Salinity in Lake Kinneret (The Sea of Galilee)

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Salinity in Lake Kinneret (the Sea of Galilee) – Its History, Environmental Challenges, and Management Alon Rimmer Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd., the Lake Kinneret Limnological Laboratory. Lake Kinneret ….Standing atop the Mount of Beatitudes and observing the landscape at its feet, it becomes clear why it was here, and not anywhere else, that Christ gave his famed sermon……

Mount of Beautitud - Dubi Tal and Moni Haramati Lake Kinneret salinity in peer reviewed journals- special example Lake Kinneret, Sea of Galilee, Israel • The most important surface water resource in Israel, • Lake Kinneret provides approximately 35% of the annual drinking water, through the National Water Carrier (NWC). • The area of the Lake Kinneret Watershed is ~2730 km2, where ~2000 km2 are in Israel, and the rest of the area is in Syria and Lebanon. • The average area of the LK surface is 166 km2, the average volume is 4,100 Mm3, the average annual available water is ~470 Mm3, and the average residence time is ~8.3 years. m3 = 0.000810713 ac*ft ; Mm3 = 810.713 ac*ft ; 470 Mm3 = 381,035.11 ac*ft ; About 0.25 of the CAP Lake Kinneret usages Fishing Water supply Recreation and tourist attraction Lake Kinneret Level NWC Sapir The natural water sources of Israel Annual averages [million m3]

Western Galilee )110( Galilee and Lake )600( Carmel Aquifer )25( Kinneret

Mountain Aquifer Coastal Aquifer (250) North and East (325) Mountain Aquifer west (350)

Mountain Aquifer west (saline - 10)

Negev Aquifer )70( * sum: 1740 Arava Aquifer * runoff : 30 * Treated waste water 450 • in use 300 • Desalinization: 500 The National Water Carrier (NWC) NWC Canal

Sapir Site Inflow of saline springs into Lake Kinneret (Israel) •The salinity of Lake Kinneret (190- 300 ppm Cl-), is significantly higher than the salinity of the water from the surface streams that flow to the lake (10-40 ppm Cl-). •The relatively high salinity of the lake is a result of the activity of saline springs located near the shoreline, and offshore springs at the bottom of the lake. •The salinity of LK is considered as a major environmental problem in Israel, and reducing it is of high interest. The annual average and standard deviations of water and chloride balances of Lake Kinneret 1987–2010 The history of Lake Kinneret salinity

400 measurements 380 (2) 360 salinity (4) 340 (3) 320 (10) 300 (1) (12) (5) 280 (8) 260 (6) 240

Salinity Cl/liter) (mg Salinity (9) 220 (11) 200 1950 1960 1970 1980 (7)1989 1999 2009 1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase. 2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-; 3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop; 4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing to the lake, salinity drop enhanced. 5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200% compared to an average year). 6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988. 7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters. 8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992. 9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002. 10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-. 11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-. 12 [Cl-] mass exported from Lake Kinneret

150000

125000 kg

100000 6

10 75000

] ] -

[Cl 50000

25000

1982 1985 1986 1995

1978 1974 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005

1981 1984 1992 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1975 1976 1977 1979 1980 1983 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

1993

- - - -

------

1977 1973 1981 1984 1985 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

1980 1983 1991 1978 1979 1982 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1993 1995

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1974 1975 1976 1997 1999 2001 2003 1992 YEAR • Annual chloride export is 330 million m3. Assuming average concentration of 230 mgCl/L it sums up to 75,900  106 kg What happened to the salinity of the Coastal Aquifer [Cl-] concentration in the Coastal Aquifer •The Cl concentration in the coastal aquifer is 50 – 600 mg/l. This salinity increase annually with 1 mg/l. •The irrigation with the relatively high Lake Note that the Kinneret water, and the strong evaporation more saline processes in the region adds significantly areas are in to the salinization of the aquifer the east of •Domestic use usually adds 100 mg/l of Cl the aquifer, to the waste water. which is far •Irrigation with treated waste water, and from the sea the techniques of storing them in ground shore water (SHAFDAN project) adds salinity to groundwater •Regular waste water treatment plants do not remove salinity from the water, and therefore waste water are usually more saline than original Lake Kinneret water. [Cl-] concentration changes in the

Coastal Aquifer 1950-2008 Cl concentration Cl mg/L

Year 16 What is the source of the solutes A A’ Right: Map of lakes from the past (20,000 years ago) and present along the Dead Sea Rift. Maximum coverage of Lake Lisan, with salinity of 100 to 300 g\liter. Maximum lake level was about 180 meters below sea level, for few thousand years.

Left: Salinity and flow directions during the stage that Lisan level was 180 meters below sea level. The development of salinity profile within 1200 meters deep bedrock, for 3,000 years as a result of the penetration of high salinity water from the surface. Bottom: 17,000 years since withdrawn Lake Lisan. Lake Kinneret is a fresh water lake “floating” on a solute ground Salinity measured using TDEM at different depths (5, 10 15 and 20 meters) below the bottom of the Sea of Galilee in 1999. Red indicates the high salinity of ~10,000 mg/liter, and blue indicates the relative washed areas where salinity is less than 500 mg/liter. Black dots indicate the points at which the survey was conducted.

Hurwitz, S., Stanislavsky, E., Lyakhovsky, V., & Gvirtzman, H. (2000). Transient groundwater-lake interactions in a continental rift: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112(11), 1694-1702. Hurwitz, S., Goldman, M., Ezersky, M., & Gvirtzman, H. (1999). Geophysical (time domain electromagnetic model) delineation of a shallow brine beneath a freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee, Israel. Water Resources Research, 35(12), 3631-3638. How water and solutes flow into Lake Kinneret? (side view)

A C

GFM

B SPM C3C3C3

ttt qqq ttt C2C2C2 ttt BcBcBc spspsp ttt ttt ttt C1C1C1 BcBcBc ttt ttt ttt ttt BcBcBc ttt ttt BcBcBc ttt BcBcBc הרוצת GeneC3C3C3ralGeology byttt spspsp C3C3C3 C2C2C2 C3C3C3 ttt spspsp (1) How waterC3C3C3 and solutesspspsp flow ttt C2C2C2 ttt C3C3C3 C3C3C3Bc (33) ttt C3C3C3 C3C3C3Bm (16) etetet C2C2C2 ttt ttt Bn (2) tttintottt Lake lclclcKinneretlclclc ?ttt (top view) ttt ttt ttt C1C1C1 lslsls lclclc BcBcBc BpdC3C3C3 (2) C2C2C2 spspsp Buc (25) spspsp spspsp qqq etetet eteteteaeaea C1 (21) qqq ebkebkebk qqq eaeaea C2 (51) spspsp C2C2C2 ebkebkebk spspsp C1C1C1 C2C2C2 BcBcBc spspsp C3 (52) BcBcBc C3C3C3 C3C3C3 mmm Ct (1) C2C2C2 lclclc spspsp ea (39) C2C2C2 lclclc C2C2C2 spspsp qqq qqq ebk (11) qqq ebkebkebk spspsp C2C2C2 ttt BcBcBc mmm spspsp emrspspsp (17) ttt spspsp et (40) spspsp qqq qqq tttttt BcBcBc C1C1C1 tttspspsp BcBcBc KIN (1)spspsp spspsp spspsp lc ttt (5) C3C3C3 C1C1C1 spspsp qqq ttt C3C3C3 C2C2C2 BcBcBc ls (1) C2C2C2 C1C1C1 etetet m (8) C3C3C3 C2C2C2 C3C3C3 ebkebkebk spspsp eaeaea nqc (17) C2C2C2 C3C3C3 ttt ebkebkebk etetet olttt (1) C1C1C1 spspsp ttt nqcnqcnqc C1C1C1 BcBcBc qqq qqq p (24) C3C3C3 BcBcBc qqq ttt C3C3C3 qqq KINKINKIN C3C3C3q ttt (29) eaeaea qh (5) C3C3C3 spspsp spspsp qk (33) spspsp C3C3C3 spspsp ttt etetet qsspspsp spspsp(9) C2C2C2 etetet sp (92) qqq ttt etetet C3C3C3 C3C3C3 etetet etetet BmBmBm t (85) ttt BcBcBc ue (2) eaeaea BcBcBc qqq qqq ememem r r r ttt ttt ppp qqq eaeaea etetetC3C3C3 ememem r r r ememem r r r spspspetetet ppp PPP qqq ememem r r r eaeaea eaeaea qqq 20 eaeaea C2C2C2 20 BmBmBm ememem r r r eaeaea C2C2C2 ppp eaeaea ttt ppp eaeaea spspsp etetet eaeaea ppp BmBmBm Practices to reduce Lake Kinneret salinity

1. Capture the most saline springs in the west side of the lake and divert it around the lake to the Lower Jordan River (the saline water carrier SWC) 2. Pump the saline water near the lake directly from the aquifer, and direct it to the SWC. 3. Study the mechanism of salinization and decide on water management rules that will minimize lake salinization. 1. The saline water carrier (SWC) 2. Pump the saline water directly to the SWC 3. Study the mechanism of salinization Gravitational flow model (GFM) maximal level Low lake level low level

Small dilution Dry winter Low runoff with saline discharge Lake Salinity increase Self potential model (SPM) maximal level maximal level maximal level

low level low level low level

Lake Salinity increase small hydraulic High discharge low lake pressure on the from saline level brine springs 24 Self potential model (SPM)- Major arguments 1. Fresh groundwater levels in the Eastern Galilee (west of the lake) make a counterbalance to the driving pressure and therefore should not be decreased. Consequently, pumping of groundwater from this area should be limited. 2. The lake level should not be reduced below a prescribed level. Lowering the water levels in both the lake and adjacent aquifers will increase the hydraulic gradient between the saline water and lake, and thus intensive seepage of saline water through the lake sediments will take place. Gravitational flow model (GFM) Major arguments

1. The flow of saline springs depends on a ~ 100-m head difference between aquifers in the Eastern Galilee and Lake Kinneret, and therefore the 1–4 m change in the lake water level has negligible effect on this flow. 2. Reduced hydraulic heads in deep aquifers in the Galilee will lead to reduction of the pressure applied on the deep saline reservoir, and therefore salt flux into the lake will decrease. The implications of the SPM-GFM arguments on operational decisions 1. The SPM theory was dominating. 2. Pumping of groundwater from the Eastern Galilee area was limited by the Israeli Water Authority for four decades (1960–2000). 3. The lake level should not be reduced below a prescribed “red line,” which was posed for many years on − 212 m, and later on − 213 m a.m.s.l. New studies in 1995–2000 A series of studies during the years 1995– 2000 came up with an important understanding that the GFM mechanism controls the discharge of the saline springs. These findings resulted in the decision to lower the “red line” during 1999–2001 without the fear of enhanced salinization. Incoming monthly solute mass vs lake level for the years 1969-2000

Incoming monthly solute mass increase with increased lake level Lake Kinneret level and the Red Line

-208.0 -208.5 -209.0 -208.9 -209.5 -210.0 -210.5 -211.0 A National Water -211.5 carrier -212.0 B. -212.0 -212.5 Level Level (m) Over decades the Water Authority's -213.0 C. -213.0 policy was dictated by the SPM. The -213.5 “red line” of the lake was determined -214.0 by law, and pumping groundwater in -214.5 the eastern Galilee was prohibited. D. -214.87 -215.0 -215.5 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 Year Understanding the historic salinity

400 pattern of Lake Kinneret 380 (2) 360 salinity (4) 340 (3) 320 (10) 300 (1) (12) (5) 280 (8) 260 (6) 240

1. Rimmer, A. (2003). The Mechanism of Lake Kinneret Salinization as a Linear Reservoir. Journal of Hydrology, 281/3 pp. 177-190. 2. Rimmer A., M. Boger, Y. Aota and M. Kumagai, 2006. A Lake as a Natural Integrator of Linear Processes: Application to Lake Kinneret (Israel) and Lake Biwa (Japan). Journal of Hydrology, 319/1-4, pp. 163-175. The Lake Salinity Model (LSM)

Sout: Cl outflow Output Input from pumps and Cl and water water release inflows from surface sources solute flux through the Lake outlet of the It is assumed that the lake is lake is completely mixed proportional Sin with solute storage

Cl and water inflow from saline springs Schematic lake salinity response to change in solute inflow (Sin)

in Sin0 solute inflow S Sin1

S0 Sudden drop in solute inflows (operation of the SWC) will cause an exponential decrease of solute mass and salinity. The

full change takes ~25 years Solute mass inthe lake, S

t0 )year ( t The actual step change in solute inflow (Sin) starting in 1964 250 Average Cl inflows 1964-2000 Calculated annual Cl inflows

200 Step function starting in 1964

kg)

6 10 150 Diverted to the SWC

100 Solute influx ( influx Solute 50 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 year Model result for 1964-87 The reduction in solute mass and salinity between 1964 and 1987 is an obvious result of the operation of the SWC in 1964 1.6 380 6 S0=1,550  10 kg Model

1.5 Measured 360 )

q=0.127 - 6 340 1.4 S =9510 kg

kg) in 9

320 10

( 1.3 (ppm Cl (ppm 300 1.2 280

1.1 salinity 260

Solute mass Solute 1.0 240

0.9 220

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 year Schematic lake salinity response to gradual change in water inflow (Qin)

Qin0

in Q

Gradual decrease in water inflows will cause an non linear increase of solute mass

and salinity. Solute mass in the lake, S lake, the in mass Solute

S0 )Year ( t The actual gradual change in water inflow (Qin) since 1951 Annual exchange of water in the lake is reducing 1600 continuously in the last 60 years

1400 Available Water

) AW = -3.54xYear + 576.55 3 1200

1000

800

600

400 Annual discharge (Mm discharge Annual 200

0 1951/52 1961/62 1971/72 1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12 Year Changes in solute mass in Lake

1.75E+06 Kinneret 1963-2010 Measured S0=1,655,000 ton 1.65E+06 Model q= -0.0011 x year+ 2.319 1.55E+06 Sin=107,000 ton 1.45E+06 Decrease in salinity Increase in salinity is is controlled by a 1.35E+06 controlled by a constant step-change in the 1.25E+06 reduction in the quantity quantity of incoming of water that enters the 1.15E+06 solute (salt carrier lake 1.05E+06 operation) 9.50E+05

8.50E+05 Solute mass (Ton) lake the inmass Solute 7.50E+05 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 Year

Step change in solute inflows 1964 Conclusions • Salinity changes are the full lake salinity response to both gradual reduction in water inflows and step reduction of solute inflows • Since the middle of the 1980s a slow increase in lake salinity is observed as a result of reduced amount of inflows (and outflows). • During the the 1980s the influence of the reducing water inflows became more significant than the effect of the step reduction of solute, 20 years earlier. • We are now witness of the gradual increase of lake salinity due to the continuous reduction of inflows

1.75 א 1.65 S0=1,655,000 ton + שנה q= -0.0011 x ג 2.319 1.55

1.45 Sin=107,000 ton

1.35 אוגר מלח מלח

) ) 1.25

1.15 מליון טון טון ( 1.05 0.95 0.85 0.75 1962 1972 1982 1992 2002 שנה Predictions of future lake salinity: Example • The salinity of the lake is expected to increase significantly if reduction of inflows will continue

Lake Kinneret salinity 570 Predicted C_LAKE 520 Clake calculated C_LAKE 470 Clake+Errors Clake-Errors 420

370

320

270

220

Lake Kinneret salinity (mgCl/l) 170

120 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 year 400 380 (2) 360 salinity (4) The historic 340 (3) 320 record of lake(10 ) 300 (1) (12) (5)

280 מליחות הכנרת ( (8) 260 salinity during

(6) מגכ

" 240 ל

) (9) 220 1950-1964 (11) 200 1950 1960 1970 1980 (7)1989 1999 2009 1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase. 2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-; 3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop; 4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing to the lake, salinity drop enhanced. 5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200% compared to an average year). 6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988. 7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters. 8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992. 9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002. 10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-. 11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-. 42 Few more questions

• Why Lake Kinneret salinity increased during the 1950? • How it is connected to the LSM theory? • How it is connected to the “Red Line” policy? Why Lake Kinneret salinity increased during the 1950? Various academic references noted that the 50's and beginning of the 60’s were relatively dry, and therefore relatively little fresh water reached the a lake and caused increased salinization. Is this a complete explanation? Calculations from 1 October 1954 to 1 October 1962 suggest additional solute inflows during this period. From solute balance calculations, it is possible that during this 8-year period, the input of solutes to the lake increased to an annual average of ~ 168,000 t of Cl−, i.e., 8,000 t higher than any calculated average measured since השרות ההידרולוגי, 2011. סיכום עונת הגשמים 2010/2011 ומאפייניה ההידרולוגים העיקריים. דוח הידרו/ 2011/07. ירושלים..(see details in the solute balance section) 1960 Lets test the LSM and GFM through the eyes of the decision makers at that time: Self potential model (SPM) maximal level maximal level maximal level

low level low level low level

small hydraulic High discharge Lake low lake pressure on the from saline Salinity level brine springs increase All conditions to support the SPM were filled: low lake level, relatively high solutes flow, and increasing salinity! Conclusion: The lake level drop should be limited in order to prevent increased solutes input – a red line is required! However, טבחה During the 1950s, the State טבריה of Israel carried out intensive research on the Lake Kinneret salinity, in preparation to develop and פוליה operate the NWC. As part of this research effort, at least 60 new boreholes (IHS database) were drilled in the region of the west coast of the lake, from which at least 28 boreholes were drilled offshore in the bottom of the lake. What was the result of drilling dozens of wells in and around the Lake Kinneret? Massive drilling during the 1950s resulted in a temporary disturbance to the steady hydrological system of the lake- aquifer and a temporary increase in solute flux to the lake (~ 2,000 t Cl− per offshore borehole). The effect of these boreholes faded throughout the years after they were abandoned, artificially blocked, or clogged by natural sedimentation in the lake. Summary • Since the operation of the “National Water Carrier” in 1964, the Lake Kinneret salinity causes major environmental problem. The following two aspects were discussed: • Description of the case study: (1) the lake salinity as a source of solute export by the Israeli water supply system; (2) the hydrogeological causes for lake salinity; (3) history of salinity measurements; • Management and operational aspects: (1) the proposed mechanisms of lake salinization, and the determination of ‘red line’ policy to ensure minimum allowed lake level; (2) a complete mixing type model to predict the future salinity of the lake; (3) summary of the current knowledge and operation of Lake Kinneret salinity. (4) Is there a justification for the ‘red line’ policy from the salinization point of view? • Abbo H, Shavit U, Markel D, Rimmer A (2003) A Numerical Study on the Influence of Frac-tured Regions on Lake/Groundwater Interaction; the Lake Kinneret Case. Journal of Hydrology, 283/1-4 pp 225-243 • Assouline S (1993) Estimation of lake hydrologic budget terms using the simultaneous solution of water, heat, and salt balances and a Kalman filtering approach - application to Lake Kinneret. Water Resources Research, 29(9): 3041-3048 • BergelsonLakeG, Nativ KinneretR, Bein A (1998) salinityAssessment of inhydraulic peer parameters reviewed in the aquifers journals sur-rounding and(incomplete underlying Lake Tiberias list). Ground Water 36: 409-417 • Goldman M, Gvirtzman H, Hurwitz S (2004) Mapping of saline groundwater beneath the Sea of Gallilee and its vicinity using the Domain electromagnetic (TDEM) geophysical technique. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences. 53: 187-197 • Gvirtzman H, Garven G, Gvirtzman G (1997) Hydrogeological modeling of the saline hot springs at the Sea of Galilee, Israel. Water Resources Research, 33(5): 913-926 • Hurwitz S., Goldman M, Ezersky M, Gvirtzman H (1999) Geophysical (time domain electro-magnetic model) delineation of a shallow brine beneath a freshwater lake. The Sea of Galilee, Israel. Water resources research, 35, 3631-3638 • Hurwitz S, Lyakhovsky V, Gvirtzman H (2000a) Transient salt transport modeling of a shallow brine beneath a fresh water lake, the Sea of Galilee. Water Resources Research, 36: 101-107 • Hurwitz S, Stanislavsky E, Lyakhovsky V, Gvirtzman H (2000b) Transiet groundwater-lake interactions in a continental rift: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112: 1694-1702 • Issar AS (1993) Recharge and salination processes in the carbonate aquifers in Israel. Environmental Geology, 21, 152-159 • Katz A, Nishri A (2013) Calcium, magnesiumThank and strontium cycling inyou stratified, hardwater lakes: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 105, :372–394 • Klein Ben-David, Saas E, Katz A (2004). The evolution of marine evaporitic brines in Inland Basins: The Jordan-Dead Sea Rift valley. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 68:1763-1775 • Kolodny Y, Katz A, Starinsky A, Moise T, Simon E (1999). Chemical tracing of salinity sources in Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Limnology and Oceanography 44:1035-1044 • Mazor E, Mero F (1969) Geochemical tracing of mineral resources in the Lake Tiberias basin, Israel. J. Hydrol, 7:276-317 • Mero F (1978) Hydrology, In: C. Serruya [Ed.], Lake Kinneret, Monographiae Biologicae, Dr. W Junk, pp. 88-102 • Mero F, Simon E (1992) The simulation of chloride inflows into Lake Kinneret. J. Hydrol., 138: 345-360 • Nishri A, Stiller M, Rimmer A, Geifman Y, Krom M (1999) Lake Kinneret, The Sea of Galilee): The effects of diversion of external salinity sources and the probable chemical composition of the internal salinity sources. Chemical Geology 158: 37-52 • Rimmer A (2000) The Influence of lake level on the discharge of the Kinneret saline springs. Advances in Limnology. 55:55-67 • Rimmer A (2003). The Mechanism of Lake Kinneret Salinization as a Linear Reservoir. Journal of Hydrology, 281(3):177-190. • Rimmer A (2007) System approach hydrology tools for the Upper Catchment of the Jordan River and Lake Kinneret, Israel. The Israel Journal of Earth Science. 56:1–17 • Rimmer A, Gal G (2003) The saline springs in the solute and water balance of Lake Kinneret, Israel. Journal of Hydrology, 284(1-4):228-243 • Rimmer A, Hartmann A (2012) Simplified conceptual structures and analytical solutions for groundwater discharge using reservoir equations. Chapter 10 in InTech Open Access book, "Water Resources Management and Modeling", ISBN 978-953-51-0246-5 • Rimmer A, Aota Y, Kumagai M, Eckert W (2005) Chemical stratification in thermally stratified lakes: A chloride mass balance model. Limnol. Oceanogr. 50:147-157 • Rimmer A (2007). System approach hydrology tools for the Upper Catchment of the Jordan River and Lake Kinneret, Israel. The Israel Journal of Earth Science. 56: 1–17. • Rimmer A, Givati A, Samuels R, Alpert P (2011) Using ensemble of climate models to evaluate future water and solutes budgets in Lake Kinneret, Israel. Journal of Hydrology 410:248–259. • Rimmer A, Hurwitz S, Gvirtzman H (1999) Spatial and temporal characteristics of saline springs: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Ground Water, 37(5): 663-673 • Simon E, Mero F (1992) The salinization mechanism of Lake Kinneret. Journal of Hydrology, 138: 327-343 • Starinsky A (1974) Relationships between Ca-chloride brines and the sedimentary rocks in Israel. PhD thesis. The Hebrew University Jerusalem (in Hebrew: English Summary). • Stiller M (1994) The chloride content of pore water of Lake Kinneret sediments. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 43:179-185 • Stiller M, Carmi I, Munnich KO (1975) Water transport through Lake Kinneret sediments traced by tritium, Earth Palent.Sci. Lett. 25:297-304 • Stiller M, Rosenbaum JM, Nishri A (2009) The origin of brines underlying Lake Kinneret. Chemical Geology 262 309-325 • Rimmer, A. and A. Nishri, 2014. “Salinity” Chap. 8 in “Lake Kinneret – Ecology and Management”.Zohary T., Sukenik A., Berman T. and, Nishri A. [eds]. Springer, Heidelberg.