Il Sistema Dei Partiti Del New Deal (1930-1960)

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Il Sistema Dei Partiti Del New Deal (1930-1960) Il sistema dei partiti del New Deal (1930-1960) La presidenza Wilson durò quindi dal 1912 al 1920-21 (due mandati), quando fu battuto dal repubblicano Harding. Abbiamo già visto come l’uscita di scena di Wilson, dopo la battuta d’arresto del suo progetto di pace, della sua visione dei rapporti internazionali, fosse ampiamente prevedibile, anche in considerazione del suo precario stato di salute. I repubblicani nel 1920 non avevano un candidato di spicco, Harding era tutto tranne che un candidato di spicco e tra le altre cose con una vita privata non del tutto irreprensibile, ciò che in America ha sempre la sua importanza. Da non sottovalutare che il ticket prevedeva come vice-presidente Calvin Coolidge, del Massachussets, che in qualità di governatore non aveva avuto remore nel ricorrere alla polizia per sedare uno sciopero a Boston, una scelta che era stata molto apprezzata dai suoi sostenitori. I democratici scelsero Cox e F.D. Roosevelt, che era stato assistente segretario alla marina sotto l’amministrazione Wilson. Cox e Roosevelt cercarono di focalizzare la loro campagna elettorale sulla Lega delle Nazioni, ma gli americani ne avevano abbastanza dei coinvolgimenti in Europa ed erano, al contrario, attratti dagli appelli di Harding per un “ritorno alla normalità” e al “prima l’America”. Le elezioni si risolsero con una vittoria schiacciante per i repubblicani, che ottennero la presidenza con 404 voti contro 127 e la maggioranza nei due rami del Congresso. La presidenza Harding, fedele alle promesse significò l’inizio di una fase di isolazionismo. La storiografia è pressoché concorde nell’affermare che con la presidenza Hardings si apre un ciclo caratterizzato da presidenze deboli, si è scritto di una eclissi della figura del presidente (temporary eclipse of presidency), a vantaggio del congresso, ovviamente. Harold Laski, uno storico inglese di matrice laburista, ha scritto a proposito della presidenza Hardings di «the era of conscious abdication from power». Nel 1920 indubbiamente il paese era percorso da un grande antiwilsonismo e da un sentimento contrario al partito democratico, a rasentare quasi l’isteria. Harding era, come detto sopra, un personaggio oscuro, come disse un senatore di allora: “una volta eletto avrebbe firmato qualsiasi progetto di legge mandatogli dal Senato e da parte sua non avrebbe mandato in Senato nessun progetto di legge per l’approvazione”. Era eccessivamente retorico, ma di una retorica che aveva il solo obiettivo di non affrontare la realtà, che non conosceva. Uno storico americano, William Leuchtenburg, ha scritto che Harding era pateticamente cosciente della propria “inadeguatezza” -«I am not fit for this office and should never have been here», confessò una volta. Il suo appello per un “ritorno alla normalità” piacque comunque molto alla gente comune, anche se il candidato poteva sembrare poca cosa, ma piacque anche se rapportata alla “sbornia” wilsoninana. La vittoria dei Repubblicani fu sicuramente favorita dalla disillusione di Versailles e anche da una durissima recessione che si era abbattuta sul paese: si trattava di una nazione prostrata dall’intervento bellico, dalla incessante mobilitazione popolare, dal biennio di fuoco delle masse in piazza tra il 1919 e il 1920, dal caso di Sacco e Vanzetti, due operai anarchici italo-americani, accusati di omicidio e giustiziati senza prove certe sulla sedia elettrica. Harding certamente non capì, inoltre, che il ruolo del Presidente si era enormemente trasformato, essendo ora il fulcro dell’azione politica e ciò a scapito del partito. Harding quindi andò controtendenza, cercando di restaurare l’autorità del partito: il Congresso percepì questa “abdicazione” e sostanzialmente tenne Harding in ostaggio. Questa abdicazione d’altronde era stata paradossalmente annunciata dallo stesso Harding quando nel suo primo discorso sullo stato dell’Unione aveva affermato che a causa delle necessità generate dagli eventi bellici c’era stata una eccessiva crescita di autorità e concentrazione di potere nelle mani del potere esecutivo, alludendo evidentemente al governo Wilson. Cioè per il Congresso il ritorno alla normalità significò il ritorno al governo congressuale. Se guardiamo per esempio alla politica estera, ci accorgiamo come questa fosse saldamente nelle mani di una commissione senatoriale. Tuttavia, come vedremo, si tratta di un giudizio che deve essere lievemente corretto. Intanto, non si può fare a meno di sottolineare la scelta degli uomini che Harding portò con sè al governo, che erano tutti di grande valore. Come segretario di stato agli affari esteri chiamò Charles Evans Hughes, che dette prova di grande capacità nella conferenza a nove sul disarmo navale in Estremo Oriente e che negoziò il trattato delle quattro potenze che nel 1902 mise fine all’alleanza anglo-giapponese. Insomma, Hughes era il vero factotum della politica estera di Harding, sebbene si trattasse di una politica estera di raccoglimento. Poi persuase il magnate industriale dell’alluminio Andrew Mellon a diventare segretario di stato al Tesoro. Mellon era un vero conservatore, molto capace, e come segretario all’agricoltura scelse un editore di una rivista del settore molto quotata dell’Iowa, Henry Wallace. Infine, e forse si tratta del nome più eclatante, come segretario al commercio volle Herbert Hoover, un ingegnere minerario di fama mondiale, che si era guadagnata una grande reputazione come membro dell’amministrazione di Woodrow Wilson, scatenando in questo caso le obiezioni del Republican Old Guard. La presenza di questo staff di uomini di valore stava a significare che non tutto era negativo nell’amministrazione Harding e che essa non era poi così ostile all’innovazione. Per esempio, favorì una legislazione contro il linciaggio, misure di aiuto agli agricoltori, cercò di regolare l’industria radiofonica, creò un Ente per i Veterani di guerra, promosse la creazione di un dipartimento per il Welfare e chiese al Congresso di approvare uno Sheppard-Towner Act per la protezione della saluta delle madri e dei bambini. Il provvedimento amministrativo più importante degli anni di Harding fu comunque la creazione nel 1920 del Bureau of Budget (un ufficio del bilancio), collocato nell’ambito del Dipartimento del Tesoro. Il Budget and Accounting Act del 1921 centralizzava il controllo della spesa dei dipartimenti federali nella Casa Bianca. Sino ad allora, il presidente degli Stati Uniti si trovava nella assurda posizione di non avere quasi alcuna autorità per allocare le spese del governo di cui era capo, così che i capi dei dipartimenti consideravano questi come dei loro feudi, con grave danno per il bilancio federale. Il regolamento del nuovo Bureau imponeva al presidente di procedere assieme ai capi di dipartimento nella individuazione delle spese per i differenti rami dell’amministrazione e sottoporre al Congresso tale bilancio con un messaggio di accompagnamento. Probabilmente lo stesso Harding non avrebbe mai immaginato che questo organo sarebbe un domani diventato il nucleo centrale dell’amministrazione federale. E così, quasi paradossalmente, un presidente che aveva inteso dare un così “low-profile” al proprio ruolo, alla fine dava un contributo fondamentale per l’esercizio complessivo del potere esecutivo. In ogni caso, questo diverso “tono” della presidenza Harding era comunque evidente: «Dopo il periodo frenetico di T. Roosevelt e W. Wilson, gli anni di Harding sembravano gioiosamente tranquilli e Washington DC sembrava una piacevole isola remota» (Leuchtenburg, p. 122). Tuttavia non tutte le scelte di Harding furono efficaci come nel caso di Hoover o Hughes, perché la sua amministrazione fu anche caratterizzata dalla presenza di soggetti non molto capaci e anche corrotti. Il più grande scandalo dell’amministrazione Harding riguardò infatti due membri del suo gabinetto: due mesi dopo l’Inauguration Day, il Segretario agli Interni Albert Fall convinse Harding a firmare un ordine esecutivo di trasferimento delle riserve di petrolio delle navi della marina americana dal Dipartimento della Marina a quello degli Interni. La motivazione fu che il Dipartimento degli Interni fosse più capace di proteggere quelle aree dove il petrolio poteva essere estratto solo in caso di emergenza. Una di queste riserve naturali era collocata nel Wyoming, in un posto chiamato Teapot Dome, dal nome delle rocce la cui forma ricordava quello del coperchio di una teiera. Una volta che Fall ebbe il controllo dell’area per lo sfruttamento petrolifero fece degli accordi segreti con due petrolieri, Edward Doheny and Harry Sinclair, due uomini a lui vicini, che gli pagarono una tangente in cambio dei diritti di trivellazione in quelle aree, che secondo la legge potevano essere sfruttate soltanto in caso di emergenza. L’inchiesta del Senato fu aperta sotto pressione di un petroliere, poi governatore democratico del Wyoming, e la commissione alla fine ottenne la confessione di Doheny, il quale ammise di aver pagato la tangente a Fall, dietro il quale, secondo l’accusa di Doheny, vi era il presidente Harding. Fall, accusato di avere ricevuto una enorme tangente, fu il primo funzionario governativo della storia della repubblica a finire in prigione per abuso in atti di ufficio. Si trattò del più grosso scandalo politico della storia americana (The Teapot Dome Scandal) prima del Watergate. Qualche anno dopo, in una commemorazione di Warren Harding in Ohio, Hoover disse che in quel caso il presidente aveva realizzato tardi che era stato tradito da pochi uomini di cui lui si fidava. In seguito, fu accertato
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