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The Potential Impact of an Inter-Basin Water Transfer on the Modder and Caledon River Systems

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The Potential Impact of an Inter-Basin Water Transfer on the Modder and Caledon River Systems THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF AN INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER ON THE MODDER AND CALEDON RIVER SYSTEMS by NADENE SLABBERT M.Sc. (UFS) Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor in the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences Department of Plant Sciences, Botany University of the Free State Bloemfontein November, 2007 Promotor: Prof. J.U. Grobbelaar D.Sc. (UFS) Co-promotor: Dr. J.C. Roos Ph.D. (UFS) CONTENT Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i TABLE OF CONTENTS ii Chapter 1: An overview of inter-basin 1 transfer schemes and the South African perspective Chapter 2: The Novo Transfer Scheme 35 Chapter 3: The role of turbidity in the rivers 45 and reservoirs of the Novo inter-basin transfer scheme Chapter 4: The chemical and physical 83 characteristics of the sediment load of the Caledon River and its influence on bio- available nutrients Chapter 5: The potential impact of the Novo 91 transfer scheme on the chemical quality of the various waters Chapter 6: The phytoplankton in the various 137 waters of the Novo transfer scheme Chapter 7: Invertebrates in the Modder and 169 Caledon Rivers FINAL CONCLUSIONS 179 REFERENCES 191 SUMMARY 212 OPSOMMING 214 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: I wish to express my sincere thanks to the following persons and institution, who made it possible for me to complete this study. Our Heavenly Father, Who made it all possible. My promotor, Prof. J.U. Grobbelaar, for his guidance, advice and encouragement. My co-promotor, Dr. J.C. Roos for his guidance and assistance. Mr. J.A. van der Heever and Ms. T. Vos, for their assistance during the field trips and afterwards in the laboratory. My husband, Kobus, for his love, encouragement and patience. My family, and in particular my parents, for their support. The University of the Free State for providing me with the opportunity and the facilities to conduct this study. The National Research Foundation (NRF) for financial support. i TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION Page CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF INTER-BASIN TRANSFER SCHEMES AND THE 1 SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE 1.1) WATER OF THE WORLD 1 1.2) A SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCE 2 1.2.1) The South African climate 2 1.2.2) South African water resources 3 1.2.3) Southern African population numbers 4 1.3) SOLUTIONS FOR THE PROBLEM? 5 1.4) DEFINITION OF INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER 8 1.5) INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFERS IN THE WORLD 9 1.5.1) China 12 1.5.1(a) West, Middle and East Route 12 1.5.1(b) The Grand Canal (Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal) 12 1.5.2) Japan 13 1.5.2(a) Inter-basin water transfer to Tokyo Metropolis 13 1.5.2(b) Shin-Nippon Seitetsu Kabushiki Kaisha (Kitakyushu Area) 13 1.5.2(c) The Kagawa Irrigation Project 13 1.5.3) North America 14 1.5.3(a) The Ogoki Diversion 14 1.5.3(b) California State Water Project 14 1.6) INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFERS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA 14 1.6.1) Eastern National Water Carrier (ENWC) in Namibia 16 1.6.2) Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) 17 1.6.3) Orange-Fish Tunnel 17 1.6.4) Tugela-Vaal Scheme 18 1.6.5) Mooi-Mgeni River transfer scheme 18 1.6.6) Water supply augmentation scheme to the Kwandebele Region 19 of Mpumulanga (former Eastern Transvaal) 1.7) IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS OF INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFERS 20 1.7.1) Problems associated with inter-basin water transfers 20 1.7.2) Factors to consider prior to implementation of an inter-basin water 26 transfer scheme 1.7.2(a) Physical environment 26 1.7.2(b) Biological environment 27 ii SECTION Page 1.7.2(c) Human activities 28 1.7.2(d) The availability of water (both in space and in time) 28 1.7.2(e) The nature of demand functions 28 1.7.2(f) The current efficiency of water use 28 1.7.2(g) Analyses of interconnections 29 1.7.2(h) Planning and execution 29 1.8) SOUTH AFRICAN WATER LAW 31 1.9) CONCLUSIONS 33 CHAPTER 2: THE NOVO TRANSFER SCHEME 35 2.1) THE STUDY AREA 35 2.1.1) The Modder River 35 2.1.2) Climate of the area 36 2.1.3) Geology and topography of the study area 37 2.1.4) Soils of the study area 37 2.1.5) Vegetation of the study area 38 2.1.6) Fish species 38 2.1.7) Terrestrial species 39 2.2) WATER TRANSFERS IN THE MODDER RIVER CATCHMENT AREA 39 2.2.1) Caledon-Bloemfontein pipeline 39 2.2.2) The Novo Transfer Scheme 40 2.2.2 (a) Expected negative impacts of the Novo Transfer Scheme 42 2.2.2 (b) Expected positive impacts of the Novo Transfer Scheme: 43 2.3) AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY 44 CHAPTER 3: THE ROLE OF TURBIDITY IN THE RIVERS AND RESERVOIRS OF 45 THE NOVO INTER-BASIN TRANSFER SCHEME 3.1) INTRODUCTION 45 3.1.1) The significance of turbidity in the aquatic environment 45 3.1.2) Sources of turbidity within a river 46 3.1.3) Processes regulating quantity of suspended matter in fresh waters 47 3.1.3(a) Transportation 47 3.1.3(b) Sedimentation 47 3.1.4) Sediment yield and turbidity in Southern Africa 48 3.1.4(a) Factors influencing erosion 48 3.2) MATERIAL AND METHODS 49 iii SECTION Page 3.2.1) Turbidity, Secchi depth and total suspended solids (TSS) 50 3.2.2) Light 50 3.3) RESULTS 51 3.3.1) Seasonal and spatial changes in turbidity in the Modder and Caledon 51 Rivers 3.3.2) The correlation between turbidity and TSS 57 3.3.3) Turbidity in Knellpoort Dam 59 3.3.4) Underwater light climate 65 3.4) DISCUSSION 67 3.4.1) Seasonal and spatial changes in turbidity in the rivers and impoundments 67 3.4.1(a) Supply of material to the Caledon River through erosion 68 3.4.1(b) Seasonal turbidity patterns 68 3.4.1(c) Spatial variation in turbidity 70 3.4.2) Secchi depth 70 3.4.3) The relationship between turbidity and TSS 71 3.4.4) Supply of suspended material to Knellpoort Dam through the transfer of 72 water 3.4.3(a) The turbidity profile in Knellpoort Dam 72 3.4.4(b) The effect of an increase in turbidity on faunal components of a water body 75 3.4.5) Effect of an increase in turbidity on the underwater light climate 77 3.5) CONCLUSIONS 78 CHAPTER 4: THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 83 SEDIMENT LOAD OF THE CALEDON RIVER AND ITS INFLUENCE ON BIO- AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS 4.1) INTRODUCTION 80 4.2) MATERIAL AND METHODS 81 4.2.1) Analyses of suspended sediments 81 4.2.2) Growth experiments 81 4.3) RESULTS 83 4.3.1) Particle size of the suspended sediments in the Caledon River 83 4.3.2) Chemical composition of the suspended sediments in the Caledon River 83 4.3.3) Bio-available nutrients in the suspended sediments of the Caledon River 83 4.4) DISCUSSION 85 4.4.1) Particle size of the suspended sediments in the Caledon River 85 4.4.2) Chemical analyses of the suspended sediments of the Caledon River 86 iv SECTION Page 4.4.3) Bio-available nutrients in the suspended sediments of the Caledon River 87 4.5) CONCLUSIONS 89 CHAPTER 5: THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF THE NOVO TRANSFER SCHEME ON 91 THE CHEMICAL QUALITY OF THE VARIOUS WATERS 5.1) INTRODUCTION 91 5.1.1) The characteristics of rivers and lakes 91 5.1.2) The chemistry of freshwater (rivers and lakes/impoundments) 92 5.2) MATERIAL AND METHODS 96 5.3) RESULTS 98 5.3.1) pH and alkalinity 98 5.3.2) Dissolved oxygen concentration 99 5.3.3) Electrical conductivity 100 5.3.4) Ionic composition of the rivers and impoundments 104 5.3.5) Spatial variation in TP and PO4-P 105 5.3.6) Spatial variation in NO3-N and NH4-N 109 5.3.7) Seasonal variation in TP, PO4-P and NO3-N 111 5.3.8) Spatial variation in SiO2-Si 112 5.3.9) Diurnal variation of nutrients in Knellpoort Dam during and after transfer of 113 water from the Caledon River 5.4) DISCUSSION 118 5.4.1) pH and alkalinity 118 5.4.2) Dissolved oxygen 120 5.4.3) Electrical conductivity 121 5.4.4) Ionic composition of the Novo Transfer Scheme 123 5.4.5) Spatial variation in TP and PO4-P 127 5.4.6) Spatial variation in NO3-N and NH4-N 132 5.4.7) Seasonal variations in N and P 134 5.4.8) Spatial variations in SiO2-Si 135 5.5) CONCLUSIONS 136 CHAPTER 6: THE PHYTOPLANKTON IN THE VARIOUS WATERS OF THE NOVO 137 TRANSFER SCHEME 6.1) INTRODUCTION 137 6.1.1) General introduction 137 6.1.2.) Factors influencing algal growth 137 v SECTION Page 6.1.2(a) Flow 137 6.1.2(b) Light 138 6.1.2(c) Nutrients 139 6.2) MATERIAL AND METHODS 140 6.2.1) Algal identification 140 6.2.2) Chlorophyll a determination 141 6.2.3) Primary productivity 141 6.3) RESULTS 143 6.3.1) Phytoplankton seasonality and spatial distribution 143 6.3.2) Algal dominance and seasonal succession 146 6.3.3) Primary productivity 151 6.3.3(a) Primary productivity vs.
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