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inthe MACHINE WORLD

RIDA ATLAN Ie .UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 6y Leighton A. Wilkie SOCIALIST· lABOR COLLECTION

The ways and whys of today's industrial era; how machines, backed by science and invention to utilize the power and resources of nature, bring modern comforts and better living. COPYRIGHT 1946 By Leighton A. Wilkie

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERI CA in the MACHINE "WORLD-

hy leighton A. Wilkie

The ways and whys of to­ day's ind~strial era; how machines, backed by science and invention to utilize the power and resources of nature, bring modern comforts and better living.

Distributed by The DoAll Compony Des Plaines, III. INTRODUCTION " We know that neither prosperity nor war will solve the problems oj . modern society ; gradually we are realizing that th e only answer lies in man himself . To progress, man must remake himself . .. For he is both th e marble and th e sculptor.In order to un cover his tru e visage, he m ust mould his own substance." Alexi s Carrel.

Prog ress Depends on Wide-spread Understanding In thi s booklet is a brief story of how the Machine Age de­ veloped. When mankind better understands what is required to make the Machine Age bring the greatest benefits to the greatest number of people, then the common man will not willingly be " taken in" by those whose economic fallacies invade his welfare and well-being. Dreadful harm is at work today because of false economic doctrines that have been introduced by impractical men. It is the small busi­ ness man and average industrial worker and farmer whose coll ective wisdom and common sense create the success of " Government of the people, by the people and for the people." It is they who now need to take a look at the balance sheet of the dynamic Machine Age.

The Principles Are Simple Not so long ago, men had to toil the major part of their hours every day to gain the mere necessities: FOOD,SHELTER, CLOTH­ IG. Leisure to enjoy life was very limited . Not until the ma chi ne tools were developed and production machinery was manufactu red and put to work were men able to produce more for themselves in fewer hours. By this method they increased their earn ings and had tim e left for recreation and the enjoyment of life as well. Machines have fr eed men from long hours of toi l. Machines have increa sed their productive pow er, their earn ­ ings, and oppo rtunity to improve their way of working and living. Mankind ha s had onl y the last hundred years in which to ab sorb an avalanche of technological information . The fa ct is that no man's mind is capable of ma stering all that has been learn ed about the whole real m of the several sciences in this hundred ye ar period of phenomenal expansion. But man ha s the capacity to un derstand the prin ciples, and they are not hard to learn. It is when the ba sic prin­ ciples are left behind that leaders turn the tide of progress ba ckwards. Mass production and its phenomenal economy, coming into being in less th an 70 years, has doubled the population and affected everything we eat, wear, read and see. The consequence is that we have specialists who know a great deal about one field and little of ano ther, and we have those academically trained people who have little knowledge in scientific ways, yet it is they who largely make up the law-making body and ruling class. The solution lies in broader understanding of the fundamental principles on the part of small business men and workers and the elected political leaders.

How We Live "Our many gifts have fail ed to bring econom ic security, happiness, moral sense and peace-because th ey have burst upon us while we are still too ignorant to use them wis ely . In order to endure, society, as well as individ uals, should conform to the laws of life. We cannot erect a house without a knowledge of the law of gravity." A lexis Carr el. The science of economics consists in looking not merely at the immediate but at the longer effects of any act or policy. It mu st trace the consequences of that policy not merely for one group but for all groups. The only route to jobs is to produce more efficiently. The more you produce efficiently, the lower its price; the lower the price, the more people who can and will buy it; the more people who buy it, the more security your job an d the more you are worth. . The only honest approach for workmen, labor leaders and man ­ agement is to unite to reduce costs by increasing production per worker through more modern machinery installed and employed efficiently. Fortunately for labor some wise Union leaders have learned that only by this route can they improve wages and conditions for the common man, and are working toward this end. There is no other way. This country became great and attained the highest standard of living in the world-because individual opportunity permitted an y­ one to ri se as far as hi s ability and productiveness could take him. Yet today many so-called leaders have confused millions of Americans into thinking that " security'.' can be had through some other system or ism. Labor leaders, ba cked by government laws and decrees, have lined up against the public on the other side . But the public is, ea ch and every one of us. It is the public that pays the bill. When workers increase their wages by turning out more goods through more modern ma chinery, then we, the public, do not have an y increa sed costs to pay. The re sponsibility for making jobs and wealth must come from three sources: . A. Government-through its tax laws must enable enterprise to accumulate enough profit to provide workmen with constantly im­ proved equipment and must provide an atmo sphere.favorable to the creation of new enterprises. B. Management must install improved equipment and share with its workmen the increased earn ings whi ch result. C. Labor mu st use the equipment effic iently to turn out more good s so that he may be paid more. All three working together can create jobs.

Two Kinds of Thinkers " I ll practically every country there is a decrease in the int ellectual and moral caliber of thos e who carry the responsibility of public affairs. What is the good of increasing the com fort, the luxury, the beauty and the complications of our civilization, if our weakn ess prevents us from guiding it to our best advantage?" Alexis Carrel. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of thinkers. Th e scientists and craftsmen who are accustomed to reaching a clear-cut solution to problems and can prove that the conclusions are right ; the aca­ demic and political individuals, on the other hand, have a mental adaptability and willingness to compromise. You will nearly always find the most practical leaders are tho se who have had a background of early practica l work. Th ey received their training as " doers." They often began working with their hand s. Then there is the group who are highly educated but cannot ap ply this education with sound judgment, because too much of wha t they know is wr ong. Unfor ­ tunately, it is often they who develop a sublime egotism and are so presumptuous as to usurp a perso nal leader ship that rightfully be­ longs not to ma n butto the proper processes of democra tic law-mad e government. Th is group has been given the nam e " Bureaucrats." Their egotism is fed by their superior ability to exp ress themselves in written words or on the ra dio. Because they are so cocksure, they make their a rgument~ plausible and gain a large following.

Beware of "Planners" " The A me rican economy seems to have forgotten, for the moment, how to grow. But the probable explanation of this economic anaemia is to be found, not in any arrival at 'maturity,' but rath er in the existence of institutional obst ructions to a free flow of capital." Th e Economist. Th e bad economist often present s a very per suasive argument by offering wha t appears to be a very attractive short-term gain. It is too often that the cheap opportunist or political demagogue can be more plau sible in putting forth economic non sense than the hon est ma n who would try to show what is wrong with it. It is said that those with wisdom are cautio us and conservative but others with a sublime egotism are cocksure and impatient with anyone who doesn't follow their opinion. They lack the common sense of a man who has had the hard knocks of growing up in competitive enterprise to teach him sound, practical judgment in the ways of life. Beware of the "planner" because it is he who expects to attain power over men which he has found he could never attain in com­ petitive enterprise. Whenever you find a writer presenting in glib language the false doctrine of a "new order" you can be sure that back in his consciousness is an impelling desire to be a leader with power. He sees a bureaucratic position for himself under the regime he visualizes. These men have been calling themselves "fron­ tier thinkers." They carefully avoid the term "subversive" and sugar­ coat their aims with vague generalities of "automatic production and distribution in full fruition." They refer to our attachment to the Constitution and Declaration of principles as "emotional and un­ reasoning attachment to instruments that will require' fundamental changes of attitude."

The State vs . The I~'dividual "If this country ever gets a system of governmental regimentation, labor will suffer most. Labor is therefore deeply interested in the preservation of private business; and labor should everlastingly main­ tain that the owners and managers of business are entitled to a fair and just return upon their investments." William Green, President A. F. of L. The planners have made serious inroads. Thel:e are many who believe that free enterprise is today being given every opportunity to "make"good." Many mid-class people, business men and workers have been led to believe that if free enterprise fails to provide full employment we have an alternative in "planning." This is the most vicious and dangerous complacency in America. Either free enterprise is allowed to work or we revert to a long period of decline in our standard of living, the loss of freedom, and great personal suffering except for those appointees who undertake the direction of your life. Everyone recognizes that the role of Government in economic life has larger regulatory functions than before. But that is the very reason to hold tight to the basic American tradition and phi­ losophy-THAT GOVERNMENT IS THE TOOL OF THE PEOPLE -never the other way around. When Government becomes the com­ petitor or the dictator the result is the "power state." Do not think for a moment that the power state here would be any different from the power states we have seen in Europe. "Freedom of the press" will be eliminated and every spoken and written word will be con­ trolled for the benefit of big government-a dictator and his ap­ pointees. All personal rights would vanish. Creative initiative and enterprise would flounder. Force would be the order. . It would be an appalling era of spreading poverty instead of spreading wealth. ."Ye shall knoui the truth and the truth shall make ye free." fohn VIII, 32, Thousands of years ago, man's life was short because he lacked adequate food and ways'of storing it and he lacked protection from the elements and wild animals. Wearing skins for clothing he lived in rock shelters or caves; learned how.to produce fire for comfort and cooking 6 The Machine Age and Universal Plenty Man 's control of the minerals and gr owing things of the earth is limited only by his ability to understand them. Slowly at first, man became ac­ quainted with the simpler principles of nature, which enabled him to hunt and fish, to provide better shelter and clothing and to devise weapons for his protecti on. Then he learned how to produce and use fir e. He inv ented crude tools to fabricate things and to cultivate the soil. He learned to make pottery, to spin and weave, to smelt ores and finally he progressed to oth er achi evements such as the building of pyramids, temples and walled cities, which involved a high degree of skill and artistry. . . As man's knowl edge and ingenuity increased, he harnessed some of the powers of nature to serve his purpose. He invented and developed power­ driven machines to do better and fast er work than the hand tools he had used previously. This use of power . ushered int o history the present era known as the "machine age." With ma chines man has made it possible to eliminate the slow and crude meth ods of toil and has disco vered how to produce things for his use far in excess of his immediate needs. The result of this is that man now has the possibility of " universal plenty."

In his struggle for existence, man domesticated animals to provide himself with food and clothing and he also discovered how to till the soil to make plants give greate r yield-the beginnings of animal husbandry and ag riculture

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16 50 1700 17 50 1,800 1850 1900 1940

Increase of world population since beginning of (he industrial period which pro­ moted abundant food, good clothing and shelter. In the last 300 years the population quadrupled

Universal plenty is something that we moderns take for granted and enj oy-generally without realizing its full significance in that it can forever banish famine and want. Today, the masses of people, both rich and poor, enjoy vastly improved living conditions. Our modern homes afford much greater comforts than the medieval castles and palaces of royalty. Today, the common man not only has abundance in the necessities of life­ food, clothing and shelter-but he also has countless luxuries such as electricity, telephone, radio, labor-saving appliances for the home, automatic heating, running water, motor cars, airplanes and other forms of modern transportation. These indeed are luxuries that never existed before and were out of the reach of the richest kings and emperors of bygone years. Since man now obtains much more with much less work than before, and has app lied science to reduce the toll of disease, there has been a marked increase in the average span of human life. Also, as a result of man's ability to control the earth's goods enabling him to obtain universal plenty, a much larger population than has ever existed before, can be sustained. Today the earth's population is twice that of jnst seventy years ago. The machine age, with its universal plenty, has antiquated all earlier living conditions and has rendered obsolete all previous methods of fabri­ cation, agriculture, transportation and even human relations. For example, fabrication is mostly dependent on mass production methods, where artisans formerly made articles by hand; mechanized agricultural equipment makes possible the cultivation and harvesting of thousands of acres by few men; we traverse the country in a few hours with airplanes instead of months with covered wagons; communities are no longer isolated and pro­ vincial since instantaneous radio and telephone communication exists every-

8 Before the machine age nearly the entire population of the earth was engaged in tilling the soil. Today the world's population is split into two main groups ba sically distinguished as agricultural workers ,and industrial workers where. These developments have caused immense changes in economic, social and political life. Without the machine, human life could exist only on the plane of previous eras-greatly restricted and much less desirable. With the machine from which we are now inseparable, the remarkable prog­ ress already made to improve human living conditions is yet extremely small when compared to the astounding advances now in the making.

Understanding Needed for Guidance We know much more about the present age than about the past, ana yet there is very little of this dynamic present that we do understand. Al­ though we have specialists in every field who command vast knowledge about their art, we all need a wider understanding of how the machine age functions and how it affects humanity in various ways. Such understanding goes far beyond the mere knowledge of technical facts; it depends on true judgment in interpreting the basic tendencies and effects of the machine age-how it will influence human relations and the march of civilization. Only such a basic understanding will enable us to apply wisdom ' that is needed to guide humanity in this complex age. Look at machine-age people at work , to analyze how they live. Look at those tall, cylindrical pipes called smoke­ stacks-the symbols of industry. If they were not there, neither would the people be there-s-that is, the industrial part of the population. There is also the agricultural part-the people who till the soil. They exist apart from the industrial population, but are tied closely to it. Before the time of the machine only an agricultural population existed. Now we have two popula­ tion groups-those who till the soil and those who work with machines.

9 Conquest of the Soil In primitive man's struggle for existence, the first need was food. Its scarcity meant death, and for many years, even until the advent of the machine age, the scarcity of food has been the most common cause of early death, keeping the increase of population in check. Besides the constant need of food, there was need of protection against the elements and wild beasts. Man provided himself and his family with clothing and shelter against the wind, rain, snow and the sun. Natural dangers and discomforts were overcome by changing the form, condition and place of natural things. Animals killed for food were stripped of their hides, which were cut and sewed to form clothing and the raw meat was cooked over fire to make it more appetizing and palatable. Vegetable foods and fruits, first obtained in their wild state, were found to attain greater growth and became more prolific when planted in fertile soil and cultivated, which was the beginning of agriculture. So, land was cleared and cultivated. Wood was needed for implements, for weapons and for more durable shelter. So, timber was cut and sawed. Better clothing came after wool was sheared, carded, spun and woven into cloth. All things for use as food , clothing or shelter, even that which came from animals, depended directly or indirectly on the soil. Thus in man's progress of ascendency over nature, he .first learned to control the soil. This he not only made more productive by rotation of crops, and the restitution of plant foods in the soil, but man has developed

This farmer could raise only enough food for his own needs. Slow, crude methods of plowing with domesticated animals marked progress over hand cultivation, pro­ vided more food and clothing, but were still slow and did not materially reduce amount of toil. It spurred man to invent tireless machines to save time and work

10 This farmer raises enough food for several families. With powerful tractors to pull plows, cultivators and other farm machinery, thousands of acres of land can be worked with no more effort than it took to till a few acres by previous methods

strains of wheat, corn, rye, cotton, fruits and vegetables more prolific in their yield than ever before. With seed of today, a hundred bushels of corn will grow where only sixty bushels would grow from the best seed of 1900. Man developed strains that were more resistant to parasites and pests and were adjusted to climate. He bred cattle that produced more milk, hogs that produced more pork per bushel of grain, and hens that laid more eggs per year. By using techniques already known, and utilizing plant strains developed by scientific breeding and hybridization, more and better quality food is obtained. Throughout the centuries man has spent most of his time and energy in the pursuit of agriculture in order to feed the earth's population. Before the machine age, food had never been produced in excess quantities. Now, however, with time and labor-saving farm equipment, plus the scientific development of plants and cattle, and also the prevention and control of disease, it is possible to produce more food than is needed to support a larger population. Inventions that reduced time and labor in the cultivation and harvesting of crops, such as the McCormick harvester, 1831, and the Deere all-steel plow, 1837, are outstanding examples of progress in mechan­ izing agriculture. It is conservative to say that scientific and mechanized agriculture can double and probably quadruple the . output of the earth's "soil factory." Besides this, the agricultural areas in various parts of the world can be extended greatly, assuring an even greater food supply.

11 Court esy of International Harv ester Company One of the most outstanding contributions to agriculture, which greatly helped to free man' from enslavement to the soil, was the McCormick reaper publicly demon­ strated in 1831. It eliminated slow hand work of harvesting grain

This makes it easily possible for the agricult ural portion of the popula­ tion to feed the industrial portion. It is no longer necessary for most of the population to spend its energy and time mainly to produce food. Therefore the industrial population, now removed from the . direct contact with the soil, can devote its energy to producing machines and the goods needed by the entire population. Thus the two main portions of the population sup­ plement each other. ' Formerly each individual was engaged in many different kinds of work, not only in producing food but also in weaving cloth to provide clothes, erecting shelter and fabricating other necessities of life. Now, with division of labor and specialization, it is,possible for individuals to de­ vote all of their efforts in certain lines of endeavor. Such unrestricted specialization is the sole reason why scientific research and progress can make the amazing advancement that we are witnessing today. With continued concentration, there will be still greater conquests of the resources and power of nature. All of this will tend to make life easier, better and longer, so that more time can be devoted to the spiritual and the esthetic side of man's existence.

Conquest of the Minerals Where man formerly was almost entirely dependent on the soi l, which in­ cludes the animal kingdom, to obtain most of his resources with which to make products, he now has many more resources by exploitation of the earth's interior for metals and minerals. Only a hundred years ago, 80

12 Some countries have vast and varied resources and sufficient man power, but lack industrial production. Such countries turn over their natural resources in exchange for finished goods at a constant loss which prevents accu­ l1! ulation of wealth-until they industrialize -- per cent of th e natural resources used by man caine from th e soil ; only abo ut 20 per cent came fr om mines and quarries. Today th e . picture has cha nge d. Only 30 per cent of th e natur al resources used by industry comes from the soil and things th at gro w, while 70 per cent comes from the min­ erals. One res ult is that the variety of products is gr eatly increased. Another res ult is that the agricultural population can devote still mo re time to food produ ction exclusively, thereby strengthening the machine-age arrangement of specialization and mutual rec iproc ity. Let us examine the natural resources apart fr om the soil. Take coal for an example. Thi s, like oil, is completely expended when used. Coal is found nearly everywhere around th e earth and is readily accessible in most regions. The estimated reserv es of coal are in excess of seven trillion, five hundred bill ion ton s. Inasmuch as the cons umption of coal ha s been somethi ng like one and one half billion tons annually during recent years, depletion of this reserve is still many years

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Estimated coal reserves of the world are about seven trillion, five-hundred billion tons. If natural resources that supply fuel and energy become depl eted many yea rs hence, man will have new and different forms of energy from the laboratory

13 Industrial laboratories a re constantly developing new and better mater ials for pro­ duction. Chemical discoveries yield substances superior to natural substances. This photo shows one of the research laboratories of The DoALL Comp any

away, by which time it is probable that new and different sources of energy will be available to take the place of coal and oil. Already man has devised atomic release of heat and energy. With the fast progress of the machine age we can look to atomic energy coming from the laboratory, for a brand new power source for driving industrial machines. The Role of Chemistry Before man has used up these natural supplies, he can learn to live within his natural resource income. Chemists in thousands of laboratories, supported by industrial corporations as well as by institutions, are busily engaged creating plastics and the application of artificial resins for manu­ factured articles of all sorts. Although their motive is not to enable men to conserve resources, that is one of the results. Their objective is to provide better and cheaper materials as substitutes for others. Discoveries of hydrocarbon compounds yield substances that are far superior to the metals used for many purposes in the past. The rising tide of demands upon the mineral kingdom therefore, need not be considered a serious drain. Human nature is such that it is spontaneous in its adjustment to changing requirements. . . Advances in chemistry are making it possible to produce materials hav­ "ing almost any desired combination of physical properties. Man can create in his substances, the desired rigidity, elasticity, density, transparency and

14 thermal con ductivity. The versatility of the industrial chemists in rearrang­ ing the molecules comprising th e atoms of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen opens up an infinite field of possibilities. Synthetic resins are being used to improve wood and paper by impregnation, thus givin g th e materials from the plants and animal kingdom th e characteristic derived from the min eral, kingdom. Even when America had metal to throw ~way , important mechan­ ical' parts of automobiles were made of materials which performed even better than metal. By a process called lamination, sheets of paper, cloth, wood or other materials are bound together with a heat sett ing plastic. By applying heat and pr essure, these laminations are molded and lat er machined int o gears, airplane pulleys and a score of other useful articles. Th ere ar e many wonderful pos sibilities when industry can full y utilize the substances which th e chemist creates out of the abundant resources of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. When that is done th ere is less need to bid for resources abroad. The da y may n ot be far off when th e several geo­ graphical regions on earth can live within their own storeho use of resources. Synthetic rubber is supplanting natural rubber fr om th e East Indies. Nylon cloth is supplanting silk from the Ori ent. As th e list gro ws, each area will gradually become self-suffi cient with a produ ction of goo ds balan ced within its machine economy.

From Tools to Machines To produce goods and services, man works by applying hi s mental and mu scular energy to natural resources with the aid of tools. How mu ch and how good the results are depends on th e effectiveness of th e to ols. In the beginning man had five ba sic types of tools: I-Pounding tools such as club s and hammers 2-Cutting tools such as axes and knives 3- Throwing tools such as slings and bows 4---Lifting tools such as levers and hoists 5-Carryin g tool s employing th e wheel and the sail Slowly over ' a period of hundreds of years man improved hi s tools. Then he discovered that boiling water in a closed vat would make a pressure

After,learning how to make fire' by ro­ tating a stick, man devised crude pound­ ing and cuffing tools to ease labor and improve his comforts. Tools were later driven by power; first water and wind power, then steam and electricity. Power­ driven tools are directly responsible for today's high standards of living 15 Besides knives, saws and rasps or files of flint and later bronze, were the most ancient cutting tools that early man used to form weapons and tools. Now hard, sharp saws and files are produced by millions with fast, automatic machines

which could be harnessed to replace muscular energy to drive tools. Man 's material progress improved as he improved his too ls. The more tools he had and th e better they were made, the more goods he could turn out. The idea of "machines" is not new but man's present method and pur­ pose of applying · them makes them one of his most valuable assets. Lon g before the beginning of th e Christian era, the ancients produced many won­ derful autom atic devices. But the use of machines then was to mystify the multitudes. Dragons were made to hiss, temple doors to open and close, and braz en figures were made to move. These machines were based on principles of pneumatics and hydraulics but most of this ancient mechanical knowledge was lost. In the Roman period, iron files and rasps of good quality were in use for shaping metal and sharpening other hand too ls, but th e Romans never had an economic motive for developing metalcraft or a machine production. The Euro pea n mind tried to develop the fantasy of an earthly paradise of plenty without the benefit of machines. The Oriental mind had already found the ques t futile. Only four hundred years ago , Europeans believed that someplace in the world could be found a fabulous land where living was like a dr eam , where people ate an d drank from golden vessels , wore pr ecious jewels and had automatic ease an d luxury. This belief was com­ mon to kings and t~ eir courts, as well as the astronomers and navigators of

Early silversmiths p ound ed pure silver into sheets, then used a saw to cut pieces to shape for fabrication into silver­ ware . Today, silver is rolled into sheets , can be alloyed, pressed or spun by mass-pr o­ ductio n methods .>:; ..~~ . , Courtesy of International Harvester Ccmpeev In striking contrast to hand tools of the pa st, modern industrial machines are in­ gen iously devised robots-man's tireless servants that perform miracles the time. It was in quest of such a mythical pla ce that many of the feats of early navigation were performed. It took a lon g time for,;juan to discover that he could exploit machine power as a tireless servant to ultimately build a Utopian civilization by his own efforts. Wh en the machine's power was applied to the loom, the drudgery of hand spinning and weavin g was over­ come. Machine-made textiles could .be made in large quantities and cou ld be sold at low prices. It was then that things began to happ en. ." Yet even today only a small fraction of th e w'b;ld population has pro- " vided itself with sufficient tools and implements to -get: the benefits of a 'machine age., True, the tide of demand is risin g' everywhere in small, as well as in large countries. Th e demand is surging-across Asia and th e islands of the Pacific. It is at high tide in Mexico, and in countries of South Amer ­ ica. The people are deman ding that their country industri alize quickly and fully. It is ur gent to tho se who are in th e process of building up th eir me chineund industrial life, that they should first comprehend th e funda­ men~,a,Is ' ~' ;t.he mac hine age. Then the y can install their implements of pro· e duciiPu wisely, using the rich experience of other large industrial countries "0'''''' ; ;,th;;lt'·h'kve gone through a period of experimentation. ~ ... --:~t> ~ ··· How Industry Began Textile manufacturing was the real start of industr iali zation. It started the first mass production and gave birth to mod ern industry, although tex­ tiles are not classed as mechanical products and th e assembl y line did not come until much later. As an improvement over the home spinning wheel, Hargreave's spinning jenn y, 1770, was a device th at combined eight spinning wheels, all turned by one crank, enabling one person to spin eight thread s at once. By 1733, over 20,000 of these were in use in England-the largest one bein g capable

17 (Left) In 1700, ittoo/<"all day to spin fibers of flax and wool into thread we now can purchase for a few cents. Production ofthread was first multiplied by Hargreave's spinning ;enny shown below. With this machine several spinning wheels were turned simultaneously with one crank

(Left) Arkwright's water-power machine for spin­ ning was the first application of power in the textile industry. The next improvement in spinning was Crompton's spinning"mule" (below). With this machine finer and stronger thread could be , produced more rapidly than ever before

18 At the time when Cartwright invented a power loom (1785), more thread was being produced than weavers could turn into cloth. One power loom run by a boy could produce as much cloth as four skilled weavers working with hand lo~ins of spinning eighty threads at once. At about the same .time a water-power machine for spinning was invented by Arkwright and a little later a new machine, combining the best features of the spinning jenn y and the water­ power spinning ma chine was devised by Crompton. These machines were called spinning "mules" and by 1812 hundreds of textile manufacturers used them, the total number of spindles numbering over five million. Since more thread was now produced than weavers could turn into cloth, faster weaving became a necessity. This demand was met by the power loom, invented by a clergyman, Cartwright, in 1785. Waterpower was used to operate it. Three power loom s, att end ed by one person to repair broken threads, now did the work of four skilled weavers using hand-operated looms. As a result, machine-made textiles were made in large quantities and sold at low prices. With such great produ ction capacities, England produced much more cloth than it could use and as a res ult other countries were supplied with textiles, which greatly stimulated colonial commerce. In ports all over the world the ships of the English mercantile fleet exchanged textiles for raw products. This was the beginning of modern industry and commerce. This industrial revolution brought mill owners of Manchester, England a fabulous prosperity. They were determined to defend it against competi­ tion by keeping their machines and processes secret. They felt sure they could do this because only the mill owners and their workmen knew the . designs of their machines and had the skill to operate them. Even Parlia­ ment enacted laws to protect this monopoly. Heavy fines were provided for the exportation of any textile machiner y or for the emigration of a skilled textile worker. The work ers were placed und er bond not to tell an y foreigner. The prohibition of Colonial manufacture was one of the many forms the British took to protect their monopoly. .

19 Industry and commerce expanded to vast proportions as the result of machine-made textiles. Colon ial emp ires furnished raw materials in exchange for textiles and other manufactured "goods. Soon however, ' still greater trade flourished when machine too ls brought manufacturing facilities to all countries

20 Closeup of the first cotton gin invented by Eli Whitney. It could pick more seeds out of raw cotton than fifty workers were able to do during the same time

For a time the new American Republic th at had just signed-its Declara­ tion of Independence had to continue to buy cloth from' England-just as in its Colonial days. The citizens of the new republic wer e indignant abduf'this dependenc y. Various states offer ed rewards for the invention ofbii:tile ma chinery. The P ennsylvania legislature, for example, in 1789 offere d a hundred pounds to anyon e . who would invent a power carding machine. It was inevitable that the new republic of the United States sho uld develop . its own textilejndustry, An immigrant named Samuel Slatervwhohad "dohI-' pleted his apprenticeship in one of the En glish mills which ha d been making cloth'Tcr the Aiiierican market, came to the young United States to establish his o;Vli mill and become as wealthy as his employers. In 1801 he built a factory in Rehemoth, Massachusett s. Fi ve years later he- and his brother John had advanced so rapidly that they estab lished the industrial town of Slaterville, Rhode Island. Samuel Slater is genera lly referred to as the father of Am erican manufacturing. The textile industry from then on had a fabu­ lous growth and prosperity. Then something else had happened to make American textile manufac­ 'turing .outstrip the world. In 1793 tw o yo ung men attending Yale College: went , tQ the state of Georgia to spend the summer on a plan tatio n. J:hey .: were Eli Whitney and Phineas Miller , who contributed vastly to th e birth of industry. Whitney observed that while it was easy to pro duce cott on from th e land, there was a long and tedious effort to turn the white fluffy balls into cloth. The cost of picking the lint from the seed t ook so much labor th at cottonrwas more expensive than wool or flax. It took a negro slave a whole "day to separate five pounds of cott on lint from the seed. Whi tney and his companion, Phineas Miller , then invented and built a crude gin which could produce fifty pounds of lint per da y. They saw that if their gin was made larger and driven by mule power, they might make more than a hun­ dred pounds a day. 21 Within a few years improved cotton gins were run by water power; they were made larger and faster. Elimination of slow hand-picking released more workers to help grow greater crops of cotton and thus the era of cheap cofton cloth was introduced, , resulting in more cloth which could be sold at a lower price

22 Wh itney and Miller formed a partnership to turn out their machines. They left the model in a building at the plantation but the word about the wonderf ul ma chine passed through the countryside and the model stored in the building was stolen. Soon clumsy imitations of the gin app eared all through Georgia. Its introduction created a sensation. It must be remem­ bered that up until that tim e, there were no ma chines of any kind in the South beyond the spinning wheel and the loom. Farm tools had not been developed. Until 1837 plowing was don e by a wooden plo w to which straps of metal were nailed. At the time, not a wheel was turned by steam. Grain was harvested by a hand sickle. Pins and tacks, as well as nails were made by hand. Th e wooden parts of the gin were put together with wooden pegs and handmade nails. The amazing new invention swept through the South and the age of cheap cott on fabric was born . Patent System Aids Machine Progress While these beginnings of the ma chine age were taking place, a broader understanding of the need for general rather than restricted use of machine progress and development led to the establishment in many countries of the ­ patent system. This gives in exchange for publication of new developments, an exclusive right to an inventor to produce and sell his invention for a limited period of time. In thi s way the grasp of secrecy, which would only tend to restrict progr ess, was broken, and the machine age worked for the many instead of the few. How the Assembly Line Got Its Start Before the year 1800 when man had only hand tools to cut and shape metal parts, mass produ ction methods such as we have toda y could not exist. To make an engine or a loom it was necessary to heat metal and pound it

Idea of mass production was presented in 1789 when Eli Whitney first demonstrated the possibility of making identical gun parts which were interchangeable

23 First steam engine was patented by James Watt in 1769. The model shown at left was not completed until several years later because the work of bor­ ing the cylinder could not be do ne by any tools then in existence

out on an anv il. There were crude meth ods of making castings but they had to be finished with a file, rasp or chisel. Ever y machine had to be handmade. All manufacturing was done by artisans- like the village black­ smith who would make a complete article, but always one at a 'time. There­ fore no two wagons and guns were ever alike. The gunsmith always had to file and bend the separate parts of each mechanism to ma ke th em -fit to- gether and operate. ,.. ." , ~ ";' ",! . -.; ,":: :..-: It was inconceivable th en that guns could ever be made an y other way, but Eli Whitney wen t to the War Department with the brilliant idea that by making each part of a large or der of guns alike, there cou ld be inter­ changeability and low cost. To prove hi s contention he took th e parts of ten mu skets to the War Department-laid th em on a table-and cho osing th e different parts at random asse mbled ten perfect muskets. It was an amazing feat . The officials were astoni shed to see the possib ility of each mu sket being exa ctly like th e other. Whitney completed a contract for 10,000 mu skets in the year 1808. Thus began the principle of the assemb ly line- mass production of identical interchangeable parts.

To bore the cylinder of W att 's steam engine, a bo~ing machine was esp"ic!ally invented by Wilkenson. Manual power was used to rotate a worm gear slowly ,,;

24 Below: First milling machine invented by Eli W hitney in 1818. This machine, now classed as one of the basic machine tools, greatly increased man's ability to cut metal accurately to many shapes

Above: First successful band saw made by Crepin in 1846. It became an important machine in the wood­ working industry. Toda y, the contour saw, another basic machine tool, is used for fast shape cuiting of many materials and tough metals

Beginnings of Machine Tools In 1800 there was still something else mIssm g. Ma chines were bein g built and used, but they were still made individually, and the world could not be supplied with machines in sufficient quantities unt il the metal-cutting to ols that were used to make th em were themselves run by power. Th ese special power-driven too ls for removin g metal in chip form are called " machine tools." The keyston e of industrial development begins with ma­ chine tools. They are the only machines that are capable of pr oducing other .. machines and th ey are capable of reprod ucing th emselves. In 1769 when J ames Wa tt , a Scotchman, invented the stea m engi ne he was not ab le to get it manufactured proper ly becau se " neithe r man nor too l existed to manufa ctur e such a complex machine." The cylinders had to be bored perfectly round and straight fr om end to end so th at th e pistons would hold pressure. For ten years Wa tt tried to get someo ne who could do thi s work properly. Finally a man named Wilkenson took the j ob by developing the origina l boring machine. Thus Wilkenson, became th e father of machi ne tools. The corn erstone was laid for our entire industrial deve lop­ ment. Then Eli Whitney created ano ther extre mely imp ort ant machine tool in 1818. He developed the machine tool known as thernilling machine . This greatly increased the possib ilities of man's ab ilit y to work metal. In 1319 Blan chard invent ed th e profile lathe. That ma chine tool -was firs t used in the Spring field arsena l to turn out uniform high quality gun stocks. At th e time th e call for guns and firearms accelerated th e evolution of machine

25 Blanchard's profile lathe, invented in 1819, made possible the turning of duplicate parts in quantities. First application was the cutting of gun stocks tools and thus our ability to manufacture. In 1846 Crepin perfected the first success ful band saw ma chine which became important in th e woodworking industries and later in metalworking. Standardized Production by Machine Tools An outstanding characteristic of machine-too l production is th e fact that the removal of metal is contro lled along straight lines, flat planes and contro lled curves. Man y of th e ma chine tools can be set to produce items identical in dimensions, which makes po ssible our modern ma ss production. A great part of thi s development ha s been attained by th e use of precision gages to ass ure accuracy. So important has this becom e that th e develop­ ment and production of precisio n gages has become an industry by itself. Today there are eight ba sic ma chine tools, all full y developed to an ex­ tremely hi gh degree of efficiency. Therefore, the setting up for greater industrialization is not so difficult' because the proper machine to ols are available for turning out whatever kind of production machine is required, whethe r it be printing machiner y, farm ma chiner y, road machiner y or home appliances or making machiner y that is wanted. The essential ma chine tools to make them with are read y and available. A small am ount invested in machine to ols is capa ble of tu rning out a very large amount of finish ed goods or producti on machines. Any country that ha s a good supply of basic machine tools is equipped then to produce an y other kind of production material and useful products it requires. Note that often machine too ls are applied directly to make finished articles, for instance a lat he tu rning out an engine piston , but m ore likely, ma chine tools are used to turn out other machiner y for -production.

26 From the cornucopia of plenty come countless manufactured goods thet satisfy every need. Industrial ma­ chines for mass production lower the cost of, and stimulate demand for gGods. Result is that more jobs are created and mass wealth is increased

Plenty for the Common Man Geographical frontiers are now allied with the technical frontiers so that invention and new knowledge provide more things for people. As we view the end of "colonial" open spaces we see the further development of the machine age which enables people to live in the world without conflict. Mexico is a good example of a country already well along in acquiring the benefits and prosperity of the machine age. It has a thriving steel in­ dustry, and the standard of living for its 20,000,000 peopleIs rising rapidly as additional industries are founded. More food for its increasing popula­ tion is already being provided through the development of hardy strains such as a far more productive hybrid seed corn. Mexico has certain tropical crops and manufacture d products which its natural environments favor over other countries, and it IS those products it can export and exchange for the ever-widening number and variety of machine too ls and specialized goods that it will need from those na tions that produce the more specialized pieces of industrial equipment. The pattern of Mexico is duplicated in a dozen other countries throughout the world. The raw materials sold by a country do not create sufficient purchasing power in that country for any large scale buying by the mass of population. , Only by industrialization of a country-equipping it to manufacture finished

27 Countries having limited manufacturing facilities and exchange their natural re­ sou rces for finished goods do not accumulate wealth for the masses of people

World commerce greatly increases when all countries industrialize to manufacture . _ _.,.,.3 . goods. Result is more jobs and wealth in both trad ing countries

28 Wealth and higher standards of living for the masses come to countries that have many varied manufacturing industries based on the acquisition of machine tools

articles from its own raw materials-can wealth and independence be realized. Only th en will its standards of living becom e equal to that of other countries already industrialized. Such a complete, world-wide industrial development will tend to put all countries on a better basis of equality and will contribute to th e cause of an enduring world peace. Alread y th e progress is well along. Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and China are moving rapidly to become mass producers for their own use. Even in small tropical countries, where technical knowledge is not widespread, th ere is the beginning of a tremen­ dous increase in industrial plants. With industrialization, greater exchange of goods is needed and hence commerce increases. Foreign trade is far greater and more profitable with a nation after it develops industries than if it remains merel y a producer of raw materials. Th ere is a great expanse of Central East Africa-rich in resources­ that could support a civilization of many millions of peopl e. This region extends 2,000 miles from th e Atlantic to th e Indian Ocean and is some 1,500 miles from north to south. The region could be made abundantly productive of foods, and it contains a great variety of rich resources. There are other virgin regions where large populations could be handsomely supported if they built a machine-age economy. Mod ern machines give a man th e ·opportunity to improve his produc­ tion and thus improve hi s standard of living. The lesson is simple. The onl y way to success for an enterprise and a country is to install efficient machine tools and th e lat est implements of production and to reward pro­ duction, industry and thrift. In any country, th e more a man produces th e lower will be costs. The lower th e costs are, th e mor e people there will be to afford the products. The more people who use the produ cts, the more secure is th e workman's job through greater volume and prosperity. That is th e only way to security and progress for an individual and also for a nation as a whole. That is why every encouragement should be given to fr ee enterprise.

29 Prosperity of individua l manufacturers depends on the acceptance of their products by the buying public whose dictates and demands must be met How Jobs Are Provided In th e United States industry ha s to invest approximately $600.00 in " tools" in order to provide a job for one man. This money is accumulated out of profits or is invested from private capital. One of th e things which stifles th e building up of a machine manufacturing economy is th e philosophy of " planning by govern ment." Had planning been in effec t 20 years ag o- in th e United States, progress would have been stifled. First it mu st be recog­ niz ed that in bureaucracy th e hope for a reward in a hi gher position results in getting th e favor of a super ior offi cer or head of th e party. P ositions are not won by competition in th e lower ranks nor measured by public services as in private enterprise. Fear of not satisfying a superior officer or of dis­ cre diting the party all result in delay as th e responsibility is passed along. As lon g as th e customer has the freedom of choice between two compet­ ing articles, it is th e customer that disciplines business and production. Attempts to set up monopolies by selfish groups or by govern ments are de­ feated by th e energy and imagination that come from competition . The customer th erefore, in his constant search for more and better goods and services at lower costs , is th e king in the most successful machine countries. Remember, as long as the customer is fre e to buy, employment is created. In fact, it is th e customer that is actually th e employer. All of th e workers, and this includes th e managers, are dependent on th e willingn ess and ability of th e customer to pay what th e goods cost. That is th e secret that provid es th e dynamic force of a fr ee competitive machine-age economy.

30 -, A World-wide Industrial Expansion The coming period will witness th e gre atest industrial expans ion of all times. The movement will embrace the entire world-not only co un tries already industrialized, but also countries that until now have been largely agricultural and have not yet developed th eir gr eat natural resources. AI· ready, in many co untries of So uth Ame rica and As ia, the industrial move­ ment is gaining in its momentum. With the acquisition of to ols and machines for mass production, th ey will become wealthy industrial co untries with high standards of living. Their citizens will not onl y have items of use and luxury, but also th e m.oney t o purchase and th e time to enjoy th em.

Tool s, the Basis of Indu stry Development of natural resources is done by means of tools-s-tools first to work th e earth, tools to refine and shape th e things found in th e earth, tools to make things quickly and with less human effort. At fi rst, tools were cr ude, but by man's inventive ability, th ey have been improved. Today intricate machines do more work in a few da ys than could be accomplished with crude tools in a lifetime. Natural resources are n ow turned quickly and efficiently into goods by modern machines of industry.

Today the machines of industry do more wo'rk in a few da ys and do it far better than could be accomplished with crude hand tools in a lifetime. Mass production with machines to sell finished goods at lower costs, provides wages for the masses of population, creates wealth and produces higher standards of living besides providin g more leisure time tha t can"be used' for enjoyment and education

32 ( 00

Like agriculture depends on seeds so does industry dep end on machine tools -the tools that make aI/ other machines of modern production. They are the seeds of industry and without them .no country can industrialize. Machine tools cut metal to exact shape and size by a process of chip removal. They accomplish this with utmost precision, which is necessary' to make efficient machines

Modern Machine Production Machinery for mass pr oducti on of goods not only makes better goo ds tha n is possible by crude hand meth ods, but also produces goods fas ter. This reduces the cost of goo ds and enables the average man to have more things to use and enjoy, than was pr eviously possible. Many items of luxury in past years, available only t o th e ri ch, have now beco me necessities, avail­ able to everyo ne. This supreme hu man benefit was ma de possible by ma­ chinery and industrial expansion.

Machines Are Made by Machine Tools Machines that produce goo ds-textiles, clothes, metal goo ds, soaps, foo d­ stuffs, automobi les, etc., are often spec ially designed so th at the produ cts are turned out in huge quantities. This is "mass production." These spe­ cially designed ma chines are made by other machines called machine tools. Th e invention and perfection of ma chin e tools, which were developed from the earlier crude hand tools, are fund amentally responsi ble for industrial progress . Witho ut machine too ls, our standa rd of livin g today would approxi­ mate that of 1840. If we had to go ba ck to the methods used before machine tools ma de ma ss production possible, a typewriter would cost over ten times the present cost. An ordinary alarm clock would sell for twent y-five times as much as it does at pr esent. Mass produ ction, resulting from the use of mo dern ma chine too ls, has made hu ndreds of products ava ilable to every­ one at moderate cost. Also, it has created employment for millions of peo­ ple and ha s created wealth in industrial nati ons.

33 The number of forms and var reties of machine tools is unlimited. There are small machine tools that can be set up on benches, while others range upward from forty to fifty tons and re quire considerable space for operation. Their products range fr om tiny watch parts to great turbines. The importance of th e ma chine-tool industry must be measured by its great service in raising standards of livin g-providing people with better livin g and working conditions and thus promoting human welfare.

The Eight Basic Machine Tools Metal-cutting ma chines th at make othe r machines and products are kn own as th e basic machine tools of industry. Common to all of them is the remo val of metal fr om stock until the desired finished parts are produced. Before science and industry had practical standa rds of hi gh precision mea surement, ther e wer e only a few ba sic machine tools. But now, with super-precision measuring instruments and standards availa ble, products having extremely close tolerances are demanded, and as a result seve ral new basic machine tools have been developed by industry. There are eight basic ma chine tools, namely: I-Lathe 5-Sawing Machine 2- Shaper 6--Broachi ng Ma chine 3-Drill Press 7-Grinder 4-Milling Machine 8-Honing and Lapping Ma chines

Other Machine Tools Not classed as basic machine tools is a large gro up of othe r extremely important metal-working ma chines performing va rious types of operations. This group includes power shears, stamping and forming machines, etc. The shearing blades, cutting and form ing dies for th ese metal- working ma­ chines are produced by metal- cutting tools. This is called " tooling up ," and is anothe r important fun ction of ba sic machine tools.

How Machine Tools Produce Chips All ma chine tools follow a basic principle. They cut metal by progressi vely removing it in chip form, to shape the parts desired. The cutt ing edg e of th e tool that peels off chips is similar on all metal- cutting tools. The cutt ing to ol ma y be moving up , or the work down to remove chips. On a lathe wher e the work rotates, the for ce is down ward on a sta­ tionary to ol edge. Tools may cut horizontally as on a horizontal shape r. The work on a milling ma chine generally is fed against the tool. In all these examples th e principle of cutting is th e same. For best results, th e design of th e cutting tool-its edge, nose, rake, clearance-is extremely important. The an gles of rake and clearance, also the an gle of the cutting edge, vary with th e type of metal which th e tool is to cut. Contrary to pre­ vailing ideas, cutt ing tools do not actually cut metal. The metal just ahead of th e cutting edge is fir st compressed, th en breaks away and slides up on the face of the tool in the form of a chip, eithe r continuous or segmented.

34 Beginning of a lathe cut. Actually the tool tip does not cut but compresses the surface metal to a point where it breaks away from the base metal beneath. Severed metal then starts to flow onto the tool face

Notice that there are several frac­ tures in the underside of the chip. When fractures ' extend through the chip causing it to break off in short pieces, the chiP. is "segmented"

As more and more chip metal is forced against the face of the cutting tool under considerable pressure, some of the metal softens and adheres to the face near the point, causing a "false" or " built-up" edge

The built-up edge then serves as the temporary cutting edge of the tool. However, as it gets larger it is torn away by the rubbing action of the chip, after which a new built-up edgOe starts to form

Tremendous heat is generated by pressure and friction of cutting so that both the chip and the tool point become extremely hot, which acceler­ ates breakdown of the tool point since its molecular structure is disturbed

Cooling fluids aid in keeping the heat that is generated to a minimum. Chips become distorted and assume various shapes depending on the depth and speed of the cut, and also on the type of material being cut

Each frame of this movie film was taken at 1/600 second so that a slow-motion effect is produced when proiecied. They show what happens when chips are produced on a lathe. 1-Tool tip. 2-Work. 3-Built-up edge. 4-Chip

35 l-The Lathe

Original .. pole " lathe used to turn wood. Work was set . up to rotate between two . wooden supports. A rope, attached to an overhead branch, was wrapped around the work and was looped at the lower end, forming a .. treadle. " Down­ stroke of the operator's foot rotated the work while the cuffing tool was fed against it: Branch brought treadle up for next stroke

The lathe is the parent 6f all machine tools and some of its elements may be found in many of the machine too ls that were perfected later. It is used for a great variety of work in any machine shop. The basic principle of all modern lathes is still the same essentially as that of early lathes. The work is mo unted by various methods. One is be­ tween two rigid supports called centers. One center-the live center-turns and the other-dead center-is stationary, being mounted in a tailstock which can be slid toward or away from the live center, which is mounted in the headstock. The parallel supports on which th e tailstock slides are called ways. To turn the work, it is attached to a circular disk on the headstock by means of a driving dog, the faceplate being concentric with the live center. Another method to mount work is to clamp it directly on the faceplate. A th ird method is to clamp the work in the jaws of a chuck which is substituted for a faceplate. Small work can be held by special small chucks called collets. Whi le the work turns at a predetermined speed to suit, a sharp cutting too l Chips produced by lathe cutting tools in turn­ Lathe chips formed by turning may be either ing operations on railroad car wheels continuous as shown below, or segmented Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation 1-Change-speed box for varying screw cutting and feeding; 2 - Headstock; 3-Guards over gears which give extra power for heavy cutting; 4-Driving belt; 5-Faceplate or chuck; 6-Gap; 7-Ways; 8-C/amp to secure turning tool; 9­ Cross slide; 10-Saddle; l1-Center; 12-Loose headstock or poppet; 13-Wheet" to adjust center to and fro; 14-Bed; 15-Tray which catches turnings and tool lubricant; 16-Apron containing the control levers for screw-cutting and automatic feeding; 17-Shaft giving automatic feeds ; 18-Lead-screw; 19-Gear change

is fed against it, either manually or automatically. The cutting tool is held rigidly on a tool post which in turn is mounted on a movable carriage that can be pos itioned by mean s of screws. Shapes of lathe cutting tools va ry with th e type of materi al being cut and with the type of cut be ing made, de­ pending on whether the ope ra tion is one of turning, facing, boring or thread­ ing. Drills also can be used in a lath e and there are a variety of special tools used for reaming, knurling and other cutting operations.

Turret Lathes and "Automatics" . Besides th e standard type of lath es, there are turret lathes and auto­ matic screw machines, which ar e time-saving industrial developments that greatly cut production costs. The conventional ram-type turret lathe has a single spindle, a hexagonal shape tu rret head and it can machine from the rear as well as fr om th e front of the work. The tu rret replaces the tail stock of .the conve nti onal lath e and is used to bring into position a n um ber of cutting tools with which to drill, cham fer, ream, th read, etc., in successive operations. It is even possible, un der certain conditions, to make a combined sett ing of extern al and internal to ols. A great dea l of time can be saved by this versatile ma chine. The automatic screw ma chi ne, also called an "automatic," has all of its feed moti ons and complete cycle of operations automatically controlled. The turning operations are those working on the outside of the surface, whi le boring operations are for internal surfaces.

37 2-Shaper

The operation of shap ing is very similar to that of whittling and chisel­ ing. Until 1800, metal from flat surfaces was removed chip by chip with a chisel and hammer, after which the rough surface was trued and made smooth by means of a file

Shaping, like whittling, produces chips with a forward motion of the tool. Until the year 1800, wor kers smoothed metal surfaces and cut recesses by means of a chisel and hammer, then patiently trued the surface with a file. About 1820, a mechanically operated planer (similar to shaper) ap­ peared. It was powered by two men turn ing a driving whee l. The shaper is used for chip-cutting metal, largely to produce flat surfaces. Th e cutting tool reciprocates either horizontally or vertically, depe nd ing on the type of shaper, The way in which metal is removed is similar to the method of removing metal on a lathe. On a lathe the work rotates against the cutting too l, while on a shaper the tool cuts on its forward stroke only, the work being held securely on a stationary table. P laners are very simi lar to shapers and therefore belong to th is classifi­ cation . The difference between these two machines is the manner of present­ ing the wor k to the tool. The shaper carries a reciprocating too l over the wor k an d the work is stationary. The planer has the work fastened securely to a table that slides on ways underneath the tool that is stationary on the planer head. Another variety o.f planer is the slotter. The ram that carries

Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation

Magnified cross - sectional view of metal and cutting tool on a shapero The tool, · advancing against the metal first compresses it, then the compressed metal breaks away from the base metal beneath and starts to slide up on theltool face in the form of chips 1-0verhang support; 2-Knee; 3-Table; 4-Saddle; 5 - Vise; 6-Tool post; 7 - This base swings out at bottom so tool tip slides freely over work with back stroke; 8-Clapper block; 9-Clapper box; 10-Tool slide; l1-Depth of cut ad ­ justing wheel; 12-Tool head; 13-Ways; 14-Adjustment for length of stroke; 15- Ram; 16 - Lever to lock stroke length adjustment; 17-Stroke indicator; 18­ Stroke scale; 19-Controllever; 20-Change gear s; 21-Driving motor; 22-Feed adjustment; 23-Cross slide; 24-Cross slide the cutting tool is in a vertical position and moves up and down while the work is clamped on the table. Genera lly, the shaper is used for small work while lar ger work, which is beyond the capacity of the shaper, is done on a planer. The shaper and pla ner require only a few tools as is the case with the metal-cutting lathe. Also, the tool bits are similar to those used on a lathe.

Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation

Tools used on a shape r for making various types of cuts. In general, they are very similar to those used on lathes. Extre"mely durable cutting tools faced with superhard cemented - car­ bide tips permit amazing cutting speeds 3-Drill Press

Early man learned how to rotate an arrow by means of a bow string wrapped around it. When the point of the arrow was held against a piece of wood on which dry moss or any other inflammable substance was placed the heat produced by the arrow produced fire. It also made a hole in the wood which marks the beginning of the drill press

Drill presses range in size fro m portable and bench drill presses to large ra dial drills. There are both vertical and horizontal types. Much dri ll­ ing and boring still is done on a lathe. The vertical type of drill press is most common. It h as a vertical spindle that r otates and descends on work which is held on a table. A ra dial dr ill press also ha s a vertical spindle which ex­ tends from an arm that can be adjusted at vario us distances fr om the column and can be swiveled abo ut the column. These two movements make it possible to locate th e drill in any positi on within th e range of th e,machine. Small sensitive drill presses are of relatively light const ruction and have spindle speeds up to 12,000 r.p.m. Multiple-spindle drill presses ma y be either vertical or hori zontal and are fitted with a number of spindles so that several holes can be dr illed simultaneously. The size of a vertical drilling ma chine is equal to twice the distance fro m th e center of the drill spindle to the column. Th ~ cutti ng bit or drill has a cylindrical or tapered shank that fits th e chuck at th e end of the spindle. Drills have two cutting edges and are operated at speeds dependen t on ,the type of material bein g drilled and also on the size of the drill. The two cutting edges or lips of a drill mu st be ground to exactly the same angle relative to the axi s of the drill and must have clearance behind them. The flut es of a drill carry th e chips up out of th e hole bein g drill ed.

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40 1- Table clamp; 2-Work table; 3-Hand feed wheel ; 4-Taper shank ; 5 -Head; 6-Quick-return lever; 7 -Spindle sleeve; 8-Spindle; 9-Change gears; 10­ Power feed mechanism; l1-Driving motor; 12-Chain to carry counter-balance; 13-Feed lever for depth of hole; 14-Column; 15-Table elevator; 16 - Base

41 4-Milling Machine

. Somewhat like a beaver or porcupine gnawing with countless successive bites, milling cutters are multipoint tools that " gnaw" away portions from the work. The cutters rotate on a stationary shaft while the work is mounted on a movable table so that it can be fed against the cutters

Milling was originally performed on a lathe by ro tating a cutter between centers while the work was mounted on a slide res t and fed under th e cutter. Even toda y milling can be don e on th e lathe, special milling attachments for this purpose being available. The first ma chine especially designed for mill­ ing only was invented by Eli Whitney in 1818. In milling, th e purpose is to duplicate both straight and curved shapes in pieces of metal that cannot be thus formed as efficiently with othe r ma­ chines. The work is clamped on a table, in a vise or on an indexing head attached to the table. It is fed against one or several multipoint cutters or mill s which are r otating. The cut made in th e wor k corresponds to th e shape of the mill s used. Several mills can be used side by side to cut almos t an y shape. The number of mills used together ma y be ten or more, each machini ng a different surface at a single pa ss of the work. Thus th e r ange of cutting shapes is practicall y unlimited. With th e mills, several th ousand identical parts can be made accurately with a high degree of finish. Thus

Two types of milling cutters

42 l s--Soddle, 2-Knee; 3-Cross and vertical feed handle ; 4-Saddle clamp levers; 5-Table screw; 6-T-slots; 7 -Column; 8-Speed change lever; 9-Start and stop control lever; 1O-0ver arm; l1-Gang of cutters; 12-Steady bracket; 13­ Arbor supports; 14-Arbor; 15-Work table; 16-Elevating screw (telescop ic)

the need of hand filin g on thi s kind of work is eliminated and the parts made will be intercha ngeable. Either a countershaft or a train of gears is used to drive the machine at various predetermined speeds. The table moves length . wise or crosswise and also vertically; can be fed by hand or ' automatically by the machine. Indexing on a milling machin e is the metho d used to control th e num­ ber of equidistant grooves cut in cylindrical work such as teeth on a gear. The work is mounted on a spindle fastened to the ta ble. The spindle is turn ed by means of an index spindle geared to it at right angles and provid ed with 'a hand crank. To get correct spac ing , the crank can be engage d with an y of the equidistant holes drilled in a number of concentric circles on a disk called the dividing head sector plate. The holes ar e calibrated in degrees so that any spacing can be obtained. There are many types of millin g machines, incl uding the vertical ma ­ chine. One of its functions is to mill irregular contours, edges and curves, without the use of form cutters, as in the other types of milling. Another important function is the milling of raised forms or cavities which require free-dimensional movements, sometimes called "profile" milli ng.

43 S-Sawing Machine

Reciprocating movement of a hand hack saw is duplicated by a power hack saw. The teeth cut only on the forward stroke. A jigsaw is similar. Circular saws are metal disks with teeth cut in the edge; they cut con­ tinuously without lost motion. Band saws have endless bands with teeth onone edge and also cut continuously

The contour saw is the hi ghest development in sawing. Because of th e natural sequence in production operations, th e saw is generally needed first since stock must be cut off and waste portions rem oved before proceedi ng with other ma chine operations. The contour sawing ma chine, eq uipped with hard, tough , endless blades, cuts th rough thicknesses of metal, plastics, wood and most other mater ials. The machine makes either straight or curved cuts and removes internal portions as well. This ma chine can be substituted for several other basic machines in many types of operations, at a consider­ ab le saving of tim e. Also, in cutting off pieces of stock this m achine does n ot red uce th e material to a useless mass of chips, but cuts off pieces th at ma y be used for other purposes. The contour saw cuts within ver y close limits with great accuracy, often pro ducing finished cuts. Provid ed with contin­ uous file bands or ab rasive bands, it also files and polishes.

Teeth on contour saw blades produce chips in the same way as they are produced by cutting tools of lathes, shapers and other machine tools I-s-Power feed release pedal; 2-Removable chip-holding box; 3 - Power feed pressure control; 4 - Hand wheel controls variable speed pulley; 5-Automatic butt welder; (a) Grinder to dress off welding flash; (b) Jaws to clamp saws; (c) Welding switch; (d) Voltage control; (e) Panel light; 6-Tachometer to show speed of travel of saw; 7 -Starting switch; 8 - " Job Selector" to show proper speeds; 9 -Air line

45 6-Broaching Machine

Action of a broach is similar to that of a ;ig filer inso far as both remove metal with an elongated tool having a number of teeth that cut on a for­ ward stroke. Although broaching principles are not new, the applica ­ tion to production for cutting accurate shapes internally and externally, is quite recent

In broaching, a special tapered cutter is forced through an opening or alongside a piece of work in order to enlarge a hole or shape an exterior. The machine consists of a fixture that holds the work and a drive mechanism to operate a cutter which has a number of teeth of -gradually increasing size. The cutter is either pushed or pulled, horizontally or vertically, and makes a finished cut in a single stroke. The first teeth are low or of small diameter to permit entering the hole at the beginning of the cut. The intermediate teeth remove most of the metal and the last few teeth, which are the largest, finish the hole to exact size. Unlike turning, milling and shaping machines, broaches have a predetermined feed represented by the increase in height of successive teeth. A broach will make many pieces without sharpening the cutter, owing to the large number of teeth and the fact that each individual tooth works for only a short period of time. Broaching machines are now being used extensively in mass production.

Any shape or hole, as for example the one a t the left, can be formed by broaching. Details at right show how the teeth of a broach gradually increase in size and how the':chips formed are produced in the same way as those cut by other machine tools

46 l-Startandstop control switch; 2 - Broaching tool; 3-Broachdriving carrier in slide; 4 ""7Pipe flows lubricant at point of work; 5-Quick acting clamp or jig to hold work; 6-Splash guard; 7 -Hydraulic mechanism and driving motors; 8-Catch basin for lubricant to be recirculated

47 7-Grinding Machine

The art of grinding goes back many years when man first learned to sharpen stones by rubbing them to­ gether. The foot -powered grindstone shown here has been and is still in universal use. Today the fabrication of grinding wheels involves exacting technique in which the grit hardness, size, spacing and type of bond are varied to suit requirements

Grinding is a chip removing process by which a grinding wheel is made up of millions of single-point cutting too ls. Each point is very minute in itself, yet performs the same function asa large, single-point turning tool. There is a distinct similarity of the chips produced by turning and the chips produced by grinding. Abrasive grinding wheels have great stock-removing ability if the stone is coarse, but do not produce a smooth finish. Fine grinding wheels that produce a smooth finish do not' have a large stock ­ removing abi lity. In all grinding practice the work is first rough ground, then fine ground. In both operations a coolant is often used. With precision grinding practice of today it is possible to produce sur­ faces so flat they can be "wrung" together. This amazing degree of accuracy is largely responsible for low-cost interchangeable parts by mass production. There are many different types of grinding machines. There are bench­ type and pedestal-type grinders for rough manual grinding. Then there are tool-post grinders designed to be mounted on lathe tool posts and do both external and internal cylindrical grinding. The major types of specialized grinders used in production work are surface, cylindrical and universal grinders. These machines must be carefully designed and must have con­ siderable weightand rigidity to eliminate vibration.

Courtesy of Chrysler Corporation Right: Magnified view of work being ground. Portion above dotted line is" smear " metal; portio n below is crystalline base metal. Be­ low: Grinding chips L- Switch panel for hydraulic table movement controls; 2 - Lever controls table movement back and forth; 3-T-slot; 4-Work table; 5-Magnetic chuck contains powerful magnets; 6-ln-built motor; 7 -Spindle; 8-Grind wheel; 9-Feed for depth of cut; 10-Adiustable stops to control length of table movement; 11 - Table lock; 12-Hand wheel controls table movement from front to back; 13-Controls hydraulic speed of table

49 S---Honing and Lapping Machines

After grinding, finer abrading pro­ cesses such as honing and lapping are used. Hand lapping is a process requiring ' considerable skill resulting from long experience. The operator holds a lap charged with very fine .abrasive compound against the work. The lap is moved back and forth while the work rotates

Honing is an abrading operation that produces finer fin ishes than are possible by grinding. Abrasive sticks or stones are used. Honing can be either external on flat or round surfaces, or internal on bores, tubes and cylinders. When honing a bore, the honing too l is equal in diameter to the finished size of the bore. It is fitted' with a number of abrasive sticksor stones which remove stock and produce a finish at the same time. In a honing machi ne, there are two motions; one is the rotating motion of the spindle and the other is a rc:;,ciprocating motion. The result is that the honed surface will have a crosshatched pattern. Originally, honing removed only a .0002 to .0003-in. layer of metal left by previo us cutting operations. Now, large h ones can remove as much as 1/64-in. of metal from large bores and still maintain precision to lerances. All kinds of products made of different kinds of materials are honed in regular produ ction, requiring th e use of sev­ eral hundred types of stifks and a large variety of grits and grain sizes. Lapping goes a step farther than honing in producing extremely smooth an d acc urate surfaces. It can be do ne eit her by hand or by a lapping machine to remove the last traces of "smear" metal left by previous operations, thus exposing the undisturbed crystalline base metal. Lapping machines operate at slow speeds. They use abrasive paper or solid fine-grain abrasive wheels or blocks of sto ne, cast iron and other mater ials for " laps." The blocks are charged with a flour -type abrasive powder which is often mixed with a lubricant. The multi-motion lapping movement prevents pattern formation. These magnified photos show the results accomplished by progressive steps of abrading operations to obtain extremely fine and accurate surfaces. From left to right: turned surface, ground, honed, lapped Court esy of Chr ysler Corporation I-Quick clamping holding fixture; 2-Driving motor; 3-Hydraulic mechanism; 4-Hone mounted in floating holder; 5-Slow, combined rotary and vertical motion ; 6,--Each hone tool contains six abrasive sticks. Separate heads are used for rough (or sizing) and for finish-honing I

51 Since all the parts of machines made by modern production methods must be interchangeable, accuracy is ex­ tremely important. Control of pre­ cision depends on adequate measuring and inspection instruments.In the photo a t the left, a DoALL electro­ magnetic comparator is used to check concentricity of spindles to within a few millionths of an inch

Precision in Making Machine Tools Machinists who make machine tools must make each part with extreme care and accuracy because mac hine too ls are used to make other machines from which accuracy and efficiency is expected. Today, even machine tools themselves are manufactured by mass production methods and the many parts they consist of must be uniform in size so th at they are interchangeable for fast assembly. A rigid system of quality control is especially important in a machine-tool builder's plant. It must be app lied to the actual production of parts as well as to inspection. Therefore such parts must be constantly chec ked for size with precision measuring gages. If, when machining a part, a cut is made too deep by one -tho usandths of an inch or even less, the part may not pass inspection and the labor of hours, days and sometimes weeks is wasted. To enable workers to ma ke exact measurements, industry makes all of its gages conform to th e standard units of measurement which are recognized universally. Each plant sho uld have its own gage blocks, from which measurements are ta ken to ma ke production and inspection gages. Or, ready-made gages, conforming in size to standard units of measurement, can be used and periodically checked with the gage blocks. Then parts pro­ duced in wide ly separated departments will fit together perfectly when they come to the assembly line.

Photo at left shows toolmakers at work spot-scraping ways of a surface grinder for accuracy in flatness and parallelism to within one ten-thousandths inch. Photo at right shows use of dial indicator to test trueness of spindle with table Visual Aids to An Understanding of the Machine Age

The Steel Rule Rough Turning Between Centers (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable from Castle Films, Inc.] 14 minutes from Castle Films, Inc'] 15 minutes sound.) sound.) Shows how to read steel rules. and ex­ Shows how to set up an engine lathe for plains the fractional graduations. Shows machining work held between head and how to use the flexible hook and rule­ tail centers. Emphasizes safety pre. type depth gages and combination cautions in dress and work. the neces­ squares; and how to layout holes with sity for constant reference to the blue­ a combination square. Shows how to print, the lubrication of the machine. use inside and outside calipers to trans­ care of the centers and the proper use fer dimensions to and from steel rules. of the various lathe controls.

Height Gages and Standard Turning Work of Two Diameters (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable Indicators lrom Castle Films, Inc'] 14 minutes (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable sound.) from Castle Films. Inc.] 12 minutes sound.) Shows the sequence of operations fol­ lowed when turning a gear blank with Shows the fundamental principles of the its shaft from a solid piece of round vernier height gage, together with vari­ stock. Each shaft is rough turned and ous forms of standard indicators. and finish turned to size before the piece is demonstrates their use. A vernier height reversed between centers. The sides of gage is used to layout holes on an the gear blank are finished after the angle plate. Standard indicators check piece has been turned to size. the accuracy of the finished layout; also the flatness of a surface and the cen­ Scientific Precision Accuracy with tering of work. Gage Blocks and Gage Instruments Fixed Gages (Th e DoALL Company, Des Plaines, (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable lllinois.) from Castle Films, Inc.] 17 minutes sound.) This is a fast moving pictorial of how Mobile Inspection Units and the gaging A demonstration of the use of snap. equipment contained are used to check plug, ring. thread. screw-plug. and flush­ the accuracy of both machine tool set­ pin gages. emphasizing their importance tings and the parts being made as they in modern mass production. Care neces­ come off the machine. It shows how all sary to maintain their accuracy is dimensions can be accurately measured stressed. by the use of gage blocks and such in­ struments as vernier gages. sine bars. The Micrometer optical flats and comparator gages. (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable Vividly shown is the making of special from Castle Films, Inc'] 15 minutes gages in a jiffy using gage blocks, gage sound,) holders. caliper blocks, etc., to get in­ ternal or external gages, "Go"- " No Shows various forms of the micrometer Go" gages and snap gages. to check .. . outside, inside and depth micro­ parts right where they are being made. meters . . . the correct reading of the It also covers the use of optical flats barrel and thimble scales, and empha­ for checking flatness and surface finish sizes their correct use and care. and the use of a four-range. multiple-pur­ pose, electric comparator. to check the Drilling, Boring and Reaming accuracy of a production run of parts. Work Held in a Chuck (U. S. Office "of Education [Obtainable DoALL Precision Accuracy with trom Castle Films, Inc.] 11 minutes The DoALL Inspection Laboratory sound.) (The DoALL Company, Des Plaines, Shows the operations for culling a 1l1inois.) tapered hole in a forged steel gear Description of instruments used with blank. using the taper attachment. The gage blocks. together with the applica­ operations of centering the piece in a tions of these instruments are graphical­ chuck. rough-facing, drilling, taper-bor­ ly explained. Since many of these in­ ing, and reaming are given in detail. A struments are new in precision measure­ taper plug gage is used to check the ment methods it makes this film particu­ size and taper of the finished hole. larly educational. Applications of the new vernier gage block for checking Sawing Template Metal dimensions of less than one ten-thou­ cu. S. Office of Education [Obtainable sandths of an inch are followed by in ­ from Castle Films. Inc.] 17 minutes.) struction in the proper use and reading of this instrument. The film presentation Shows how to use a job selector chart continues with applications and instruc­ for width. pitch. set of teeth. and speed; tions on instruments such as the optical how to identify raker. wave. and straight teeth; how to select and adjust flat. monolite. straight edges. master blade guides; how to saw to a layout square. master flat. surface plate. sine bar. master parallels. and other pre­ line; how to "chew out" metal from a notch; and how to remove burrs; how to cision inspection equipment. As a whole. this film offers interesting. modern meth­ mount a saw blade on a band saw. ods of quality control. The Milling Machine Theory Behind the Use of DoALL cu. S. Office of Education [Obtainable Gages from Castle Films. Inc.] 8 minutes.) (Th e DoALL Company. Des Pla ines. Illustrates the basic operation principle lllinois.) of the milling machine; how to set up The history of mass production. the cutters on the arbor; and-how to control importance of gage blocks in modern movements of the table by power tra­ manufacturing methods. and a forecast verse and by hand. Demonstrates the of the extensive use of this method of various types of jobs which can be done measurement in post-war production is on the milling machine. interestingly presented as the prologue of this film. Descriptions and applica­ Cutting Keyways tions of the laboratory. inspection. and (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable work grades of gage blocks are fol ­ from Castle Films. Inc.I 15 minutes.) lowed by comparisons of measurement Shows how to set up a shaft on the with the steel rule. vernier scale. and table of the milling machine for cutting dial indicators. An explanation of the a keyway at each end. The selection of use of optical flats for gage block test­ the proper cutter; the determination of ing vividly describes the formation of the correct speed and feed; and the interference lines by light rays and the setting of the machine for the proper method of reading these lines to check ~ depth of cut and length of cut are il­ gage block tolerances. Animation lustrated. Demonstrates the use of used to show the effect of various tem­ micrometer collars on lead screws. peratures on gage block proportions. The correct care of gage blocks and the methods of wringing them together are Straddle Milling presented in detail. Th e film ends w ith (U. S. Office of Education [Ob ta inable excellent instructions on the selections from Castle Films. Jnc.] 17 minutes.) of gage blocks to secure combinations Shows how to straddle mill the bosses of given measurements. on connecting rods to the proper width when the connecting rods are held in Sawing an Internal Irregular a fixture. Animation explains how to Shape select spacing collars. for correct loca­ (Ca s tle Films. lnc., 32 minutes.) tions of four cutters . to mill bosses on both connecting rods at the same time. This film shows the making of a special wrench die by the " Continenta l Process." The punch and die is laid out on a piece Straddle and Surface Milling to of st eel with the use of gage instruments Close Tolerances and gage blocks. then transferred direct­ (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable ly to the Do ALL Contour Sawing Ma­ from Castle Films. Inc.] 27 minutes.) chine. The various steps in setting up Shows the rough milling of four sides of the DoALL for this sawing job and the solid bar stock and finishing the same machine's operation are shown in detail. piece to a given size and shape. Ani­ Filing an Internal Irregular Shape mation explains the calculation of the width of spacing collars. correct loca­ (Castle Films. Inc.. 27 minutes.) tion of the cutters on the arbor for In this film the operation of filing the straddle milling a T-bar. and required special wrench die on the DoALL Con­ cutter speed and table feed. tour Machine is shown. The ease with which the machine can be converted for the continuous band filing operation How DoALL Gages Are Used is demonstrated. Types of files and the (The DoALL Company, Des Plaines, surfaces to which they are best suited 1l1inois.) add to the educational value of this A description of precision measuring film . instruments used with gage blocks. to- gether with the application of these in­ Plain Indexing and Cutting a struments. is graphically explained. Spur Gear Many of these instruments are new to precision measurement methods. The (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable film is particularly educational. from Castle Films, Inc.] 26 minutes.) Explains the principle and operation of the dividing head. Its application is How DoALL Gages Are Made shown in the cutting of an eight-pitch spur gear with 36 teeth. Accuracy in (The DoALL Com pan y . Des Plaines, setting up the work and mounting the lllinois.) cutter on the arbor is emphasized. The audience is taken through the Sav­ age Tool Company's shops and labora­ Scraping Flat Surfaces tories on a tour featuring the step-by­ step processing of DoALL Gage Blocks. (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable The constant inspection work and the from Castle Films, Inc .] 14 minutes.) extreme precision methods used in the Shows the operations and procedures manufacturing of these blocks are inter­ used in hand scrapirig flat surfaces to estingly shown. How master blocks are a surface plate. Shows five cornmon used in the inspection of other gage forms of hand scrapers and the opera­ blocks is presented in detail. The care tions a nd care of the flat scraper in and precision methods shown in this detail. Emphasizes methods used in film teach a lesson in how gage blocks scraping around holes and near edges should be handled by machinists and of flat surfaces. inspectors. Fitting and Scraping Small Bearings DoALLs on Production (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable (The DoALL Company, Des Plaines, from Castle Films, Inc.] 20 minutes.) lllinois.) Shows the scraping of split and solid DoALL Contour Sa w ing Machines and bearings; the laying out and chipping of the jobs they are handling in war pro­ oil grooves; and the fitting of the shaft duction plants are dramatically pictured. to the bearings. Shows forms of hand This film takes the audience into many scrapers used for scraping curved sur­ of the nations.most important war plants faces and explains why bearings must where time and material are being cut be relieved to aid lubrication. to a minimum through the use of DoALL sawing machines. A running commen­ Centering Small Stock tary keeps pace with scenes switching (U. S.Office of Education [Obtainable from gun manufacturing to airplane ski from Castle Films, Inc.] 14 minutes.) making. stack cutting. munition manu­ facturing, etc. DoALL's versatility with Shows how to locate the center of round, both large and small work is interest­ square. and rectangular pieces. using ingly presented. ( I ) a surface plate. V blocks and sur­ face gage; ( 2) hermaphrodite calipers; and ( 3) a center head and rule. Gage Blocks and Accessories (Cas tle Films, kC.A. Building, New Fundamentals of Filing York City.) (U. S. Office of Education [Ob tainable from Castle Films, Inc.] 12 minutes.) A highly informative motion picture presentation of the Mobile Inspection Shows the various kinds of files and in­ Unit as used in bringing "quality con­ dicates the general type of work that tro l" up to the point of w ork where each is used for . Show s the use of checking of parts in process of ma nu­ single cut files ; draw filing w ith a single facture can be made a t the machines. cu t fine file; a nd the difference between Film show s how th e Mobile Unit. using the single cut a nd do uble cut files. Ex­ a complete set of gage blocks. instru­ p lains the typ es of files which are used ments and comp a rator is used to ch eck for different types of jobs and with other measuring instru ments a nd manu­ diffe rent metals. factured parts. The DoALL Sawing Machines (Obtainable from The DoALL Com­ "Our America" pany, Des Plaines. 111inois. Colored, (Cas tle Distributors Corp., 135 South silent [24 frames per second.I) LaSalle Street, Chicago, 111inois: pro­ A visit through the DoALL Technical duced by Dodge Division Chrysler Inslilute showing friction sawing. shap­ Corp. 25 minute film.) ing intricate parts and cutting various An inspirational film explaining pro- ' materials. the operation of the training ductive ability. school and the customers test laboratory. The film takes the audience through centered and leveled with the use of a many important wood and metal work­ dummy indicator. It is rough-machined ing plants where attachments such as with tools mounted in the main turret the "re so w" and the automatic copying head and side head. The horizontal and c tta ch ments are demonstrated. This vertical movements of culling tools. and film is presented in an interesting way. the levers that control these movements, are demonstrated. Cutting a Taper with the Com­ Facing, Turning, Boring, Grooving pound Rest and with a Taper and Chamfering on a Vertical Attachment Turret Lathe Using Two Heads (U. S. Office of Education [Ob tainable (U. S. Office of Education [Ob tainable from Castle Films, Inc.] 11 minutes from Castle Films,' Inc.] 31 minutes.) sound.) Shows the operations and procedures Animation and demonstration on the followed when tooling up a vertical tur­ lathe show the correct method for set­ ret lathe for operations requiring the ting the compound to cut a steep taper, simultaneous use of both vertical and and how to set the taper attachment 1 side heads. An indicator is used to for culling a taper 1 /2" per foot. Full check the setting of the fixture. and for instructions are given for setting the mounting the work centrally on the tool when culling a taper; the correct fixture. use of roughing and finishing tools; and the use of the bevel protractor and ring gage to measure tapers. . The Electron-An Introduction (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable from Castle Films, Inc.] 16 minutes Cutting an External National Fine sound.) Thread Explains the nature of electrons, electron (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable flow in solid conductors. electromotive from Castle Films, Jnc.] 12 minutes force. control of electron flow, types of sound.) electron flow. electron flow and mag­ Describes the various shapes of threads netic fields. and induced electron flow. and their uses; gives the characteristics of the National Fine Thread; and shows Electrons the procedure used to cu~uch a thread (Encyclop e dia Britannica Films, Inc., on a lathe. Detailed instructions given 1841 Broadway, New York, 11 minutes for checking the shape of the threading sound.) tool with a gage, the proper setting of the tool for culling a thread; and how to Demonstrates the conduction of elec­ set the lathe for cutting the required tricity in liquids, gases. and vacuum; pitch. Use of the threading dial is presents proof that electricity is com­ shown in detail. posed of unit charges; shows how val­ ence is calculated; and explains the operation of photoelectric cell and the Rough Facing, Turning and Drill­ vacuum tube. ing on a Vertical Turret Lathe (U. S. Office of Education [Obtainable Electrodynamics from Castle Films, Inc.l 31 minutes (Ency clopedia Britannica Films, Inc. , sound.) 1841 Broadway, New York, 10 minutes Shows how to center and chuck an sound.) aluminum airplane engine casting on Presents principles of current electricity; the table of the vertical turret lathe. and demonstrates the induction of electric how to tool up the vertical head and currents and the application of induction side head for the machining operations. in the generator and transformer; shows Detailed instructions are given for in­ the relationship between electricity and dexing the main head. and for using all magnetism. the controls on the machine. A typical operation sheet guides the work of the Light Waves and Their Uses operator. (Ency clop edia Britannica Films, Inc .. 1841 Broadway, New York, 11 minutes Rough Facing and Boring, and sound.) Turning a Shoulder on Vertical Demonstrates principles of refraction and reflection of light; gives some under­ Turret Lathe standing of the use of lenses in control­ (U. S. Office of Education [Ob tainable ling light; shows light interference and from Castle Films. In c.] 22 minutes.) polarization; and indica te s some prccti­ A rough aluminum casting, held on the cal application of methods of controlling table by means of clamps and U-bolts, is light. Chemistry in a Changing World the soy bean from its cultivation In (Encyclopedia Britannica Films, lnc., China through its culture and use in the 1841 Broadway, New York, 11 minutes United States; describes the plant's char­ sound.) acteristics and its value to soil censer­ vation; processes of extracting soy·bean Shows the importance of chemistry and oil and the preparation and use of soy. the work of the chemist in the modem bean by-products in home and industry world. are shown. Steel-Man's Servant (U. S. Steel Corporation, AdvertIsing Strength Unseen Dept., 436 Seventh Ave., New York, (YMCA , Motion Picture Bureau, 347 38 minutes sound.) Madison Ave., New York, 20 minutes sound.) Story of the making of steel. Story of how America has out·produced Development of Transportation other nations. (Encyclopedia BritannIca Films, Inc., 1841 Broadway, New York, 10 minutes World of Plenty sound.) (Brandon Films, lne., 1600 Broadway. Shows development of transportation New York, 45 minutes sound.) a nd the effect on our social and eco­ Deals with food distribution, production, nomic lUe. consumption, and their importance in present and pest-war problems. Science and Aqriculture-The Soy Bean Work of the Stock Exchange (Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc.• (Coronet Instructional Films, GlenvIew, 1841 Broadway, New York, 11 minutes III., 15 minutes sound.) sound.) Explains the buying and selling of Reveals the interdependence of science securities and the part that the stock and agriculture in our modern life; traces exchanges play in our economic system.

Books on Science and Industry That Are Understandable and Easy to Read I. How We Live 5. Science in a Changing World Fred G. Clark and Emmett James Cable. Ph.D. Richard Stanton Rimanocy Robert Ward Getshell. Ph.D. and Pub lisher : D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. William Henry Kcdesch, Ph.D. 250 Fourth Ave. , New York Price: S1.00 Publisher: Prentice-Hell, Inc. 70 Fifth Ave., New York Price: $5.00 2. The Great American Customer Carl Crow 6. Physics Made Easy Publisher: Harper & Brothers Louis T. Masson New York and London Price: S3.00 Publisher: Garden City Publishing Co. Garden City, New York Price: $1.49 3. The Spirit of Enterprise Edgar M. Queeny 7. Matter. Energy and Radiation Publisher : Charles Scribner's Sons Dunning and Paxton New York Price: $2.00 Publisher: McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc. New York and London Price: S3.50 4. Machines for America 8. Physics. A Basic Science Marshall Dunn and Lloyd N. Momsett Burns, Verwiebe and Hazel Publisher : World Book Company Publisher: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. Ycnkers-ca-Hudson, N. Y. Price: $0.80 New York . Price: SI.80 9. Through Space and Tl1I1e Sir James Jeans Publisher: The Macmillan Company New York Price: $3.50 f THE COMPANY WORLD FAM TOO CUTTING Minneapolis Division Des Plaines Division

~{$i Addreu Reply 10: 254 NORTH LAUREL AVENUE t)i' 9, , PHONE Des Pla ines 1230 DES PLAINES, ILLINOIS

Dear Sir:

Thank you for your kind interest in requesting a oopy of "Your Life in the Maohine World". We are also sending you a large wall ohart whioh is a oompanion pieoe. Together these two pieoes oomprise an eduoational program on the "maohine age" whioh we believe is both interesting and highly informative.

Purpose of this program is to help improve prevailing oonditions of disoontent and oonfused thinking among industrial workers, oaused by unfounded eoonomio dootrines and oraokpot philosophies. It is intended to oreate a better understanding of the ways and whys of our oomplex maohine age, its mass produotion and the reasons for our high living standards. Sinoe it gives a vivid historioal pioture of industrialization, this booklet should influenoe readers' opinions on the solution of resulting eoonomio problems. No doubt, you share my belief that management should assume part of the responsibility in guiding workers and that muoh oan be attained by eduoational programs of non-oontroversial nature.

Free distribution of "Your Life in the Maohine World" to workers in your organization, oan have the same benefioial results as it has had in our own. However, "blanket" distribution is too ex­ tensive an undertaking for ourselves alone. Therefore, I am inviting you to oooperate by "get t i ng a bulk quantity of these booklets for free distribution to workers. Prioes are less than oost (see attaohed sheet). Display of the ohart on bulletin boards or other strategio spots will help to stimulate interest in the booklet.

Response has already been gratifying and I am antioipating your oomments and oooperation.

Sinoerely,

E. R. Eaan Direotor of Publio Relations ERH:ad Attaohments A "DoALL" SALES AND SERVICE STORE IN ALL PRINCIPAL CITIES SEE NAMES AND LOCATIONS ON REVERSE SIDE COMPANY

Minneapolis Division Des Plaines Division

Address Reply to: 254 NORTH LAUREL AVENUE PHONE Des Plaines 1230 ' DES PLAINES, ILLINOIS

THIS EDUOATIONAL PROGRAM •••

1 -- Gives basic t visual understanding to all laymen concerning complex machine age and its problems.

2 -- Of value to improve preva1.ling conditions of discontent and distrust caused by false economio doctrines.

3 -- Provides common ground for cooperation of Government, Manage­ ment and Labor in solving eoonomic problems.

4 Will help to promote better employer-employee relations.

Designed for free distribution to industrial workers, students, and others, this program provides better understanding of our complex machine age, mass production and today's high standards of living. This program helps to correot oonfusion that results from false economic doctrines by means of historical presentation of facts.

Distribution of booklet will help understanding between employers and employees. Note in the booklet, the listing of visual aids ,and books that are reoommended for employee meetings, plant library, etc.

With this sincere aim in mind, may we strongly urge you to display this chart on your bulletin board or elsewhere to be seen by workers?

The more workers who reoeive copies of the booklet "Your Life in the Machine World", the better for all! Therefore, we will be pleased to send you -- at less than cost -- as many copies of this booklet as you may need for your plant. See enclosed slip of prices. The DoALL Company contributes to the cost of each booklet to further this im­ portant cause.

Response and cooperation to fUrther this mutual cause have been gr at i fyi ng - - have exceeded our modest anticipation of a real hearty wel come for the booklet -- and getting into workers' hands.

THE DoALL COMPANY Des Plaines. Ill.

A "DoALL" SALES AND SERVICE STORE IN ALL PRINCIPAL CITIES SEE NAMES AND LOCATIONS ON REVERSE SIDE e e e

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"YOUR LIFE IN THE MACHINE WOBLD" By L.A. Wilkie, Chairman of the Do~ Co.

The DeALL Co. 254 N. Laurel Ave. Des Plaines, Ill.

Please enter our order for copies of the 60-page booklet "Your Life in the Machine World," at the publishers net prices named below:

MINIMUM ORDER 50 COPIES

50 to 499 copies •••••••••••••••••20¢ each 500 to 4999 " ...... ••••..••...15¢ each

5000 to 19,999 II •••••••••••••••••12¢ each

20,000 to 100,000 •••••••• ~ ••••••••ll¢ each

Frices for larger quantities on request. Prices in­ clude delivery to you.* Bills .payable in thirty days.

Name ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Tlt.Le ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Name of firm..•...... •••...•.•.....•......

Addrese • •'••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••. . City and Sta.te ••..••.•••• ,_••.•.• .• •••••...••••.•.•...•• *Shipment will be made direct from the Publisher! Independent Press - 419 S. 3rd st., Minneapolis, Minn.

Each booklet is furnished in an envelope.