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Spheres of Discharge of Springs Spheres of discharge of springs Abraham E. Springer & Lawrence E. Stevens Abstract Although springs have been recognized as im- Introduction portant, rare, and globally threatened ecosystems, there is as yet no consistent and comprehensive classification system or Springs are ecosystems in which groundwater reaches the common lexicon for springs. In this paper, 12 spheres of Earth’s surface either at or near the land-atmosphere discharge of springs are defined, sketched, displayed with interface or the land-water interface. At their sources photographs, and described relative to their hydrogeology of (orifices, points of emergence), the physical geomorphic occurrence, and the microhabitats and ecosystems they template allows some springs to support numerous micro- support. A few of the spheres of discharge have been habitats and large arrays of aquatic, wetland, and previously recognized and used by hydrogeologists for over terrestrial plant and animal species; yet, springs ecosys- 80years, but others have only recently been defined geo- tems are distinctly different from other aquatic, wetland, morphologically. A comparison of these spheres of dis- and riparian ecosystems (Stevens et al. 2005). For charge to classification systems for wetlands, groundwater example, springs of Texas support at least 15 federally dependent ecosystems, karst hydrogeology, running waters, listed threatened or endangered species under the regu- and other systems is provided. With a common lexicon for lations of the US Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Brune springs, hydrogeologists can provide more consistent guid- 2002). Hydrogeologists have traditionally classified the ance for springs ecosystem conservation, management, and physical parameters of springs up to their point of restoration. As additional comprehensive inventories of the discharge (e.g., Bryan 1919, Meinzer 1923), but have physical, biological, and cultural characteristics are con- paid little attention to springs after the point of discharge ducted and analyzed, it will eventually be possible to where they are more interesting to ecologists, conservation associate spheres of discharge with discrete vegetation and biologists, cultural anthropologists, and recreation sociol- aquatic invertebrate assemblages, and better understand the ogists. Classification systems that incidentally include habitat requirements of rare or unique springs species. Given springs have been developed for surface waters (Hynes the elevated productivity and biodiversity of springs, and 1970), wetlands (Euliss et al. 2004), groundwater depen- their highly threatened status, identification of geomorphic dent ecosystems (Eamus and Froend 2006), and riparian similarities among spring types is essential for conservation systems downstream from the point of discharge (Warner of these important ecosystems. and Hendrix 1984; Rosgen 1996). An integrated springs classification system should include the major physical, Keywords Springs classification . General biological, and socio-cultural variables. Such a classifica- hydrogeology . Ecology tion system will permit assessment of the distribution of different kinds of springs ecosystems, thereby improving resource inventory and development of conservation and restoration strategies (e.g., Sada and Vinyard 2002; Perla Received: 10 March 2008 /Accepted: 19 June 2008 and Stevens 2008). Alfaro and Wallace (1994) and Wallace and Alfaro * Springer-Verlag 2008 (2001) updated and reviewed the historical springs classification schemes of Fuller (1904); Keilhack (1912); Bryan (1919); Meinzer (1923); Clarke (1924); Stiny A. E. Springer ()) Department of Geology, (1933), and others. Of the previously proposed systems, Northern Arizona University, Meinzer’s(1923) classification system has been the most Box 4099, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA persistently recognized. He included 11 characteristics of e-mail: [email protected] springs based on various physical and chemical variables. Tel.: +1-(928)-523-7198 ’ Fax: +1-(928)-523-9220 Although Meinzer s(1923) scheme has been widely used, it is not comprehensive. Clarke (1924) considered three L. E. Stevens criteria to be most important for springs classification: Curator of Ecology and Conservation, Museum of Northern Arizona, geologic origin, physical properties, and geochemistry. 3101 N. Ft. Valley Rd., Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA Other classifications have been developed for specific e-mail: [email protected] types of geomorphology such as karst geomorphology Hydrogeology Journal DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0341-y (free draining, dammed, or confined springs; Ford and further work. Springer et al.’s(2008) organizational Williams 2007) or classification of karst springs by eight structure integrates springs inventory data and reiterates attributes—flow duration, reversing flow, conduit type at nine of Meinzer’s(1923) classes, Alfaro and Wallace’s spring, geology, topographic position, relationship to (1994) recommendations, and proposed additional eco- bodies of surface water, distributaries, recharge, chemistry, logical and cultural elements. An organizational structure culture/exploitation—(Gunn 2004). Springs, particularly that integrates springs data and reiterated Alfaro and those in arid regions, are renowned as hotspots of biological Wallace’s(1994) recommendation to develop a global and cultural diversity, and the presence of endangered or database on springs using this comprehensive classifica- unique species and ethnological and historic resources often tion system is discussed. The criteria used for classifica- greatly influences their management. Therefore, ecological tion by Springer et al. (2008) include geomorphic and cultural variables also relevant to springs classification considerations (hydrostratigraphic unit, emergence environ- include: size, spatial isolation; microhabitat distribution; ment, orifice geomorphology, sphere of discharge, channel paleontological resources; the presence of rare or endemic dynamics), forces bringing water to the surface, flow biota; archeological or traditional cultural resources; and a properties (persistence, consistency, rate, variability), water springs’ context to surrounding ecosystems. To date, no quality (temperature and geochemistry), habitats (synoptic comprehensive springs classification system has been climate, surrounding ecosystems, biogeographic isolation, developed or accepted (Wallace and Alfaro 2001). Many habitat size, microhabitat diversity), springs biota (species publications related to springs focus on specific regions that composition, vegetation, faunal diversity), and springs have a limited number of types of springs (e.g., Brune management and use. Seeps are considered to be low 2002; Scott et al. 2004; Vineyard and Feder 1982;Borneuf magnitude discharge springs in this classification system. 1983). For example, because limnocrene springs of Florida In this paper, the 12 spheres of discharge of springs of are influenced by karst processes, their classification has Springer et al. (2008) are described in more detail than focused primarily on the type of spring (vent or seep), was included in their manuscript (Table 1). A text whether or not it is onshore or offshore, and the magnitude description, a sketch and a photograph of each sphere is of the discharge (Scott et al. 2004). included, as is a discussion of how each sphere corre- In Springer et al. (2008), previous classification efforts sponds to equivalent language used by aquatic ecologists, were discussed and an integrated springs classification wetland and riparian scientists, or other specialists to system was presented, with the understanding that testing describe springs. For spheres of discharge where it is and refinement of this classification system requires much known, a description of how the spheres of discharge of Table 1 Sphere of discharge and types of springs (modified from Springer et al. 2008) with examples of known springs and references of descriptions of sphere of discharge Spring type Emergence setting and hydrogeology Example Reference Cave Emergence in a cave in mature to extreme Kartchner Caverns, AZ Springer et al. (2008) karst with sufficiently large conduits Exposure Cave, rock shelter fractures, or sinkholes Devils Hole, Ash Meadows, Springer et al. (2008) springs where unconfined aquifer is exposed near NV the land surface Fountain Artesian fountain with pressurized CO2 in a Crystal Geyser, UT Springer et al. (2008) confined aquifer Geyser Explosive flow of hot water from confined Riverside Geyser, WY Springer et al. (2008) aquifer Gushet Discrete source flow gushes from a cliff wall Thunder River, Grand Springer et al. (2008) of a perched, unconfined aquifer Canyon, AZ Hanging Dripping flow emerges usually horizontally Poison Ivy Spring, Arches Woodbury (1933); garden along a geologic contact along a cliff wall NP, UT Welsh (1989); of a perched, unconfined aquifer Spence (2008) Helocrene Emerges from low gradient wetlands; often Soap Holes, Elk Island NP, Modified from Meinzer indistinct or multiple sources seeping from AB, Canada (1923); Hynes (1970); shallow, unconfined aquifers Grand Canyon Wildlands Council (2002) Hillslope Emerges from confined or unconfined aquifers Ram Creek Hot Spring, BC, Springer et al. (2008) on a hillslope (30–60o slope); often indistinct Canada or multiple sources Hypocrene A buried spring where flow does not reach the Mile 70L Spring, Grand Springer et al. (2008) surface, typically due to very low discharge Canyon, AZ and high evaporation or transpiration Limnocrene Emergence of confined or unconfined
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