The Baltic grey seal is classified as a nearly threatened (NT) species in the Finnish Nature Protection Act /203/.

About half of the Baltic grey seals (approximately 10,000 individuals) are located in the south- western Finnish archipelago, including Åland and the Archipelago Sea, more than 50 km away from the pipeline route. The Gulf of Finland, including Russian waters, holds approximately 800 individuals. The grey seal haul-out areas nearest to the pipeline route are Reipoo in the Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park (pipeline route in Russian waters), Sandkallan- Stora Kölhällen and Kalbådan seal protection areas, at distances of 11 km, 10 km and 13 km, respectively (Figure 5.56). 272 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.56. Locations of known important grey seal haul-outs (yellow dots), seal sanctuaries and Natura 2000 areas with seal populations. For details, see Atlas Maps MA-3-F to MA-4-F.

During ice-free periods, grey seals haul out in groups on small islands, islets and rocks in the outermost archipelago. In winter they haul out on drift ice close to open water. Moulting takes place from May until June at the haul-outs on rocks and islets. The distribution from late summer to early spring is not well-known. Seasonal migrations are closely correlated with feeding and breeding requirements /213/. Some grey seals were observed to migrate more than 1,000 km per month /215, 216/, and they also travel long distances between haul-out sites while feeding.

The grey seal populations that occur in the entire Baltic Sea seem to be interconnected, and thus it is difficult to distinguish individuals that belong to specific populations, for example the Archipelago Sea population /217/. Grey seals seem to exchange between haul-outs throughout the Baltic Proper between Finland, Sweden and Baltic states. The density of grey seals is highest close to haul-outs but varies seasonally. Depending on the extent of ice cover, grey seals can migrate and be observed on drift ice in the open sea areas of the Gulf of Finland and the northern Baltic Proper. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 273

Grey seals breed, usually in groups, between February and March in a variety of habitats where disturbance is minimal, such as rocky shores, sandbars, ice floes and islands. As the number of ice days declined significantly during the last decade, it became evident that grey seals breed more often on small islets /218/. Grey seals show a high incidence of reproductive abnormalities and sterility. The abnormalities could be the result of the effect of PCB, DDT or perhaps organochlorides, as high levels of these substances were recorded /219/.

Grey seals feed in cold, open waters. Herring is the most important prey species /220/. Grey seals primarily use the long whiskers on either side of their mouths to detect vibrations in the water from prey. The whiskers are also used for navigational purposes. The senses of hear- ing and taste, combined with the use of whiskers, are more important than eyesight when hunting. Grey seals emit frequent hisses in the range between 0-40 kHz and clicks between 0-30 kHz. During the mating season, vocalisation is within the 1-3 kHz range.

Climate change will shorten the duration and the extent of ice cover in the Gulf of Finland. It is expected that in the future, ice cover will comprise mainly shallow coastal areas. This may affect the grey seal population in the Gulf of Finland, because pups have higher mortal- ity on land than on ice. In future, the availability of suitable, undisturbed breeding habitats like skerries and islets may limit seal reproduction /69, 221/. The rising sea level may also affect availability of haul-out locations and land breeding sites. On the positive side, foraging areas will be larger due to decreasing ice cover. The impacts of climate change on the grey seal population in the Gulf of Finland are complicated, in part because they can be both positive and negative. It is therefore difficult to estimate impacts of climate change on the grey seal population in the Gulf of Finland.

Two harbour seal populations are found in the Baltic Sea: the seal population in Kalmarsund near Öland and the seal population in the Kattegat, including the southern Baltic Proper /212, 222/. The harbour seal is listed as a protected species under Annex II and Annex V of the EC Habitats Directive /223/. The Baltic Sea subpopulation is also listed in Annex II of the Bern Convention. The Kalmarsund population is listed as endangered on the IUCN list /222/. Harbour seals have not been observed in Finland /202, 212, 216, 224/.

5.4.5 Birds

The Baltic Sea is an important migration route and breeding and resting area for birds. By numbers, the Baltic Sea is more important for wintering (approximately 10 million) than for breeding (approximately 500,000) seabirds. The offshore banks are habitats for larger species of diving ducks and auks. Important wintering areas in the Baltic Sea include southern Gotland at Hoburgs Bank and Norra and Södra Midsjöbanken, the Estonian west coast, the Bay of Riga and the entire southern coast of the Baltic (see Figure 5.57) /225, 226/.

The northern parts of the Baltic Sea, i.e., the Gulf of Finland, the Archipelago Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, are very important breeding areas for ducks, gulls, terns and waders. The coast structure in these areas is completely different than in the southern Baltic. There are thousands of small islands along the Swedish and Finnish coastlines that are perfect breed- 274 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

ing areas for birds. There are many important breeding areas along the north coast of the Gulf of Finland (see Figure 5.58). Breeding season begins in March-April (white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), herring gull (Larus argentatus), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)) and con- tinues until July and early August, when young birds leave their nesting sites /227/.

Twice a year, huge numbers of Arctic birds cross the Baltic Sea on their way to breeding or wintering areas. The Gulf of Finland is one of the most central flight routes. Hundreds of thousands of migrating birds can be observed in a single day, especially during the spring migrations in May. Autumn migration occurs over a longer period, from the end of June to the end of October. During autumn migration, many Arctic duck species migrate through the Gulf of Finland, but unlike in spring, they continue directly southwest to their main wintering areas around the central Baltic Basin /228/.

Figure 5.57. Areas of international importance for wintering seabirds (Marine Classification Criterion).The numbers refer to a priority ranking based on the sum of proportions of total populations of seabirds supported /226/. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 275

5.4.5.1 Birds in the Finnish project area

Compared with other areas of the Baltic Sea, the Finnish areas are not very important for wintering seabirds /226/. The archipelago of the eastern Gulf of Finland, however, is very rich in seabird species. Some 200 bird species (migrants and breeders) can be frequently observed along the shores of the Gulf of Finland. There are about 30-40 species of seabirds (ducks, geese, waders, gulls and divers) that are common breeders or migrants. The most abundant breeders are the Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea, 3,500 pairs) and common tern (S. hirundo, 2,000 pairs), herring gull (L.argentatus, 15,000 pairs) and mew gull (L.canus, 5,000 pairs), common eider (Somateria mollissima, 20,000 pairs), tufted duck (Aythya fuligula, 2,000 pairs) and mallard (A.platyrhynchos, 1,000 – 2,000 pairs). Black guillemot (Cepphus grylle, 1,000 pairs) and razorbill (Alca torda, 1,800 pairs) are also numerous, especially in the eastern Gulf of Finland /227, 229-231/.

During recent decades, the populations of barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) and cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) have increased rapidly, especially in the western Gulf of Finland. In 2006-2007, there were 1,550 pairs of barnacle goose in the Gulf of Finland (1,960 pairs in the whole of Finland). Cormorants have populated the Finnish coasts even more rapidly, and in 2008 there were 3,779 pairs in the Gulf of Finland (12,626 in the whole of Finland) /232, 233/. Both species are quite new to the Gulf of Finland. The first breeding of barnacle goose in Finland was in 1985 and the first breeding of cormorant was in 1996. The barnacle goose has adapted well to breeding in the Finnish archipelago and also is observed in fields and grassy areas around cities. The rapid increase of the cormorant population is probably due to both eutrofication and milder winters /234, 235/.

The population of lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus) in the Gulf of Finland has declined considerably and is now comprised of 1,500 pairs. The populations of common eider (S.mollissima), herring gull (L.argentatus) and great black-backed gull (L.marinus, 800 pairs) have declined as well, but not as much /231/. 276 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Table 5.24 Population trends of some seabird species in the Gulf of Finland +++ = population increase more than 100%, ++ = population increase 99%-10%, + = population increase 10%-1%. --- = population decrease more than 50%, -- = population decrease 50%-10%, - = population decrease 10%-1%.

Species Scientific name Area Time Trend Source

Great Phalacrocorax Gulf of Finland 1996-2006 +++ Asanti ym. 2007 /236/ Cormorant garbo

Mute Cygnus olor Gulf of Finland 1986-2003 +++ Hario & Rintala 2004 /237/ Swan

Greylag Anser anser Gulf of Finland 1986-2003 +++ Hario & Rintala 2004 /237/ Goose

Canada Branta canadensis Finnish sea areas 1986-2003 +++ Hario & Rintala 2004 /237/ Goose

Barnacle Branta leucopsis Finnish sea areas 1986-2003 +++ Hario & Rintala 2004 /237/ Goose

Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula Gulf of Finland 1986-2006 +- Hario & Rintala 2007 /231/

Common Somateria Gulf of Finland 1986-2006 - - Hario & Rintala 2007 /231/ Eider mollissima

Velvet Melanitta fusca Gulf of Finland 1986-1997 +- Hario 1998 /238/ Scooter

Black Cephus grylle Söderskär 1985-1999 ++ Hario 2000 /239/ Guillemot

Itä-Suomenlahti 1995-1999 + Hario 2000 /239/ national park

Itä-Suomenlahti Razorbill Alca torda 1991-1999 - Hario 2000 /239/ national park

Black- Larus ridibundus Gulf of Finland 1986-2006 - - Hario & Rintala 2007 /231/ headed Gull

Common Larus canus Gulf of Finland 1986-2001 +- Hario & Rintala 2002 /230/ Gull

Lesser Black- Larus fuscus Gulf of Finland 1986-2001 - - - Hario & Rintala 2002 /230/ backed Gull

Great Black- Larus marinus Gulf of Finland 1986-2001 - - Hario & Rintala 2002 /230/ backed Gull

Herring Larus argentatus Gulf of Finland 1986-2001 - - Hario & Rintala 2002 /230/ Gull

Common Sterna hirundo Söderskär 1985-1999 ++ Hario 2000 /239/ Tern

Itä-Suomenlahti 1993-1999 - Hario 2000 /239/ national park

Gulf of Finland 1986-2006 +++ Hario & Rintala 2007 /231/

Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea Söderskär 1988-1999 ++ Hario 2000 /239/

Itä-Suomenlahti 1993-1999 ++ Hario 2000 /239/ national park

Gulf of Finland 1986-2006 +++ Hario & Rintala 2007 /231/ Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 277

Most of the breeding species mentioned above nest on rocky and stony islands and islets in the outer and middle archipelago (12-20 km from the pipeline route), but there are also several important vegetation-rich shallow bays along the coastline. The shallow bays are important breeding sites for dabbling ducks and waders and also are important resting sites for Arctic migrants.

Near the Finnish coast, there are also several larger, forested islands. White-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla, classified as “vulnerable”, /203/) and ospreys (Pandion haliaetus, classified as ”near threatened”) tend to breed on these forested islands. Most of the coast of the Gulf of Finland is hard bedrock. Special habitats, as sandy reefs and sandy shores, are quite rare, but more common near Hanko Peninsula, which is part of the Salpausselkä lateral moraine. Waders are usually more common in these habitats.

The spring migration typically takes place between 1 May and 10 June. The first migrating birds are usually oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) and bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lap- ponica), followed by sea ducks and geese and finally by sandpipers. The peak of the spring migration period is usually in May, as hundreds of thousands of long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis), black scooters (Melanitta nigra), geese and waders fly across the Gulf of Finland. Sandpipers are the last migrants; the peak of migrating knots (Calidris canutus) is usually between 5-10 June.

Waders and barnacle geese (B.leucopsis) and white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) migrate mainly straight across the Gulf of Finland and continue towards the White Sea. Sea ducks, such as long-tailed duck (C.hyemalis), black scooter (M.nigra) and velvet scooter (Melanitta fusca), some Brent geese (Branta bernicla) and divers obviously rest offshore during their migration, but there are no known traditional, permanent offshore resting areas on the Finnish side of the Gulf of Finland /240, 241/.

The autumn migration usually occurs between 1 July and 15 November. As the spring migration ends, some of the first autumn migrants, e.g., female waders and male black scooters (M.nigra), are usually already on their way. The autumn migration period is longer, because species have different incubation times, moulting strategies, etc. During autumn migration, most Arctic breeders fly continuously across the Gulf of Finland to their main wintering areas. Therefore, large gatherings of resting seabirds in the middle of Gulf of Finland during autumn migration are rare. A general view of where seabirds are observed during winter, during migration and during breeding seasons is provided in Atlas Maps BI-1-F to BI-3-F.

In future, there will probably be even more cormorants and barnacle geese. Due to continuous eutrophication, climate change and increasing populations of Cyprinid fish species, cormorants and larger gull species are increasing. Vegetation-rich shores are also suitable for geese. Late-breeding small ducks and waders will probably decrease, because they (adults and chicks) are on the diet of American mink and larger gulls. For example, in the Helsinki archipelago some greater black-backed and herring gull pairs have specialized to prey upon smaller gull species /242/. Eutrophication reduces water transparency, which may affect bird species that eat fish. Eutrophication also reduces the available food sources of bird species that consume benthic invertebrates. Food chains are also changing due to eutrophication. 278 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

For example, the population of the roach fish species (Rutilus rutilus) has increased and now competes with other species that prey upon blue mussel (Mytilus edulis). These factors may cause the populations of some breeding and migrating bird species in the Gulf of Finland to decrease /243/.

Important Bird Areas (IBAs)

The Important Bird Areas (IBA) programme of Birdlife International is a worldwide project to identify and protect critical sites for the conservation of birds. Due to the importance of the Baltic Sea for breeding birds and wintering birds, the designation of IBAs has been an effi- cient way to identify conservation priorities (see Figure 5.58).

IBAs are designated on the basis of internationally agreed upon, standard criteria. In Europe, the criteria take into account the requirements of regional conservation treaties, such as the Bern Convention (the Emerald Network), the Helsinki Convention, the Barcelona Convention, as well as the Wild Birds Directive of the European Union /244/.

These areas:

• hold significant numbers of one or more globally threatened or restricted-range species, • hold biome-restricted assemblages of birds, or • regularly hold >1% of the flyway population of one or more congregatory seabird species.

IBAs are key sites for bird conservation, but they do not confer any official protection status. IBAs function as a means to identify important bird habitats. At present, most of the IBAs in Finland are totally or partly protected by the Natura 2000 network or are designated bird conservation areas.

Eleven IBAs in the Finnish project area have been selected for consideration in this environmental impact assessment. All of them are located within Finnish territorial borders and within approximately 18-68 km of the pipeline route (see Figure 5.58).

Finnish Important Bird Areas (FINIBA)

The main purpose of the Finnish Important Bird Areas (FINIBA) programme has been to identify important bird areas in Finland, maintain them as suitable habitats for birdlife and conduct monitoring (Figure 5.58). The main difference between IBA and FINIBA areas is that many FINIBA areas are important for bird species that may be fairly common in Europe but are rare or vulnerable in Finland. Thus, the focus in the FINIBA programme is at the national level /245/.

Fourteen FINIBA areas in the Finnish project area have been selected for consideration in this environmental impact assessment. All of them are located within Finnish territorial borders and within approximately 18-68 km of the pipeline route (Figure 5.58). Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 279

Bird fauna of the IBAs and FINIBAs are shown in Appendix V B.

Figure 5.58. FINIBA areas and international IBAs in the Finnish project area /245, 246/. The distance between the pipeline route and the bird areas is shown in brackets. Note: The borders of FINIBA areas are based on proposal maps and may not be exact. For further details on IBA and FINIBA, see Atlas Map BI-4-F.

5.4.5.2 Protected species in the Finnish project area

Several bird species listed on the EC Birds Directive Annex I /244/ regularly occur in many of the marine IBA and FINIBA areas. They include: whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus), Bewick’s swan (Cygnus columbianus), barnacle goose (B.leucopsis), Steller’s eider (Polysticta stelleri), smew (Mergus albellus), white-tailed eagle (Haliaeëtus albicilla), little tern (Sterna albifrons), Caspian tern (Sterna caspia), common tern (S.hirundo) and Arctic tern (S.paradisaea). Annex 280 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

I species in the FINIBA areas that are mainly breeders in vegetation-rich shallow coastal bays far away from the pipeline zone or are rare visitors have been excluded from this study.

In addition to specially protected species, there are several other seabird species that breed or forage near the pipeline zone. The Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park and Pernaja outer archipelago IBAs are important breeding areas for razorbill (A.torda), black guillemot (C.grylle), guillemot (Uria aalge), nominate race lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus fuscus), Arctic tern (S.paradisaea) and common tern (S.hirundo). All of these species regularly make foraging flights far away from breeding colonies, and these flights may extend to the pipeline zone, especially when birds of the Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park fly across the territorial border to feed in Russian waters. Foraging areas vary depending on weather, water currents and the location of fish shoals.

White-tailed eagle (H.albicilla) is included on the Finnish Nature Protection Act’s list of specially protected bird species. The white-tailed eagle and the Caspian tern are the only species from the list that breed in the archipelagos near the pipeline area (distance 10-20 km). Other species from the list are very rare passage visitors.

The white-tailed eagle was a very rare breeder in the Gulf of Finland in the period 1970-1990, but the population has increased slowly since that time /247/. However, the breeding population on the Finnish side of the Gulf of Finland is still fewer than 20 pairs. The population will surely increase in future because many immature individuals are now trying to find suitable territories /248/.

The white-tailed eagle in Finland is sensitive to human disturbance near nesting sites, especially at the beginning of the breeding season. Shallow seashores and rocky shores of outer skerries are suitable foraging areas for white-tailed eagles. During summer 2008, 15 pairs were breeding in the Gulf of Finland. The shortest distance from a nesting site to the pipeline area was 15 km /249/.

The Caspian tern (S.caspia) is also on the Finnish list of specially protected bird species (see Figure 5.59). Distribution is widespread but very scattered. Caspian terns breed in colonies or in single pairs on outer, treeless islands. They are sensitive to human disturbance, and an entire colony can change its breeding site because of human disturbance (i.e., intense lei- sure boating). Caspian terns make long foraging flights and fish around outer skerries as well as along reed beds near the coastline. The total Finnish Caspian tern population is estimated to be 720 pairs, and the most important areas for this species are in the eastern and western Gulf of Finland and the Åland Islands. The population has decreased since the 1950s, mainly due to increasing human disturbance /229/. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 281

Figure 5.59. The distribution of Caspian tern (S.caspia) in the Finnish part of the Gulf of Finland in the late 1990s /245, 246/. Although there are only a few colonies, foraging Caspian terns can be observed almost throughout the Gulf of Finland during their breeding season.

Little tern (S.albifrons) is a very rare breeder in Finland. The total population of Finland was estimated to be approximately 50 pairs in the 1990s /229/, and the population has not increased since then. Most pairs breed in the Gulf of Bothnia. In the Gulf of Finland, little tern are observed mainly during migration, and there are no permanent populations on the Finnish side of the Gulf of Finland /229/. A small population of 20 pairs is known on the Russian side of the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland /227/. A few pairs breed in the Archipelago Sea around the island of Jurmo, a suitable sandy island. Usually only one or two pairs have been observed; the estimated population of the entire Archipelago Sea is between one and nine pairs /229/. Little terns do not forage near the pipeline zone.

Steller’s eider (P.stelleri) is a very rare species that breeds on the Arctic coasts of Russia. Few individuals can be observed during the Arctic migration in the Gulf of Finland, and small numbers of Steller’s eider winter near Lågskär, just south of the Åland Islands (see Table 5.25) /250/. Accidental oil spills from ships are probably the main threat to wintering Steller’s eider.

The distance from the pipeline route to wintering areas for Steller’s eider in Finland is more than 50 km. During spring migration Steller’s eider most likely rest on the Finnish side of the Gulf of Finland, but no permanent resting areas are known. 282 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Table 5.25. Number of Steller’s eider (P.stelleri) recorded in Finland (Laagskär) since 1995. In addition to the number recorded in 2002, 165 individuals were recorded in other parts of the Åland Islands /250/.

Year Number 1995 221 1996 120 1997 200 1998 220 1999 80 2000 180 2001 50 2002 70 2003 30

5.4.5.3 Sensitive periods for birds

The Gulf of Finland hosts fewer wintering seabirds than the Baltic Proper. The most critical period is from the end of April to the end of July, when Arctic migrants and some breeding species rest and forage near the pipeline area (closer than 10 km). During the autumn migration, most species fly straight across the Gulf of Finland. Table 5.26 presents an overview of breeding, migrating and wintering periods.

Table 5.26. Seasons of breeding, migrating and wintering birds in the Finnish project area.

Month Breeding birds Migrating birds Wintering birds January February March April May June July August September October November December High season Moderate season Low season

Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 283

5.5 Protected areas

The Baltic Sea as large brackish water ecosystem is unique and hosts many endemic species and valuable habitats. Several important ecological sites are present, especially in the coastal area. In order to protect these areas, several protection areas have been established through international conventions or directives as well as national legislation. The protection- al status varies from strict legal protection, e.g., Natura 2000 areas, to recommendations of protection, e.g., Baltic Sea Protected Areas (BSPA) and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Areas. In 2004 the Baltic Sea as a whole was classified as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) by the UN International Maritime Organisation (IMO).

The international ecological conservation in the Baltic Sea is aimed at both marine and coastal biotopes (habitats and species). Most protected sites are located in the coastal waters and usually form an extension of a land site.

There are no offshore protection sites in the Finnish EEZ. Subsequently, there are none in the vicinity of the planned Nord Stream pipeline. The closest protected site (a Natura 2000 area) is situated approximately 10 km from the planned pipeline route.

Following chapters present the different protected sites and ecological measures in the Baltic Sea that have been taken into account in this EIA. The focus is placed on protected sites located in the Finnish project area. Because no protected sites are established in the Finnish EEZ, this chapter focuses on sites in the Finnish territorial waters that are closest to the pipeline project area. They are located in the archipelago regions of the Gulf of Finland and the Archipelago Sea.

5.5.1 Natura 2000 –areas

The European Commission Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds (The Birds Directive, 79/409/EEC) and the Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and Wild Flora and Fauna (The Habitats Directive, 92/43/EEC) establish the legislative framework for protecting and conserving Europe’s rare, endangered or vulnerable wildlife and habitats /251/. The Birds and Habitats directives are implemented through the establishment of a coherent ecological network of protected areas across the EU, known as the Natura 2000 network. The purpose of the network is to maintain or restore the habitats and species to favourable conservation status in their natural range.

The Natura 2000 network consists of:

• Special Protection Areas (SPAs): areas supporting significant numbers of wild birds and their habitats. The specific bird species are listed in Annex 1 of the Birds Directive, also including all migratory birds. • Special Areas of Conservation (SACs): areas supporting rare, endangered or vulnerable natural habitats and species of plants or animals (other than birds) as llisted under the Habitats Directive. 284 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

• Site of community interest (SCI): area that can contribute to conservation or restore favourable status to a habitat.

To officially be designated SAC, an area must be proposed to the European Commission and undergo an evaluation. During the period of evaluation, the area is referred to as a Site of Community Interest (SCI). Most Natura 2000 areas in the Baltic Sea are protected entirely or partially by nature protection measures in the individual Baltic Sea states.

The objective of the Habitats Directive is to promote biodiversity by requiring member states to take measures to maintain or restore the favourable conservation status of natural habitats and wild species. The objective of the Birds Directive is to implement special measures to maintain the favourable conservation status of wild birds throughout Europe, with a key action being to conserve the habitats of certain rare species of birds and regularly occurring concentrations of migratory birds.

To meet the objectives, the member states have designated SACs and SPAs in coastal as well as in offshore waters. Habitats in the context of the directives are understood to be: ”terrestrial or aquatic areas distinguished by geographical, abiotic and biotic features, whether natural or semi-natural.” The habitats listed in Annex I and the rare and vulnerable species listed in Annex II of the Habitats Directive as well as the rare and vulnerable bird species listed in Annex I of the Birds Directive and the regularly occurring concentrations of migratory birds are to be protected by means of the Natura 2000 network.

The conservation status of a natural habitat is defined in Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora as the sum of the influences act- ing on a natural habitat and its characteristic species that may affect its long-term natural distribution, structure and functions as well as the long-term survival of its characteristic species.

The conservation status of a natural habitat is ‘favourable’ when:

• Its natural range and areas it covers within that range are stable or increasing • The specific structure and functions necessary for its long-term maintenance exist and are likely to continue for the foreseeable future • The conservation status of its characteristic species is favourable

The conservation status of a species is ‘favourable’ when:

• Population dynamics data indicate that the species is maintaining itself on a long-term basis as a viable component of its natural habitats • The natural range of the species is not being reduced nor is it likely to be reduced for the foreseeable future • There is, and probably will continue to be, a sufficiently large habitat to maintain its population on a long-term basis

In contrast to the Water Framework Directive, in which the assessment of ecological status is based on the concept of ‘reference conditions’, which are used for the classification of the Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 285

status, the term ‘favourable conservation status’ in the Habitats and Birds Directives is based on the conservation status when the directives went into force in 1981 and 1994.

5.5.1.1 Natura 2000 areas in the Finnish project area

In the whole of Finland 1,858 sites have been proposed for designation as a part of the Natura 2000 network. The Natura 2000 areas altogether cover approximately 4.9 million hectares. Approximately one-third, or 1.3 million hectares, is water area.

In all, 9 Finnish Natura 2000 sites are included in this EIA because of their relative proximi- ty (10 - 50 km) to the proposed pipeline route. The sites cover altogether 287,808 hectares, representing 5.9 % of the area covered by all Finnish Natura 2000 sites. The 9 sites are located within the Finnish territorial border (see Figure 5.60):

• Eastern Gulf of Finland archipelago and water areas (FI 0408001, SPA, SCI) • Marine protection areas in the Pernaja Bay and Pernaja Archipelago (FI 0100078, SPA, SCI) • Söderskär and Långören archipelago (FI 0100077, SPA, SCI) • Kirkkonummi Archipelago (FI 0100026, SPA, SCI) • Kallbådan islet and water area (FI 0100089, SCI ) • Inkoo Archipelago (FI 0100017, SPA, SCI) • Tammisaari and Hanko Archipelago and Pohjanpitäjänlahti marine protected area FI 0100005, SPA, SCI) • Tulliniemi Bird Protected Area (FI 0100006, SPA, SCI) • The Archipelago Sea (FI0200090, SPA, SCI)

The following text defines briefly the characteristics of the 9 Natura 2000 areas relevant for this EIA and their distances from the pipeline; for details see Appendix V A. The annex lists the habitat types located in water areas as well as the species according to the Birds and Habitats Directives. 286 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.60. The Natura 2000 areas in the Gulf of Finland. The areas listed separately are relevant for the Finnish EIA. The distance to the pipeline corridor is given in brackets. All Åland Natura 2000 areas are located more than 50 km away from the pipeline and are therefore excluded from this EIA. A detailed map for NATURA 2000 areas is presented in Atlas Map PA-2-F.

Eastern Gulf of Finland archipelago and water areas (FI 0408001, SPA, SCI)

This Natura 2000 area has a size of almost 100,000 hectares and contains a cluster of islands, basins and underwater ridges. The site is located mainly in the outer archipelago and sea area as can be seen from Figure 5.60. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 23 km.

The Natura 2000 area includes includes important underwater habitats such as sandbanks slightly covered by sea water, reefs, and coastal lagoons. The site is an important nesting area for archipelago birds and hosts large communities of lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus), common tern (S. hirundo) and Arctic tern (S. paradisaea). The area also includes important underwater ridge formations and spawning areas of herring (C. harengus). Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 287

The core of the Natura 2000 area consists of the Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park.

Marine protection areas in the Pernaja Bay and Pernaja Archipelago (FI 0100078, SPA, SCI)

The rather large sea area (approximately 66,000 ha) of this Natura 2000 area extends from the bay called Pikkupernajanlahti located near the town of Porvoo to the border of Uusimaa Regional Centre’s operational area. The area includes inner, middle and outer archipelag- ic zones, which means that it is a transition area from almost freshwater in the inner areas to brackish water in the outer archipelago. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 14 km.

The Natura 2000 area includes important underwater habitats such as narrow inlets, reefs and coastal lagoons. The inner bays within the Natura 2000 area host very abundant birdlife, mostly typical wetland communities. In the archipelago, some islands function as important resting areas for birds (i.e., Aspskär). The area is important for the protection of the Caspian tern. Additionally, there are some known grey seal haul-outs. Some of the habitat types are remarkably representative and undisturbed, and the value of the Natura 2000 area has increased due to the abundance of many birds.

The whole Natura 2000 area is proposed to be a part of the Ramsar wetland protection network (type B). The eastern water areas from Hudö Island to the east are part of the BSPA network.

Söderskär and Långören archipelago (FI 0100077, SPA, SCI)

This Natura 2000 area has a size of approximately 18,000 hectares and is located in the outer archipelago near the town of Porvoo. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 10 km. It includes a combination of different protection areas: the nature protection area of Söderskär (YSA010027) and Pellinnki outer archipelago (YSA202254). The southern islands and water areas belong to the Sandkallan-Stora Kölhällen protection area, which is a designated sanctuary for grey seal. The area is owned by the state of Finland.

The Natura 2000 area includes important underwater habitats such as sandbanks slightly covered by sea water and reefs. The outer archipelago hosts numerous seasonal breeding birds and is at the same time also an important resting area for birds.

The area is proposed to be a part of the BSPA network. The Långören area is also proposed to be a part of the Ramsar network (see Chapter 5.5.3 for details).

Kirkkonummi Archipelago (FI 0100026, SPA, SCI)

The area has a size of approximately 1,750 hectares and covers the coast of municipality of Kirkkonummi. Its western parts extend from Sommarn in Inkoo almost to Espoo in the east. The site includes all islands within the area and some water areas that are defined separately. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 14 km. 288 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

The archipelago and coastal areas are relevant for conservation of important habitat types and bird species. The Natura 2000 area includes the inner, middle and outer archipelago and includes important underwater habitats (sandbanks slightly covered by sea water; reefs; coastal lagoons). The site hosts very diverse bird species, many of them breeding within the area.

The area is proposed to be a part of the BSPA network (Baltic Sea Protected Area, see Chapter 5.5.3.1 for details).

Kallbådan islet and water area (FI 0100089, SCI)

This Natura 2000 area, having the size of approximately 1,500 hectares, is located in the open sea south-west of Porkkala Cape, with roughly half of this area extending out of the territorial waters to Finnish economic zone. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 10 km. Porkkala lighthouse is located in the middle of the area. Around the Kallbådan Island several small islands are located. The area is owned by the state of Finland in Kirkkonummi as well as Inkoo municipalities.

The Natura 2000 area was primarily established to protect the grey seal, and it hosts a seal sanctuary.

Inkoo archipelago (FI 0100017, SCI)

This Natura 2000 area has a size of 203 hectares and it is located in the outer archipelago of the municipality of Inkoo. There is only one water area included in the Inkoo Natura 2000 area, the water area in the Timmerö protected area (68 hectares). The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 21 km.

The Inkoo archipelago Natura 2000 area is important nesting and resting place for birds. Breeding birdspecies include Caspian Tern, Black Guillemot, Lesser Black-backed Gull, Turnstone and numerous Arctic and Common Terns.

Gray seals are also visiting this area, although usually only single seals are observed near Hästen island.

Most of the islands and skerries are stony and treeless. There is one exception, Stora Fagerö, which is larger wooded island with sandy beaches, ridges and ancient seashore banks. Forests consist of old spruce forest with old pines and birches. There is also a lot daceyed trees, important for many insects.

Tammisaari and Hanko Archipelago and Pohjanpitäjänlahti marine protected area FI 0100005, SPA, SCI)

This marine Natura 2000 area, having the size of approximately 53,000 hectares includes the following water areas: the bay called Pohjanpitäjänlahti, Tammisaari Archipelago and Hanko southern bay areas. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 19 km. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 289

Ninety percent of the Natura 2000 area is water area and it includes parts of three archipelago zones; the inner, middle and outer archipelago zone. Some islands, such as Älgö, Fladalandet, Modermagan and Jussarö, belong to the national park. There is also privately owned land and water areas, which are not included in the national park.

The Natura 2000 area includes important underwater habitats such as narrow inlets, reefs and coastal lagoons. It holds many semi-enclosed lakes and shallow bays that are important nesting and resting places for birds.

Tulliniemi Bird Protected Area (FI 0100006, SPA, SCI)

The rather small Tulliniemi Natura 2000 area has a size of approximately 2,600 hectares and is part of the western Salpausselkä lateral moraine. Part of the lateral moraine is located below sea level. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 30 km.

The Natura 2000 area includes important underwater habitats such as sandbanks slightly covered by sea water and reefs. The archipelago is very important for nesting sea birds. Because of its geographical location, Tulliniemi is one of the most important passage areas for migrating birds and thus also an important area for research. The area also contains different types of dunes.

The Natura 2000 area includes the Tulliniemi nature conservation area.

The Archipelago Sea (FI0200090, SPA, SCI)

The Archipelago Sea Natura 2000 area, in the south-western Finland, is rather a large area, approximately 50,000 hectares. Some 88% of the area is water area. The majority of the area is situated in the outer archipelago zone. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 30 km.

The Natura 2000 area includes 46 different habitat types according to the Habitats Directive (mostly land based), of which 15 are prioritised as specially protected habitat types. The area is not only important for terrestrial, but also for underwater habitats such as coastal lagoons and reefs. The Archipelago Sea Natura 2000 area is important for a great variety of bilds and also for both grey and ringed seals. The majority of the Natura 2000 area is included in the Archipelago Sea National Park.

The Archipelago Sea constitutes the centre of the Archipelago Sea Biosphere area, which UNESCO founded in 1994 in order to support and improve research on sustainable development.

5.5.1.2 Marine habitat types in the Finnish EEZ

A working group has been established in 2007 by the Finnish Ministry of Environment in order to investigate areas with ecological potential according to the Habitats directive in 290 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Finland’s EEZ. The purpose has primarily been to find habitats that may function as extension of the ecological entities found in the existing Natura 2000 areas in the territorial waters.

It was noted at an early stage that no new directive bird or seal areas were expected to be found in the EEZ. This is primarily due to the fact that islands or islets; potential habitats for these species do not typically exist outside the territorial borders /252/. Also no published bird data, or bird counts done in the Finnish EEZ, was not found available for the investigation. The working group has stated clearly, that there is a lack of information, on how much seals or birds use Finland’s EEZ for feeding or staging. Hence, the study has since then focused only on finding habitats according to the Habitats Directive in the Finnish EEZ.

Nine marine habitat types are listed in Annex I of the Habitats Directive as natural habitats types of community interest, whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation (SAC) /253/. Of these nine habitats, only three have been considered to be of interest in the study in the Finnish EEZ:

• “Sandbanks which are slightly covered by sea water all the time” (Code 1110). These sandbanks are practically only at a water depth less shallow than 20 m below chart datum. • “Reefs” (Code 1170). These can be either biogenic concretions or reefs of geogenic origin. They are hard compact substrata on solid and soft bottoms, and they rise from the sea floor in the sub-littoral and littoral zone. • “Submarine structures made by leaking gases” (Code 1180). These areas consist of two sub-types of structures known as ’bubbling reefs’ and ‘structures within pockmarks’.

Of these, the “reef” habitat is the habitat type that the Ministry of Environment assumes holds the highest potential to be found in the Finnish EEZ. During the time of the EIA, one habitat area which is located at the pipeline route in the Kalbådagrund area has raised the authority interest for further investigation as a possible area holding “reef” habitats (see Figure 5.61). It was at the time of the EIA still uncertain if it fulfils the requirements of the Habitat directive and no proposal was made by the government /254/. Further biological investigations has been done by Marin Mätteknik on behalf of Nord Stream in the area in 2008 and the results are presented in Chapter 5.4.1.2: benthic fauna. The results from surveys conducted by Nord Stream reveal that no vegetation occur in the area due to rather high water depth and the presence of fauna individuals is found to be poor. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 291

Figure 5.61. Bathymetry image of an area with interest with respect to habitats. The white line draws the border of the area. The seabed in the area is rough and undulating with bedrock outcrops. /36, 251/.

5.5.2 National parks

In Finland national parks have been established in areas of typical Finnish nature; they are considered to be both nationally and internationally valuable. National landscapes1 are also included, and the park areas are open for public recreation. In total, 35 national parks have been established in Finland. National parks are established according to Finnish national legislation about National Parks (National Park act).

5.5.2.1 National parks in the Finnish project area

Three national parks are located within a distance of approximately 20 - 30 km from the planned Nord Stream pipeline route. All national parks are located inside Finnish territorial waters (see Figure 5.62). The following text briefly describes these three national parks.

1 National landscapes are sceneries, which reflect Finnish national identity and nature.Total 27 National landscapes are chosen at different parts of Finland. 292 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.62. National parks in the vicinity of the planned Nord Stream pipeline route in the Gulf of Finland. The distance to the pipeline corridor is given in brackets. A detailed map for National Parks is presented in At- las Map PA-6-F.

The Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park (KPU050007, 95,600 ha)

The Eastern Gulf of Finland national park is almost totally situated inside the Eastern Gulf of Finland Archipelago Natura 2000 area. The park has also been proposed to be part of the BSPA network (Baltic Sea Protected Area). The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor in the Finnish project area is about 23 km. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor in the Russian project area is approximately 6.6 km.

The Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park is known for its diversity of bird species and its war history. The national park includes the outer archipelago of the most eastern coastal municipalities of Finland. The hundred islands and islets of the park are scattered across a large open sea area, which is 60 km wide and far from the mainland or inhabited islands. A new Gulf of Finland National Park is being planned on the Russian side of the border. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 293

The Tammisaari Archipelago (KPU010001, 52,000 ha)

The Tammisaari Archipelago National Park is situated in the Western Uusimaa region and is located both in the inner and outer archipelago. The national park includes inner, middle and outer archipelago zones. There are no mainland areas in the park. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 19 km.

In all, 90% of the park area is consists of water areas. Some islands, such as Älgö, Fladalandet, Modermagan and Jussarö, belong to the national park. Within the park boundary, some areas are privately owned and do not belong to the national park.

The Archipelago Sea National Park (KPU020002, 500,000 ha)

The Saaristomeri National Park is surrounded by a wider joint-operation area. The land- and water areas owned by the state form the national park. The national park constitutes the core of the Archipelago Biosphere area, which UNESCO founded in 1994 in order to support and improve research on sustainable development and interaction between humans and nature. The shortest distance to the pipeline corridor is about 28 km.

The Archipelago Sea National Parks area is very rich in its habitats. Both terrestrial and underwater habitats hold diverse flora and fauna. The Archipelago Sea is known as important archipelago area for both birds and seals.

5.5.3 Other protected areas

5.5.3.1 Baltic Sea protected areas (BSPA)

In 1994, 62 BSPAs were designated under HELCOM recommendation1. The purpose of BSPAs is “to protect representative ecosystems of the Baltic as well as to guarantee sustainable use of natural resources as an important contribution to ensure ample provident protection of environment and of biodiversity”. Preference was given to areas already under some form of protection, but very few of the designated areas have been finally incorporated in the BSPA network. The additional task of incorporating 24 offshore areas identified by experts in 1998 into the network still remains /36, 253/.

1 The Helsinki Commission, or HELCOM, works to protect the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all sources of pollution through intergovernmental co-operation between Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Sweden. HELCOM is the governing body of the “Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area” - more usually known as the Helsinki Convention. 294 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

HELCOM and the Oslo and Paris Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR)1 have adopted a joint Work Programme on Marine Protected Areas to ensure that the implementation of the HELCOM/OSPAR Ministerial Declaration is consistent across different marine areas. The declaration stated that a first set of marine protected areas should be identified by 2006 and that in 2010 an ecologically coherent network of well-managed marine protected areas, including the Natura 2000 network, should be identified. Unlike the Natura 2000 areas, the BSPA network does not have any legal implications.

BSPAs in the Finnish project area

The BSPA in the vicinity of the pipeline route (10 to 50 kilometres distance) are shown in Figure 5.63 and described in Appendix V C /255/. The following BSPAs are situated in the Finnish part of the Gulf of Finland:

• The Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park (BSPA 25) • Pernaja and Pernaja Archipelago MPAs, (BSPA 161) • Porvoonjoki eastuary – Stensböle (BSPA 160) • Söderskär and Långören Archipelago (BSPS 159) • Kirkkonummi Archipelago, (BSPA 158) • Tammisaari Archipealgo-Hankooniemi – Bothnian Sea Bottniska Viken (BSPA 24) • Tulliniemi bird protection area (BSPA 157) • Southern Archipelago Sea (BSPA 143)

These BSPA:s are a included in the Natura 2000 network in Finland.

5.5.3.2 UNESCO sites

Biosphere reserves are sites recognised under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme. They are under national sovereign jurisdiction. There are four sites in the Baltic Sea area /256/. Biosphere reserves are tools that help countries implement the results of the Convention on Biological Diversity and its Ecosystem Approach. They are ’learning sites’ for the United Nations Decade on Education for Sustainable Development. Biosphere reserves have three interconnected functions:

• Conservation: landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation • Development: economically, sociologically human and culturally adapted • Logistical support: research, monitoring, environmental education and training

1 The 1992 OSPAR Convention is the current instrument guiding international cooperation on the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. It combined and up-dated the 1972 Oslo Convention on dumping waste at sea and the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of marine pollution. The work under the convention is managed by the OSPAR Commission, made up of representatives of the Governments of 15 Con- tracting Parties and the European Commission, representing the European Community . Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 295

UNESCO sites in the Finnish project area

The Biosphere Reserve of the Archipelago Sea (established in 1994) is the only reserve site in the Finnish part of the Gulf of Finland (see Figure 5.63). The area is situated in the Province of Turku and Pori in south-western Finland. The major ecosystem types are temper- ate broad-leaf forests or woodlands and brackish water archipelago.

The fortress of Suomenlinna is situated in Helsinki and includes old historical fortress and cultural activities.

Figure 5.63. Baltic Sea Protection Areas (BSPA) and UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in the Gulf of Finland in the vicinity of the planned Nord Stream pipeline route. The distance to the pipeline corridor is given in brackets. A detailed map for BSPA and UNESCO Biosphere Reserves is presented in Atlas Map PA-5-F. 296 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

5.5.3.3 RAMSAR sites

These sites are usually called just RAMSAR sites. Name is originated from The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. RAMSAR is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources /257/.

The Ramsar Convention obliges states to protect internationally important wetlands and water birds by founding nature conservation areas. There are 48 Ramsar wetlands in Finland. All Finnish Ramsar areas are integrated in the Natura 2000 network, and therefore the wetland borders follow the Natura 2000 borders. /257/.

RAMSAR sites in the Finnish project area

This EIA includes five Ramsar sites which are situated at 10 to 30 km from the pipeline corridor:

• Kirkon-Vilkkiläntura Bay 3FI022 (1512) • Lake Kirkkojärvi and Lupinlahti Bay 3FI023 (1513) • Aspskär Islands 3FI001 (2) • Söderskär and Långören Archipelago 3FI002 (3) • Bird wetlands of Hanko and Tammisaari 3FI016 (1506)

The Ramsar sites in the Finnish project area are shown in Figure 5.64 and described in Appendix V D. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 297

Figure 5.64. RAMSAR sites in the Gulf of Finland in the vicinity of the planned Nord Stream pipeline route. The distance to the pipeline corridor is given in brackets. A detailed map for RAMSAR areas is presented in At- las Map PA-4-F.

5.5.3.4 Seal sanctuaries

Grey seal and ringed seal are the only seals in the Finnish project area. The exact number of ringed seal individuals in the Finnish parts of the Gulf of Finland is not known. Ringed seals are nowadays rare in both the Estonian and Finnish parts of the Gulf of Finland. A population of approximately 150 individuals is located in the southern parts of the Archipelago Sea, which is situated more than 50 km from the planned Nord Stream pipeline.

The grey seal population in the entire Baltic Sea area is 20,000 individuals. Half of it is located in the south-western Finnish archipelago, including Åland and the Archipelago Sea, more than 50 km away from the pipeline route. The Gulf of Finland, including Russian waters, holds approximately 800 individuals. 298 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Seals are wandering around northern Baltic sea when they are seeking foraging areas or breeding areas (suitable ice conditions). During summertime escpecially grey seals are con- centrating to or haul-outs, i.e., undisturbed rocks, islets and islands.

A decree on seven seal-protection areas in water areas owned by the state came into force in 2001. Its objective is to especially protect grey seals and their habitats. Some of the protection areas are also important for protection of the Baltic ringed seal. The areas are managed and supervised by the National Board of Forestry. The established seal-protection areas also promote research and monitoring of seal populations /252/. Reaching closer than half a nautical mile (926 m) to the islets or islet groups inside seal protection areas is prohib- ited. However, dwelling is allowed in official shipping lanes and certain exceptional permits can be issued.

The established seal protection areas are partly integrated within the Natura 2000 network.

Seal sanctuaries in the Finnish project area

Four of the established seal protection areas are located in the Gulf of Finland (see Figure 5.65). The protection area closest to the planned pipeline route is the Kallbådan Seal Protection Area, approximately 9 km from the pipeline.

• Sandkallan - Stora Kölhällen Seal Protection Area (HYL 010001). The area has a water area size of 7,570 hectares. The area is owned by the state of Finland. • Kallbådan Seal Protection Area (HYL 010002). The area has a water area size of 1,520 hectares. The area is owned by the state of Finland in Kirkkonummi and Inkoo municipalities. • Mastbådan Seal Protection Area (HYL020003). The area has a water area size of 900 hectares and is owned by the state of Finland in the municipality of Nauvo. • Grimsörarna Seal Protection Area (HYL020004). The area has a water area size of approximately 2,430 hectares and is owned by the state of Finland in the municipality of Korppoo. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 299

Figure 5.65. Seal protection areas in the Gulf of Finland in the vicinity of the planned Nord Stream pipeline route. The distance to the pipeline corridor is given in brackets. For details on seal protection areas see Atlas Maps MA-3-F - MA-4-F. 300 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

5.6 Economic and human conditions

This chapter describes the present status of ship traffic (5.6.1), fishery activities (5.6.2), tourism (5.6.3), military activities (5.6.4), conventional munitions (5.6.5), other survey objects (5.6.6), existing infrastructure (5.6.7) and cultural heritage (5.6.8) in the Finnish project area. The description focuses on the area through which the routings of the pipeline pass and therefore does not cover the entire Gulf of Finland. Because the Nord Stream pipelines are at considerable distance from the Finnish coast and territorial waters, the diversity of economic activities in the project area is quite limited. However, there are some intense activities in the Finnish exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The following information is mostly relevant in the construction phase of the Nord Stream project.

The Baltic Sea is one of the busiest seas in the world. It provides the only shipping connec- tion to the North Sea for the vast majority of the countries surrounding the Baltic. The Nord Stream pipeline route crosses and runs adjacent to many of the main shipping routes in the Finnish EEZ. In addition other infrastructures such as offshore cables or raw material extraction areas can be found in the Baltic Sea.

Commercial fishery is an important source of income for a large number of the communities that live in the coastal areas around the Baltic Sea. Tourism is also an important economic factor along the Baltic coast, even though there are no mass tourism sites in the region. In the EEZ, tourism is mainly restricted to ship traffic of passenger cruise ships and other passenger boats. There are some military practice areas in the Gulf of Finland. During the first and second World Wars munitions, mainly mines, were placed and dumped in to the Gulf of Finland.

This chapter also describes underwater cultural heritage, for example shipwrecks, in the Finnish project area.

5.6.1 Ship traffic

5.6.1.1 Overview

Intensity plots of ship traffic (Figure 5.66) provide an overview of the shipping traffic pattern in the Baltic Sea. The description of ship traffic is based on data from the automatic identification system (AIS)1, charts, data from Vessel Traffic Service Storebælt (VTS Storebælt) and ship passages recorded at Drogden Lighthouse /141/ /142/. On the basis of the intensi-

1 AIS data includes the identification number, location and speed over ground, etc., for ships. The AIS data from the Baltic Sea used to obtain the description of the general ship traffic is based onAIS report line data from 1st of August to 30th of September 2006 and 1st of January to 28th of February 2007, while the specific information about the ship traffic crossing per kilometre pipeline is based on the full AIS data from 1st of January to 30 of January 2007. Because there in general is little seasonal variation in maritime traffic in the Baltic Sea the available data is scaled up to represent the annual ship traffic. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 301

ty plots, the primary shipping routes in the area around the pipeline route can be identified. At present, 14 major or primary shipping routes in the Baltic Sea can be identified (Figure 5.66). Because ship traffic is consistent throughout the year, the shipping intensity shown in Figure 5.66 applies for the entire year.

Figure 5.66. Ship intensity and primary sailing routes /141/. Traffic intensity is shown in colour gradations, ranging from yellow (very few ships) to red (greatest number of ships). Ship intensity information is based on data collected from 1 August to 30 September 2006 and 1 January to 28 February 2007.

Variations of volumes between different routes have been high. A total of 800 to 52,000 ship movements per year were identified at different routes. Numbers of ship movements for each route are shown in Figure 5.67. 302 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.67. Annual ship movements on primary sailing routes /141/. The letters refer to the sailing routes identified in the previous figure 5.66.

Potential number of ships crossing the pipeline route was calculated for different pipeline sections. For this purpose the pipeline route was divided into 1,220 kilometre points (KP) starting in Russia and ending in Germany (Figure 5.68). Based on the AIS data (see above) a total of 218,000 ships crossed the planned pipeline route in the considered interval per year (see Figure 5.69). As Figure 5.69 shows, the number of potential crossings varies over different sections of the pipeline route. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 303

Figure 5.68. Pipeline route with kilometre points as basis for Figure 5.69. 304 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.69. Ship traffic intensity per kilometre points (KP) of the Nord Stream route C14 (see Figure 5.68 (previous figure) for location of kilometre points) /141/. Finnish project area is located between KP 123 and- 490.

The greatest intensity in ship traffic per year is around KP 225, which is part of route J located in the Gulf of Finland between Tallinn and Helsinki. More detailed information on ship traffic at this location is provided in section 5.6.1.2.

The analysis using AIS data provides the following information for each pipeline section /141/:

• Number of merchant ships crossing the pipeline • Number of cargo ships crossing the pipeline • Number of ships of each ship type crossing the pipeline • Mean crossing angle

According to projections for maritime traffic by 2016, the number of movements of all ship types, except tankers, is expected to remain at the same level as today. The number of tankers is expected to increase 20% from 2006 to 2016. It is also expected that the ship size in the Baltic Sea will increase due to increased cargo and passenger volume. However, the size of the largest ships in the Baltic Sea today is not expected to increase because the depth of the channel in the Great Belt sets the draught limit for ships entering and leaving the Baltic Sea.

Information on primary ship routes, number of ship movements, types of ships and navigation lines are shown in Atlas Maps SH-1-F to SH-10c-F. Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5 | 305

5.6.1.2 Ship traffic in the Finnish project area (crossings of the planned pipeline route)

The ship traffic crossing the pipeline route C14 in the Finnish EEZ, including the crossing angle, is indicated in Figure 5.70.

Figure 5.70. Ship traffic by crossing angle contributions (route C14) /258/.

The comparison of crossings between the route C16 and the corresponding interval on the C14 route are shown in Figure 5.71 and Figure 5.72. 306 | Environmental impact assessment report | Section 5

Figure 5.71. Ship traffic by crossing angle contributions for route C16 /142/.

Figure 5.72. Ship traffic by crossing angle contributions for the route C14 /142/.