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A Premier Indo-Centric Foreign Affairs Journal Since 1980 May 2016 DISASTER MANAGEMENT & MITIGATION

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EDITORIAL Disasters are unexpected events that we face anytime in our life. There are various reasons for the occurrence of disasters: demographic WORLD changes, rapid urbanization, environmental degradation and concerns of climate change have increased exposure to disasters. The region of South Asia and , in particular, has been extremely vulnerable to disasters of different kinds. Over the years, millions of people had fallen victims to these disasters and properties worth billions of ru- FOCUS pees have been lost to these. As one of the authors points out in this INDOCENTRIC FOREIGN AFFAIRS MONTHLY JOURNAL series, , droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have Volume XXXVII Number 05 May 2016 been recurrent phenomena. For example a recent report on natural calamity suggests about 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquake G . Kishore Babu of various intensities, over 40 million hectares is prone to floods, about Editor 8% of total area is prone to cyclones and 68% of the area is suscep- Bhabani Dikshit tible to severe draught. In fact, in the decade 1990-2000, an average of Managing Editor about 4344 people lost their lives about 30 million people were af- fected by disaster every year. Though in India, we face disasters quite Stuti S. Mandala often, the policy of management during the crisis time has been rather Associate Editor sluggish. Every time we are caught unaware with little time left for rehabilitation and quick action. Though disasters are as old as human WORLD FOCUS takes up every month one history the continuous rise and the damage caused by them in the international issue and gives an analysis of its various recent past have become a cause of both national and international aspects by persons well known for their concern. specialisation in the subject. The issues covered are India needs to take certain measures that would help in reducing the topical or near topical, but of an abiding interest. effects of disasters. These are: early warning systems; preparedness The analysis is simple enough to interest even an for the disasters; adequate technology and monitoring systems; bet- initiate to world affairs, but without sacrificing depth. ter co-ordination among authorities to act during disasters; quick re- The aim is to present an Indocentric view on a lief systems and equipments; and genuine concern to address the particular issue currently facing the world. crisis. The Disaster Management Act 2005 has been one of the most Opinions expressed in the articles are personal views significant initiatives taken by the for putting in of the author and in no way reflect the opinion of place an institutional system dedicated to disaster management. It World Focus. The author is solely responsible for was notified on 26 December, 2005 and consists of 79 sections and 11 the contents in his/ her article and the World Focus chapters. The Act provides for an effective management of disasters takes no responsibility in this regard. and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The disas- ter management Act 2005 has created a hierarchy of institutions at the The Contents of this magazine cannot be reproduced national, state and district levels for holistic management of disasters. in any form with out prior permission from World The examples of institutional back up consist in the establishment of Focus. Any legal issues pertaining to World Focus National Disaster Management Authority, National Institute of Disas- will be settled in NCT region of Delhi only. ter Management, National Force and The National Unsolicited articles will not be returned or Disaster Response Fund. acknowledged. World Focus reserves the right to Adequate emphasis needs to given to the development of response edit articles for brevity and clarity before publication. system such as preparation of Special Response Teams, develop inci- dent command system, laying Standard Operating Procedure, incor- Edited, Owned, Published and Printed by porating Trigger Mechanisms. Further, technological advancement G. Kishore Babu from B-49 (Ground Floor), Joshi Colony, I.P. Extension, Delhi-110092 at Meenakshi Press, 4857/24, First such as India Disaster Resource Network, Development of GIS based Floor, Ansari Road, Dariyaganj, New Delhi - 110002 National Database for Disaster Management, Installation of Early Warning and Hazard Detection Equipment should be operational with Total number of Pages 140, including Covers utmost efficiency. The government should make National Disaster Copy Right : World Focus Management Plan highlighting the disaster prevention, mitigation and response. Efforts should be taken to make people aware of the disaster Our Address: management as a community movement so that they are encouraged World Focus to volunteer and assist the government whenever disasters occur and B-49, (Ground Floor) Joshi Colony, work hand in hand to mitigate the negative effects. I P Extension We are thankful to Prof. P.C. Joshi, Delhi University for planning and Delhi - 110092, India co-ordinating this issue as the Guest Editor. Tel. / Fax : 22246905, Mobile No. 8130754555 Email: [email protected] New Delhi G. Kishore Babu Website: www.worldfocus.in May 2016 Editor 3 Disaster Management and Mitigation Contents

Disaster Risk Reduction-Agenda before Academics, Policy Makers and Communities Prof R.B. Singh...... 5 Extreme Weather Events and the : Learning from the Recent Disasters Prof. P. C. Joshi...... 12 Cloud Bursts in Himalayan Region Prof. Umesh Kulshrestha and Anshu Sharma...... 17 The Saga of Natural Hazards and Disaster Management in India: A Brief Prognosis Prof. Tridib Chakaborti and Pratyay Dutta...... 21 Disaster Management and the Role of the State Prof. Manas Chakrabarty...... 29 Confronting Catastrophe: Reassessing India’s Disaster Management Prof. Abhik Ghosh...... 36 Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Dr. Sanju Gupta...... 43 Nuclear Disaster Management- Past, Present and Future Dr. Vichitra Gupta...... 55 Community in Disaster Management: Some Lessons from Odisha Dr. Sabita Harichandan...... 62 Nuclear Disasters across the Globe:Lessons and Imperatives for India Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta...... 69 Mitigating Greenhouse Gases in the Paris Agreement: A Case of New Market Mechanism Dr. Vijeta Rattani...... 77 Locating Gender within the Realm of Natural Disasters Dr. Kalindi Sharma and Prof. P. C. Joshi...... 83 Floods in Valley: A note on the Disaster and Conflict Interface Urfat Anjem Mir and Sombala Ningthoujam...... 88 Vulnerability of Women in Disaster: A Glance at Kosi Floods Dr. Minakshi and Prof. P. C. Joshi...... 92 () Flash Floods of 2010: A Case Study Sonam Joldan and Urfat Anjem Mir...... 97 Various Mechanisms of Disaster Mitigation and Management Dr. Prashant Khattri...... 100 Anthropological Perceptions of Disaster, Vulnerability and the Society Sapam Ranabir Singh...... 107 Extreme Events and Adaptation in Himalayan Region: Issues and Strategies Md. Arif Husain and Pankaj Kumar...... 112 Disaster Management and Technology Subhash Anand, Usha Rani and Mijing Gwra...... 117 Basumatary Community-based Disaster Management Nirbhav and Yuthika Agarwal...... 122 Concepts and Practices of Disaster Management Nikhil Roy and Bindhy Wasini Pandey...... 127 India-Bangladesh Disaster Management in Sundarbans Delta Dr Anna Nath Ganguly...... 130 4 World Focus May 2016 Disaster Risk Reduction- Agenda before Academics, Policy Makers Prof. R.B. Singh

Disaster Risk Reduction and Global Initiatives climate induced disasters together with opportunity According to recent World Disaster Reports the to initiate mitigation and adaptation. Geographers and percentage of occurrences of flood is highest (43 per other scientific and social science communities are cent) with 3062 occurrences of the total disasters preparing to contribute towards these global and UN during 1995-2015 followed by storms (28 per cent) initiatives. with 2018 occurrences. The volcanic activities have the lowest occurrence of only 111 events (2 per cent). UNISDR-UN Focal Point on Disaster Matter Others include earthquake (8 per cent), extreme The first UNISDR Science and Technology temperature (6 per cent), landslide (5 per cent), Conference, which drew 700 delegates to Geneva drought (5 per cent) and wildfire (4 per cent). during 27-29 January, 2016, was held to take action According to EM-DAT CRED the hydrological and on the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction meteorological disasters are causing loss of about (DRR), a 15-year global agreement that aims to curb USD 250 million every year. The analysis of losses deaths and economic losses from natural and man- due to natural disasters shows that the losses due to made hazards. The conference was participated by hydrological and meteorological have increased over 65 agencies, scientific networks and sharply after 1990’s. The floods have caused organization. Special Representative of the UN agriculture losses in India amounting USD 5.3 billion Secretary General on Disaster and The head of the during 2009-2013. Kenya has lost USD 10.5 billion UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), during the same period due to drought. Other countries Dr. Robert Glasser, mentioned out that the Partnership with agriculture losses due to natural disasters are will be the key for achieving the targets of the Sendai , Philippines, Thailand, Yemen, Uganda, Framework by 2030. He underlined that reducing Indonesia, and Colombia. disaster risk was part of the wider global agenda of making sustainable development and tackling the For mitigating disasters, global scientific impacts of climate change. Over 100 million people communities are preparing for six important initiatives are affected by disasters every year, with extreme i.e. International Council of Science supported core weather and climate-related events accounting for projects-1. Health and Wellbeing in Changing Urban 90 per cent of natural hazards. Environment, 2. Future Earth Initiative 3. Integrated Research on Disaster Risk (IRDR). Similarly, the “I would like to take a moment for us to Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction consider the profound responsibility that the science 2015-2030, which is an outcome of inter- and technology sector, and all of us, have for reducing governmental negotiations from July 2014 to March disaster risk – we are looking at nothing short of a 2015, was initiated and supported by the UNISDR transformation in the way we go about economic, for Disaster Risk Reduction at the request of the UN social and environmental development,” said Dr. General Assembly. In Geneva, Switzerland during 27- Glasser. “This transformation is pertinent to both 29 January, 2016 a conference on role of Science developing and developed countries because this issue and Technology was organized aiming to promote the truly affects us all. We are not going to meet this Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction. challenge by only responding to disasters, as important Recently, the UN has passed resolution to implement as that is; rather, we have to transform the way we Sustainable Development Goals on 25th September, plan at the local, national, regional and international 2015 adopted by the 193 countries of the UN General levels, and science and technology will be very Assembly. COP - 21 brought problems related to important for this.”

Disaster Risk Reduction-Agenda before Academics, Policy Makers 5 “A resilient community is a community that knows With the help of super-imposed images of what it could so, because the science and data is population distribution, population density, seismic there for it to have,” said Professor Virginia Murray, activities and vulnerability, it is reflected that the Chair of the conference organizing committee, Vice- maximum areas of Himalayan region are most chair of the STAG and Consultant in Global Disaster susceptible to earthquakes. Many large cities are also Risk Reduction for Public Health England. Apart from situated in the foothills of Himalaya and posing high the focuses of the partnership , how technology such level of risks in urban environments. Multiple minor as earth observation from space or geographical plate boundaries in the region can be traced. During information systems, as well as methods such as 2015 earthquake, the districts of Sindhupal cloud-sourcing to helpful to assess vulnerability – chowk, Kathmandu, Nuwakot, Dhading, Bhaktapur, the overall goal being to improve risk assessment, Gorkha, Kavre, Lalitpur and Rasuwa were most strengthening of standards, collection of data and the affected areas. UNICEF announced that close to 1 deployment of efficient early warning systems million children were “severely affected” by the together with emergency response. In addition, it brings disaster. The death toll in Nepal has crossed 7,000. together a vast range of disciplines, from the ultra hi- The UN Agencies argued that the earthquake tech through to social work research. affected about 8 million people out of 28 million people “Implementation of the Sendai Framework will rely of Nepal. Thus, we have to learn to live with on integrated and multi-disciplinary research that Earthquake in South Asia where Multi-pronged bridges social and natural sciences and uses both Strategy Required for Preparedness, Prediction, quantitative and qualitative data. It will rely on applied Surveillance, Structural Reinforcement and Insurance science that connects the macro to the micro,” said Dr. Glasser. Mechanisms of Earthquakes in Himalayan Zone About 80 per cent of the world’s seismic energy for Recent Earthquake Disasters in India and shallow earthquakes as well as most of the energy in Nepal intermediate and deep focus earthquake are released Over the past decade, the number of natural and man- at the plate boundaries. The Himalayan mountain made disasters has increased significantly. The types range dramatically demonstrates one of the most of disaster, their intensity and frequency have visible and spectacular consequences of plate increased manifold over the past few decades. The tectonics. This is known as convergent plate motions, biggest increase was observed in countries of low where crust is destroyed as one plate subducts under human development, which suffered an increase of another. The recent Nepal Earthquake is also a result 142 per cent. This is attributed to population increase of denser Indian plate subduction under lighter and standard of living. Of the total geographical area, Eurasian Plate. 85 per cent of India’s land is prone to various kinds of disasters. Of this, nearly 59 per cent of the Indian Response of 2015 Nepal Earthquake- More land mass is susceptible to seismic hazard (moderate, people die from Building Collapse than the high and very high zone). Dangers from earthquakes Tremors in the Himalayan region in general and South Asian It is necessary to co-ordinate the relief and aid mega-cities in particular are very high. This is packages amongst different countries. Cracks and exacerbated due to the dense clusters of population, damaged runway also hindered relief efforts at the lack of awareness and prevalent poverty. Recently, Kathmandu airport. Armed forces, para-military, occurrence of frequent tremors poses a great medicine, government and self-help groups should challenge. As recent earthquakes in Nepal and India work in an integrated manner for response, rescue, caused large scale loss of human life and damage to resettlement and rehabilitation of disaster victims. properties through direct and indirect impacts like Nepal has been shaken by around 70 aftershocks faulting, cracks, upheaval, subsidence and dislocation that time. Indian Government Response was quick etc., it is high time to foremost importance of disaster and effective for rescue and relief. Other countries prediction, monitoring and mitigation. like China and international communities joined immediately. Multi-dimensional livelihood framework

6 World Focus May 2016 can play an instrumental role for rehabilitation beyond scholar is exploring earthquake prediction based on rescue and relief. Each Himalayan thrust line like gravitational study. High Himalayan Crust Line sequence and India – Cultural- Due to movement and change in behavior Tsangpo Suture Zone should be dealt with of animals, ants and birds, a few extreme events i.e. consideration of Main Boundary Thrust, Main Central earthquake were predicted in some countries and loss thrust and Sarchu Fault to study Himalayan micro of human lives were reduced. It is pertinent to mention vulnerability, mapping and monitoring. Earthquake that unusual behaviors were noticed among elephants Processes and Modeling (EPM) and Analyses of in Sri Lanka during last Indian Ocean Tsunami. data sets could greatly help in improving the understanding about the earthquake processes in the Earthquake Surveillance inter-plate and intra-plate seismic regimes structure This system will help a better understanding of the in susceptible regions for further enhancing location and interaction of seismogenic structures, preparedness. which allow to target in a more proficient way the routine activities of seismic monitoring. Selection of Mapping Vulnerable Structure and Materials appropriate seismogenic zones based on regional Using Remote Sensing and GIS tectonic, geologic and physiographic features and the The historical locations and zone of influence of the regional historical seismicity patterns. Monitoring fault earthquakes can be mapped using remote sensing zone is also promising approach in order to improve and geographical information system to understand our understanding about earthquake surveillance. the trend and patterns of the disasters. The fault lines and lineaments can be monitored through Ground Refining the Seismic Micro-zonation: Penetrating Radar (GPR) for micro-zonation Earthquake Hazard and Risk Assessment (EHRA) mapping. This preliminary exercise along with the unit is currently engaged in refining the seismic micro- earthquake prone maps can be effectively utilized zonation in India particularly in NCT of Delhi on for disaster preparedness and mitigation. It is well- 1:10,000 scale. Action has also been initiated for taking known fact that more people die from building collapse up micro-zonation of other important cities of South than the tremors. It is said that mud houses own by Asia under Bureau of Indian Standards IS-1893 – poor people kill more people and cement houses own part – 1: 2002. It is important to incorporate socio- by rich people save people. This fact is applicable for economic indicators like education, level of poverty all the less developed countries like India and Nepal. and awareness in this process. In this context, strict rules regarding construction locations, material and technology are needed for Lessons Learned: Earthquake Preparedness in reducing the deaths from building collapse. Mega Cities like Delhi-Agenda before Government and Communities Techniques for Earthquake Prediction Delhi is experiencing frequent tremors in recent days. Scientific: Many scientists of France, Japan French Many people believe that energy release through and few other developed countries have used satellites these tremors reduces the risk for earthquake but data for earthquake prediction. We must use and this assumption is not based on definite proposition. explore the viability of Synthetic Aperture Radar Based on assessment of poor status of earthquake (SAR) sensor data. The study has taken into account preparedness and delaying in response of the actual imaging of the earthquake with the help of government in dealing with rescue and relief ERS-1 satellite. Another technique of the morpho- operations in past earthquakes, the need of the hour structured zoning map preparation of the entire is to review the vulnerability maps of the city. Delhi country through Geodetic Very Long Baseline is presently in Zone IV of seismic zones of India. Interferometry (VLBI) in order to estimate the hazard The magnitude of the probable earthquake will range accurately and thereby make adequate warning between 5 to 6 Richter scale which could be possible. Pattern Mapping of Earthquake cycle may extremely devastating in the present state of be also useful for predicting earthquake. French preparedness in Delhi. The loopholes are both in the physical structures like houses, buildings, old bridges,

Disaster Risk Reduction-Agenda before Academics, Policy Makers 7 heritage monuments etc. and human awareness is for making safe shelter and displaced people should extremely poor in regard to earthquake related be rehabilitated adequately. This issue should be taken information in view of evacuation, prevention, into consideration and implemented in all metropolitan emotional development etc. Following do’s should and mega cities. be kept in mind while preparing an earthquake preparedness plans and policies in Delhi: Earthquake Mitigation (i) Monitoring epicenter of the east regularly: Earthquake mitigation includes structural and non- Considering existence of Fault Zone in Eastern Side structural measures. Structural measures are those of the Delhi and Dadri in UP, it is necessary to monitor that strengthen the home and make it more resilient regularly. to earthquake damage. Non-structural measures (ii) Retrofitting of old buildings: It is difficult and include household preparedness or make the contents expensive to built all new structures in old buildings, of the house less susceptible to damage. This also so, it is important to incorporate safety measures by includes the purchase of earthquake insurance. In incorporating pillar and Beam support in present India, we have not focused so far on this issue. buildings by providing with the fire safety measures and suitable protection fittings for expensive items. Well-connected Network of Lifelines and (iii) Installation of Isolator like Japanese Communication Buildings: On the pattern of Japanese Techniques, Telecommunication networks are first to be affected Isolator be installed between building and ground to by earthquake so, it is very important to provide reduce vibration in order to reduce loss during satellite telephones to the district collectors so that a earthquake. link with the affected area can be made instantly in (iv) Strict implementation of building codes for case of a disaster. Mobile hospitals should be installed construction of new houses and buildings: All in threat prone areas. new houses that are being constructed or will be Securing Underground Urban Facilities constructed should follow earthquake resistant Underground urban facilities like underground metro Building codes. Clearance certificate should be only rails, shopping malls are vulnerable and require special issued when the buildings are safe from any kind of attention. disaster. Special care relating to earthquake resistant Use of Solar and Wind Energy during Emergency building should be made while constructing hospitals, On the pattern of Japanese Tsunami affected areas, schools etc. solar energy may be useful on the time of earthquake (v) Assessment of landscape synthesis for emergency. building construction in trans-Yamuna Areas: Land suitability evaluation should be done before Keeping Permanent Disaster Management construction of high rising buildings and housing Team equipped with suitable infrastructures for complexes particularly in trans-Yamuna areas. Flood Mega Cities plains, reclaimed waterlogged areas, geologically Infrastructures in form of trained manpower and weak areas should be avoided for construction of instruments to detect live humans and livestock who high rising built up structures, instead these areas are buried beneath the debris of fallen buildings, are should be used for construction of recreational needed. Trained dogs that can sniff living human activities like parks, stadiums, picnic spots or single beings and animals under the debris may be increased. storey buildings which are made by strictly following building codes. Animal Safety together with Special Needs of (vi) Development of open spaces for safe Vulnerable Groups shelter: Parks, green tracks, broad roads should be Animals are often ignored during rescue and relief made which could act as refuge zones particularly in operation. Special task force needs to be established Old Delhi, Paharganj Karol Bag, Jahangir Puri, under National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) Shahdara etc. In Delhi, many such localities, rescue for animal safety together with tackling special needs work is very difficult due to narrow and congested of vulnerable groups like old age group, child, women street. In such situation, a building can be demolished and disable groups.

8 World Focus May 2016 Continuous Relay through Media about Do’s models predicting long term scenarios from 1970 to and Don’ts 2100 suggested further rise in extreme weather events Regular talks and advertisements on do’s and don’ts in the region. In view of these climate changes in during disaster situation should be a part of daily life. Himalaya, micro level studies produced evidence to The information can be disseminated through radio, strengthen the case for community’s adaptive television and advertisements in cinema halls. capacities and resilience to combat the menace of Earthquake Insurance climate change. Emphasis is laid on the fact that local On the pattern of developed countries like USA and communities need to be mobilized and capacity Japan, insurance is considered as important mitigation building must be initiated urgently to generate measures. alternative modes of livelihood for sustainable Political Leaders/VIPs should not visit the area progress of societies. Studies from Kangra, Lahul- within few days of earthquake Spiti (Himachal Himalaya) and They should not visit affected areas immediately after ( Himalaya) confirm the evidence of the disaster so that rescue and relief should not climate change at micro level. These studies found concentrate around VIPs only. that climatic stress on agriculture/horticulture related livelihood practices (smaller duration of cropping Curriculum Development and Role of season and fall in yields per hectare) in the region Educational Institutions, Policy Makers and have increased. Furthermore, role of anthropogenic Community Leaders activities resulting into exploitation of natural • Appropriate, Indigenous and solution- ecosystem services in Himalayan Region were also orientated research for sustainability and cautioned. survivability, to fulfill human needs for food, water, shelter, energy, health and livelihood. Need for Community based Disaster • Accessible effective interdisciplinary Management collaboration within the arena of human Emphasis need to be provided on the identification of geosciences with physical, natural and social exposure, vulnerability and risk at local level taking sciences, humanities, geography, economics, and in consideration the social structure. Special attention available technological development, to find the need to be taken for women, children, elderly, suitable scientific solutions to multi-faceted problems. differently-abled people and animals. Urban centers • Available and timely information relating to in mountain areas due to expansion on unstable land disaster for decision/policy-makers by generating and increasing density are considered to be more the knowledge that will support existing and new global vulnerable. Resource inventory at local level should and regional integrated assessments for future needs. be promoted along with mapping of resources, • Increased capacity building through zonation of vulnerable areas at micro level viz. participation of policy-makers, academicians, panchayat or ward level. Strengthening the local level industrial establishment and other sectors of decision making institution and decisions should be civil society in science, technology and innovation, based on local knowledge, local resources and especially in developing countries and engagement technology. Local and low cost early warning system of a new generation of scientists. is urgently needed. Most importantly there should be • Teaching realistic ways of disaster uniformity of indicators in preparation of vulnerability preparedness Students should be trained as relief index in order to have better comparison among personnel. It should be made compulsory for all regions. students to learn the technique of preparation of first aid box. Involvement of NSS and NCC will be very Need for Science Advice during Emergency effective. Situation like Fire Tragedy Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation Emergencies arising during disaster events like Kerala Needed for Disaster Risk Reduction fire emergency where more than 110 people died, The recent studies highlight the changing climate in need to be managed efficiently in order to minimize Himalayan ecosystems and increase in related losses, particularly in developing regions, religious challenges. Results from different sets of climate places, slums and informal settlements which Disaster Risk Reduction-Agenda before Academics, Policy Makers 9 generally lack scientific knowledge about fire disaster scientists in the field of emergency situations is emergencies. Management systems for fire urgently needed. These scientific practices together emergency situations include communication, with local knowledge should be learnt and adapted to procedures, manpower, materials, transportation, suit local conditions. Such innovative measures will recovery, evacuation plans and shelter. Various bring the responses of all stakeholders, particularly scientific measures can be taken pre, post and during youth, in an effective and responsible way. For quick fire emergency situations with the use of GPS and emergency management, measures include: GIS, especially for assessing vulnerabilities, risks of (i) Mapping My Neighbourhood for fire risk should various groups. be taken up by NCC, NSS, RWAs etc. (ii) Special focus on underdeveloped regions, religious NDRF/NDMA should locate important places, slums and informal settlements, industries and centres and institutions responding to the emergency Nuclear establishments. situation such as locating important and alternate (iii) Development of Community based Early Warning routes etc. Technology also helps in ensuring an System like Fire Indication System appropriate, evidence and needs-based approach to (iv) Promoting Self Sufficient Tools and Training the emergency situation. Rescue teams with (v) Reappraisal of Religious/Industrial Infrastructure appropriate scientific training facilities are necessary adapted to fire Disaster mitigation to cope with emergency situations. There is a need (vi) Special needs of vulnerable groups like child, to have a local and low cost early warning system in disable, old age people and women disaster prone areas. Many successful story which owes its success to a robust early warning system, Human Geosciences and Livelihood Security: should be disseminated widely. Map My Key to Local Level Preparedness Neighbourhood culture should be developed for The preferences for house and households, better particular tragedy involving communities, in order to means of communications, urban settlements, search supports decision making. Emphasis should be on the of need jobs and infrastructural development are use of information and communication technology for among the driving factors responsible for the damage swift response during emergency situations like the during the disasters. Changes occurring in personal use of mobile applications, etc. Geo-based relation are key points that have held responsible for information and communication technology and radio the present scenario. In this context, it is important to frequency communication could be used to spread attach people with nature create awareness through awareness amongst the general public as to the Panchayati (local level governance) institutions. response and practices that should be adopted to Better forward and backward linkages need to be mitigate these emergencies such as use of fire established to facilitate entrepreneurial development. resistant cloth and materials for rescue. These Efforts and initiatives should be taken to promote technologies could also be harnessed to ensure traditional knowledge and wisdom. Due care should effective coordination between agencies and be taken to preserve tribal tradition and culture. organisations in order to ensure high mobility as Institutions of social sector like health and education quickly as possible. Along with technological should be qualitatively developed and proper advancement it is necessary to harness local awareness on health and hygiene among the people knowledge and traditional mitigation techniques for living in remote area must be created. Increasing better results. Also these technologies could be used resilience is very important, where alternative to ensure the participation of various stakeholders, livelihood will strengthen their community security. particularly the science community in preparing Livelihood in the Himalaya is based on livestock, emergency mitigation and preparedness plans. The farming and tourism. The local people work on their role media can play during emergency situations is land resources and never leave the area. As one goes also crucial for disaster risk reduction. A robust on north to south Himalaya the livelihood security vulnerability and risk database and resource inventory differs along with the level of education. Out-migration would be a great asset in dealing with emergency should be stopped or minimized, and the original situations. Adopting global/regional best practices by livelihood should be strengthened. The spatial variation

10 World Focus May 2016 in occurrence of disasters, need to be considered for Mobilizing Youth for Disaster Risk Reduction livelihood security. Time has come to encourage research students and young scientists to submit their M.Phil./Ph.D. Health and Wellbeing as an Indicator of Disaster research findings through policy briefing documents Risk Reduction in order to contribute towards policy design, Health is a very dynamic phenomenon where it varies implementation, monitoring and review. Youth should from person to person and from region to region. The be guided properly and to provide them with career problem regarding health in Himalaya varies with opportunities so the out-migration could get controlled. those in the plain areas. Wellbeing is a combination The role of young scientist in strengthening the of all sort of requirement that a person is needed in evidence based implementation of DRR is crucial. terms of basic needs, housing, livelihood sources, UN Major Group on Children and Youth (UNMGCY) availability of water sources at their vicinities, source launched platform which will narrow the gap between of education and many more. The issues and DRR-related science and policy. Furthermore, it aims challenges for the researchers are to study the health to promote capacity building, through mentoring problems separately at the lower part of the mountains programme, as well as providing opportunities for in comparison to that of the upper parts. Traditional young experts to showcase their research and valuable medicine and related industries in Himalaya should contributions. The platform is designed to trigger be promoted where participation of local communities international, inter-disciplinary, and inter-generational is required. Indicator of health and wellbeing should collaboration within young scientists themselves, as be matched or collaborated with those of the social well as with other institutions and experts working in and economic indicator so that better management the field of DRR in order to achieve better contribution could be practiced. Better waste management of science towards policy making and implementation practices should be promoted where more focus is of SFDRR. needed to those of the tourist behavior. Air lifting and implementation of some technologies should be used References Basher, Reid (2013) Science and Technology for Disaster Risk Reduction: A review of application and as secure measures to those of the more vulnerable coordination needs. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), Geneva Dimri, V.P. (2014) Challenges in Earth Science in the Next Decade. Proc Indian National Science areas. Academy, 80, pp. 21-22 Kumar, TN (2012) Managing disasters in India, Yojana, vol. 56, pp. 5-10 Ministry of Home Affairs (2005) National Report on Disaster Management in India. Government of India. Science-Policy Interface (SPI) for Bridging Gaps Dey, B. and Singh, R.B. :Natural Hazards and Disaster Management, CBSE, Delhi, pages 45, 2006. www.cbse.nic.in/natural%20hazards%20& %20disaster%20management.pdf (Internet Pub.) between Academic and Policy Communities Singh, R.B.: Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis, IGNOU PG Diploma in Disaster Management- MPA-003, New Delhi., pages 355, 2005. In developing countries like India, there exists big gap Sen Roy, S. And Singh, R.B.: Climate Variability, Extreme Events and Agricultural Productivity in Mountain Regions, Oxford & IBH Pub., New Delhi, pages 232, 2002. between scientists communities and policy makers. Singh, R.B.: Space Technology for Disaster Monitoring and Mitigation in India, INCEDE, Inst. Of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Pages 58, 1994. Inter-professional communication between policy Singh, R.B. : Urban Development Challenges, Risk and Resilience in Asian Mega Cities-Sustainable Urban Future of Emerging Asian Mega Region, Springer, Tokyo, 2015. makers, scientists, researchers and community actors Singh, R.B.: Natural Hazards and Disaster Management, Rawat Pub., Jaipur, Pages 352, 2006. Singh, R.B.: Disaster Management, Rawat Pub., Jaipur, pages 333, 2000. may help policymakers to establish evidence-based Singh, R.B.: Disasters, Environment and Development, New Delhi, Oxford & IBH Pub., Pages 600, 1996. best practice suggestions on policy implementation, Singh, R.B. and Grover, Aakriti (2015). Analysis of urban heat island (UHI) in relation to Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI): A comparative study of Delhi and Mumbai. Environments, 2, 125- monitoring and review; identify emerging challenges 138; doi:10.3390/environments 2020125. Singh, R.B., Grover, Aakriti and Zhan, Jinyan: Inter-Seasonal Variations of Surface Temperature in the and approaches in order to link Disaster Risk Urbanized Environment of Delhi Using Landsat Thermal Data, Energies 7, doi:10.33901en7031811, 2014. Reduction with COP 21 and sustainable development Singh, R.B. & Grover, Aakriti (2014). Remote sensing of urban microclimate with special reference to urban heat island using Landsat thermal data. Geographica Polonica, 87(4), 555-568, DOI: 10.7163/ goals. The Science-Policy Interface (SPI) has GPol.2014.38 Singh, R.B. and Suraj Mal: Trends and Variability of and other Rainfall Seasons in Western become an important instrument of sustainable Himalaya, Atmospheric Science Letters, DOI: 10.1002/asl2.494, 2014. Sahu, N., Behera, S.K., Ratnam, J.V., Da Silva, R.V., Parhi, P., Duan, W., Takara, K., Singh, R.B. and development. It provides the foundation for informed Yamagata, T.: El Nino Modoki Connection to Extremely-Low Streamflow of the Paranaiba River of Brazil, Climate Dynamics, DOI 10.1007/s00382-013-2006-3, 2014. decision making and participatory policies. It may Singh, R.B. and Singh, S.: Rapid Urbanization and Induced Flood Risk in Noida, India, Asian Geographer, Vol. 28, Issue 2, 2011, pp. 147-69. facilitates the use of science as an enabler in policy Goel, A. and Singh, R.B.: Climate Variability and Drought in , in Advances of Geosciences: Vol. 4: Hydrological Sciences (HS), Ed., World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, pp. 57-68, implementation for NITI Aayog. Subsequently, 2006. Southgate RJ, Roth C, Schneider J, Ship, Onishi T, Wenger D, Amman W, Ogallo L, Beddington J, National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) Murray V. (2013) Using Science for Disaster Risk Reduction www.preventionweb.net/go/scitech. UNISDR (2004) UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. Based on the 2004 Terminology: may implement identified priorities, thematic issues, Basic terms of disaster risk reduction: http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/lib-terminology- eng%20home.htm and devising solutions spatially. UNISDR (2011) Chair’s Summary of the third Session of the Global platform for Disaster Risk Reduction and World Reconstruction conference Geneva, 8-13 May 2011 “Invest today for a Safer tomorrow – Increase Investment in local action”. 2011. Available at: http://www.preventionweb.net/files/ 20102_gp2011chairssummary.pdf [accessed 8 April 2013]. UNISDR (2015) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 – 2030, Geneva

Disaster Risk Reduction-Agenda before Academics, Policy Makers 11 Extreme Weather Events and the Himalayas: Learning from the Recent Flood Disasters Prof. P. C. Joshi

Extreme weather events include a complex sensitive Yamuna flood plains which act a sponge set of hazards triggered due to change in temperature when the rain water pours in. The science of ground and resultant hydrological and meteorological water recharge is a very complex body of knowledge outcomes. The dominant forms of weather induced where the capacity of soil to absorb surface water is hazards include flood and storms but these also greatly dependent upon the sponginess of the soil and include extreme temperature (heat and cold waves), the existence of specific biotic environment conducive mass movement (land slides and avalanches) and to the groundwater recharge conditions. We need to drought as well. I am deliberately using the term be cautious in altering the land use in the sensitive hazard rather than disaster because the weather regions of groundwater recharge. related extreme events are natural phenomena as long as there is no human induced activity making The eco-sensitive Yamuna flood plain which them harmful for the human being and thus changing has already suffered serious onslaught during the them into disaster. This is precisely what has been Commonwealth Games is loosing its capacity to happening and has been the cause of concern for us. absorb water consistently which is not good news Two points are important at this juncture. Firstly, the for the people of Delhi and NCR. Such human weather related extreme events are increasing in interventions are increasing day by day thus making numbers. It could be due to many factors, climate it possible for the floods to change from mere hazards change being the foremost cause for this change. to catastrophic disasters. In urban areas in particular, The phenomenon such as El Ninos and La Ninas, whether it is Mumbai floods or the recent Chennai occurring due to warming and cooling of the Pacific deluge, the human interference in the smooth flow Ocean are certainly contributing to increase in the and adequate absorption of the excess water has been frequency and intensity of the extreme weather primarily responsible for the misery to the citizens of events. Secondly, the human created build up these mega-cities. Incidentally, the major impact of environment by means of damming rive waters, these disasters has been on the poor and marginal occupying flood plains, creating massive structures sections of the society in these places. along the coastal areas, destruction of mangroves and finally rapid urbanization resulting in obstruction of The Extreme Weather Events water channels are capable of turning hazards into The extreme weather events have been steadily disasters. Especially, the urban flood disasters in the increasing overall if we compare these with the developing countries are primarily caused due to geophysical disasters. The spurt in the case of urbanization and construction activities. weather related disasters, especially floods and storm is clearly seen since 1960s. In India, the total disaster It would be interesting to mention here the events between 1900 and 2010 were 581 of which impact of World Cultural Festival organized on the nearly two third (65.4 percent) constituted floods and flood plains of the river Yamuna recently which was storms (229 and 151, respectively). Between 1980 considered as a zero-disaster prone activity by the and 2010, when the recording of disaster events organizers. The mere fact that for creation of a became much more systematical and methodical, massive stage and making necessary sitting there have been a total of 431 extreme events arrangements for thousands of audiences, lot of recorded in India. Within these, floods and storms foreign material was brought in, the capacity of the consisted of 63 percent events (184 and 92, flood plain to absorb run off water was negatively respectively). But, if we include all the weather affected thus preventing water seepage in to the related extreme events like extreme temperature, 12 World Focus May 2016 landslides and drought, the percentage increases to percent of the total loss suffered due to disasters in 82 making weather related disasters as the dominant this period. The loss due to storms was 1,011 billion form of challenge being faced in India. It is very clear US $ while due to floods it was 662 billion US $. now that for disaster mitigation, we will primarily be Undoubtedly, the economic cost was very high for dealing with weather related disasters and the society the high income group countries (1,135 billion US $) will have to be made resilient to these. in comparison to the low income countries (40 billion US $). Yet, the impact of weather related disasters In a very important documents being released was very severe among the latter. The economic loss on the occasion of the 2015 United Nations as percentage of GDP was 25 times more among the Framework Convention on Climate Change low income countries as against the high income (UNFCCC), the human cost of weather related countries. The impact was only 0.2 percent of the disasters has been analyzed for the past twenty years GDP among the high income countries while it was 5 between 1995 to 2015 (CRED, 2015). It recorded percent of the GDP among the low income countries. that in the past twenty years, majority of disasters For example, in the Democratic People’s Republic (90%) were weather related consisting of 47 percent of Korea, 77% of the economic losses were due to floods and 40 percent storms. The flood incidences floods alone in 1995 to 2015 which was equivalent to have been steadily increasing from an average of the 33 percent of the country’s GDP on average. 127 events per year in the decade of 1995-2004 to 171 incidences per year in the decade of 2005-2014, The Vulnerability of the Himalayas an increase of 35 percent. Similarly, there has been Himalaya is an oversensitive geographical entity, a a four-fold increase in the average number of persons relatively young mountain formed by joining of the affected between the decade of 1995-2004 and 2005- two tectonic plates, that is, Eurasian and Indian plate 2014. It has increased from five and half lacs per around 50 million years ago. The Indian plate is still year to twenty two lacs per year. Between flood pushing the Eurasian plate towards the north and and storms there was a big difference in terms of the consequently Himalaya is rising at the rate of more number of people affected if we look at the overall than 1 centimeter per year and at the same time the numbers. The floods affected nearly three and a half effect of erosion and weathering is lowering its height times more number of people (230 crore) as against and thus the increase is nullified. The disaster profile storms (66 crores). However, storms were far more of Himalayas is alarming due to its over sensitive deadly than the floods killing nearly one a half times geomorphology and insensitive human interference. more people (2.42 lacs) than the floods (1.57 lacs). Himalayas therefore has been witnessing an average of 76 disaster events per year with more than 36,000 Weather related extreme events are really getting killed due to disaster every year and nearly coming as strong barrier in the path of development 18 crore getting affected. In general, the Himalaya in many low and low middle income countries. For is not a very high income region and therefore the instance, the African country of Eritrea got 31 percent disasters consistently affect the livelihood of the of its population affected by weather related disasters inhabitant severely, pushing them outside in search in the years 1995-2015 making every third person of of alternative employment. Entire Himalayas is the country being affected by such events. In witnessing such distressed migration (Anmol, 2011). Mongolia, 21 percent of people got affected by weather related disasters. China and India which Indian Himalayas is earthquake prone region have been facing the impact of weather related due to joining of the tectonic plates. Besides disasters the most, got 227.4 and 60.5 crore people earthquakes, the other prominent disasters affecting affected by weather related disasters, respectively. Indian Himalayas are landslides, Avalanches, Floods, Cloudburst, Soil Erosion and Forest Fire. In recent The economic cost of the weather related years, the impact of Hydrometeorological disasters disasters is also enormous. A loss of 1,891 billion US has been quite severe in the Himalayas. Between $ was estimated to be the economic loss due to 1990-2010, there have been 12 major rainfall events weather related disasters in 1995-2015. This was 71 in the Himalayas. The singular Glacial Lake Outburst

Extreme Weather Events and the Himalayas: Learning from the Recent Flood Disasters 13 flood had occurred in July 1991 at Maling in Himachal our strategy for development, how we need to prepare Pradesh. A large majority of hydrometeorological ourselves, what kind of early warning infrastructure events consisted of cloudburst – seven between 1997- is needed to be created in Himalayas? 2010 of which five were in Uttarakhand alone. There were five extreme events in and The Deluge one each in Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim and The Kedarnath disaster was a very serious Arunachal Pradesh. In general, the combined impact catastrophe which initially caused due to excessive of melting of glaciers and climate has led to formation rainfall leading to melting of glacier above Kedarnath of glacial lakes behind the moraine deposits. The resulting in release of large amount of water. formation of glacial lake having weak moraine dam Occurring on the 16th and 17th of June, 2013, the walls has been happening quite regularly now. In case excessive rainfall accompanied by the glacial lake of Nepal, in the last seventy years, the bursting of burst of moraine dammed Chorabari lake immediately glacial lake has occurred a total of 25 times resulting above the township of Kedarnath led to a condition in glacial lake outburst floods or GLOF (Mol, 2001). of sudden emptying of 400 meters long, 200 meters Nepal has faced five GLOFs in the sixties and four wide and 15-20 meters deep glacial lake within a spate in the eighties. These GLOFs are extremely perilous of 5-10 minutes resulting in an unprecedented deluge since such extreme events not only bring water down of immense power. The force of this high gradient with great force but also glacial debris destroying flash flood was huge as it destroyed the Mandakini downward structures under great speed. Looking banks between Kedarnath and Sonprayag engulfing the cumulative trend of GLOFs and flash floods, it is the entire townships of Kedarnath, Rambara and seen that the incidence of occurrence of GLOFs has Gaurikund. The magnitude of this disaster was so increased since 1965 and the flash floods have much that it was referred to as the Himalayan increased in frequency since 1980s. Tsunami. Whatever came in way of the flood was destroyed. The local economy thriving on the The increase in the occurrence of weather pilgrimage was totally shattered. A large number of related extreme events is indeed linked to relatively hotels, restaurants, houses, bridges, roads and other better reporting phenomenon but it is also true that form of build structures were raze to the ground. successive increase in global temperature due to Many people died in the tragedy but more serious climate change is also contributing to the dynamics was the fact that the dead bodies were lost in the of disasters. Thus, climate change caused due to deluge. As a result, till after one year the confirmed anthropogenic reasons is responsible for the change dead were only 169 people while 4,021 people were in the magnitude and intensity of the weather related missing (presumed dead). Among the missing, nearly extreme events. In the region of Himalayas, the 80 percent presumed dead were from other states weather related extreme events are also showing their while 846 were from Uttarakhand. The local ill-effects in the recent times. But, to blame the after economy which thrived on providing services to effects of disaster on the extreme events alone would pilgrims besides subsistence livelihood was completely be a very simplistic explanation. What is needed is a grounded. About 4,200 villages were affected in very detailed and intensive analysis of the weather Uttarakhand, 11,091 livestock were lost and 2,513 event impacts within the framework of human factors houses were completely destroyed. in causation, continuation and intensification of the effects. Two very recent extreme events, the flood In district, 54 school buildings events of Kedarnath and Kashmir, respectively were completely destroyed while 44 were partially require our keen attention in order to understand the damaged. Health facilities, which are very crucial at dynamic mechanism of climate change and human such moments, were also affected. Five health centers action inter phase contributing to emerging challenges were completely destroyed while four were partially to the disaster managements experts as well as the damaged. 119 kilometers of road in Rudraprayag was government functionaries and the lay public. These completely damaged with four motor bridges and 25 two disasters are eye openers in the sense that we bridle bridges being washed away. In the district of are alarmed by these disasters about what should be Rudraprayag, 330 concrete houses in rural areas and

14 World Focus May 2016 294 concrete houses in urban areas were fully was built around Kedarnath in the form of hotels, destroyed. The livelihood was badly affected as 1,040 restaurants, lodges and ashrams to accommodate hectares of crop areas was destroyed, 450 hectares thousands of pilgrims. The same was true of of areas got silted and 650 hectares of area got Rambara and Gaurikund. The risk assessment and completely washed away. The loss to horticulture in proper disaster management apparatus was not in Rudraprayag district was of 17.4 crores Indian place and consequently the harm of such a magnitude Rupees. The animal loss was also considerable in was witnessed in the district. The situation is aptly the district with a total of 4,301 animals dying due to summed up by Dobhal et al. (2013) “.. the risk of the floods. Interestingly, majority of the animals were natural disasters has increased in the area as a result sheep/goat who were in the forest and meadows at of increasing anthropogenic activities. This trend is that time. A total of 1,160 equines were also killed in likely to increase in future as the activities like this disaster, which were mainly used to transport the pilgrimage, tourism, etc. will increase. The natural pilgrims and supplies. Besides, 3,098 animals got slow path of the channels got obstructed due to injured in the flood. This was a big blow to the local construction of man-made structures that result in service economy. deviation of the flow from its natural course. Apprehending the tendency of increasing urbanization The disaster was so severe that there was due to increase in the number of pilgrims, tourists no immediate rescue as the potential first responders and other developmental activities in the area, were also victims and as a result the rescue has to selection of safe land-use locations would be a wait till appropriate time. In the flood, more than formidable task to accomplish”(p. 174). 70,000 tourists and 1,00,000 local residents were stranded. The rescue operation was so difficult that The Kashmir Flood the army and air force was pressed into service to do In the month of September, 2014 the event of heavy the rescue work. made 2,616 sorties rainfall resulted in flooding and landslide the region and evacuated 21,961 persons. The state government of Jammu and Kashmir. It all started on September hired private helicopters and made 2000 sorties to 2, 2014. By third September, 2014, the state had rescue 12,000 stranded people. The state government received 308 mm. rainfall but by September 6th it had further mobilized 72 helipads for evacuation and relief received 558 mm of rainfall inundating a large part of dropping supply dropping. A total of 5,000 vehicles the state (390 villages) and killing 150 people. In all, wee pressed into service to rescue 90,000 people. Srinagar received 3471 percent higher rainfall that the normal. In the city of Srinagar, heavy rain flooded The Kedarnath disaster occurred because large part inundating the Government Secretariat, of excessive rainfall and glacial lake burst but can Reserve Bank of India and Lal Chowk commercial the entire event be blamed on the forces of nature? locality. Some low lying localities of Srinagar such as Who is responsible for the untimely death of more Raj Bagh, Kursoo and Jawahar Nagar were inundated than four thousand people and loss of property and for nearly four weeks. It was identified as the worst assets of the poor villagers? The Kedarnath disaster flood in the last 50 years. The flood was declared was clearly not a natural disaster and human national emergency on the 7th of September. By this involvement in the disaster is clearly evident in the time 300 people had died and 25 suffered injuries. unfortunate death and devastation that we witnessed The economic loss of the deluge was huge, to the in the aftermath. The time has come when the tune of 5-6 thousand INR. anthropogenic causes of the disasters are investigated and the responsible people are identified and made The aggregated impact of the Jammu and accountable. Kedarnath means a marshy area, Kashmir floods was enormous. More than 2,500 major unstable for permanent construction. For centuries and minor roads were damaged. A large number of together, besides the temple not many built structures footbridges were washed away and more than 100 were there in tune with the geomorphology. However, motor bridges were damaged. According to SPHERE, in recent times there was heavy construction in the India nineteen and a half lac people were directly Kedar valley for the night stay of the pilgrims. A city affected by the floods and nearly eighty two lac people

Extreme Weather Events and the Himalayas: Learning from the Recent Flood Disasters 15 were indirectly affected by the floods. There are lesson is that the climate change is a reality and we several causes which can be identified as responsible need to prepare for more frequent and severe for the misery of the inhabitants of Srinagar. First of hydrometeorological hazards in the coming years. In all, the excessive rainfall which led to so much of the words of His Excellency Ban Ki-moon, the UN water that the capacity of the river to take it along General Secretary, “The clock is ticking towards was overwhelmed? The excessive rainfall made the climate catastrophe”. The upcoming extreme river Jhelum overflow between South Kashmir and weather related events are going to be unprecedented Srinagar city with nearly 150 breaches on its in nature requiring up gradation in our hazard embankments leading to flooding situation. At a place management efforts. The UNFCCC Paris meeting called Sangam, the water level crossed 36 feet on 5th is a welcome sign as the world community has September, 2014 which was much above the danger accepted this alarming situation. It is heartening that level. On 7th September, 2014 the water level at Ram in the Closing Address of the conference, Christiana Munshibagh, Srinagar crossed 30 feet mark, much Figueres, Executive Secretary, states, “It is an above the danger mark of 22 feet. The total water agreement of conviction. It is an agreement of discharge was to the tune of 70,000 cusecs, double solidarity with the most vulnerable”. The acceptance the normal discharge of 35,000 cusecs. However, we and agreement of the world community which can not wash over hand by calling the extreme event necessarily includes the rich and developed countries in Jammu and Kashmir as unprecedented and has given rise to new hope for a more secure future exceptional. of the poor and the less developed nations which are going to face the brunt of the climate change much The Indus Water Treaty is also responsible more severely. to some extent which prevents India to manage its water prudently. Notwithstanding the natural and legal Human interference in the smooth causes, the anthropogenic factors weigh much as management of weather related extreme events is contributing to the harm and destruction caused due the biggest impediment. The need and safety of the to the floods. First of all, there has been excessive people must be balanced with the greed and desire mining of the river beds which is directly linked to the of the rich and capable. We have to audit our land construction boom that is witnessed all over India. use and environment management. The time has The other major anthropogenic cause relates to human come for seriously adopting the sustainable greed which is responsible for usurping of the flood developmental practices. Therefore, appropriate land plains which absorb the excess water thus preventing use planning and enforcement of land use regulations, the devastating floods. The case in point is the early warning systems, hazard risk management wetlands of Srinagar which have been continuously systems have to be put in place for effective shrinking in the recent past. For example, as per the management of the natural resources. We must try estimation of the Centre for Science and Environment, to make a disaster free society by incorporating the nearly fifty percent of the lakes, ponds and wetlands right lessons learnt from the past mistakes. Lastly, in have been converted into habitational areas in the the path of making the society free of disasters, we past century. The drainage capacity of Jhelum river must try to become risk-phobic society rather than a has been severely compromised due to rampant risk-loving one. Unfortunately, in India people love construction of buildings in the wetlands of Srinagar. to take risk. Not only people but even the governments In a report by the Bombay Natural History Society, it love to take risk. Possibly, the karma theory has been revealed that the Wular Lake which was at encourages us to do so. But, in facing of disasters, it one time spread over 20,000 hectares has now shrunk is better to fear and respect impending danger rather to merely 2,000 hectares. than being complacent and oblivion to the danger.

The Lessons References Anmol. 2011. Labour Migration and Remittances in Uttarakhand – Case Study Report. ICIMOD, Both the Kedarnath and Kashmir floods teach us Kathmandu, Nepal. CRED. 2015. The Human Cost of Weather Related Disasters 1995-2015. Centre for Research on the some very important lessons which may go a long Epidemiology of Disasters, Brussels, Belgium. Dobhal, D. P., A. K. Gupta, M. Mehta and D. D. Khandelwal. 2013. Kedarnath Disaster : Facts and way in management of flood disasters. The first Plausable Causes. Current Science. 104, 2: 171-174. Mool, P. 2001. Glacial Lake and Glacial lake Outburst Floods. ICIMOD Mountain Development Profile, Kathmandu, Nepal. 16 World Focus May 2016 Cloud Bursts in Himalayan Region Prof. Umesh Kulshrestha and Anshu Sharma

Introduction lightning lasting for few hours (Sravan Kumar et.al, The Himalayan range is the youngest with highly 2012, IMD 2010, Das et al., 2006). It is caused by active mountains on the earth. These mountains have rapid decline in temperature or excess of electrostatic assumed a greater importance by regulating the induction creating high intermolecular forcing between weather of northern Indian subcontinent since times H2O molecules. With the lightning being trapped immemorial (Kumar et al., 2010). However, the inside the cloud, the hyperactive energy increases the inherent geological and anthropogenic influences has density of water molecule, thereby, resulting in its increased its susceptibility of these ranges to the rapid condensation within the cloud itself (Upadhyay hazards of landslides, failure of natural dams, glacial 1995). Hence, extreme rainfall events associated lakes outburst, flash flood, debris flows and cloud with cloudbursts occurs during the interaction of strong bursts (Kumar et al., 2010). The frequency and the monsoon circulation with the mid latitude westerly impact of such extreme events have drastically system over the region of complex orography such affected the vulnerability of their already fragile as Himalayas and Western Ghats. The intensity of ecosystems by many folds (Joshi et al., 2006). This cloud bursts is further added up by several steep is quite evident from its shifting patterns in the land convections. These convective clouds can, therefore, use and land cover changes (LULCC) which is known extend up to an altitude of 15 km. to be a major reason for such extreme events in the mountains. As defined by Orlanski (1975), the event of cloud bursts usually occurs in the scales of meso- The complex orography in the northern Indian gamma (2–20 km) scale. Houze (1993) has discussed states significantly influences these extreme events the dynamics of cloud-producing airflow induced by especially during summer monsoon trend when north- mountains. The orographic lifting of moist air releases westerly air masses start moving up with huge amount necessary energy known as convective available of moisture. Such air mass having high moisture potential energy (CAPE) that are responsible for results in heavy precipitation over that very specific causing cloudburst. Though the cloud dynamics and location (Kumar et al., 2010). Hence, most of the their orographic interactions are very much understood pouring takes place over the valley regions itself by by their complexity, the thermodynamic and the interaction of the monsoon currents with mountain orographic forcing are also being recognized for their slopes. Thus, these hazards are being reported every role in cloudburst (Das et al. 2006). Several workers year from the Himalayas that are causing huge loss have demarked Indian summer monsoon (ISM) of human lives and their property. Most of these relationship with Himalayan topography (Anders et damages stems from cloud burst subsequently leading al. 2006; Bookhagen and Burbank 2006; Barros et to flash floods and landslides that eventually affects al. 2006; Bookhagen et al. 2005; Barros and Lang the normalcy of life through communication failure, 2003; Kriplani et al. 2003; Barros et al. 2000; narrowing of road breath, difficulty in flood supply Bhaskaran et al. 1996). During the cloud burst, entire etc. cloud water is precipitated to the ground in the form of torrential rains. More than 2cm of rain fall could Cloud Burst occur in a few minutes during such event (Govind et. The ‘Cloud-Burst’ is a localized weather phenomena al, 2012). The droplet size of their precipitation is resulting in extremely heavy rainfall (>100 mm h-1) about 4 ~ 6 mm, which can fall at a speed of 10 ms1 over a very small area (~ 20–30 km2). It is a short (Singh and Sen 1996). period event characterized by strong winds and

Cloud Bursts in Himalayan Region 17 The cold pool strength is contributed by the condensation of water molecules in the absence of a cloud microphysical process (Rajeevan et al., 2010). foreign particle. Rather it is facilitated by the presence Several studies have reported sensitivity of cloud of particulate known as the “cloud condensation microphysics for extreme heavy rainfall forecasts by nuclei” (CCN) which triggers condensation of using various schemes of microphysics and cumulus supersaturated water vapors. The most common parameterization in WRF mesoscale model (Deb et particles acting as CCN are the soluble gases, al. 2008; Kumar et al. 2008). especially NH3, HNO3 vapour and HCl which can facilitate droplet formation by their dissolution in Effects of aerosols on cloud formation nascent droplets, thereby, adding to the solute amount Atmospheric aerosols have signature impacts on in the droplet (Kulmala et al., 1993; Kulmala et al., radiative energy budgets of the Earth surface 1998; Hegg, 2000; Nenes et al., 2002). Organic (Houghton et al., 2001; Andreae et al., 2005; IPCC, aerosols can also influence CCN activity by the 2007). These aerosols have significant effect on contribution of their soluble matter known for reducing climate through direct or indirect radiative forcing. tension and surface formation of hydrophobic surface Direct effect is related to the interaction of radiation films (Kanakidou et al., 2005). Soluble hydrophilic with the aerosols while indirect effect is related to organics of low molecular weight (such as modifying the abundance and properties of clouds by saccharides, levo glucosan, short-chain mono- and albedo. However as a cloud condensation nucleus dicarboxylic acids) are provided by the inorganic salts. (CCN), the contribution of these aerosols is known more for regulating the properties of clouds (Rosenfeld Water soluble organic compounds (WSOC) et al., 2008; Clement et al., 2009). CCN are those of atmospheric aerosols have shown behavior similar particles which have the potential to nucleate liquid to humic-like substances (HULIS) with moderate cloud droplets. The aerosols are capable to induce water uptake below 100% RH. Thus, uptake of water the ice crystal formation are known as as ice nuclei vapor by particles can also be inhibited by organic (IN). At higher concentrations of CCN in air, clouds compounds at RH below 100% due to the presence are dominated by smaller cloud droplets, which slow of hydrophobic coatings (Saxena and Hildemann, down formation of raindrops, through coalescence 1996). But in the supersaturated regime, the presence (Squires, 1958). This results in the precipitation of of hydrophobic and sparingly soluble substances shallow and short-lived clouds (Warner, 1968). delays the process of droplet nucleation rather than inhibiting its formation (Hegg et al., 2001; Feingold Low concentration of CCN in air on the other and Chuang, 2002; Raymond and Pandis, 2002; hand, triggers more rapid formation of rain even in Raymond and Pandis, 2003; Shantz et al., 2003). deep convective clouds. Such clouds are formed in However, particles with a thick coating of stearic acid the tropics, as well as in the mid-latitudes during (a solid at room temperature) or soot particles summer. During rain delays, the condensate of ice containing high fraction of nonvolatile organics can hydrometeors are formed which release the latent suppress the nucleation process (Abbatt et al., 2005; heat of freezing aloft. Their melting results in the heat Petzold et al., 2005). The substances that do not go re-absorption but at lower energy levels. The process, into solution, but are wettable can also facilitate droplet therefore, results in a more upward heat transport nucleation as they reduce surface curvature (Abbatt for the same amount of surface precipitation. This et al., 2005).Initial formation of droplet need some static energy is converted to an equally enhanced placed for nucleation until which any water vapor amount of released kinetic energy which triggers the cannot condense. Initial embryos have shown convection lead to more precipitation (Rosenfeld, saturation ratio of 3.5-8 for the formation of droplets. 2006). The saturation ration is defined as the actual vapor pressure divided by the equilibrium vapor pressure Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) over a flat surface. In the Earth’s atmosphere, cloud droplets or ice particles are not formed by the homogeneous Thus, CCN are a highly variable subset of nucleation of supersaturated water vapor, i.e., the ambient aerosol population and not just a fixed,

18 World Focus May 2016 special type of particle. Size, solute content, the impacts (Davies and Cahill, 2000). However, presence of surface-active or slightly soluble increasing globalization has resulted in the present substances, the wettability and shape of insoluble tourism sector involving large convoyas of automobile particles as well as the presence of soluble gases and huge energy consumption in hotels etc. Much of together influence the fate of a particles as a CCN at the tourism-related air pollution is known to be a given supersaturation contributed by the automobile activites (Andereck, 1993). These local emission sources of gaseous and Cloud burst events in Himalayan region particulate pollutants along with the transboundary There have been several events in the past where transport has, therefore, contributed significantly to life and property were damaged by the hydro- the CCN formation and events of cloud bursts. meteorological calamities in the Himalaya (Sharma et al., 2012, Haritashya et al., 2006) (Table 1). Of the Prediction of cloudbursts 475 rain gauge station in Himalayas, 357 have already Prediction of cloudbursts is not an easy task. High- recorded one-day extreme rainfall events in excess performance computers forecasting of cloud burst of 250 mm between the years 1871–2007. Most of requires high-resolution numerical modeling, the affected states were located between the Siwaliks mesoscale observations and Doppler weather radar and the Higher Himalayan ranges. However, such etc. Though a computer prediction can reduce losses, events are being reported more frequently from either education and training of local administrators can also the south of the Higher Himalaya or at the foothills be helpful for providing short-notice warnings of of Siwaliks. This quite evident from the human disaster mitigation in the absence of a reliable forecast. induced severity of several cloud burst events explained quite abundantly by Kulshrestha (2016). Measures to control Table 1 Recent events of extreme rainfall, major Some of the suggested measures are as fellow- flash floods and cloudbursts in the Himalaya 1. Since landslides is the major common problem, (Dubey et al., 2013). avoid the settlements in landslide prone zones. 2. The drainage system should be repaired and Affected area Date Type changed time to time so as to avoid the impact of Maling, Himachal Pradesh 31 July,1991 GLOF/flash flood landslide to the main channel. Jhakri, Himachal Pradesh 24 Feb,1993 Landslide 3. On the vulnerable slopes, some area treatment Tehsil, Himachal Pradesh 11 Aug,1997 Flash flood may be applied. Chandmari, Sikkim 9 June, 1997 Cloudburst 4. People at high altitude need to be aware about Guptkashi–Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand 11–19 Aug.1998 Extreme rainfall/ new technologies for constructing houses with landslide Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand 16 July, 2001 Cloudburst/landslide minimum load and waste disposal. Tehri, Uttarakhand 31 Aug,2001 Cloudburst 5. Stop throwing plastic waste in drainage as most Tehri, Uttarakhand 10 Aug, 2002 Cloudburst of the times, it chokes the drainage which triggers Kullu, Himachal Pradesh 16 July, 2003 Coudburst the landslides. Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh 17 July, 2004 Extreme rainfall 6. Advance warning should be given in time. Bhavi village, Himachal Pradesh 14 Aug, 2007 Cloudburst 7. Provide meteorological forecast to local people Leh, Ladakh, J&K 6-8 Aug,2010 Cloudburst as quickly as possible. Almora and Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand 18–19 Sept, 2010 Cloudburst Rudraprayag 14 September, 2012 Cloudburst Conclusion Kedarnath 15 June, 2013 Cloudburst/flood It has been realized that in the recent past, to some extent, the increasing number of cloud burst events Air quality of Himalayan region in Himalayan region is the results of increasing For the past few decades, the Himalayas has been pollution load at high altitude areas. Increasing tourism witnessing an increased level of air pollution from activity not only causes heavy traffic, road depletion, the local as well as the long distance pollution sources. deforestation, choking drainage system but also Earlier, tourism activity was considered to be a contribute high amount of fine aerosols. These fine “smokeless” industry with insignificant environmental particles, in turn, acts as a CCN resulting in cloud

Cloud Bursts in Himalayan Region 19 formation which is one of the reason why cloud burst Houghton, J.T., et al. (Ed.), 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution Of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of phenomenon frequency has increased quite the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University dominantly in the Himalayan region with orographical Press, Cambridge, UK. 881 pp. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): Climate Change 2007 features. – The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC,Cambridge, Cambridge University References: Press, 2007. Joshi, V., 2013. Extreme Rainfall Events and Associated Natural Hazards in Abbatt, J.P.D., Broekhuizen, K., Kumal, P.P., 2005. 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Disaster is a sudden, calamitous event mitigation is being institutionalized into development bringing great damage, loss, destruction and planning. In reference to the context of the natural devastation to life and property. WHO defines disaster in recent times the Finance Commission of Disaster as “any occurrence, which causes damage, India makes recommendation with regard to ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration devolution of funds between Central Government and of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to State Government as also outlays for adequate relief warrant an extraordinary response from outside the and proper rehabilitation. The Government of India affected community or are.”1 India has been has also issued strict guidelines that where there is a traditionally vulnerable to natural disaster on account self of projects and those projects which would of its unique geo-climate conditions. Floods, droughts, address mitigation will be given adequate priority. It cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been has also been mandated that each projects in a hazard recurrent phenomena. For example a recent report prone area will have disaster prevention /mitigation on natural calamity suggests about 60% of the as a term of reference and the project documents landmass is prone to earthquake of various intensities, has to reflect as to how project addresses the term over 40 million hectares is prone to floods, about 8% of reference. In the sections of these projects there of total area is prone to cyclones and 68% of the would be sufficient sections which would discuss the area is susceptible to severe draught. In fact, in the selective measures, shortcomings, and the kind of decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people measures ought to be taken for the mitigation of the lost their lives about 30 million people were affected natural disaster. by disaster every year. The loss in terms of private, community and public assets has been astronomical. Literally speaking, we have no policy on Interestingly enough, at the global level, there has systematic disaster management and it is only after a been considerable concern over natural disasters. disaster strikes that the wheels of the government, Even as substantial scientific and material progress both at the centre and at the states, move and that is made, the loss of life and property due to disaster too slowly. Despite the sheer need to build up has not decreased. Factually, human toll and economic capabilities to meet the daunting challenges of losses have mounted. It was in this backdrop that the disasters, the thrust has unfortunately been on UN general assembly in 1989 declared 1990-2000 alleviation and relief. Even the relief has not been as the international decade of natural disaster quick and adequate, as few disasters such as Orissa reduction with the objective to reduce loss of lives super cyclone, Tsunami of 2004, earthquake, and property and restrict socio-economic damage Landslides in Darjeeling, severe earthquake in Nepal, through concerted international action. The recent torrential rain in Tamilnadu etc, experiences Government of India recently adopted mitigation and has shown. India’s response to tackle these major prevention as essential components of their disasters has thrown up severe weaknesses in our development strategies. For instance, the Tenth Five disaster management efforts. Though, the forecasting, Year Plan document has a detailed chapter on monitoring and warning mechanisms are beautifully Disaster Management. The plan emphasizes the fact articulated on paper in practice, the warnings are not that development cannot be sustainable without early enough and they do not reach all those likely to mitigation being built into development process. The be affected. In case of Tsunami in 2004, Bhuj plan also declares each state is supposed to prepare earthquake and the latest earthquake in Taiwan in a plan scheme for disaster mitigation in accordance 2016 etc. for example communication facilities which with the approach outlined in the plan. In brief, could have resulted in better co-operation of warning

The Saga of Natural Hazards and Disaster Management in India: A Brief Prognosis 21 and reduction of damage to life and property were to happen. Since 2002 there has been a ban on building vastly inadequate. Likewise, in case of Uttarakhand within 100 meters of the river bed. But also in focus flood in 2013 disaster was natural but damage was is the Uttarakhand government’s resistance to manmade. As Uttarakhand grappled with one of the declaring an environmentally fragile area as ‘Eco worst natural disasters the state had faced in recent Sensitive’ and whether the state government was years, now the questions are being raised on whether prioritizing commercial concerns over the a lot of the destruction was manmade. The recurrent environment. From 1994 to 1998, reported disasters occurrences of various natural and manmade average was 428 per year but from 1999 to 2013, disasters and many such incidences have diverted this figure went up to an average of 707 disaster our focus towards safety of one’s own life. The events per year showing an increase of about 60 per natural or manmade hazard which has caused a huge cent over the previous years. The biggest rise was in loss to life and property and at the same time it also countries of low human development, which suffered severely disrupted the normal life of the people. This an increase of 142 per cent.2 In case of Sikkim article mainly focuses on various natural and earthquake in 2011 at least 54people have been killed, manmade hazards and its preparedness measures. It 42 in India, five in Nepal and seven in Tibet and over also explains explicitly on the mitigation measures that 100 were injured after an earthquake measuring 6.8 need to be taken up to save lives, livelihood and on the Richter scale shook Sikkim. Strong tremors property. Apart from understanding it as a subject of were also felt in parts of North and East India and great concern, this is the time we should feel the need parts of Bangladesh and Nepal, causing widespread to understand the subject as a necessary life skill. panic. The epicenter of the quake was said to be just This article also looks disaster management from a 64 kilometer North-West of Gangtok. Tremors were different perspective of making people help in felt in Lucknow, Patna, Kolkata, New Delhi and the preparation of Disaster Management Plans to make National Capital Region, which sent thousands of them understand the various search and rescue people, ran out of their homes. Three aftershocks, of techniques and also on the role of government, NGOs magnitude 5.7, 5.1, and 4.6 were also felt in Sikkim, and others in managing disasters. The main objective said the India Meteorological Department. of this article is to have a basic understanding of various concepts used in Disaster Management. In 2013, the joint report by London –based These are Disaster, Hazard, Vulnerability, Capacity, think-tank the Overseas Development Institute, Risk and Disaster Management Cycle. Meteorological Office and Risk Management Solutions, a software company that helps reinsures Background: The Global Concept and Lack of and other financial institutions to quantify and manage Pre-disaster Preparedness catastrophic risk in a report said: “India is likely to With disasters striking India with increased regularity, have the highest number of people living in poverty there should be a plan in place to tackle the disaster by 2030 and among the greatest exposure to extreme and reduce its impact. On the contrary, people are weather and natural disasters, but it is rare among caught unaware time and again. There is not planned developing nations facing climate hazards, because information system as to what needs to be done when its national government has the capacity to manage faced with a calamity. For example, during Tsunami disaster risk. India represents a special case.”3 2004, dead body was floating in the water for many days due to the unavailability or lack of required Indian Scenario and Global Concern: Deadliest equipment to meet the monstrous challenge. Disasters of the Decades (1992-2015) Disasters are as old as human history but the dramatic Drought and famine have proved to be the deadliest increase and the damage caused by them in the recent disasters globally, followed by flood, technological past have become a cause of national and international disaster, earthquake, windstorm, extreme temperature concern. For example, in case of Uttarakhand flood and others. Global economic loss related to disaster indiscriminate development in the hill towns, with guest events average around US$880 billion per year. The houses, hotels and all manners of illegal encroachment scenario in India is no different from the global context taking place along the rivers, it was a disaster waiting such as Latur earthquake in 1993, the super cyclone

22 World Focus May 2016 of Orissa (1999), the Gujarat earthquake (2001) and poverty with about 126.5 million people existing on the Tsunami (2004), Nepal earthquake (2015) etc. less than $2 a day by 2030 and face multiple climate Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, and natural disaster hazards, the report said.8 landslides, brought on by torrential rains and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. A natural Asia in recent years has witnessed major disaster might be caused by earthquakes, flooding, disasters including major earthquakes in China and volcanic eruption, landslides, hurricanes etc. In order Japan, as well as more recently cyclone Phailin in to be classified as a disaster it will have profound India and Typhoon Nari in the Phillippines. Tom environmental effect or human loss and frequently Mitchell, the Overseas Development Institute’s head incurs huge financial loss.4 Other dangers include of programme for climate management, spoke to the frequent summer dust storms, which usually track Wall Street Journal about the growing threat of natural from north to south; they cause extensive property disasters to developing countries and how, if adequate damage especially in North India and deposit large measures aren’t taken now, they could impact amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is also economics of such nations by pushing people back common in parts of India, causing severe damage to into poverty in South and Southeast Asia.9 For standing crops such as rice and wheat. Floods are example, the recent Chennai floods were not a natural the most common natural disaster in India.5 Recently disaster and they have been created by unrestrained India’s response to tackle natural disasters has thrown construction infrastructure of big commerce which up the following weaknesses in disaster management replaced the infrastructure to withstand natural efforts: shocks. The implication of natural disaster is that a) Inadequate Early Warning System climate change is causing more extreme events b) Lack of pre-disaster preparedness particularly extremes of heat, heavy rainfall, flooding, c) Inadequate and slow relief draughts, and earthquakes. There is less information d) Lack of co-ordination about the extent to which climate change is impacting e) Slow rehabilitation and reconstruction tropical cyclones but that is because we have lack of f) Poor administration evidence around that. But climate change could well g) Poor management of faineance for post-disaster be impacting those as well. relief h) Symbolism rather than relief In order to reduce the impact of disasters i) No instruction for pre-seismic period the government needs to focus on infrastructure j) Unsafe conditions resilience-health facilities, schools and roads. When k) Risk management capacity.6 people are evacuated during any natural disasters, the government needs to make sure that their incomes Measures and Facts Taken to Improve Disaster are supported. When the people are in shelter the Management in India: A Comparative Analysis army needs to provide a means of income. At the Given its large population, “India needs to be treated same time, to scale up the social safety net, they need as a cluster of separate sub-national entities,”7 when to focus on protecting natural resources. One of the it comes to disaster management, the report said. The key elements, when disasters strike, often large population and exposure to climate hazards in governments advertise for contractors to come in and some states including , , help with the rebuilding. The key element is to make Orissa, and mean these sure that local labour and local businesses are areas of particular concern. The geography of poverty, supported in that recovery process, rather than giving Disasters and Climate Extremes in 2030, says that big contracts to company from outside the region, or without concerned action, upto325 million extremely potentially outside the country. So, there are a number poor people could be living in the 49 countries most of measures that can help reduce the way in which exposed to the full range of natural hazards and disasters cause national decay. And this is going to climate extreme in 2030. And most of them could be be a key issue for international targets on eliminating living in South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. In South the number of disasters globally by 2030. The negative Asia, India will have the largest population living in impact of any natural disaster is very high amounts

The Saga of Natural Hazards and Disaster Management in India: A Brief Prognosis 23 of economic loss. The cost is high both o the state, in includes sum total of all activities, programmes and terms of lost revenues and assets, but also on measures which can be taken up before ,during and households. For example we already know that for after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, every $10 spent on disasters, $9 is spent after the reduce its impact or recover from its losses. Mitigation impact, and only $1 in preparing for or reducing the embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect risk. That really needs to shift and more resources of the hazard and the vulnerable conditions to it in need to go into reducing the risk and preparedness. order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Given the level of threats to South Asian countries Preparedness process embraces measures which over the next decades, so, there has to be a core enable governments, communities, and individuals to priority of national policy and disaster risk respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them management which is the cornerstone of the social effectively.11 development process of any nation. For India, and some countries in South Asia, the problem is pretty Emerging Challenges for Disaster Management serious. The Government of India needs to focus in India: Disaster to Development pretty hard not only to save lives, but also to protect The geo-metrological situation of the Asian countries the livelihoods of poorest to ensure that they do not is highly responsible for the mortality and economic become negatively impacted.10 For example, the loss due to disasters. While the government s required recent mass evacuation in India ahead of cyclone to pout relevant policies and resources in place. In Phailin was clearly a spectacular success and that addition to the communities will also have to have the was great learning after the 1999 super cyclone. knowledge and awareness. Literally speaking, past Likewise, operation Surya Hope was the name that experiences play a key role in managing hazards. Any ’s gave to its response event of disaster is a case in point and therefore it in Uttarakhand following the June 2013 North India needs to be thoroughly examines for evidences which Floods. Operation Surya Hope was conducted by could be incorporated in the context of future extreme India Army’s Lucknow based Central Command. The events. The Bhuj earthquake of 2001 is a case in floods and landslides in Uttarakhand, the worst natural point. The adverse consequences of this earthquake disaster in the area in a hundred years, have been are well known. This event has led to strict called a Himalayan Tsunami by the Governemnt of enforcement of building regulations such that if another India. Over 10,000 troops participated in Operation earthquake occurs in Gujarat, the damages will be Surya Hope. It was conducted in tandem with the modest. Of all the countries, Asia is fast emerging response by Indian Air Force (IAF), (Operation as the main theatre of disasters whether we talk about Rahat), the Border Road Organization, National Tsunami, Sichuan and Pakistan earthquake and floods Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Indo-Tibetan or the Leh landslide, the impacts of disaster on life Border Police (ITBP), and other para military forces have been quite severe.12 India has a very long under the Ministry of Home. In another case, the experience of facing disasters. As per the Centre 2011 Sikkim earthquake also known as the 2011 for the Research on Epidemiology of Disasters, in Himalayan earthquake occurred with a moment the last decade, between 2000 and 2009, India has magnitude of 6.9 and was centered within the suffered economic damage of nearly 24 billion US Kanchenjunga Conservation Area near the border of dollars due to different types of disasters. The heaviest Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim. During this losses have occurred due to floods (US $ 17 billion), earthquake in Sikkim, according to the Army, nearly followed by earthquakes (US $4.5 billion), and 2,000 civilians were being evacuated at Army relief droughts (US $ 1.5 billion).13 Interestingly enough, camps at Gangtok, Chungthang, Pegong, and hydrological disasters like floods and droughts have Darjeeling. There were 400 others who had sought also become the customary events with state shelter at relief camps set up by the Indo-Tibetan governments demanding central assistance regularly Border Police. 21engieering columns of the Army for response and relief. Surprisingly, this class of succeeded in restoring partial road connectivity to disasters is the ones that can be easily mitigated with parts of north Sikkim. In this context, Disaster appropriate interventions. In most of the Asian Management Cycle is very much important which countries presence of vast coastline, tectonic plates

24 World Focus May 2016 and other disaster inducing factors contribute to this The Recent Developments and the Role of situation. Especially, the impact of disaster is variable Indian Armed Forces with poor and marginalized sections remaining under The Disaster Management Act 2005 was one of the influence of its impact for a much longer time. the most significant initiatives taken by the While, the awareness on disaster prevention, Government of India for putting in place an institutional preparedness and disaster mitigation has considerably system dedicated to disaster management. Notified increased in recent times with supportive actions by on 26 December, 2005, the Act was the first the international community and proactive acknowledgement of the Government of India of the commitment by the national governments, much more need for legislative backup to the governance system. still needed to be done. Disaster prevention, Comprising of 79 sections and 11 chapters, the Act preparation, mitigation and management need not to provides for the “effective management of disasters be seen as an exclusive action but strategically linked and for matters connected therewith or incidental to development, empowerment and wellness of the thereto.”16 The disaster management Act 2005 has community. The ultimate goal of the efforts should created a hierarchy of institutions at the national, state be to enforce the safety regulations so that hazards and district levels for holistic management of disasters. are not turned into disasters. It also has to be The disaster management Act 2005 has provided the accompanied by empowering the community by following committees which are as follows: reducing vulnerability. The ultimate aim of any 1. National Disaster Management Authority government should be to prepare the community so (NDMA) of which Prime Minister of India will be that it is able to face hazard on its own.14 the chair –person assisted by the Vice –Chairman and eight members. India has a parliamentary democracy with a 2. There shall be created State Disaster federal structure. An integrated disaster management Management Authorities (SDMAs), expected to mechanism exists within this government framework. be chaired by the Chief Ministers of the respective The essential responsibility of disaster management state. lies with the state government where the disaster has 3. National Executive Committee (NEC) the act occurred. However, in event of disasters, which are provides for the constitution of a National Executive spread over several states and with uncontrollable Committee under the chairmanship of the Home proportions, the Central government may be required Secretary to assist the Authority in performance of to supplement taking appropriate measures in rescue, its functions. relief and preparedness. The change in orientation 4. National Institute of Disaster Management from a relief –centered to mitigation and prevention (NIDM) was founded from its predecessor National approach has manifested in significant changes n the Centre for disaster management with an aim of policy and operational levels in the recent years. Till creating an Institute of excellence in disaster June 2002, the Ministry of Agriculture was the nodal management studies in India. ministry for dealing with all natural disasters. With 5. National Disaster Response Force has been the shifting of the subject of disaster management to constituted by up gradation of 8 standard battalions the Ministry of Home Affairs in 2002, a change in of the Central Para-military Forces as specialist force orientation has been brought about with emphasis on to respond to disaster situations. disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness. 6. The National Disaster Response Fund as Broadly speaking, in view of the frequency of natural specified in the Act, would be used for “meeting any disasters in the country, a well-structured and threatening disaster situation or disaster” while this integrated disaster administration mechanism has fund has been provided exclusively for the purpose evolved over the years. Besides, a number of of mitigation and would be used only for mitigation organizations who supplement the efforts of the projects.17 government at Central, State and District levels provide key input during emergencies and The armed forces of the country have played rehabilitation measures have also been now being a vital role during disaster emergencies providing institutionalized.15 prompt relief to the victims even in the most

The Saga of Natural Hazards and Disaster Management in India: A Brief Prognosis 25 inaccessible and remote areas of the country. In appropriate building materials for disaster-prone disaster situations, a quick rescue and relief missions areas.20 is inevitable, however considerable damage can be minimized if adequate preparedness levels are Need for Multidimensional Approach and achieved. The organizational strength of the armed Planning Strategy for Disaster Management: forces with their disciplined and systemized approach, The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations and with their proper skills in technical and human (NGOs) resource management make them indispensable for India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural such emergency situations.18 Related to the efforts disasters on account of its unique geo-climate of the armed forces, are the Civil Defence and the conditions. Lately, growing peace of disasters in Home Guard organizations. Besides when disaster different parts of the world has created havoc in the occurs over large areas, it is usually beyond the governance system of affected countries. In India, capability of the administration to organize the relief floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes of various activities, the armed forces are then called upon to intensities have been recurrent phenomena. About organize the relief measures.19 A network of these 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of is now found all over the country. Their aim, while various intensities, over 40 million hectares is prone not actually taking part in actual combat operations to floods, about 8% of the total area is prone to like in army, is firstly to save lives, to minimize damage cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought. to property and to maintain continuity to production. It is also important to note that floods and high winds These organizations are able to co-ordinate and account for 60 % of all disasters in India. While support efforts in a disciplined manner. Besides this, substantial progress has been made in other sectors , the role played by the Indian armed forces with of human development, there is need to do more reference to– the 2001 Bhuj earthquake; the 2004 towards mitigating the effect of disasters. There is tsunami; the 2005 earthquake in Kashmir; heavy also an urgent need to adopt multidimensional rainfall in Mumbai in 2006; the 2008 Bihar Kosi river endeavor involving diverse scientific, engineering, flood; the fire breakout at Burrabazar in Kolkata on financial and social processes. At the same time, January 12, 2008, the August 2010 cloud burst in government agencies involved in mitigation Leh; the September 2011 Sikkim earthquake; the programmes are required to build a team where skilled unprecedented flash floods and cloudbursts in personnel will make provisions for specialized Garhwal, parts of Kumaon and Nepal, and Kinnaur equipments, efficient communication network and region of Himachal Pradesh, the Manipur earthquake relevant intelligence with accessible database. Finally, in January 2016 and the recent flyover collapse in there is a need to ensure minimum requirements to Kolkata in March,2016 are quite commendable. In strengthen communication and emergency control fact in each of these disasters has seen the active rooms in order to improve coordination and response involvement of the armed forces in the relief to disasters. In this context, it is also necessary for operations. disaster mitigation components to be built into all remedial programmes. Conclusively, efforts are also In India a number of Research Institute are to be made to allow components that will specifically conducting active research in the field of Disaster help in the reconstruction and rehabilitation Management. Valuable inputs in technical, social, programmes. In this context the government has economic as well as management areas of the field taken following steps for developing and implementing are being looked into. Indira Gandhi National Open different approaches: University (IGNOU) conducts a certificate course 1. The approach has been translated into a National on disaster management since 1998. Besides, the Disaster Framework covering institutional University of Roorkee, The Indian Institute of mechanisms, disaster prevention strategy, early Technology Delhi and the Anna University, Chennai. warning system, disaster mitigation, preparedness and The Ministry of Urban Development carries out response and human resource development; research through the Building Materials and 2. The excepted inputs, areas of intervention and Technology Promotion Council, on subjects such as agencies to be involved at the National, State and

26 World Focus May 2016 district levels have been identified and listed in the Suggestive Framework using Information roadmap. This roadmap has been shared with all the Technology in Managing Natural Disaster State Governments and Union Territory The government is required to implement following Administrations; suggestions to make the disaster management more 3. Ministers and Departments of Government of India effective. They are: and the State Governments / UT Administrations have 1. Streamlining institutional arrangements for disaster been advised to develop their respective roadmaps response by an integrated approach involving civilian taking the national roadmap as a broad guideline. This and military resources, setting up a modern , is, therefore, now a common strategy underpinning permanent national command centre or operations the action being taken by all the participating room with redundant communications and data links organizations/stakeholders.21 to all State capitals; 2. Building disaster prevention and preparedness in Emerging trends in managing natural disasters development planning by introducing a rigorous have highlighted the role of Non-Governmental process of vulnerability analysis and risk assessment, Organizations (NGOs) as one of the most effective maintaining comprehensive database and resource alternative means of achieving an efficient inventories at all levels; communication link between the Disaster 3. Developing a nationwide culture of prevention by Management agencies and the affected community. introducing disaster management in the school Many different types of NGOs are already working curriculum including relevant aspects of disaster at advocacy level as well as grassroots level. In management in professional courses; typical disaster situations they can be of help in 4. Encouraging community level initiatives for disaster preparedness, relief and rescue, rehabilitation and preparedness by involving people at the grass roots reconstruction and also in monitoring and feedback. particularly those who are more vulnerable for better The role of NGOs is a potential key element in disaster preparedness and response; management. The non-governmental sector that 5. The national emergency communication network operates at grass root level can provide a suitable involving the contemporary space and terrestrial- alternative as they have an edge over Governmental based technologies, in a highly synergistic agencies for invoking community involvement. This configuration and with considerable redundancy is chiefly because the NGO sector has strong linkages needs to be developed and deployed countrywide. with the community because and can exhibit great 6. A well sensitized and prepared community forms flexibility in procedural matters vis-à-vis the one of the most important links in the process of better government. Based on the identified types of NGOs management of disasters; and their capabilities, organized action of NGOs can 7. There is an integrated approach, particularly for be very useful in the following activities in different creation of adequate capacity for relief and rescue stages of disaster management. They are: operations; 1. Awareness and information campaigns; 8. Assistance is needed for State level mitigation 2. Training of local volunteers; projects especially drafting of State, district and 3. Advocacy and planning; panchayat level disaster management plans and in 4. Immediate rescue and first-aid including continuous sustenance, modernization and up psychological need materials; gradation of disaster management capacity.23 5. Supply of food, water, medicines and other immediate need materials; Conclusion 6. Ensuring sanitation and hygiene; Today, most of the states have adopted a national 7. Damage assessment; disaster management policy. One of its important 8. Technical and material aid in reconstruction components is the use of information technology to assistance in seeking financial aid; improve and facilitate disaster management. Looking 9. Monitoring.22 at the massive destruction caused to the lives and livelihoods by the recurring natural disasters in different parts of the world it has been increasingly

The Saga of Natural Hazards and Disaster Management in India: A Brief Prognosis 27 realized that though complete prevention of natural informed and well-designed disaster risk reduction disasters is beyond human capabilities, the adverse strategies and to ensure that their own programmes impact of any disaster on human lives and their reduce disaster risks. Sometimes the best response livelihoods can be minimized by taking adequate early to natural or man- made disasters can be effective warning, preparedness and mitigation measures. planning before tragedy strikes. In short, disaster Disaster management, therefore, has been regarded management is the discipline of dealing with and as a challenge for any country. The challenge is that avoiding risks. The Government of India over the years how far it is able to reduce the harm disasters cause formulated strategies to cope with, prevent and to society, the economy, and the lives of individuals mitigate disaster because of the frequency of disasters and communities. Given the dynamic nature of affecting the country. These policies consist of long disasters, disaster management is a difficult task. It and short term prevention and preparedness measures is multifaceted and a complex process aimed at and immediate response mechanisms. They also minimizing the social and physical impact of this large- include appropriate administrative structure to scale catastrophic events. The difficult and dynamic manage disaster response, the mechanisms to ensure nature of disaster management could be easily that policies and strategies are continuously reviewed understood if one has sincerely followed the recent and revised in the light of experience within the earthquakes and tsunami in Japan. It is essential that country and n other parts of the world. we look at disaster management from the development angle. It is also apparent that proper Endnotes 1 http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/lib-terminology-eng%20home.htm as mechanisms for disaster awareness and means of accessed on 18.2. 16. at 2; 02 disaster recovery are very much essential to protect a.m. 2 Govt. of India, Disaster Risk Reduction-The Indian Model, Ministry of Home a nation from great calamity. Therefore, it is very Affairs, New Delhi, 2014, pp.37-42. 3 ISDR, ADB, AU, NEPAD, Guidelines for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk challenging and arduous one. In particular, such as Reduction into Development, 2015, www.unisdr.org/eng/risk-reduction/ sustainable-developemntcca-undaf/cca-undaf/cca-undaf.htm Accessed on 10.2. integrating the principles of sustainable development 16 at 2:00 p.m. 4 http://1..bp.blogspot.com/_fabeCWoNzTg/SLfTDs6JtII/AAAAAAAAAjw/ into country policies and programmes, and reversing Wlm2avBtNIM/s400/bihar_flood14jpg. as accessed on: 2.2.2016 at 7:45 p.m. the loss of environmental resources can never be 5http:// proxied.changemakers.net/journal/300510/dis8.jpg as accessed on 4.2.2016at 9:00 a.m. achieved without giving due emphasis to effective 6 B.N.Goswami, Venugopal V.Sengupta, D.Madhusoodanan, M.S. Xavier Increasing trend of extreme rain events over India in a warming environment, disaster management strategies. The key priorities Science 314 (5804): 1442-1445.doi:10.1126/science.1132027.PMID 17138899 as accessed on: 2.2. 2016 at 8:00 p.m. for the future, as illustrated by the UN/ISDR report 7 Ravindra K Pande, Participation in practice and disaster management: ‘Living with Risk (2004).’24 experience of Uttaranchal (India), Disaster Prevention and Management, Vol.14, 3, 2015. pp.45-101. 8 Ibid., pp. 101-103. 9 Govt. of India (2012), High Powered Committee on Disaster-management Report, First, as the report points out, there is a need for Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi. 10 Subhradipta Sarkar, Archana Sarma, Disaster management Act 2005, Economic disaster and risk reduction to be an essential part of and Political Wee kly, Mumbai, pp.3760-3763, 2nd September 2006 Sharma Vinod (2001), Disaster the broader concerns of sustainable development, and Management, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. hence the need to make sure that risk assessments 11http://dmc.kar.nic.in/default.htm, www.watershedindia.net, www.rainwaterharvesting.org, www, drought.unl.edu as accessed on 11.2.16. and vulnerability reduction measures are taken into at 5.09 p.m. 12 Prof. P.C. Joshi, Emerging Challenges for Disaster Management in World account in different fields, such as environmental Focus, Vol.XXXII, No. 3, March, 2011, pp.132-133. 13 Ibid., p. 131. management, poverty reduction and financial 14 Ibid., pp.133-134. management. Second, it is essential to note that 15 http://upload .wikimedia .orgwikipedia/commons/2/2d/2004 tsunami.jpg as accessed on 15.2.16 at 1:54 a.m. current development practices do not necessarily 16 http://ilrg.gndci.pg.cnr.it/ The International Landslide Research Group (ILRG) is an informal group of individuals concerned about mass earth movement and reduce community vulnerability to disasters. Third, interested in sharing information on natural disasters as accessed on 15.2.16 .at 2: 05 a.m. political commitment by public and private policy 17 Prof. Vinod K. Sharma, Disaster Management –Institutional Framework to cope with Disasters in India in World Focus, Vol.XXXII, No.3,March, 2011 pp. makers and local community leaders, based on an 134-137. understanding of risks and disaster reduction concepts, 18 Ibid., pp. 138-139. 19 Ibid., pp. 139-140. is fundamental to achieving change. Finally, even 20 Ibid., pp.141-142. 21 http://www.who.int/topics/medical_waste/en/ as accessed on 17.2.16. at though national and local authorities bear the main 12:41 a.m. 22 http://www.who.int/topics/medical_waste/en/ as accessed on 17.2.16 at 1:01 responsibility for the safety of their people, it is the a.m. international community’s duty to advocate policies 23 Disaster Management in India- A Status Report, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, August 2004. and actions in developing countries that pursue 24 UN/International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), Terminology: Basic Terms of Disaster Risk Reduction, 2004, pp.104-109. 28 World Focus May 2016 Disaster Management and the Role of the State Prof. Manas Chakrabarty

Introduction The Concept of Disaster The universe includes earth, water, sky, nature and The root of the word disaster may be traced in deep down the earth surface. It consists of: men astrology which is referred as calamity blamed on and nature, the two most vital components of the the sight of comets and asteroids. Oxford English universe. The nature has created different things Dictionary states that the word disaster derives from which are permanent in character. No one can make the 16th century French word ‘disaster’. ‘Desastre’ any alteration in the design of nature. Man has no is a combination of two terms. ‘Des’ and ‘Astre’ control over it. On the contrary, man is simply a toy means bad or evil and ‘Astre’ means star, thus in the hands of nature. It is really difficult to judge ‘Desastre’ signifying a ‘Bad Star’ or Evil Star’ Further, and predict the character of nature which runs on its the term ‘disaster’ may be defined as an unexpected own way. It is seen that sometimes it is soothing and happening, causing a huge loss of life and property. sometimes it is ferocious. Whenever it turns to be in Major disasters may be defined as those causing at its bad temper, it can bring devastation and can put least one of three consequences which are as follows: the society in a topsy turvy condition and can destroy (i) Causing damage to 1 per cent of Gross National the total civilisation in the twinkling of an eye. We Product. (ii) Causing death of more than 100 persons call it as disaster. Disasters are a complex mix of at a time and place. (iii) Affecting more than 1 per natural hazards and human action (Wisener et al. cent of the total population in an area (Ahmad, 2003). 2004). It is known that man has always been According to Oxford Dictionary, the word disaster threatened by the fury of nature from the very means great or sudden misfortune. However, in terms beginning of his existence on this earth. Sometimes of modern understanding, the term ‘disaster’ denotes disasters like earthquakes occur repeatedly with any odd event, whether natural or manmade, which serious impact on all spheres of life and they cause can bring about sudden and great miseries to humanity immense loss of human life and leave a trail of human in terms of loss of life or/and property. It also signifies tragedy that the society is yet to recover from. misfortune at larger scale or a calamity of a Disasters are occurring globally. Developed as well considerable amount for a section of humanity (Sinha, as developing countries, are being affected by the 2006). The United Nations defines a disaster as a catastrophic consequences of both natural and human serious disruption of the functioning of a community made disasters. (Joshi and Khatri, 2014).The world or a society. Disasters involve widespread human, is changing fast, more people are becoming material, economic or environmental losses and vulnerable to disasters or are forced to cope with disruptions. acts of violence, financial crises and growing uncertainty. We should mention that India due to its It is known to us that a Disaster is an event unique geo-climatic conditions, size and geographical that occurs in most cases suddenly and unexpectedly. entities has a high incidence of natural disasters like It causes severe and acute problems and crisis to earthquakes, floods, cyclones and so on. Almost half the mankind, objects and environment. It results in of the country is prone to earthquakes of medium to loss of life, property and health of the population. It high intensity (Gupta, 2014). It should be further is therefore clear that whenever such a situation stated that India is vulnerable to various natural arises, it causes disruption in normal pattern of life, disasters like floods, droughts, cyclone, earthquakes, generating misfortune, helplessness and suffering. landslides, avalanches, forest fires and the like (Gupta- There is no denying the fact that it affects the socio- 2003). economic structure of a region or a country to a very great and significant extent. It should be further stated

Disaster Management and the Role of the State 29 that disaster is a sudden, calamitous event bringing It should be stated that the countries which have lesser great damage, loss, and destruction and devastation human development are more vulnerable to risks of to life and property. It has been further explained as: disasters and damage. Of all the disasters, floods are Disaster means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or the most common followed by wind storms, droughts grave occurrence affecting any area from natural and earthquakes. But the drought is the deadliest and manmade causes or by accident or negligence, disaster which accounts for 48 per cent of all deaths which results in substantial loss of life or human from natural disasters. Besides the natural disasters, suffering or damage to, and destruction of property, transport accidents and technological disasters are or damage to, or degradation of environment. The also faced by the developing countries. Disasters are magnitude and effect of disaster is so much that it a brake on economic and human development at the goes beyond the capacity of the community of the household level (when livestock, crops, homes and affected areas to cope with the sudden and tools are repeatedly destroyed) and at the national unexpected situation. In fact, disasters may result in level when roads, bridges, hospitals, schools and other huge loss of life and damage to infrastructure, facilities are damaged (Wisener et al. 2004). resulting in wiping out decades of development gains (Disaster Management Report, 2012). Disaster is a Disaster Management very common phenomenon to the human society. It Disaster management means a planned and has been experienced by human being since time systematic approach towards understanding and immemorial. Although its form may be varied, it has solving problems in the wake of disasters. It involves been a major challenge to the society across castes, the systematic observation and analysis of measures creeds, communities and countries. As we see that relating to disaster prevention, mitigation, the people are becoming more and more vulnerable preparedness, emergency response, rehabilitation and to disasters of all types, including earthquake, flood, reconstruction (Parida, 2014). Further, disaster cyclones, landslides, droughts, accidents, plane crash, management refers to undertake relief measures forests fire, etc. It is a significant point to note that immediately after the occurrence of disaster. It should with the technological advancements and progress, be a collective and co-ordinated effort. A number of the force of disasters is also changing significantly. activities need to be undertaken in the event of But the most important fact is this that whenever any disaster. These include co-ordination, command and disaster occurs, they surpass all preparedness and control, rapid assessment of damage, restoration of eagerness of society and pose a serious challenge. power, telecommunication and surface transport, In this regard, there is no distinction between the deployment of search and rescue teams, medicals developed and developing countries, all are vulnerable and Para-medical teams, arrangements for drinking in this way or the other. They caused great loss of water and food material, setting up of temporary lives and property and it is very clear that the shelters, sanitation and hygiene identification and technological mechanisms and all scientific earmarking of resources, last but not the least mantra advancements are absolutely inadequate in such a of disaster management is definitely maintenance of situation. It is important to note that a disaster may law and order which is of vital importance. One of be either natural or manmade. It causes substantial the most crucial problems with which mankind are and significant physical damage including loss of life. confronted with is definitely the ways and means of It may also cause a drastic change to the natural disaster management. In fact, mankind has survived environment. A disaster may be caused due to flood, and lived with natural disasters right from the days of earthquake, accident, fire, explosion or any other the mythical universal deluge (Narayan, 2000). Many thing. It may cause havoc in the life of the people a times, mankind becomes simply a toy in the hands and affect various dimensions of human life. In the of the nature when it becomes furious due to flood or modern vocabulary disaster is often used as the earthquake. Floods, volcanic eruptions and consequence of inappropriately managed risk. earthquakes have plagued and devastated humanity However, it must be kept in mind that disasters leave since time immemorial (Narayan, 2000). The number behind a major and recurring impact on the people, of natural disasters around the world continues to society and economy of the country concerned. grow over time, and their impact on the stricken

30 World Focus May 2016 regions continues to be worsening.(Singh, 2000). In The other important aspect of disaster management such situations, disaster management becomes really includes response. Response measures are usually a major concern and big challenge. Disaster those which are taken immediately prior to and management has assumed great importance of late, following disaster impact. Typical measures include : due to the occurrence of natural as well as manmade (a) Implementation of plans; (b) Activation of the disasters (Murthy, 2007). counter-disaster system; (c) Search and Rescue; (d) Provision of emergency food, shelter; medical It should be stated further that disaster assistance etc. (e) Survey and assessment; (d) management is the discipline of dealing with and Evacuation measures. avoiding both natural and manmade disasters. It Recovery is also one of the important aspects that involves preparedness, response and recovery in order fall within disaster management. Recovery is the to lessen the impact of disasters. To be precise, process by which communities and the nation are disaster management aims to reduce human suffering assisted in returning to their proper level of functioning and economic losses caused by natural and following a disaster. Usually, three main categories technological disasters (Sinha 2006). It aims to stop, of activity are normally regarded as coming within control and manage disastrous situations. It aims to the recovery segment: (a) Restoration; (b) reduce human suffering and economic losses caused Reconstruction and (c) Rehabilitation. by natural and technological disasters (Sinha, 2006). Therefore, the task of disaster management or the PREPAREDNESS art of disaster management is one of the most One of the important aspects of disaster management important and significant areas in today’s society. To is definitely preparedness. If people are better be precise, Disaster Management is an effort to prepared for an extreme event then the casualties inquire into the process of a hazard turning to disaster will be reduced and there will be less damage to life to identify its causes and rectify the same through and property (Joshi and Khatri, 2014). Preparedness public policy. Therefore, disaster management is a is usually regarded as comprising measures which policy issue concerned with minimizing and preventing enable governments, organizations, communities and the damaging impact of a natural or manmade hazard. individuals to respond rapidly and effectively to But it should be kept in mind that one of the most disaster situations. The key areas in this regard are: important aspects of disaster management is disaster (a) The formulation & maintenance of valid, up-to- preparedness. Disaster preparedness aims at date counter-disaster plans; minimizing the adverse effects of a hazard. The million (b) Special provisions for emergency action; (c) The dollar question is how to chalk out the plans for provisions of warning systems; (d)Emergency com- preparedness. It can be done in the following ways: munications; (e) Public education and awareness; 1. Through effective precautionary actions. (f)Training programs, including exercises and tests. 2. Ensure timely, appropriate and efficient organisation Adequate care should also be taken with regard to: and delivery of emergency response following the Risk & Hazard Assessment; Planning; Organization; impact of a disaster. Resource Utilization; Need for Specialists; Training. 3. To face vulnerability through analysis and mapping Planning is also one important area which should be to include Resources. given due importance. Again, there should be a clear 4. To assess strengthening requirements and execute. and logical approach to dealing with disasters. Ar- 5. Arrange funding for preparedness. rangement should be there which would provide com- 6. Peoples’ cooperation through Political leaders, mon reference for all departments and authorities with elders, Volunteers and NGOs. roles. There should be a mechanism to assist with 7. To create lead time by interpreting Warnings. information for sitting-up a multi- functional organi- 8. To plan to include movement of resources with zational structure. Arrangement should also be made time frame. in order to form a basis for coordinated action. Mecha- 9. To aim to reduce the destructive potential of nism should be evolved to provide clear allocation of cyclones, timely & appropriate relief to victims and responsibilities. Also there should be an infrastruc- quick & durable recovery. ture to form a basis for reviewing and evaluating cur-

Disaster Management and the Role of the State 31 rent and future disaster management requirements the Act of 2005. It provides for the natural disaster and the most important is to give a focus for disaster management authority under the Prime Minister. related training. There is a Committee of the Union Government which we need to vigorously pursue the paradigm shift in looks after the issue of financial support from na- disaster management from a “relief centric approach” tional calamity contingency fund. Apart from this, to the ongoing “holistic approach” covering all facets there is a Central Relief Fund to face Biological and of disaster management. The recurrence of disas- chemical emergencies which is co-ordinated by Cabi- ters being inevitable, there are literally no options but net Committee on Security. There is also a Natural to enhance our preparedness and reduce vulnerabil- Crisis Management by Cabinet Committee on secu- ity to disasters (Rijiju, 2015). rity. This Committee is headed by the Cabinet Sec- retary. The several Union Ministries which looks af- Role of Individual states ter the disasters are: In India, Disaster is an area mitigated by the State 1. Ministry of Home Affairs- Natural and Manmade concerned and accordingly the primary responsibility Disasters, of relief operations lies with the states. It is the 2. Ministry of Agriculture- Drought. responsibility of the State government to provide sup- 3. Ministry of Civil Aviations- Air Accidents. port and assistance to the disaster victims. National 4. Ministry of Railways- Railway Accidents. Disaster Management Act 2005, provides for the state 5. Ministry of Environment- Chemical Disaster, Disaster Management Authority under the control and 6. Ministry of Health- Biological Disaster. supervision of the Chief Minister. At the top level, 7. Department of Atomic Energy- Nuclear Accident. there is cabinet committee on natural calamities which Etc. works and functions under the Chief Minister of the There is also a Crisis Management Group concerned state. There are Crisis Management Com- (CMG) which is chaired by the Central Relief Com- mittees chaired by the Chief Secretaries. Relief Com- missioner at the Ministry of Home Affairs. By the missioners, functionaries of the State Revenue De- mechanism of proper coordination with various min- partment are also utilised in this regard. It is their istries, the Union Government extends all required responsibility to look after the issues of natural disas- support and helps the States to face the challenges ters. They work under Crisis Management Commit- of disaster. It includes defence services, air drop- tee headed by the Chief Secretary and State Rev- ping, rescuing, searching, transport of relief goods, enue Secretaries. At the District Level, the respon- availability of rail and ferry services, health person- sibility rests with the District Collector/ District Mag- nel and medical support, etc. We should make a men- istrate. At the state level, there is a State Level Di- tion of the Crisis Management Committee at the saster Management Committee consisting of senior Centre which is headed by the Cabinet Secretary secretaries of various Departments and representa- and Secretaries from major departments of govern- tives of the NGOs. In the State, the Relief Commis- ments. In 1999, a high powered Committee on Di- sioner or Disaster Management Secretary is the spe- saster Management was set up by the Government cific authority responsible for handling and manage- of India to look into the existing disaster manage- ment of the disaster. The Twelfth Finance Commis- ment system in the country and to suggest measures sion has recommended a sum of Rs. 23,000 crore to improve it. Besides, a Calamity Relief Fund has assistance for the states to face and handle the di- been constituted with contribution in ratio 3: 1 be- sasters. tween the Centre and the respective State Govern- ment. Mention should be made to the National Di- Role of Union Government saster Management Act. 2005 and the National Di- In India, the Central government plays a very key saster Policy, 2009 which are in fact, a major tool of role with regard to disaster management. In fact, disaster management in India. the Union Government plays a supportive role in the matter of research and development and looks after National Disaster Management Act, 2005 the finances for disaster management. There is a National Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines Cabinet Committee on Disaster Management under events that cause substantial loss of life, property and

32 World Focus May 2016 environment. It reads, “Disaster means catastrophe, Executive Committee (who is Chief Secretary) is also mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, included. Vice Chairperson is appointed by Chair- arising from nature or man-made causes, or by acci- persons from amongst members. Chairperson of the dent or negligence which result in substantial loss of State Executive Committee is the Chief Executive life, of human suffering or damage to, and destruc- Officer. State Executive Committee is chaired by the tion of property, or damage to, or degradation of en- State Chief Secretary. vironment, and is of such nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of The National Disaster Management Author- affected areas.” The Disaster Management Act, 2005 ity (NDMA) under the Chairmanship of the Prime defines Disaster Management as, a continuous cycle Minister is the apex body which is responsible for and integrated process of planning, organizing, coor- laying down policies, plans and guidelines for disas- dinating and implementing, coordinating and imple- ter management and for coordinating their enforce- menting measures which are necessary or expedient ment and implementation throughout the country. The for- policies and guidelines will assist the Central Minis- (i) Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster; tries, State Governments and District Administration (ii) Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or to formulate their respective plans and programmes. its severity or consequences; NDMA has the power to approve the National Plans (iii) Capacity-building; and the Plans of the respective Ministries and De- (iv) Preparedness to deal with any disaster; partments of Government of India. The general su- (v) Prompt response to any threatening disaster situ- perintendence, direction and control of National Di- ation or disaster; saster Response Force (NDRF) are vested in and (vi) Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects will be exercised by the NDMA. of any disaster;(vii) Evacuation, rescue and relief; (viii) Rehabilitation and Reconstruction. It should be The National Executive Committee (NEC) stated that the Disaster Management Amendment is mandated to assist the NDMA in the discharge of Bill, 2006 aims at broadening the meaning of Disas- its functions and further ensure compliance of the ter in Disaster Management Act. directions issued by the Central Government. The NEC comprises of the Union Home Secretary as the Main Provisions of the Act, 2005 Chairperson, and the Secretaries to the GOI in the The Act provides for three tier mechanism for Di- Ministries/ Departments of Agriculture, Atomic En- saster Management that includes National Disaster ergy, Defence, Drinking Water Supply, Environment Management Authority, State Disaster Management and Forests, Finance (Expenditure), Health, Power, Authority and District Disaster Management Author- Rural Development, Science and Technology, Space, ity. Telecommunications, Urban Development, Water Re- sources and the Chief of the Integrated Defence Staff National Disaster Management Authority of the Chiefs of Staff Committee as members. Sec- The Chairperson of the NATIONAL DISASTER retaries in the Ministry of External Affairs, Earth MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY is the Prime Min- Sciences, Human Resource Development, Mines, ister. Not more than nine other members can be there. Shipping, Road Transport and Highways and Secre- Vice Chairpersons are appointed from amongst mem- tary, NDMA are special invitees to the meetings of bers by the Chairperson. Executive Committee is the NEC. The National Executive Committee is re- chaired by the Secretary of the Ministry entrusted sponsible to prepare the National Plan and coordi- with the work of the Disaster Management. nate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy and the guidelines issued by NDMA. The State Disaster Management Authority Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) in the Central Gov- The Chairperson of the STATE DISASTER MAN- ernment has the overall responsibility for disaster AGEMENT AUTHORIT is the Chief Minister of management in the country. For a few specific types the concerned State. Other members not exceeding of disasters, the concerned Ministries have the nodal eight are there. In addition, Chairperson of the State responsibilities for management of the disasters.

Disaster Management and the Role of the State 33 Mention should be made of NIDM. The Na- The Local Authorities include both the rural tional Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) has local self governing institutions (Panchayati Raj In- the mandate for human resource development and stitutions) and Urban Local Bodies (Municipalities, capacity building for disaster management within the Cantonment Boards and Town Planning Authorities). broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA. These bodies are entrusted with the responsibility to The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is ensure capacity building of their officers and employ- the specialized force for disaster response which ees for managing disasters, carry out relief, rehabili- works under the overall supervision and control of tation and reconstruction activities in the affected the NDMA. The NIDM is required to design, de- areas and to prepare DM Plans in consonance with velop and implement training programmes, undertake guidelines of the NDMA, SDMAs and DDMAs. research, formulate and implement a comprehensive human resource development plan, provide assistance National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009 in national policy formulation, assist other research The National Policy on Disaster Management was and training institutes, state governments and other approved by the Government of India in November organizations for successfully discharging their re- 2009. This comprehensive policy document lays down sponsibilities, develop educational materials for dis- policies on every aspect of holistic management of semination and promote awareness among stakehold- disasters in the country. India’s National Policy on ers in addition to undertake any other function as as- Disaster Management was approved by the Union signed to it by the Central Government. Cabinet of India on 22nd October, 2009 with the aim to minimize the losses to lives, livelihoods and prop- At the State Level, the State Disaster Man- erty, caused by natural or manmade disasters with a agement Authority (SDMA), headed by the Chief vision to build a safe and disaster resilient India by Minister, lays down policies and plans for disaster developing a holistic, proactive, integrated, multi-dis- management in the State. It is also responsible to aster oriented and technology driven strategy. With coordinate the implementation of the State Plan, rec- this national Policy in place in India, a holistic and ommend provision of funds for mitigation and pre- integrated approach is sought to be evolved towards paredness measures and review the developmental disaster management with emphasis on building stra- plans of the different departments of the State to en- tegic partnerships at various levels. sure integration of prevention, preparedness and miti- gation measures. The themes underpinning the policy include Community based Disaster Management, Capacity The State Disaster Management Department development in all spheres, consolidation of past ini- (DMD) which is mostly positioned in the Revenue tiatives and best practices and cooperation with agen- and Relief Department, is the nodal authority. At the cies at national and international levels with multi- district level, the District Disaster Management Au- sectoral synergy. The Policy is also intended to pro- thority (DDMA) is headed by the District Magis- mote a culture of prevention, preparedness and resil- trate, with the elected representative of the local au- ience at all levels through knowledge, innovation and thority as the Co-Chairperson. DDMA is the plan- education. It encourages mitigation measures based ning, coordinating and implementing body for disas- on environmental sustainability. It seeks to main- ter management at district level. It will, inter alia pre- stream disaster management into the developmental pare the District Disaster Management Plan and planning process and provides for Institutional and monitor the implementation of the National and State Financial arrangements at national, State, and Dis- Policies and the National, State and the District Plans. trict-levels for Disaster Prevention, Mitigation, Pre- DDMA is also entrusted with the responsibility to paredness and Response as it ensures adequate bud- ensure that the guidelines for prevention, mitigation, geting for disaster mitigation activities in all Minis- preparedness and response measures laid down by tries and Departments. State Policies on Disaster the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all de- Management should also be referred. The States of partments of the State Government at the district level Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala have formulated and the local authorities in the district. State Disaster Management Policies. ,

34 World Focus May 2016 Chattisgarh, Uttranchal, , Bihar, Rajasthan, should keep in mind that disasters must be there and Delhi, Orissa and West Bengal have prepared draft we cannot avoid disasters so long we are living on policies. It should be stated that many States have the lap of nature. Therefore, what we can do is to be manuals and codes for management of drought, alert, make a comprehensive effective plan to face floods etc. Now many states are in the process of the situation and overcome it. A comprehensive and changing their State Relief codes into Disaster Man- effective plan to face the situation is the only ‘MAN- agement Manuals. TRA’ regarding disaster management.

Conclusion References It is next to impossible on the part of human being to Ahmad, Ayaz (Ed) -Disaster Management Through the stop or check natural calamities like floods, earth- New Millenium. (New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt quakes, cyclones etc. But what we can do is to take Ltd., 2003). preventive measures at various levels of society in Disaster Management Report, 2012—National Insti- order to make the impact of such natural hazards as tute of Disaster management.2013. less as possible on the people. What is possible on Gupta, Harsh K. – Disaster Management. (Hyderabad, our part is to reduce or minimise the impact of natu- Universities Press, 2003). ral hazard and its worst effects can be prevented. Gupta, Ashwani- Managing Disasters: Integrating Natural disasters hit at all in the society without any Armed Forces in NDMA Structure. discrimination, rich and poor. But in reality, it is the Centre for Land warfare Studies. July06, 2014. poor who are the worst sufferers. One of the most Joshi, P.C. and Prashant Khatri – Importance of Di- important tasks before us is to introduce a culture of saster education. World Focus. July, 2014. prevention in disaster managers and all communities Rijiju, Kiran- Minister of State for Home affairs, Govt. at all levels. The culture must be disseminated so of India in Uttarakhand Disaster, that all people in the society can become alert and National Institute of Disaster Management (Ministry become aware so that they can take some preven- of Home Affairs, Government of India) NIDM, 2015. tive measures in case of an emergency or before the Murthy, D.B.N.-Disaster management: Text and Case disaster strikes. In this regard, early warning and con- Studies. (New Delhi: Deep &Deep Publications, 2007). scious developmental planning are key elements to Narayan, S. – Anthropology of Disaster Management. preventive planning regarding disaster. In India, now (New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 2000). we experience a paradigm shift from post disaster Parida, Pradip Kumar – A Critical Analysis of Commu- response mechanism to pre disaster prevention, pre- nity Based Disaster Management (CBDM) in India- paredness and mitigation strategy. It should be kept Some Reflections. World Focus. July, 2014. in mind that rehabilitation is an integral part of disas- Sinha, Prabhas C. - Disaster Vulnerabilities and Risks: ter management. It is seen that when disasters oc- Trends, Concepts, Classification and Approaches. cur, administrative measures are terribly inadequate (New Delhi: SBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd., and perhaps this is the most difficult period for a vic- 2006) tim. It is also significant to point out that the role of Sinha, Prabhas C. - Disaster Management Process: Law, administration does not end with the end of disasters. Process and Strategy. : In reality, disasters leave behind a series of problems (New Delhi: SBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd., and the situation becomes more and more complex. 2006) The most important thing is that it requires proper Sinha, Prabhas C. - Disaster Mitigation: Preparedness, coordination among various agencies. Since the dis- Recovery and Response. asters are non-routine events and it requires non-rou- (New Delhi: SBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd., tine response, rescue operations and all next courses 2006) of action need war footing attention. Disaster Man- Singh, R.B. - Disaster management. (New Delhi: Rawat agement has assumed great importance in recent Publications, 2000) times. To handle the situation efficiently, we need to Wisener, B., Blaikie, P.Cannon T, & Davis, I. - At Risk: be well-equipped with latest technologies. It cannot Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. avert the situation, but can mitigate its impacts. We (2004, London, Routledge).

Disaster Management and the Role of the State 35 Disaster Management and the role of Anthropology Dr. Abhik Ghosh

Introduction Definitions Disasters have happened within the human environ- Disasters may be seen as accidental or uncontrol- ment in the past and it is only in recent years that we lable events, actual or threatened, that are “concen- have begun to understand that they have occurred in trated in time and space, in which a society, or a rela- greater frequency. The reason for this is not hard to tively self-sufficient subdivision of a society, under- find. Somehow, as human beings, our activity has goes severe danger, and incurs such losses to its changed the relationship of our social and environ- members and physical appurtenances that the social mental surroundings. This is what has caused many structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the recent disasters that we have faced. It also of the essential functions of the society is prevented” shows that the total system is unable to buffer us (Fritz; 1961: 655 in Drabek; 1986: 7). against any of these disasters any more or recover afterwards. Thus, the environment is changing even However, unsatisfactory this definition is, as we watch. This is supported by global warming working definitions abound in the literature even as and climate change data. In other words, if we wish many teams of authors attempt to create a better to mitigate the effect of these disasters or ensure one. One definition clearly delineates the linkage of that they occur with decreasing frequency we need the culture with disasters as, “Disasters occur at the to deal with our social and environmental relation- intersection of nature and culture and illustrate, often ships. dramatically, the mutuality of each in the constitution In 2015, the Code of Conduct for Disaster of the other” (Oliver-Smith; 2002:24-25 in Dawdy; Relief became 20 years old and the International Com- 2006: 723). mittee of the Red Cross decided that major changes were required in the Code. The list began with an A more combined and compressed definition updated definition of ‘disaster’, the need to strongly is that, “a disaster as a tragedy experienced by a hu- promote disaster risk reduction, capacity building, man group atthe hands of an identifiable event, miti- participation of local communities and respect for local gated by local capacity andbroaderintervention, and culture. Further, gender issues needed to be made measured in terms of economic, spiritual, more prominent. The Code should highlight humani- psychological,biological, political, or social impact. The tarian needs assessment. They also agreed that vul- identifiable event or events maybe short-lived, long- nerable and marginalised groups in different cultural lived, or intermittent/chronic. It need not be settings needed to be emphasised as well as preven- extraordinaryor extreme, but usually is” (Jones and tion and reduction in risk. There should also be some Murphy; 2009: 5). mention of disaster relief in conflicts. Ethical issues for research and humanitarian aid in disaster relief A Historical Narrative of Anthropology in Di- should be discussed. The Code also needs more guid- saster Situations ance dealing with unethical practices like discrimina- Anthropologists only started looking into this arena tion, favouritism, corruption and conflicts of interest.It of interest in a systematic manner in the 1950s. It should especially specify liability of aid providers and then grew very slowly for some decades. In the 1960s responders, thus involving other groups involved in and 1970s it began slowly with a growing interest in aid relief (Borovecki, et al.; 2015). Many of these studies on drought. A lot of early work was done on issues are relevant to anthropologists and the list might tribes and pastoral communities. For Childe this was have been written almost with anthropologists in mind. the genesis of the ‘desert-oasis’ theory where early humans gathered around scarce water holes in times 36 World Focus May 2016 of drought. They would manage the hardier breeds models to understand changes in societies (Torry; of animals as their domesticated companions whom 1979). they could also eat in times of extreme need. Such However, it was clear that hunter-gatherers animals were the most tractable and useful ones. This had the least impact on the environment. Their group theory has since been discredited. consisted of small bands and what happened to one band was easily absorbed since it did not affect other A few anthropologists also worked on vol- bands. Also it was easier for smaller groups to sur- canic eruptions. Rappaport also proposed that high vive, change locations opportunistically or even to island cultures in the Pacific region were beset by change to a different kind of economy or food. Their tsunamis, typhoons and droughts. This led them to destroyed property was also easily replaced (Torry; create a complex and hierarchical society for sur- 1979). vival. Inter-ethnic relations also led to different econo- mies and communities surviving in such disaster situ- Disasters, Anthropology and the State ations. Such relations led to the sharing of scarce Through government systems that ensured strict land resources for mutual survival. However, in some laws and other kinds of enforcement, pastoral and cases, interethnic clashes and wars were conducted agricultural communities lost the flexibility to cope to acquire resources depleted as a result of disasters, with disasters and stresses by themselves. They be- mostly in herding or mixed-herding communities, like came dependent on the government for these ser- the Nuer.In fact, the homeostasis of the Nuer seen vices. This led to other issues. As physical environ- by Evans-Pritchard seems a bit contrived taken in ments became coupled to large-scale administrative the context of community handling of hazardous situ- systems they led to a different scale of interference ations. Some anthropologists have also used folk cog- in the physical environment. After a disaster, deci- nitive models to understand the causality of disas- sion-making in such systems are slower than in ters. Causes were seen in issues within the social decentralised systems. Who communicates better and system which were rectified or neutralised by using have links to media and useful personnel has often ritual practices that neutralise the social stress that affected the sharing of resources after a disaster. caused the disaster. Disasters are thus events that Often vulnerability and loss are communicated through help to delineate and outline the political and religious cultural values and concepts that may be misinter- context. Such studies could not describe how the so- preted. It is here that anthropologists may act as ‘cul- ciety coped with the crisis. Such homeostatic models tural translators’. This kind of research has some- lose out by hiding the data on loss and vulnerability. times been called ‘operational research’ and anthro- As a result, such hazards were never credited with pologists are expected to put together the protago- the ability to effect social change. nists together so that they may solve their problems.

By the end of the 1970s, data on hazardous Over the years issues relating to risk and vul- situations was seen to be peripheral by most anthro- nerability have been discussed often and much re- pologists. Also, some activities like food-gathering and search have been done on these issues. Lots of metrics pastoralism was given more importance in societies have been devised to calculate the exact amount of having disaster-stress. At such times these societies risk or vulnerability. However, it would do well to would often ignore, sublimate, modify or change other remember that much about culture does not translate activities, even ignoring many things to ensure that well into numbers. Further many of these issues are survival-based activities became central. This was linked. These linkages are what anthropologists un- called ‘cultural equilibration’ or retrenchment of so- cover. Without this holism, there would be a lack of cial activity by some anthropologists. Firth noticed understanding of situations after a disaster and thus these events in Tikopia after a hurricane, where the the help given would not only be partial, it might even chiefs announced laws that restricted many other be dangerous. Some degree of comparative data and kinds of activity. What became clear by the begin- analysis is required for assessing the effect of differ- ning of the 1980s was that anthropological studies ent behaviours under different conditions.Knowledge needed to shift to more diachronic methodologies and

Disaster Management and the role of Anthropology 37 from previous such events affects the response of mobilisation of local political units. Disasters may also aid workers. cause a change in the relationshipof the local com- munity or individuals with the state. In other words In America and Europe, anthropology had a disasters shape, maintain, destabilise or destroy ei- wide range of work that was cutting edge. However, ther political organisations or even relationships. in the area outside the first world, anthropologists have Hence, disasters may strengthen or dissolve institu- made the greatest leaps in the arena of disaster man- tional or individual power arrangements, shape ac- agement. It has been stated that these early anthro- tions or consciousness. Such activities then go on to pological responses were based on three basic ideas: shape new agendas, political solidarity, activism or (a) a behavioural response approach; (b) a social new power relations. change approach; and (c) a political economic/envi- ronmental approach (Oliver-Smith; 1996). For instance, as Katrina unfolded in New Orleans, it showed how the administration, as well as In a later work, Oliver-Smith (2002 in Dawdy; many sections of the American population, was in- 2006) went on to give three further themes: (a) the imical to the lives of the under-privileged blacks in nature-culture nexus; (b) vulnerability; and (c) the that region. They were unable to be evacuated and revelatory power of disasters. often did not have the resources to escape. This showed that already existing inequalities and attitudes Disasters as Social Change Agents became accentuated and visible during the disaster Many studies of disaster have shown that they may (Scheper-Hughes; 2005). be seen as challenges to the structure and organisation of society. Such studies look at the behaviour of indi- During a disaster, basic economic ideas like viduals, groups and organisations in various stages of altruism, rational choice model, private property, com- a disaster as well as its aftermath. They look at con- petition, reciprocity, distribution, contracts, trust, as vergence, adjustments and interactions at these lev- well as tensions between social norms economic self- els. A majority of such initial studies were about in- interest are questioned or put into doubt. For instance, stitutional adjustments in religion, ritual, technology, a breakdown of morality is especially seen during economy, politics, as well as patterns of cooperation famines. Also, systems of inequality like caste also and conflict, especially in the American context. They lead to unequal post-disaster distribution of resources. have focussed on issues of race, ethnicity, class, age and gender as being the causes for the differential Often issues of health also become a matter impact of disasters. It was also a very basic finding of concern, not only in the recent aftermath but over that a minimum degree of community integration is a longer period, as was seen in the study on the Haiti required for recovery and rebuilding after a disaster. earthquake of 2010 and its effect on women’s repro- ductive health as result of changed access to facili- Anthropological studies have also revealed ties (Behrman and Weizman; 2016). that a local understanding of social and physical en- vironments were required as being essential to pre- Overall, then, social change seems to be al- vent short- and long-term losses. During this period, ways at the borders of a community that faces disas- the relationship of the victims with the aid personnel ter situations. Such long-term studies have been the was an important factor in the post-disaster aid pe- hallmark of anthropologists in this context, much more riod. In other words, there is a need to avoid a ‘we- than any of the other social sciences. Some of these they feeling’ between those affected and the aid per- changes have been imposed while others have been sonnel. Hence, the mobilization of the community was structural changes in the societies affected. Many found to be essential for true gains. Societal responses anthropologists have attempted to look at the pre- to the vulnerable populations like the elderly could disaster situation existing in the society. Such studies then be monitored and managed better. As far as have especially been conducted in the Third World politics is concerned, disaster may be seen as an op- countries by anthropologists. Such studies have given portunity as well as a cause for the socialisation and new meaning to understanding the situations emerg-

38 World Focus May 2016 ing out of a post-disaster context. Often, experts sent Vulnerability may be defined as “character- for aid become a permanent part of the post-disaster istics of a person or group in terms of their capacity community. There is often a conflict between the need to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from the for people to maintain their old ways and those who impact of a natural hazard” (Blaikie,et al.; 1994:9 in wish for change. The means and goals for achieving Dawdy; 2006: 724). these changes are also an issue. In the final analysis, in some situations relief and reconstruction work in A fairly recent study by Austin (2006) shows the community are seen as being more damaging than how the Louisiana area was exploited for its petro- the disaster itself. leum wealth that ruined its coastlines and its commu- nity relationships. This resulted in the huge losses seen One way of looking at this entire issue would in the spate of hurricanes that followed in that area. be to look at risks and susceptibilities as liabilities that lead to vulnerability. Thus, resistance and resilience Based on these ideas one may thus assume in the face of vulnerability to disasters would be a that it is human activity that results in various kinds capability. A good aid programme should look into of hazards. The intensity of interaction between hu- the idea that in this kind of a context, vulnerabilities mans and the environment determines the severity should be built into the aid programme so that the of the effects. Some anthropologists have also said capabilities of individuals, groups and the communi- that the very act of development creates dependen- ties may be tapped into. In some studies communi- cies in the community. Further, the very work of un- ties have been divided into disaster-resilient and di- derstanding individuals and communities reduces their saster-resistant communities. This has been linked to capacity to cope and thus their ability to respond to sustainable development and sustainable hazards miti- hazards. Sometimes aid for disasters from outside gation. However, none of these concepts are holisti- can convert a short-term problem into a long-term cally viewed. The idea is to achieve comprehensive one. However, contradicting this, other studies have vulnerability management, since even development shown that prompt emergency aid may mitigate long- is a flawed concept. In this context, then, “Compre- or short-term losses. hensive vulnerability management could be defined as holistic and integrated activities directed toward Sometimes development creates dilemmas the reduction of emergencies and disasters by dimin- that may not be easily resolved and may also not ishing risk and susceptibility and building of resistance cleanly fall into good-bad dichotomies. In such cases and resilience. The values, decisions, and policies that patient long-term approaches rather than giving ben- guide comprehensive vulnerability management are efits for the short-term might be useful. Sometimes, based on careful and continued assessments of the small-scale disasters can be a learning process that liabilities and capabilities from both the physical, so- can teach us much about what can happen during cial, and organizational environments. Accordingly, large-scale hazards (see Pratt; 1996). comprehensive vulnerability management refers to a concerted effort to identify and reduce all types of A lot of anthropologists have worked on is- disaster vulnerabilities” (McEntire, et al.; 2002: 273). sues related to famines, so much so, that it seems to be heading to a very important sub-discipline within Development Dilemmas, Disasters and Anthro- anthropology.Another important area within which pological Paradigms anthropologists have worked includes risk percep- It is a fact that anthropological perspectives on de- tion and the assessment of risks. These have often velopment are often at odds with those of econo- been found to be grounded in cultural norms and val- mists (see Hart; 2008). Further, development has also ues. been linked today to issues of vulnerability within the population. These issues are especially highlighted Anthropological Theories about Disasters during a disaster situation. For anthropologists, espe- Though few theoretical perspectives have been cially, if not for others, vulnerability is socially con- worked in this arena, some theoretical perspectives structed. are seen to be relevant. A.F.C. Wallace in 1956

Disaster Management and the role of Anthropology 39 worked on the responses to socio-cultural grappled with the issue. Khare’s analysis from 1990 disorganisation. He showed how disaster was fol- shows that the two governments were very slow in lowed by a crisis in culture, which was followed by a listening to the voices of activists and survivors. response from the community that led to social change. Anthropology is often looking at normal cir- Das (2009) shows how conservation prac- cumstances. However, during disasters, the situation tices themselves led to the situation that led to floods is far from normal. It is at these moments that masks in the villages in the surrounding areas in the sub- are ripped off from all faces and reality is exposed. Himalayan region of Northern West Bengal in India. However, it is a source of wonder why disasters are He shows how these practices need not only to be ignored and other events like messianic movements, informed by better studies, they also need to look at which fall in the same class as ‘not being normal’, surrounding areas and listen to local people about their are studied in such great detail by many anthropolo- views before they can do a better job. gists. While Rossi looks at the relationship between The situation after the cyclone in Orissa, In- structure and agency in disaster situations, Loughlin dia in 1999 showed that even after more than a de- and Brady predicted that resource scarcity caused cade, the same pattern of vulnerabilities remained warfare in non-state societies. Approaches by ar- thus creating a template for on-going and future di- chaeologists also showed that disasters have been sasters (Chhotray and Few; 2012). the cause of the rise and fall of many agricultural communities in time. A major land-slide in Ladakh showed Brummans (2012) how important it was to under- Often, a ‘taphonomic’ or archaeological view stand local ideas, cosmologies, worldviews and un- uncovers masks, tensions, conflicts, vulnerabilities and derstandings before any kind of recovery could take inequalities within the community as Dawdy (2006) place in the community. shows in the context of New Orleans. Such a pro- cess would be productive in this uncovering since the One specific issue that is perhaps very im- same issues may be resolved during a reconstruc- portant is that most disasters in the South Asian con- tion. text often, eventually, are about issues of land (see Ha; 2015). Through the issue of ownership and man- Disaster Management and Anthropologists in agement of land, issues of risk, vulnerability and en- the Indian Context titlement all become intertwined. In the Indian context, anthropologists have earlier come in with aid agencies to work out the special Problems in Anthropological Studies on Disas- conditions of working in the country. A majority of ters: Possibilities and Futures studies have been on floods (Tyagi; 2007). They have One disadvantage of anthropological studies in di- commented on some of the issues like the problem of saster management is that anthropologists usually managing social hierarchies in aid relief. However, study one or a few communities. However, disasters there have now been many works on disasters in the are often not so specific. This has enabled the use of Indian context where Indian anthropologists have been more inclusive paradigms in anthropology that limit cited and have participated as experts. Further, In- the study only according to the existing conditions. dian students in anthropology have actively started Some of these post-modern research methods include researching on situations where disasters have oc- Action Research as well as Participatory Rapid curred. Assessments.One arena which really requires an- thropological analysis would definitely be the media In Bhopal, after the disaster when Methyl- reactions and responses to disasters. Iso-Cyanate was released into the atmosphere kill- ing and maiming hundreds of people, the subsequent Another new arena of disasters would be legal proceedings and condemnation continued for the anthropological control of hazardous pests or other decades as the governments in India and America biological organisms rather than looking at the indus-

40 World Focus May 2016 trial establishment or governments to deal with the of their poverty poorer religious gatherings are de- issue. The demographics of the people concerned, manded more funds for rebuilding their religious build- the biological species as well as local environments ings and structures, thus causing even more pain and are all key factors in the risk management. It is thus suffering. Knowing these details may assist aid work- neither fair nor healthy to ignore the local population ers in giving correct help when it is required (; and their contribution. Lecoq (2005: 185) shows these 2012). very factors present in the long-term risk manage- Such events also cause moments of solidar- ment of desert locusts. He claims that in order to find ity in the community as people lean on each other for a sustainable solution, it cannot just rest with the lo- survival. This can strengthen local communities. If cust, but also with ‘humanity, its real motives, com- adequately supported by aid agencies, in itself, this peting interests and organisation strategies’. This may be a strong support for rebuilding and recovery would make it a joint venture at the borders of ecol- of the local community (Castellanos; 2010). ogy and the human sciences. Sometimes the event itself creates its own Such work could be extended to human-ani- arena of expertise and its own political economy that mal conflicts, which can mount to hazardous levels guides its own logic of operation (see Bond; 2011). as in elephant-human interactions in many forest ar- Yet another field of anthropological exper- eas in India occurring as a result of loss of forest tise could be the identification of people through bio- cover. In such cases it was found that using expert logical anthropological and forensic expertise that knowledge combined with traditional knowledge sys- leads to a better sense of closure for the community tems was important. It was also important for such a (see, for instance, Kanchan, et al.; 2010). community to interact across the area including other villagers and officials. Such a system was helped by Even as anthropologists strive to do what is local assistance and initiatives by individuals who best, not all intend to follow optimum, ‘best practices’ were motivated (Clark and Slocombe; 2011). or even ‘common good’ when the final chips are down and the community is left to decide what is Disaster management cannot be done in iso- best for itself. That is an unpalatable truth about all lation. It has to be worked upon by multi-disciplinary human behaviour. teams of researchers, activists and others who pool their resources together. Some of the institutions have Conclusion organised and made themselves known to others (for Where is anthropology heading for in this plethora of instance, see Eyre; 2001). It is time that they linked activities clubbed together only by a tenuous defini- up and shared their best practices and other experi- tion of the terms ‘hazard’ and ‘disaster’? It must be ences for the common good. noted that anthropology can have the ability to be many things to many people. Its large area of exper- Often religious practices offer assistance in tise can lead to applications in a wide variety of cases times of need, especially so during disasters and re- and an outlook that is more holistic and, perhaps, more covery. Studies have shown that in the short-term far-seeing. recovery phase immediately after the immediate event, it is religion and its practices that are impor- Often, what anthropology needs is a push to tant for individuals and communities in giving hope stretch its limits before it gains an added perspective. and a feeling of capability even as the surrounding This is what has happened in various cases of disas- environment radiates despair. This is not to be under- ter management. Perhaps, teams need to cross-check taken in superficial terms but in the context of and refer to each others’ notes before they are able unravelling the details of the cosmology and meaning to create larger overviews of this sub-field within embedded within religious practice and everyday life anthropology. of the community. Through this guidance, practical rules and guidelines for action are also gathered. In the final analysis, then, disaster manage- Sometimes, without giving enough assistance because ment can only be as good as the subject and the per-

Disaster Management and the role of Anthropology 41 sonnel that are involved in the process. Without hu- Eyre, Anne. 2001. Introducing the BSA Disasters Study man beings as support groups, an anthropological Group in Risk Management, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 43-52. model is of no practical use. Perhaps it is this grounded Fritz, Charles E. 1961. Disasters in Robert K. Merton and nature of its reality that gives its tool-kit the added Robert A. Nisbet (eds.) Contemporary Social Problems. sharpness, better and more skillful at its job. New York: Harcourt, pp. 651-694. Ha, Huong (ed.). 2015. Land and Disaster Management References Strategies in Asia. Singapore: Springer. Austin, Diane E. 2006. Coastal Exploitation, Land Loss Hart, Keith. 2008. After the Disaster in Anthropology To- and Hurricanes: A Recipe for Disasterin American An- day, Vol. 24, no. 2, April, pp. 1-3. thropologist, Vol. 108, No. 4, December, pp. 671-691. Islam, Ranty R. 2012. Believing to Recover: The Role of Behrman, Julia Andrea and Abigail Weitzman. 2016. Ef- Religion in the Recovery Phase of Natural Disasters in fects of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake on Women’s Reproduc- Anthropos, Bd. 107, H. 1, pp. 209-217. tive Health in Studies in Family Planning, Vol. 47, No. 1, Jones, Eric C. and Arthur D. Murphy (eds.). 2009. The pp. 3-17. Political Economy of Hazards and Disasters. Lanham, Blaikie, Piers, Terry Cannon, Ian Davis and Ben Wisner. etc.: Altamira Press. 1994. At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability Kanchan, Tanuj, KewalKrishan, Abhilasha Sharma and and Disasters. New York: Routledge. Ritesh G. Menezes. 2010. A Study of Correlation of Hand Bond, David. 2011. The Science of Catastrophe Making and Foot Dimensions for Personal Identification in Mass Sense of the BP Oil Spill in Anthropology Now, Vol. 3, No. Disasters in Forensic Science International, Vol. 199, pp. 1, April, pp. 36-46. 112e1-112e6. Borovecki, Ana, JoninaEinarsdottir, DonalO’Mathuna, Khare, R.S. 1990. The Bhopal Tragedy: Labyrinthine Law Paulina Pospieszna, Orly Maya Stern and Natalia and Unending Politics in Anthropology Today, Vol. 6, No. OlivaTeles. 2015. 20 Years of the ICRC Code of Conduct 6, December, pp. 12-14. for Disaster Relief: What Do We Need to Improve? In The Lecoq, Michel. 2005. Desert Locust Management: From Lancet, Vol. 385, 11 April, p. 1391. Ecology to Anthropology in Journal of Orthoptera Re- Brummans, Boris H.J.M. 2012. The Road to Rizong Mind- search, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 179-186. ful Organizing amid Natural Disaster in the Indian McEntire, David A., Christopher Fuller, Chad W. Johnston Himalayas in Qualitative Communication Research, Vol. and Richard Weber. 2002. A Comparison of Disaster Para- 1, No. 4, Winter, pp. 433-460. digms: The Search for a Holistic Policy Guide in Public Castellanos, M. Bianet. 2010. 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Useful Disasters: The Complexity of man Ecology, Vol. 39, No. 5, October, pp. 627-640. Response to Stress in Tropical Lake Ecosystem in Das, BidhanKanti. 2009. Flood Disasters and Forest Vil- Anthropologica, Vol. 38, No. 2, Women in the Fisheries, lagers in Sub-Himalayan Bengal in Economic and Politi- pp. 125-148. cal Weekly, Vol. 44, No. 4, 24-30 January, pp. 71-76. Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2005. Katrina: The Disaster and Dawdy, Shannon Lee. 2006. The Taphonomy of Disaster Its Doubles in Anthropology Today, Vol. 21, No. 6, Decem- and the (Re)Formation of New Orleans in American An- ber, pp. 2-4. thropologist, New Series, Vol. 108, No. 4, December, pp. Torry, William I. 1979.Anthropological Studies in Hazard- 719-730. ous Environments: Past Trends and New Horizons in Cur- Drabek, Thomas E. 1986.Human System Responses to Di- rent Anthropology, Vol. 20, No. 3, September, pp. 517-540. saster: An Inventory of Sociological Findings. New York, Tyagi, Aditi. 2007. Global and National Scenario of Natural etc.: Springer-Verlag. Disasters (With Special Emphasis on Floods) in the In- dian Journal of Political science, Vol. 68, No. 4, October- December, pp. 791-808. 42 World Focus May 2016 Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Maharashtra Dr. Sanju Gupta

Few events leave people feeling more contract between the ruler and the ruled, in which helpless and insecure than the onset of a natural the citizenry expects protection from the state in disaster. While the overall global frequency of return for loyalty and taxes: in the context of natural cataclysmic natural disasters has been rising, several disasters, this means that there is a clear expansion emerging trends surrounding these events make a of the security agenda to encompass disaster victims’ fresh analysis of their security implications particularly expectations of state responses to their predicament. urgent. The toll of human death and property damage In the contemporary context, disease and natural has dramatically increased, far outstripping the coping disasters wreak havoc around the world. Portents capacities of the local, national, and even global for the future offer more ferocious pandemics, assistance efforts. Natural disasters thus elicit taking terrorist use of nuclear, radiological, biological or a fresh look at the definition of security itself. chemical weapons, and planetary pain and suffering Disasters can provide a measure of the preparedness linked to unabated environmental degradation. and integrity of the affected society, showing both Catastrophes are, of course, not new to human the adherence by the people to sound building and societies, but what is new is the nature of the land use codes and the avoidance by the government globalized context in which they are occurring today. of corruption and ineptitude. Disasters also reveal It is significant to note that as large-scale disasters the extent to which countries realistically recognize and the human suffering unfold, mankind is gradually their capacities and limitations to cope with the crisis. developing global capabilities to provide humanitarian In particular, governmental responses to natural assistance to victims just about anywhere in the world. disasters may be one of the few ways available for This context not only makes the world more aware assessing the extent of first, these regimes’ of catastrophes, but also sensitizes its inhabitants to desperation (or possibly humility), measured by their the shared responsibilities of preparing for, protecting willingness or unwillingness to sacrifice national pride against and responding to them. This awareness and hubris and accept offers of outside help ; second, brings with it the challenge of governing catastrophes their autonomy, measured by their ability or inability before, during and after their occurrence. Governance to rely on their own resources to manage a resulting requires framing policy challenges in ways that crisis; third, their technological faith, measured by their facilitate effective strategies and tactics. attempts during and after a catastrophe to seek Preparedness and response to natural disasters are technological remedies insulating them from the violent consequently increasingly framed today as security forces of nature; and fourth, their resiliency, measured challenges. Efforts at reconceptualization of health by the speed of readjustment and rebuilding after a and disaster relief as security issues, hence, directly calamity.1 contributes to the contemporary discourse about In today’s global system where people feel disasters, their mitigation as well as endeavours disconnected and isolated from violent forces of towards adaptation, all of this in the overall context nature, cataclysmic natural disasters have the of the paradigmatic change in contemporary security potential either to reinforce or to shake up the analysis. prevailing status quo. The notion of security employed here is “the pursuit of psychological and physical Among all the natural hazards, drought ranks safety2 ... to prevent direct threats ... from first in terms of the number of people directly affected. endangering the survival of these regimes, their Drought is a creeping phenomenon, difficult to citizenry, or their ways of life. Part of any meaningful understand and define due to differences in hydro- notion of security is the idea that there is a social meteorological variables and socio-economic factors

Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Maharashtra 43 along with the stochastic nature of water demand in improved scientific understanding, capacity building, various regions of the world. Although specific networking and broad consultation processes across definitions of drought may vary by sector and region, every section of the society. Moreover, the possibility it is basically an extended period of months or years, of climate change and natural disaster forces in which precipitation is less than the annual average, coalescing, and generating greater destructive forces, resulting in water scarcity.3 India, which has been prepares the ground for a comprehensive integrated facing drought conditions at least once every three risk management framework. It is therefore years over the last few decades, is amongst the most imperative to analyse: How far are Natural vulnerable and drought prone countries in the world. Disasters a Human Security issue? What Since the mid-1990s, India has been experiencing significant threats do natural disasters like prolonged and widespread droughts in consecutive Droughts, pose to human security? What has years, with increased frequency in recent times. It is been the destabilising effect of drought on the now well accepted that droughts will pose an state of Maharashtra? To what extent are Risk increased threat to climate sensitive economic sectors Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies being in India, especially agriculture. 4About two-thirds of adopted? How far have these been successful? India’s population depends on agriculture and allied activities, hence droughts are likely to threaten the RECONCEPTUALISING SECURITY overall economy of the country. The traditional notion of security, backed by political realism, defined Security in terms of power. This state- A majority of cultivated land is dependent on centric and conventional concept of security has been monsoons for irrigation and this monsoon pattern is challenged by the post-realist security scholarship. quite uneven. Some areas witness very heavy rainfall New conceptions of security (e.g. human security) while some areas have lesser rains. The distribution considered that the traditional notion of state-centric of water is quite uneven resulting into draught prone security, typically defined by military aspects, was situations in some areas. Because of lack of proper insufficient to explain emerging threats. As an irrigation facilities, agriculture activities in draught alternative to the conventional understanding of prone areas are suffering. In the Indian state of security affairs, human security discourse has Maharashtra, rural Marathwada region is one such incorporated poverty, environment, and intra-state draught prone area where scarcity of water is an conflict as threats to an individual‘s life.6 Non- acute problem. Drought in Maharashtra has affected traditional security is a significant shift from the almost 34% of the state. Groundwater levels have conventional idea of security to a new paradigm of drastically reduced by 1 metre to as high as 3 metres security that includes economy, ecology, natural below average in more than 4000 villages, and there disasters, health and social instability as threat factors. is likely to be an acute shortage of drinking water in This school of thought hypothesises that security can 10,615 villages by May 2016.5 be understood as a result of ‘speech acts’7 a process of repeated usage of the event in the public domain, The socio-political background of the region and through this process a perceived problem has further worsened this situation with water guzzling becomes an important agenda for national and sugarcane plantations still being cultivated in water international security. This ‘Securitization’ labels an scarce regions. Only a few villages have successfully issue as its prime concern and transforms the way tackled drought this year through rainwater harvesting; the issue is dealt with by the state as well as non- often, planned or systematic efforts to use state actors. Since its appearance in the United groundwater responsibly do not materialise, thus Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 1994 making efforts successful only at some places. Such Human Development Report, the concept of human hydro-meteorological disasters resulting from climate security has rapidly emerged in international politics, variability and other climatic and meteorological with the establishment of the Commission on Human causes are commonly referred as ‘climate disasters’ Security in 2001.8 Whereas a traditional understanding in disaster studies. To manage the climate change- of security emphasizes the military defence of state disasters-security nexus, the country needs to have interests, human security provides an alternative,

44 World Focus May 2016 human-centred perspective that focuses on securing context of humanitarian assistance in armed conflict, and protecting individuals’ “freedom from want” and states did not typically view such assistance as “freedom from fear”.9 It offers a broader contributing to their national security. Too often states understanding of security, by incorporating concerns subordinated the need for humanitarian assistance to of development and human rights as well as more military or political objectives that required more death traditional issues. Human security promotes a bottom- and destruction to produce the level of security up, people-centred approach, which emphasizes the desired. The securitization of health and disaster relief needs, capacities and experiences of individuals on indicates that policy makers have moved away from the ground.10 It has been widely applied in a number traditional notions of security that are tied to violent of fields such as peacebuilding, humanitarian military threats from foreign powers. assistance, development, education and health. As argued by the Commission on Human “Environmental security” was identified as a core Security (CHS), the need for a new paradigm of component of the definition of human security outlined security is associated with two sets of dynamics:13 in UNDP’s 1994 report. Nevertheless, human First, human security is needed in response to the security debates and policies have tended to focus complexity and the interrelatedness of both old and more on human-made disasters, such as armed new security threats – from chronic and persistent conflicts and human rights abuses. At the same time, poverty to ethnic violence, human trafficking, climate strategies for disaster risk reduction (e.g. the Hyogo change, health pandemics, international terrorism, and Framework for Action 2005-2015) have largely sudden economic and financial downturns. Second, avoided explicitly referring to human security. Even human security is required as a comprehensive so, as recent catastrophes like the earthquakes in Haiti approach that utilizes the wide range of new and Japan have clearly shown, the actual threats that opportunities to tackle such threats in an integrated people struggle with following a natural disaster are manner. Human security threats cannot be tackled similar to those of a human-made crisis such as armed through conventional mechanisms alone. Instead, they conflict: “fear” (such as aftershocks and deteriorating require a new consensus that acknowledges the social order) and “want” (lack of food, water and linkages and the interdependencies between shelter)11. Likewise, many of the same actors are development, human rights and national security. involved in the response, notably the UN and Protection and empowerment of people are the two humanitarian NGOs. Indeed, most of the organizations building blocks for achieving the goal of human involved in natural disaster relief are working to security. They are proposed by the CHS as the bi- protect human security, even if they don’t label their parts of any human security policy framework. work as such. Protection is defined by the CHS as “strategies, set up by states, international agencies, NGOs and the The securitization of health and disaster relief private sector, [to] shield people from menaces”. It is a significant development within the human security refers to the norms, processes and institutions required studies. What is emerging in the past few years is a to protect people from critical and pervasive threats. different way of thinking about epidemic diseases and Protection implies a “top-down” approach. It disasters. States, intergovernmental organizations and recognises that people face threats that are beyond non-governmental organizations are increasingly their control (e.g., natural disasters, financial crises conceptualizing epidemics and disasters as threats to and conflicts). Human security therefore requires human, national and global security.12 This protecting people in a systematic, comprehensive and phenomenon is complex and controversial, but it preventative way. Empowerment is defined by the produces a transformed governance perspective on CHS as “strategies [that] enable people to develop catastrophic events. The previous frameworks for their resilience to difficult situations”. Empowerment thinking about epidemics, transboundary pollution and implies a “bottom up” approach. It aims at developing natural disasters did not view these events in security the capabilities of individuals and communities to make terms. Only humanitarian assistance to victims of informed choices and to act on their own behalf. armed conflict had security implications. Even in the Empowering people not only enables them to develop

Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Maharashtra 45 their full potential but it also allows them to find ways disasters are long lasting and wide reaching in scope, and to participate in solutions to ensure human security particularly for developing countries. While we cannot for themselves and others. As clearly stated by the avert all natural disasters, our preparation for, and CHS, protection and empowerment are mutually responses to their human impacts can and must be reinforcing and cannot be treated in isolation: “both improved. The human security approach has much are required in nearly all situations of human to offer by facilitating a focus on human vulnerabilities, insecurity, though their form and balance will vary thereby reducing the grave consequences of natural tremendously across circumstances”. disasters for human safety and wellbeing. Natural disasters also illustrate the need for a more A distinctive element of human security is its multidisciplinary perspective when considering human focus on early prevention to minimize the impacts of security. While human security issues in armed insecurity, to engender long-term solutions, and to build conflict are primarily understood through the social human capacities for undertaking prevention. In this sciences, the natural sciences may provide invaluable regard, human security: Addresses root causes of knowledge for preparing and adapting to the human human insecurities. Emphasises early prevention impacts of natural disasters. The UN Resolution A/ rather than late intervention – thereby, more cost- RES/66/290, adopted unanimously on September 10, effective. Encourages strategies concerned with the 2012, defines human security as “the right of people development of mechanisms for prevention, the to live in freedom and dignity, free from poverty and mitigation of harmful effects when downturns occur despair.” Based on this definition, natural disasters and, ultimately, with helping victims to cope. Thus, —huge earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons, floods, snow the practical value of the human security approach storms, volcanic eruptions, droughts, wildfires, heat lies in its ability to focus and coordinate the efforts of waves, and so on — are major threats to human many different actors on actual human needs, by security.15 They threaten human survival; they providing a holistic and bottom-up perspective. damage the economic and social foundations of Clearly, this approach would also be beneficial in the people’s wellbeing; and they traumatize survivors, response to natural disasters—where coordination of family members and friends of the victims. In other relief efforts has been a recurring problem. words, in order to protect human security in the various regions of the world that are prone to natural disasters, NATURAL DISASTERS AND SECURITY disaster risk reduction is essential. STUDIES: AN ANALYSIS OF DROUGHTS Natural disasters can be very difficult to predict and Since natural disasters are mostly related to fully prepare against, and have incredibly far-reaching issues of climate change, in contemporary security consequences for the safety and wellbeing of studies Climate change is often considered a stressor, individuals and communities. Disasters such as the in that it leads to outcomes that decrease human 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, Hurricane Katrina in security,16 including loss of lives or livelihoods, or 2005, the Australian bushfires in 2009, the 2010 Haiti decreased availability of food and water. As a stressor, earthquake and the 2010 Pakistan floods have shown climate change can manifest in a number of ways, that the impacts on people and society in affected creating different types of stress, such drought, areas are immediate and overwhelming. Such salinization of soils, or increased climate variability catastrophes tend to exacerbate pre-existing problems and uncertainty. Shocks (floods, storm surges, or pest and inequalities, with vulnerable parts of the outbreaks) are a specific type of stress that tends to population often disproportionately impacted.14 The arise unexpectedly, often with a more violent impact consequences can be felt for many years, with people .Each of these stresses triggers a series of responses, suffering as refugees or being displaced within their leading to either positive or negative outcomes. It is own country, their livelihoods destroyed, and facing important to emphasize that climate change and long-term health issues. Due to population growth, responses to climate change may lead to positive poverty, and land shortages, people are increasingly outcomes for some. Nonetheless, climate change living in areas that are more exposed to natural often interacts with existing vulnerabilities, and may hazards. Likewise, the economic effects of natural compound poverty for many. Several organizations

46 World Focus May 2016 have developed indices to measure the vulnerability the hazard or vulnerability of the elements at risk. of people to environmental hazards. The The three key stages of activities that are taken up Commonwealth Secretariat has developed an within disaster risk management are: Pre-Disaster- environmental index designed to be applicable to strengthening the existing weak structures; During a developing and island states and has compiled two disaster- Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs variants for 111 countries. Six indicators were and provisions of victims are met and suffering is selected to reflect pressures on the natural minimized; Post-Disaster- Initiatives taken in response environment: annual rate of deforestation (1980- to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery 1990), population density, annual water use as a and rehabilitation of affected communities. 19 percentage of total water resources (1980 -1990), length of coastline compared to land area, number of Drought is a weather-related natural disaster. threatened species compared to land area, and total It is a recurrent feature of the climate. It occurs in number of natural disasters between 1970 and 1996. virtually all climatic zones, and its characteristics vary UNEP launched a process on the assessment of significantly among regions.20 Drought is defined as vulnerability to climate change by organising an a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability international workshop in October 1999. The process significantly below the normal or expected amount is intended to ensure that methodologies for assessing for a specific period. This condition occurs either due vulnerability to the adverse effects of climate change, to inadequacy of rainfall, or lack or irrigation facilities, and adaptability to climate change impacts, including under-exploitation or deficient availability for meeting an index of vulnerability, will meet the needs of the the normal crop requirements in the context of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change agro-climatic conditions prevailing in any particular (UNFCC) and address the commitments of area. . It affects vast regions for months or years. It subsequent protocols. The IPCC special report has an impact on food production and it reduces life “Regional Vulnerabilities to Global Climate Change” expectancy and the economic performance of large defines vulnerability as the extent to which climate regions or entire countries .There are three types of change may damage or harm a system; it is a function drought:21 of both sensitivity to climate and ability to adapt to • Meteorological Drought describes a situation where new conditions.17 Such assessments of vulnerability there is a reduction in rainfall for a specific period are important because of the broad spectrum of (days, months, season or years) below a specific impacts of global climate change, ranging from amount (long term average for a specific time). positive to negative, depending on the social and • Hydrological Drought involves a reduction in water geographical environment. resources (stream flow, lake level, ground water, underground aquifers) below a specified level for a Disaster occurs only when hazards and given period of time vulnerability meet. Vulnerability may be defined as • Agricultural Drought is the impact of meteorological/ “The extent to which a community, structure, services hydrological drought on crop yield or geographic area is likely to be damage or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their Unlike many disasters which are sudden, nature, construction and proximity to hazardous droughts result when there is less than normal terrains or a disaster prone area.” Vulnerabilities can precipitation over an extended period of time, usually be categorized into physical and socio-economic a season or more. The decreased water input results vulnerability. Physical Vulnerability includes notions in a water shortage for some activity, group, or of who and what may be damaged or destroyed. The environmental sector. Drought can also occur when socio-economic condition of the people also the temperature is higher than normal for a sustained determines the intensity of the impact. Whenever we period of time; this causes more water to be drawn discuss ‘disaster management’ it is basically ‘disaster off by evaporation. Other possible causes are delays risk management’.18 Disaster risk management in the start of the rainy season or timing of rains in includes all measures which reduce disaster related relation to principal crop growth stages (rain at the losses of life, property or assets by either reducing “wrong” time). High winds and low relative humidity

Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Maharashtra 47 can make matters much worse. Drought is not a public-health measures. A study in southern Africa disaster for nature itself, the disaster occurs when suggests that HIV/AIDS amplifies the effect of we consider the demand people place on their water drought on nutrition. Malnutrition increases the risk supply. Human beings often increase the impact of both of acquiring and of dying from an infectious drought because of high use of water which cannot disease. A study in Bangladesh found that drought be supported when the natural supply decreases. and lack of food were associated with an increased Droughts occur in both developing and developed risk of mortality from a diarrhoeal illness. Drought countries and can result in economic and and the consequent loss of livelihoods is also a major environmental impacts and personal hardships. All trigger for population movements, particularly rural societies are vulnerable to this “natural” hazard. A to urban migration. Population displacement can lead prolonged drought can have a serious impact on to increases in communicable diseases and poor agricultural communities, affecting crops, livestock nutritional status resulting from overcrowding, and a and families dependent on these commodities. The lack of safe water, food and shelter.24 greatest impact from drought is of course the decrease in water supplies.22 This can result in crop loss and Renewed interest in the political and reduce crop and forage growth and availability. The economic aspects of disasters, triggered by natural impact on livestock is equally devastating, and can phenomena, is part of a wider acceptance that result in animal deaths from limited water supplies or development has failed in many parts of the world, feed availability. Plants can also concentrate toxins and that development failures have led to an under drought conditions, making them more lethal to accumulation of disaster risks. Applying the human livestock. Drought conditions can also increase the security approach to natural disasters in general, and level of disease and insect infestations for plants and the occurrence of droughts in particular, has numerous livestock. The dry conditions can also lead to wind advantages. The human security approach helps us erosion of top soil, or increase the risk for fire hazards, widen our attention to the complex interaction among and given decreased water sources, can result in the geological/climatological phenomena, biological/ devastating losses. Families and businesses can also ecological phenomena, and human/social phenomena. be impacted by limited or restricted water sources . Natural disasters know no bureaucratic boundaries. during drought situations. The human security approach calls for more coordination and integration among bureaucratic The causal chains through which climate systems both nationally and internationally. This variability and extreme weather influence human approach can emphasize the necessity of investing nutrition are complex and involve different pathways not only in hard infrastructure such as sea walls, (regional water scarcity, salinisation of agricultural earthquake resilient buildings, flood ways, and early- lands, destruction of crops through flood events, warning systems, but also in soft infrastructure that disruption of food logistics through disasters, and make social systems more responsive and resilient. increased burden of plant infectious diseases or pests) Planning and preparation for a disaster should include . Both acute and chronic nutritional problems are the understanding of the complexity of a society, such associated with climate variability and change. The as ethnic composition and local history. The people- effects of drought on health include deaths, centred aspect of human security could shed light on malnutrition (undernutrition, protein-energy the needs of the most vulnerable in disaster affected malnutrition and/or micronutrient deficiencies), areas.25 The elderly, women and people with infectious diseases and respiratory diseases.23 disabilities often suffer disproportionately in major Drought diminishes dietary diversity and reduces natural disasters. In providing goods and facilities to overall food consumption, and may therefore lead to disaster-affected areas, it is important to take into micronutrient deficiencies. In Gujarat, India, during a consideration gender and the needs of the most drought in the year 2000, diets were found to be vulnerable. Otherwise, this well-intended deficient in energy and several vitamins. In this humanitarian aid runs the risk of being of little use to population, serious effects of drought on these groups or even negatively affecting human anthropometric indices may have been prevented by dignity. Vulnerable individuals who are likely to be

48 World Focus May 2016 the most adversely affected by disasters should be recognizing the scientific understanding on systems given the opportunity to actively participate in the approach. While the government of Maharashtra is planning and preparation against disasters. The human busy bringing forth a numerous ameliorative measures, security approach can also encourage DRR activities critics point out to the fact that in spite of having the to consider the importance of survivors’ human largest number of dams in the country, and despite security.26 Since survivors may further suffer from having spent millions on irrigation projects and having social disorder after a disaster hits, measures to numerous water management institutions, the state prevent looting and violence should be introduced. is gripped with droughts.27 It therefore becomes Natural disasters sometimes aggravate social imperative to understand as to why there is a discrimination against minorities. Therefore, education recurrence of droughts in Maharashtra, and to what and promotion of anti-discriminatory attitudes during extent have the mitigation and adaptation endeavours normal times are essential. Often, survivors continue been successful. to be traumatized by the memories of the disaster as well as the loss of their family members and friends. DROUGHTS IN MAHARASHTRA: Programs that support the victims’ mental health are THREATS, VULNERABILITIES AND therefore an important component of post-disaster MITIGATION reconstruction. A growing understanding of disasters Agriculture in India is primarily dependent on and their impacts on the vulnerable have hence led to Southwest monsoon rainfall (i.e., on average 80% of a growing research and understanding of disaster annual rainfall occurs between June and management, risk, mitigation as well as adaptation September).28 Due to the temporal and spatial studies and policies. For a growing economy like India, uncertainties of monsoon rainfall, Indian agriculture natural disasters can act as an effective impediment is at risk. According to National Rain fed Area to development and socio-economic change. Authority of India , about 60% of the total cultivated area in India still relies on natural rainfall (rain fed Eighty-two percent of India’s population, agriculture) and hence changes to rainfall patterns amounting to over 1 billion people, are periodically are a significant threat to India’s agrarian economy.29 threatened by at least one of type natural hazard. The direct impact of drought on Indian agriculture is The recent floods and landslides in Uttarakhand have decrease in crop (food grains, cereals, oilseeds etc.), been a rude reminder for India of its historical vegetable and fruit production. This creates drastic disasters. These disasters have proved to be reductions in farmers× income. The situation becomes overwhelmingly intimidating for the country, and also worse if the drought prolongs and the groundwater pointed at its incompetence to tackle such availability for irrigation (as a buffer to sparse and catastrophes on a massive scale. India has been at variable rainfall) also declines. Furthermore, drought the receiving end of the nature’s fury and has been impacts on livestock results in livestock mortality, plagued by many calamities of massive proportions poor-productivity, health and fertility. In addition, in the past. The disaster risks associated with drought drought increases the chance of food insecurity, is a recurrent feature in India. The drought-prone shortage of drinking water, mental and physical health areas are confined mainly to the peninsular and problems, migration for work, and debt etc. These western parts of the country, out of which the state impacts can vary significantly from one region to of Maharashtra has witnessed and suffered from another region. Human drivers, such as increasing acute and recurrent drought condition, in many water demand and poor water management can districts and villages. The Ministry of Home Affairs, further exacerbate the drought impacts. Because of National Disaster Management Authority and Ministry the interplay between a natural drought event and of Agriculture, Government of India have recently various human factors drought perception varies brought out a systematically developed Drought amongst the people from region to region. Recurring Manual and Drought Disaster Management drought is a major challenge in the Drought Prone Guidelines. Despite these being lengthy and Area of Maharashtra State in India. Agriculture ( comprehensive documents with excellent compilation rainfed cropping and livestock) is the major income of state-of-the-art literature critical gaps exist in activity of over 65% of the state’s population. About

Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Maharashtra 49 70 per cent of Maharashtra’s land area is hot semi- Marathwada region. Since 2012 the drought has arid to arid, supporting agriculture that is largely severely affected agriculture: about 2%, 5% and 18% dependent upon monsoon rainfall. Precipitation is reduction in cereals, pulses and total food grain concentrated in just a few months of the year and is production respectively for the year 2012-13. 33 highly variable in frequency, intensity and geographic coverage. In the dry rain shadow areas, there are no Drought has become a permanent feature in more than 10 days of harvestable rainfall. Even the agrarian sector of the state in the past few years. though agriculture contributes only 30 per cent of According to a rough estimation, nearly 25 lakh Maharashtra’s GDP, these drylands support 65 per farmers have lost their crops partly or entirely in the cent of the rural population and are the principal last two financial years. Poor rainfall — 59.4% of suppliers of coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds. The the annual average — has resulted in crop loss on importance of rain fed agriculture in terms of rural 53.10 lakh hectares comprising 15,747 villages from employment, sustenance and livelihoods cannot be 21 districts, which account for nearly 35% of the over emphasized. Yet the fragility of Maharashtra’s state’s total area. In the wake of a drought situation drylands is being compounded by ecological that has led in the early months of 2016 to an agrarian degradation.30 The combination of recurrent drought crisis in Maharashtra, the state government has and human pressure on the environment has rendered started preparing a district irrigation plan (DIP) for these watersheds barren, heavily eroded and unable all districts.34 The exercise will help the government to retain even limited rainfall. The poorest of the poor ascertain the minimum water requirement for each usually inhabit these degraded watersheds, subsisting farm land and accordingly make plans for the scientific in highly water-stressed circumstances.31 With limited management of water. In the words of Dinesh Kumar resources and access to external services, these Jain, additional chief secretary (agriculture and communities are unable to safeguard their livelihood marketing), “DIP will give minimum requirement of systems, leaving them more vulnerable to extreme water of each farm land, based on which plans will climate conditions. be made to make water available to them. The DIP includes — area wise and crop wise irrigation status, About 80% of drinking water sources in the production and productivity of major crops and status Maharashtra State are groundwater dependent. . The of ground water availability. It also will have village- groundwater in the state acts as buffer for long-term level details that will be consolidated into a block- rainfall and surface water shortage. The average level plan, which will evolve into a DIP that can be residence time of the shallow, accessible groundwater used to fine-tune the existing irrigation system”.35 In in the state is less than four years. Therefore, response to the challenge of drought, as early as 1993, prolonged droughts (i.e. greater than two years a Watershed Organisation Trust (WOTR) 36was duration) or consecutive years of reduced monsoon established in order to help villagers eradicate their rainfall severely threaten livelihoods.32 Insufficient poverty through watershed regeneration. As the monsoon rain in2012 resulted in serious water scarcity official capacity building organization of the Indo- in the Maharashtra State. Water was made available German Watershed Development Programme to people for consumption through private and (IGWDP), WOTR provides support to Village Self government water supply tankers .Total expenses Help Groups (VHSG) and grassroots NGOs in the incurred for water supply tankers, special repairs of technical and management aspects of local watershed existing water supply facilities and construction of development projects. Conducted on a micro- bore wells were US $95.4 million as on March 30, catchment basis, the watershed development effort 2013. A recent work by Groundwater Survey and emphasizes self-help, ecological regeneration and Development Agency revealed that in January 2014, “catching rain wherever it falls.” Upon developing a about 144 out of 353 talukas showed 1m decline in proposal for action, villagers agree to undertake a groundwater level as compared to the previous year series of rigorous watershed development activities, average. The state government has disclosed that such as:37 currently about 7896 villages are suffering under • establishing Village Self-Help Groups to help guide drought, out of which 3299 villages are located in the the watershed effort;

50 World Focus May 2016 • planting trees and grasses to stabilize waterways kind of crops depending on the availability of water and provide fodder and fuelwood; and redistributing water use based on supply. • instituting bans on tree felling and grazing for natural regeneration of shrubs and grasses; practices and Tondoli village in the rural Marathwada region livelihood activities; and always faced shortage of water for agriculture as • supporting cottage industries and supplemental well as domestic purposes. Due to the lack of storage income generation through micro-lending schemes. facilities, almost 8000000 liters of the rainwater was wasted. The water supply was done through water Crucial to the successful implementation of tankers which were inadequate and the water was these measures is the active participation of women. not potable enough. Total India undertook an initiative Almost 80 per cent of a rural household’s consumption ‘Varsha Jal’ – a rain water harvesting project to help basket is derived from the environment. As the the villagers overcome water shortage.39 Total India primary resource providers in rural households, helped the villagers to make underground ponds using women are intimately involved with the management the patented technology for storing the rain water. of environmental resources to meet immediate This structure of Rain Water Harvesting (RwH) household needs and are therefore crucial to the patented by the service provider replenish sustainability of the watershed effort. Participatory underground water table and create water security Groundwater Management (PGWM) is another for generations and provide clean drinking water. important approach in this context, as it looks at Excavation work is done using construction groundwater as a common pool resource.38 PGWM machineries to insert plastic sheet made by the service involves trying to understand groundwater availability provider’s patented products which does not have by gaining an understanding of the aquifer any negative impact to soil. A slope is then created characteristics and its regional spread, and to guide rain fall to reach the trench created which is understanding, analysing and managing demand with 15-30 meters down the sub soil. Bottom of the trench community participation by taking into consideration is filled with Porous soil. Thus there are numerous the economic and social aspects and planning supply drought adaptation and mitigation options available augmentation. The villages of Muthalane in Pune, for dry farming most of which focus on water and Randullabad in Satara and Pondhe in Purandar taluka soil health conservation. The use of available water suffered from acute water scarcity. The villagers during drought is very important. Most of the farmers, lacked the organisational skills to plan for such however, are not equipped with water saving situations which affected them year after year. The technologies and use flood irrigation to irrigate the use of PGWM principles by Advanced Centre for crop even during drought, which reduces water Water Resources Development and Management productivity. (ACWADAM) brought the villagers together and got them to understand the issues that they were facing Adaptation is now as an important issue as by combining simple scientific concepts with local mitigation in climate change research. This is because knowledge. Groundwater management plans based of the fact that climate change will occur in the on aquifer mapping were made in the villages. The coming several decades regardless of efforts to nature and behaviour of groundwater as a common reduce emissions due to the long life span of pool resource was emphasised in the discussions and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . “Adaptation is the villagers were encouraged to map their water a necessary strategy at all scales to complement resources, understand how much water supply was climate change mitigation efforts” (IPCC 2001). The available from different sources, understand the major task ahead is to identify the regions or the different uses of water and develop an understanding specific groups of population that will likely be affected of the balance between demand and supply. Once by climate change and the strategies to minimise the this were clear, implementing systems to ensure that negative effects of climate change on them. The the supply didn’t stop was the third step for which identification process involves the assessment of the the community was encouraged to conduct year round level of vulnerability of the society and the analysis monitoring of water from sources, choosing the right of their adaptive capacity. The choice of appropriate

Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Maharashtra 51 adaptation options requires vulnerability assessment in the larger canvas of gender rights, livelihood hence the concepts of vulnerability and adaptation sustainability and human security.41 are closely interlinked. In drought affected Maharashtra, the analysis of the vulnerable population A study in the Konkan region of Maharashtra majorly focuses towards the poor, and especially the found that in every household, on an average, women women. In Maharashtra, the number of drought-prone spend about 79%, men about 7%, and children about talukas is increasing rapidly. Despite huge investments 14% of their time in meeting the household’s domestic in building dams, the irrigated area has not gone water needs. This impacts women’s health, time and beyond 15% of total cropped area. It is estimated energy spent in collecting water, income-earning that if all the potential were exploited, this area would opportunities, childrearing capacities, and social status. not exceed 30%. However, how much irrigation is These impacts have the combined effect of weakening expanded is less crucial than how much of it reaches the capabilities of women and their livelihood the poor, and women.40 Almost 60% of the irrigated outcomes. While women normally spend a significant area in Maharashtra is cornered by 2% of the land, proportion of their time in meeting basic household which is largely under sugarcane. The highly needs for water, fodder and fuel even in normal times, subsidised expansion of irrigation in the last few during a drought they have to invest even more time decades has created pockets of prosperity but left a and labour to collect less and less — both large section of the poor deprived of water. The quantitatively and qualitatively — water, fodder and question of assured water for livelihoods for a large fuel. They have to hire out more of their labour for a section of the population remains unresolved. Issues smaller than usual wage. This leaves them with very of distributional justice were, in fact, never on the little time to engage in any productive activity outside irrigation agenda. Apart from the tremendous gaps in the house, and forces women to remain in subsistence. equity, the irrigation sector is beset with problems Health impact studies have shown how lack of water like inadequate financial recoveries from users, means that women have to cut down on the number stagnating performance, poorly maintained irrigation of meals cooked, or manage with raw or partially systems, displacement of people, resultant conflicts cooked food. Wood is the main source of fuel in rural between those affected by the project and its areas. Fuel becomes inadequate during a drought, beneficiaries, and the irreparable damage that it has and this also changes consumption patterns. All this caused to the ecosystem. affects the nutritional quality of the food, and women and girls are the worst affected in the process. Water The impact of drought and scarcity is felt scarcity also means that young girls are forced to most severely by women due to their gender-defined stay out of school to collect water. Women find little roles in collecting and utilising water for the survival time for social interaction with each other, and, as of their households. Often, the other side of improved water becomes scarcer, once-stabilising community productivity due to irrigation also means increased relationships turn sour due to increasing conflicts over labour for women .All over the world women share the resource. Permanent and seasonal migration of a special relationship with water, as a life-sustaining men to cities and irrigated areas leads to an apparent resource, as a means of production, and as a cultural increase in “women-headed” households. idiom. The landscape of women and water in India is no exception. In rural India, women head-load water In many states of Maharashtra that face an over miles in the scorching heat of the semi-arid plains acute water shortage, women are married to older or along narrow dangerous paths up in the foothills. men - many of them already married - and their sole Denied land rights, most rural women find it difficult purpose is provide the family with a pair of hands to access water for irrigation or to participate in that will fetch water, often walking great distances to making decisions in the newly established water user do so. This trend of “Water Wives”42 shows a associations. Giving women a voice in articulating glaringly dismal picture of the drought-stricken region their water priorities requires an enabling environment in Maharashtra and the most terrible droughts India which recognises that the right to water is embedded has ever seen. Long-term and widespread drought has had a long-standing impact on natural resources.

52 World Focus May 2016 Ecological degradation, contributing to drought, has and other resource-poor will never be able to led to the erosion of livelihoods. Degradation of forests participate in water governance. and land and dropping water tables impact women in the same way as drought. Added to this is a lack of In India, Climate change related natural opportunities in the non-farm sector, which forces disasters are being addressed at various levels, by migration to urban areas. Schemes and programmes the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the Ministry to address these issues lack an understanding of the of Science and Technology, the Ministry of External causes that brought about the depletion of the Affairs well as by the Prime Minister’s Office. resource, as well as gender-defined tasks and roles. However, unfortunately there is wide divergence Policies are being introduced that treat water as an among these entities. Hence, there is an urgent need economic good. Debates on water pricing and full to bring climate change and disaster communities on cost recovery are growing. The irrigation sector has a common platform, and develop an integrated risks been recognised as a loss-making sector and the State management framework or model for the challenges wants to rid itself of the responsibility of managing it. of climate change and increasing disasters, which are One of the solutions for recovering costs is seen in intrinsically linked through societal vulnerability. An the “user pays” principle. In plain terms, this implies integrated approach would mean: -43 that only those who are willing to pay and have the -Better coordination among the climate change, ability to pay will have access to water. No distinction disasters and development communities, is made in pricing policies between water for - enhanced disaster management. livelihoods and for other requirements. This has two -Improved conceptual and methodological approaches implications: first, the priority given to industrial water to understand and respond to local manifestations of use over irrigation. If water is allocated wherever disasters returns are the highest, water for industry becomes the more favoured option. The second implication The Government of India has many polices relates to which crops are given preference with in place that are directed to enhancing the adaptive irrigation water. This can restrict women’s access to capacity. However, implementation of these at the water for non-marketable produce or survival tasks. local level has been poor, as mass manifest in the “Paying” crops can get preference over “non-paying” slow eradication of poverty, inequity etc. and low food crops largely cultivated by women. Women often human development index. Both floods and droughts, informally use irrigation water for rearing cattle, in the practical sense of investment, are seen as moulding bricks, growing vegetables. All small-scale external events that can be controlled through the activities, but crucial for household consumption. The construction of physical structures. Concepts of flood economic benefits of these enterprises are not visibly and drought proofing exist and do include the high and the new policies may force women out of recognition of wide measures related to the using irrigation water for these purposes. “Cost vulnerability of livelihoods. Translating such concepts recovery” is the other principle being seen as critical into governmental programs that actually direct for bringing in water sector reform — in the drinking significant investment into something other than the water, sanitation as well as irrigation sectors. Studies construction of water control structures has not, from across the world show that it is largely the however, occurred on a widespread basis. It can be women of the household who make the labour input said that while significant achievements have been for capital cost recovery and for recovery of operation made in post-disaster response and reconstruction, and maintenance of irrigation schemes. Therefore, there are still formidable challenges to reducing the this form of cost recovery often means increased risk of future disasters. Disaster management policies labour for women, and in some cases, children as must incorporate programs to protect the most well. Hence, any alternative will have to be based on vulnerable segments of society—the poor, restructuring the water sector on the principles of marginalized, women, children, disabled, and elderly. equity, sustainability and participation. Unless rational, Mechanisms must be designed and adopted for equitable and sustainable use of water does not transferring lessons learned for pre- and post- become a primary concern for policymakers, women disaster management between communities.

Natural Disasters and Human Security: An Analysis of Drought Prone Maharashtra 53 For rural India to be vibrant, the way forward is to manner. Mankind has reached an interesting point of address the twin challenges of reviving the dynamism its history. It has now the choice either to keep its of the farm sector by building its climate resilience development unchanged and undergo massive and creation of quality employment in non-farm disasters, or to bifurcate and ensure its own segments. Recent reports say India has become the sustainability. Information about this choice is not world’s fastest-growing economy in terms of GDP lacking. It is its real integration into consciousness growth, overtaking China. While this may be the case, that needs to take off with greater vigour and zest. we must pause and reflect over what this means for the 800 million-plus population that lives and works in Endnotes 1 Mandel, Robert, “Security and Natural Disasters”, Journal of Conflict Studies, our rural areas. The picture there is a lot less vol.xxii, no.2,2002. spectacular. Between 2003 and 2012, there was a 2 Ibid. 3 http://drought.unl.edu/droughtbasics/whatisdrought. aspx clear turnaround in our agricultural performance. But 4 https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/396/636 5 http://www.vikalpsangam.org/article/can-recurring-droughts-in-maharashtra- the rate of growth in agriculture and allied activities be-offset-by-participatory-groundwater-management-pgwm/#.VwZNnOafcq4 6 Biswas, Niloy Ranjan, “Is the Environment a Security Threat: Environmental is down from about 4 per cent per annum in the 11th Security Beyond Securitization”, International Affairs Review, vol.xx,no.1,winter,2011. Plan period to just 1.7 per cent in the first three years 7 Buzan, Berry, Weaver, Ole, De Wilde, Japp , Security:A New Framework of of the 12th Plan (2012-15). Over 300,000 farmers Analysis, Lynne Reinner, Colorado,1988. 8 http://www.un.org/humansecurity/content/human-security-now have committed suicide in the last decade, and in 9 Caballero-Anthony, Mely, An Introduction to Non-Traditional Security Studies: A Transnational Approach, Sage, London, 2016. Maharashtra alone, over 2,000 such cases have been 10 http://unu.edu/publications/articles/natural-disasters-and-human- security.html reported last year. Worse, India is currently reeling 11 Ibid. under the impact of an unprecedented drought. For 12 Fidler,David P., “Governing Catastrophes: Security, Health and Humanitarian Assistance”,International Review of Red Cross, vol.89, no.866,June, 2007. the second year in succession, rainfall in the monsoon 13 Thomas Gilbert, Markus Kirkilionis, Gregoire Nicolis ed. Proceedings of the European Conference on Complex Systems 2012,Springer, London, 2013. season has been less than normal; 302 districts in the 14 http://unu.edu/publications/articles/natural-disasters-and-human- security.html country have been declared drought-hit. Since 15 Christopher Hobson, Paul Bacon, Robin Cameron, Human Security and Natural Disasters, Routledge, New York, 2014. agriculture is the source of livelihood for millions in 16 Human Development Report 2007/2008 http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/ rural India, droughts push the already precarious lives files/obrien_karen_and_leichenko_robin.pdf of smallholder farmers and agricultural labourers to 17http://www.unep.org/geo/GEO3/pdfs/Assessing HumanVulnerabilityC.pdf 18http://cbse.nic.in/natural%20hazards%20& %20disaster%20management.pdf the brink, leading to massive rural distress. 19 Ibid. 20 http://threeissues.sdsu.edu/three_issues_ drought facts01.html 21 http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Crisis/Drought .htm Natural disasters and their interface with 22 http://www.prep4agthreats.org/Natural-Disasters/drought 23 Climate Change 2007: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and human security challenge us at numerous levels. Vulnerability,https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch8s8- 2-3.html Natural disasters have claimed more lives and 24 Sangmin Bae, Makoto Maruyama, Human Security, Changing States and Global Responses: Institutions and Practices,Routledge, 2014. affected more people in recent years than ever before. 25 Keynote Speech at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, Public Forum “Disaster Risk Reduction and Human Security”: Added Value of In 2012 alone, there were 364 natural disasters, the Human Security Approach to Disaster Risk Reduction, http://www.jica.go.jp/ threatening approximately 139 million people english/about/president/speech/150317_01.html 26 Ibid. worldwide and inflicting more than US$158 billion in 27 https://humandialogue.org/2013/04/01/drought-in-maharashtra-a-disaster- of-water-management-and-corruption/ damages. These events disrupt and erode livelihoods, 28 http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2014/05/28/in-india-reducing-the- dependency-on-monsoon-precipitation/ increase the spread of infectious diseases and 29 http://www.gktoday.in/rainfed-agriculture-in-india/ threaten the coping mechanisms of individuals and 30https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2003/envsec_livelihoods_ 3.pdf 31 Ibid. communities. Vulnerable groups are particularly at 32 Farmers’ perception of drought impacts, local adaptation and administrative mitigation measures in Maharashtra State, India, International Journal of Disaster risk, not only from the immediate impacts of natural Risk Reduction, http://ac.els-cdn.com/S2212420914000818/1-s2.0- S2212420914000818-main.pdf?_tid=93dbede4-062f-11e6-9b13- disasters but also from the knock-on risk factors such 00000aab0f26&acdnat=1461071389 _03cd344f9eff2ec4cf8c2330561a8e88 33 Ibid. as displacement, growing competition over scarce 34 http://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai/irrigation-plan-soon-for-all- resources and rising tensions. Since the consequences districts-in-maharashtra/story-zjyr7QfkTNqOOOYcJrWJIJ.html 35 Ibid. of natural disasters are multiple and often devastating 36 http://www.wotr.org/audio_visuals_english/rain-trappers 37 Ibid. in nature, a human security approach that helps 38 http://www.vikalpsangam.org/article/can-recurring-droughts-in-maharashtra- be-offset-by-participatory-groundwater-management-pgwm/#.VwZNnOafcq4 mitigate the multidimensional consequences of natural 39 http://www.total.in/en/helping-mitigate-drought-challenge-corporate-social- disasters is an urgent priority and an important step responsibility 40 http://infochangeindia.org/agenda/women-a-work/in-search-of-water.html in building the resilience and the capacities of 41 Ibid. 42 http://indiatoday.intoday.in/education/story/water-wives-of-maharashtra/1/ communities to manage these risks in a sustainable 480898.html 43 http://www.umdcipe.org/conferences/epckdi/9.PDF 54 World Focus May 2016 Nuclear Disaster Management- Past, Present and Future Dr. Vichitra Gupta

Economic growth worldwide has imposed doses of radiation cause damage to body cells, tissues, extensive demands on the energy sources to feed proteins, nucleic acids, ruptures cell membranes and the boosting economies as well as to further aid the may also induce cell mutations leading to bone or blood development processes. Owing to the large population cancer. Malignancy might also appear years after and fast growing economy of India, energy is one of radiation exposure. Apart from these somatic effects, the foremost requisites to accelerate economic growth they can even cause chromosomal damage, increase in order to alleviate poverty and to promote sustainable the frequency of chromosomal aberrations and cause development. This, coupled with global climatic genetic mutations that can get passed on to change and environmental concerns, has highlighted subsequent generations leading to irreparable the need to reduce the dependence on conventional structural and functional genetic defects in the foetus fossil fuels and explore other sources of energy which (teratogenic pre-natal toxicity). The radioactive are cleaner, cheaper and preferably more efficient. pollutants that fall in the crop fields, enter into the Nuclear Energy tops the list of such alternate energy food chain through the cattle that usually graze on sources to generate electricity without greenhouse the plants in these fields. Those who drink the milk of emissions, with high energy capacity and low such cattle have chances of developing Leukaemia operation costs. because radioactive pollutants like Strontium-90 get deposited in the bones by replacing Calcium in the Presently, the contribution of nuclear energy bones. Another radioactive substance Iodine 131 to world electricity production is about 15% and this causes damage to thyroid glands by replacing the safe small percentage is likely to go up in the coming years. iodine, leading to thyroid cancer. In addition to that, it In many European countries such as France, may also cause damage to lymph nodes, WBCs, bone however, nuclear power accounts for nearly 75-80% marrow, spleen, cause sterility, defective eyesight, of the total electricity production. In India, nuclear tumours, skin cancer. Tritium, released from nuclear power is the fourth largest source of electricity, power plants into the atmosphere, replaces hydrogen contributing 3% to the total electricity production in in water. This is called hard water. When such the country. Nuclear power is generated using contaminated water is consumed or inhaled as vapour, radioactive isotopes such as uranium-234, caesium- it can have adverse effects on health including cell 137, iodine-131, strontium-90 which are unstable. The mutation. Tritium emits radioactive beta particles nucleus undergoes disintegration to release a large which bombard the cells causing mutation in amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation, reproductive cells that may lead to birth defects. followed by a chain reaction. This process called Although it is highly imperative to devise, develop and nuclear fission releases large amounts of energy even implement appropriate policies and standards for for a small quantity of fuel and thus, is highly energy preventing the occurrence of such mishaps, nuclear efficient but the same process releases radioactive hazard management and disaster mitigation strategies radiations as well which are highly toxic and can inflict also need to be sound enough to deal with the life-endangering damages if not handled carefully. If aftermath of any nuclear disaster, once it occurs, in any accident occurs in the plant, massive destruction order to minimise harm to nature and life. In order to is inevitable. Nuclear accidents occur when the understand the need to develop, prepare and formulate reactor core gets damaged and the highly dangerous a sound nuclear disaster management programme in radiations are released into the environment to an India, one need to look closely at the major nuclear extent that not only claims lives but potentially causes disasters that have occurred worldwide. severe damage to the components of nature. High

Nuclear Disaster Management- Past, Present and Future 55 Major Nuclear Disasters Worldwide vomiting, and uncontrollable cough among the people Chernobyl (April 26, 1986) started flowing in within several hours of the The nuclear disaster at Chernobyl has been the explosion. Buses were made available to each world’s worst and most catastrophic nuclear disaster apartment block to move the people to a safer area. till date in terms of number of casualties, prolonged The people were instructed to turn off electrical after-effects and negligence of timely disaster equipment, water taps and windows before leaving mitigation. It occurred while testing an RBMK reactor their house. The evacuation had been started much (uses water as coolant) of the Chernobyl plant, located before the public announcement of the disaster. near the town of Pripyat, Ukraine (which was then People, called liquidators were engaged to shovel the under the jurisdiction of the Soviet Union). The safety large amount of debris and decontaminate the area. systems had been turned off deliberately so that the Although they wore protective suits, still the conditions test could be carried out unhindered. Due to design they worked under were deplorable. Some were fault in the reactor and lack of safety culture in the exposed to radiation dose 100 times the safe limit, plant, an uncontrolled chain reaction caused a sudden causing immediate death. The lives and health of power surge which in turn resulted in an explosion, thousands of workers were sacrificed in these vain blowing off its 1000 tonne lid (concrete and steel). attempts of controlling the disaster. The official Consequently, a lethal cloud of radioactive material massive clean-up was started early rather than got released into the atmosphere over Pripyat and allowing the radiations to undergo natural decay drifted over vast expanses of the Soviet Union and because there was a haste to re-settle people and Europe. An attempt was made to keep the matter bring them back into cultivation. Indeed, 75% of the under wraps by some Soviet officials by not reporting land was under cultivation within 15 months yet the it to the higher authorities. The people of the city land remained of marginal agricultural value. were completely unaware that they were under high radiation dose. The matter was revealed when the Effects of the Disaster Swedish Radiation Monitoring Stations (located about During the initial days of the hazard, 31 people died 800 miles from Chernobyl) reported radiation levels and several others suffered severe radiation burns. to be 40% higher than normal. This was when the The full human toll is still being determined, running Soviet Union admitted publicly that a radiation hazard into thousands of deaths and about 70,000 suffering had occurred. radiation poisoning. Nuclear fallout caused serious health hazards to humans as well as other living Evacuation and Disaster Management beings. It unleashed a thyroid cancer epidemic in the The radiation levels reached as high as 5-6 Roentgen/ region due to contamination of cattle milk with sec within the plant while the installed dosimeters radioactive iodine. The health effects of radiation could read only uptil 0.001 R/s due to which the high exposure included nausea, headaches, skin ulcers, levels of radiation went undetected, claiming the lives anaemia. There were also cases of prolonged effects of the workers who stayed in the plant trying to revive which were diagnosed as haemorrhage, blood it. In order to extinguish the fire, fire-fighters arrived abnormalities, mutagenic alterations, bone narcosis at the plant shortly after the disaster. They had not and skin cancer. There was an overall increased been informed about the radiation leakage due to which incidence of cancers and birth defects in the most of them died as a result of radiation exposure. evacuated population. The water bodies, farmlands Helicopters were engaged to shower sand, clay and and forests were found to be contaminated above neutron-absorbing boron over the reactor. Remote- the permissible radiation limit. The flora and fauna of controlled bulldozers and robots were roped in to the region died, experienced stunted growth or stopped remove the hot debris but due to radiation exposure, reproducing. There was bio-accumulation of they too stopped working properly. The nearby city radioactivity in fish, livestock and even in crops. All of Pripyat was not evacuated until 36 hours of the this has rendered the land uninhabitable. People are accident. The people, completely unaware of the afraid to conceive and have families as they fear the threat to their lives, went about their daily routine incidence of birth defects in their children, even years and businesses. However, reports of headache, after the mishap.

56 World Focus May 2016 engineers from the West to discuss safety Politico-Economic consequences of the tragedy improvement measures. The database of Nuclear In addition to the extensive harm to life and nature, Safety Assistance Coordination Centre mentioned the contaminated areas suffer economic, political and one billion dollars aid o safety projects in Eastern and social decline. The contamination of farmlands and Western bloc. In June 1994, the Convention on water bodies stunted the growth of crops and cattle Nuclear Safety was adopted in Vienna. Ever since leading to disruption of production and export. Years the Chernobyl disaster, the Western Bloc has extended after the calamity, nobody wants to consume any technical assistance to Eastern bloc. product be it grown or manufactured, in the affected region. The land is still not fit for living for years to In July 1992, G-7 countries proposed to set come. Ukrainian trade saw a clear decline post the up Nuclear Safety Account wherein the contributions nuclear hazard. Seemingly, these are the reasons why received by donor countries shall be used for safety initially an attempt was made to keep the explosion projects. Four projects were financed for safety under cover and even after getting unveiled, the area upgrades such as Lithuania’s Ignalina Plant, Russia’s was declared completely safe after some time when Leningrad, Bulgaria’s Koloduy plant and Chernobyl it was actually not so. in Ukraine. From 2007-2013, nuclear safety fund was organised for mutual safety assistance. In Nov 2013, Increased Nuclear Awareness after Chernobyl the European Parliament funded €631 million The Chernobyl accident put various questions on programme over a period of six years to ensure reactor safety and post-disaster management. A huge nuclear safety. The European Union also supports debate started on how to minimise radiation damage, various nuclear safety programmes through various injuries as well as death toll, in case a nuclear accident agencies. European Investment Bank also administers occurs. The East European countries started making 81.4 billion long term loan facility to fund nuclear improvements in reactor designs and operating safety projects. The Chernobyl accident ushered an procedures. The East and the West collaborated and era of increased awareness towards nuclear failures made substantial investment in improving the reactor and in a way, led to a contemplation over improving design, overcoming the deficiencies of the RBMK the disaster mitigation projects which in turn had a reactor design. Earlier, in case the cooling water significant role in reducing the radiation impact in the turned to steam, it could lead to the chain reaction nuclear disasters that occurred at other places in the going out of control leading to an explosion. The years following the Chernobyl tragedy. improved reactors could control chain reactions better due to the presence of neutron absorbers and control The International Atomic Energy Agency rods. Automatic shutdown mechanisms and (IAEA) automated inspection equipments were installed. In At the International level, IAEA prescribes certain the light of all these positive changes, the Human safety standards to be followed by member nations Nuclear Safety Agency reported that a mishap of for safe use of nuclear energy. IAEA was established the level of Chernobyl was now virtually impossible. in 1951 with a purpose of safe, secure and peaceful Since 1989, there have been reciprocal visits of use of nuclear energy. It has three main missions: to nuclear engineers, radiation experts and academicians, ensure the peaceful use of nuclear energy, inspecting between the Soviet Union and the West, with the the existing nuclear facilities for the purpose, to motive to secure reactor safety and improve disaster develop safety standards for safe use of nuclear mitigation strategies so that in the advent of any facilities and to promote awareness by sharing of accident, there is less or no damage to life although experiences/data. In 2002, Nuclear Knowledge the reactor may suffer damage. In 1989, World Management Programme was launched. It has also Association of Nuclear Operations (WANO) was created the ‘Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Renew formed linking 130 nuclear operators from more than Missions’ for the regular review of nuclear 30 countries. The International Atomic Energy instalments. The EDUTA programme has been Agency (IAEA) organised various safety review developed as education and training programmes projects bringing together Soviet engineers and through which member states are educated in the

Nuclear Disaster Management- Past, Present and Future 57 application of safety standards and competence in major concern of the contaminated water getting radiation protection. IAEA through its Occupational overflowed back to the sea, exposing marine life to Radiation Protection Appraisal Service (ORPAS) the toxic materials. The soil within a radius of 600 provides a thorough review of the highly secured km around the plant also got covered with radioactive safety infrastructure for people employed in radiation substances. In response to this, the authorities ordered related activities. Member states need to pledge to scrapping off the entire top layer of soil to eliminate establish stringent safety standards to minimise chances of further contamination. radiation exposure of the workforce. ORPAS sends its review mission to member states and provides an The evacuation was carried out in a 4-stage impartial unbiased appraisal of regulations and safety process: an area of prohibited access (3 km radius), measures. ORPAS is responsible for inspecting an on-alert area (3-20 km), and an evacuation management of nuclear facilities, volcanic hazards in prepared area (20-30 km). About 2, 00,000 people site evaluation, organising and staffing of regulatory were evacuated from the first two areas on day one body for nuclear facilities, storage of spent fuel, and and 1, 70,000 people of the prepared area were asked criticality safety in handling of fissile material, disposal to stay indoors and were later evacuated. The of radioactive waste, protection of the public against workers were put to radiation exposure checks and radiation exposure, safe transport of radioactive those found contaminated were immediately provided material and remediation of areas contaminated by medical and decontamination facilities. Recovery past activities or accidents. IAEA safety standards workers were given breathing apparatus, protective are developed through open and transparent method clothing and protective monitors to guard themselves of gathering the knowledge of nuclear regulatory against the harmful radiations. The status of the air measures adopted by various countries during crisis and the sea were continuously monitored by the or otherwise latest emerging trends in crisis IAEA. Due to proper and systematic disaster management. By synthesizing and integrating this mitigation strategies and evacuation procedure, no knowledge, IAEA lists its safety standards which are radiation sickness occurred and no deaths due to short- then applicable to all the member nations. IAEA term radiation exposure occurred. The only casualties reviews and revises the list of safety standards reported were either during the evacuation or due to periodically. the combined effects of earthquake and tsunami. The cleanup and decommissioning of the Fukushima site Fukushima Daiichi (11 March, 2011) shall yet take decades to complete. The nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi happened due to a major earthquake followed by Tsunami in Nuclear Hazards- the Indian context Japan on 11 March, 2011. Tsunami resulted in flooding In India, there are 21 nuclear reactors and 7 nuclear of the rooms housing emergency generators. power plants having an installed capacity of 5780 Eventually generators stopped working resulting in MW of power. In October, 2010, India planned to power loss due to which the pumps that circulated take the capacity to 63,000 MW in 2032. But after coolant water could not run, leading to overheating the 2011 Fukushima disaster, the local people staying and meltdown. Multiple explosions occurred resulting around the proposed sites of Nuclear Plants have into release of radioactive material, fire, explosions been raising questions about the safety standards. and sea water contamination due to seepage. Launching protest against site selection, they urge to Fukushima and Chernobyl are the only two disasters look for alternatives to nuclear power. Mass protests to have registered at Level 7 on the International have taken place against Jaitapur Power Project and Nuclear Even Scale. Kudankulam power project. Despite the protests, the Indian government has no plans to shut down any of Evacuation and Disaster Management the nuclear power plant or to decrease the power In order to prevent further explosions, the authorities capacity. Rather they aim to increase the contribution ordered sea-water to be poured over the reactor. of nuclear power to total electricity in India, from 3% Although the reactors got damaged forever but a lot to 9%. of human lives were saved. But this posed another

58 World Focus May 2016 Regulatory Bodies and Disaster Preparedness facilities of DAE. The ECRs are equipped with The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is the wireless, telephone, Facsimile, VSAT and electronic nodal agency to handle nuclear emergencies in India. mail facilities. They are tested on a daily basis to An autonomous body of Atomic Energy Commission ensure continuous availability. Each major site carries named Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) out fortnightly or monthly communication exercises has been notified the competent authority for radiation to test all the links in the entire communication chain. protection that has the power to license and even shutdown nuclear operations. It takes decisions Apart from communication checks, about 110 regarding site selection, design etc of the nuclear emergency exercises are carried out every year with installations. All the regulatory and safety functions the involvement of transportation, health facilities, as mentioned under Atomic Energy Act 1962 are done police, district officials etc. After every exercise, by AERB with a mission to ensure that the nuclear ‘critique of feedback’ session is held to point out energy or ionising radiation used for medical purposes deficiencies and take corrective measures. Regarding do not cause any major risk to the environment or to the transportation of nuclear material, specification people. Since 1987, Crisis Management Group (CMG) of designs for packaging and handling are prescribed has been created under DAE that is activated to ensure that there is no release of radioactivity in immediately in the affected area in case of any public areas. The telephone numbers of emergency radiation accident. In coordination with National Crisis control rooms of DAE are displayed on transport Management Committee and the local district vehicles of radioactive material. In case of any administration, it has to issue alerts, alarms and emergency, ECR may be contacted, which in turn precautions for the people in contaminated areas. The shall activate the Crisis Management Group. CMG CMG comprises of senior officials taken from various also circulates the booklet listing the telephone units of DAE. Each member has another backup numbers of nearest DAE emergency control room member so that the CMG can provide help who would further advise steps to be taken in case immediately at even a short notice in the advent of of emergency. any nuclear emergency. The site selection for nuclear installation is Three types of nuclear emergencies have to be done by AERB very carefully giving regard to been identified. First is the ‘on-site’ emergency, which geological aspects, tectonic activity, strategic factors means how to cool down the nuclear reactor and and establishments nearby. They should never be containment of outbreak of fire or radiation. Second installed in flood, volcanic or earthquake-prone areas emergency is the Exclusive Zone emergency. The to avoid damage due to natural calamity, as happened area up to 1.6 km around a nuclear installation is in Fukushima. There should be well-connected roads called Exclusive zone, where no inhabitation is and effective means of transport so that in case of allowed. The CMG seeks to ensure minimum damage any emergency, evacuation can take place easily. to the exclusive zone in case any mishap occurs in There should be well-equipped hospitals and the plant. Third is the ‘off-site’ emergency that is the decontamination centres in all nearby towns to provide area up to 16 km radius around the nuclear power immediate medical care if there is any case of plant. The CMG puts up alerts and instructions for radiation exposure. In addition to hazard management, the people inhabiting the off-site zone such as whether AERB also issues guidelines and list of safeguards to move or to stay indoors, to keep the windows and against the accidental release of radioactive elements. doors shut and sealed. Evacuation may be carried These guidelines lay emphasis on careful handling of out as per the need of the situation. To handle the radioactive isotopes, prevention of any leakage/ emergencies, communication systems need to be very accidental release/discharge of radioactive elements sound and well-coordinated. In Mumbai, Emergency and minimising the radiation exposure of the plant Control Rooms (ECR) are maintained at two different workers by using protective gears. AERB also lays locations. These are manned and operated round the down regulations for management of radioactive clock, throughout the year to maintain continuous and wastes. Radioactive wastes should not be released proper communication channel with all the critical into water bodies or disposed off carelessly. Rather

Nuclear Disaster Management- Past, Present and Future 59 they should either be buried in an underground during the Fukushima incident, people sitting in Delhi cemented tank/shielded container or under the sea could get live updates about the radiation level counts bed, and left to decay below the permissible limit. from the operator’s website, on the other hand if any Intermediate radioactive should be diluted with inert such calamity occurs in India, the AERB is not bound material and only then be released into the to share such details in the name of national security. environment. The waste can also be allowed to cool In the Kakrapur accident, it was just the local alongwith glass-forming chemicals. Consequently, the newspaper Gujarat Samachar which mentioned that wastes get trapped in immobilized form and are no though the temperature has been brought down but longer as harmful. the leakage is still continuing. Due to high radiation levels, the workers are not able to get inside the Nuclear Accidents in India reactor to fix the leak. On-site emergency being Although no major nuclear mishaps have occurred in declared in Kakrapur on March 11, disaster India, the nuclear power plants have developed leaks, management work has been in place but even the fires and structural damages at different occasions District Magistrate had no clear information whether over the time leading to radiation exposure. any on-site emergency is there or not. This is the In December, 1991, leak from pipelines at BARC level of gap in communication among government resulted in soil contamination which was thousands authorities. The status of the workers who were on of times more than he permissible limit. The vegetation morning duty is still not completely known while got contaminated and those who consumed it, suffered adhering to International norms there should have serious radiation dose. been emergency response team in collaboration with In March 1999, there was leakage of heavy water local administration and media to share the latest during a test process at Madras Atomic Power Station, updates. It is being said that Emergency Core Cooling Kalpakkam. About 42 people suffered contamination. System of Kakrapur Unit I was not properly tested In April 2000, there was heavy water leakage in the before being started. A renowned Physicist, Dr. NAPS Unit II. The workers received large doses of Sanghmitra Gadekar had appealed to the P.M., the tritium and some cases of cancer were also reported. Chief Minister and other authorities to halt the In April 2001, at the NAPS I reactor, 1.4 tonnes of commissioning of the reactor since it had not been heavy water got released unregulated. One worker properly tested. In 2004 also, Kakrapur had a major showed symptoms of severe radiation exposure. accident when during maintenance work the control In May 2002, again Tritium leak occurred at the rods got seriously damaged. Yet again in March 2011, Rajasthan Atomic Power station causing cancers. the reactor was shut down due to heavy water In January 2003, in Kalpakkam Atomic Reprocessing leakage. plant, there was a failure of a valve that led to release of high levels of radioactive waste material. There Post-disaster Management and Mitigation were no monitors to detect the cause of the failure. Strategies Consequently, six workers were exposed to high levels In the advent of any nuclear leakage or accident, the of radiation. authorities should immediately make public In April 2003, at Narora Atomic Power Station, heavy announcement regarding the mishap. Announcements water contamination occurred and many workers should be made periodically, thereafter, to keep the suffered radiation damage. people updated about the proceeding. CMG is responsible for putting up alerts and instructions for On 11th March, 2016, a nuclear accident the inhabitants of the area near the plant. The people occurred in Kakrapur, Gujarat but no information was should clearly know as to whom is the competent shared, neither the levels of radiation and state of the authority entitled to make emergency announcements workers inside and out. Though the atomic energy through TV/radio or other public address systems, in Regulatory Board (AERB) issued a statement that order to avoid any rumours. The people should be the leak is large and the plant authorities are clearly instructed whether to move or to stay indoors. continuously pouring coolant but no exact radiation All the doors and windows should be kept shut and count was disclosed. In India, non-transparency in sealed for any gaps. All food and water should be such issues is a major problem. While on one hand 60 World Focus May 2016 kept covered and only covered items should be incidents have issued serious warnings to India that consumed. In case anybody is in the open, they must when Japan, a country better-equipped and more cover their face and body properly with wet technically advanced than India could suffer such a handkerchief/towel and after returning back home, disaster then India needs to review its nuclear safety one must take a complete bath and change their norms, nuclear establishments and plans for disaster clothes. Water should not be taken from open wells/ mitigation. Even powers like U.S. and Germany are ponds as they might have been exposed to avoiding or abandoning some of their nuclear plants. contamination. Evacuation process must be put into Ever since the nuclear accident at Three Mile Islands, place at the earliest. It should be done in coordination U.S. has stopped the construction of new power with the authorities only. People should wait for their plants. Germany has declared shutting down of 17 instructions rather moving out haphazardly in panic nuclear power plants by 2022. Before the Fukushima as it may lead to congestion of roads and even more incident, 82% of Japanese population supported the contamination outdoors. If a person is already out of setting up of new nuclear power plants but after the risk, they must not deliberately come back to the Fukushima, only 30% were in favour of nuclear contaminated zone. Evacuated people should be power generation. On the other hand, India seeks to subject to thorough medical check-up and if the increase the dependence on nuclear power generation contamination is found to be above the permissible by constructing more nuclear plants in the years to limit, decontamination must be done immediately come. Moreover the secrecy kept in the advent of a along with proper medical care. The cost of any nuclear disaster in terms of radiation counts, treatment must be borne by the State, atleast for the contamination level, and status of the reactor etc. plant workers and is possible, for the common people leads to delay in proper and timely action. In the as well. After the evacuation is over, upon reaching a Kakrapur case, former head of AERB stated that, safe place people must be instructed to clean off “The situation in Kakrapur might be more serious themselves, wear clean clothes and bury the clothes than what we came to know through the media”. In they were wearing underground. India, the use of Geiger counters to measure radiation levels is prohibited to common public whereas it is If the leaked radioactive material includes allowed in most other countries that have nuclear Iodine-131, people must consume iodine tablets to power plants. In Kundankulan, Nuclear Power avoid harm due to radioactive iodine. During Corporation denied providing the basic documents of radioactive leakage, radioactive iodine travelling Safety Assessment Report and reports of the Sole through the air enters human body and generates the Selection Committee, to the local community of the risk of thyroid cancer. The iodine tablets would area even on demand. Although in 2005, Civilian saturate the thyroid glands which shall then be safe nuclear establishments were segregated from the from the effect of radioactive iodine, if the tablets military nuclear establishments, but still the nuclear are ingested within two hours of the accident. They industry is not open to public scrutiny. DAE has even should neither be taken too early before the disaster demanded amendments to the RTI act to exempt nor a day after the disaster as then they would not be nuclear power generation from RTI. To conclude, it of much use, rather would produce side-effects. The can be said that nuclear power, if required to be used, dosage should also be as prescribed by the WHO. 1 should be used cautiously with a planned disaster tablet/day for adults, ½ per day for children, ¼ per management structure in place. They should be day for infants and for pregnant/breast-feeding subject to public scrutiny so that they function safely women it should be two doses of ½ tablet per day. and ethically.

Conclusion References 1. http://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/World-Statistics Nuclear energy, though a viable source of generating 2. http://www.history.com/news/historys-worst-nuclear-disasters 3. http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/nuclear/nomorechernobyls/what-happened-in-chernobyl/ 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster electric power, needs to be used carefully. Any 5. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx 6. http://www.disastermgmt.org/type/nuclear.html 7. http://www.srs.gov/general/news/factsheets/het.pdf nuclear disaster not only affects the health and lives 8.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India 9. https://www.iaea.org/ 10. http://www.ndma.gov.in/en/media-public-awareness/disaster/man-made-disaster/nuclear.html of the population but also leads to decline of the area 11.http://nidm.gov.in/pdf/guidelines/new/managementofnuclearradiologicalemergencies.pdf 12. http://www.barc.gov.in/pubaware/gen_disaster. html politically and economically. Fukushima and Chernobyl 13. http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/how-does-a-nuclear-reactor-make-electricity.aspx 14. http://www.aerb.gov.in 15. http://indiatoday.intoday.in/education/story/5-worst-nuclear-disasters-you-should-definitely-know-about/1/419777.html Nuclear Disaster Management- Past, Present and Future 61 Community in Disaster Management: Some Lessons from Odisha Dr. Sabita Harichandan

Natural disasters impacting different regions Management (CBDM) approach. In recent years, of the world with increasing ferocity and frequency considerably more emphasis has been placed on the shatter the process of development and take the role of community in disaster preparedness and country a few steps backward. The paradigm shift recovery and on the significance of local knowledge, in the interpretation of disasters as ‘social’ action, participation, and control in determining the phenomena rather than’ natural’ event is quite nature of disaster response. It is quite obvious that discernible. The stress on ‘social’ calls for adoption the community will be the first line of defense in of proactive rather than reactive strategies, focusing preparing and responding in the event of a disaster. on community and making disaster management as Local residents and groups are in a better position to part of the development process. This also identify their immediate needs, coordinate underscores the need for adoption of coordinated preparations, supplement official response efforts, community based approaches to disaster implement emergency response programmes, ensure management. Communities are the first victims and swift execution and contribute to local decision-making first responders in disaster situations. In fact, local for future events. In fact, local communities can communities become involved in disaster response provide a sense of connection (Cantrell and Stafford, prior to the involvement of outsiders. Pressing need 2013). Most of the disaster-related decisions are the of the hour is formulation and implementation of products of complex interactions between individuals, effective policy with the involvement of all their communities, their surroundings and the natural stakeholders including the government, civil society, environment itself (Patterson et al., 2010: 128). the private corporate and the community. Generation Aldunate and colleagues postulate that the quality of of awareness about disasters among common people, decision-making improves if the right people interact particularly the vulnerable sections of society should about the right tasks at the right time and with the receive the urgent attention as it is witnessed that right information (Aldunate et al., 2005 cited in self-help coupled with external support on the part of Patterson et al., 2010). Communities with the communities goes a long way in minimizing loss marginalized sections of people including poor, of life if not property, since communities are the first women, aged, children, disabled people are more responders to disasters. Significant role played by the vulnerable to the onslaught and impact of disasters. community in the continuum of disaster preparedness, They experience the greatest impact for various response and recovery deserves mention. reasons. But, it is worthwhile to mention that they are not passive victims. A well informed and prepared Working with community community can confront any disaster situation in a Two contrasting notions of community can be traced better manner and can speed up post disaster to Tocqueville. On the one hand, community is simply recovery process. With adequate knowledge of the an aggregation of individual persons, that is, a local geology, the hazard context, and the livelihoods population. As individuals, they possess limited options available, local communities must be involved capacity to act effectively or make decisions for in disaster management programmes from the themselves and they are strongly subject to the beginning and supported by projects to develop the decisions of the authorities. On the other hand, capacities and linkages that help overcome their community is an autonomous actor, with its own predicaments. interests, preferences, resources and capabilities. This definition of community is, by and large, reflected in The fact that an increasing number of recently pursued Community Based Disaster people’s livelihoods are vulnerable to the effects of

62 World Focus May 2016 natural disasters is quite evident. Vulnerability of is suitable to understand the dynamics and complexity community stems from people’s inability to protect of vulnerability, addressing vulnerability and their living environments. Another facet of strengthening local capacities as vulnerability is vulnerability is the lack of protection afforded by manifested in the local arena( Eynde and Veno, 1999, society itself. Of course, situations of vulnerability p.171 cited in Pyles 2007). There has been growing varies extensively from country to country. Broadly, realization that disaster is immensely effective at the scanty health care facilities and social security community level because community people are the mechanisms reinforce community’s vulnerability. In first victims and first responders as well (Ritchie, addition, lack of knowledge and information about 2003). risks can prove to be detrimental to their interests. All these vulnerable conditions are the offshoot of CDBM is based on certain pivotal principles which various socio-economic and political factors. The are, actions and decisions of people and communities • Planning, implementation and management owned demonstrate their resolve to minimize their losses. by communities, led by local champions, They are in a better position to define their priorities • Intervention starts from locally available resources, for mitigation within a given context. Hence capacities and partnerships, community capacity should be cultivated, fostered, • Programmes focus on developing local coping ca- nourished and empowered. pacities, • Disaster preparedness approached from a devel- Community participation, by and large, refers opment perspective, to the involvement of people in any project to solve • their own problems. They participate in setting goals Sustainability considered as an underlying factor, • and preparing, implementing and evaluating plans and Attention to special vulnerable groups. programmes. The crux of community participation is the exercise of ‘voices and choices’ of the community The CBDM approach attempts to address certain and the development of human, organizational and key questions on disaster management. management capacity to solve problems as they crop • How can communities live with disasters rather up in order to sustain the improvements made over than fighting them only? the time. • What local measures can be taken to effectively mitigate the impact of disasters? Prioritizing Community- Based Disaster Risk • How can preparedness initiatives be sustained over Management (CBDM) long time periods? Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) is a promising model in disaster management that Catalytic intervention on the part of the gov- incorporates the principles of community mobilization ernment to institutionalize social capital in the form and organization. This method aims at reforming the of neighbourhood and resident welfare associations top-down approach that has failed to cater to the is imperative for consistent and relevant input for pub- needs of community and sidetracked the potential of lic policy. Government’s role as a coordinator of in- local resources and capacities. CBDM approach teraction between NGOs and community needs to which is participatory and based on bottom-up be strengthened. Community needs assistance to approach and situational analysis is being pursued strengthen its capacity to survive, adapt and go back vigorously by governments to combat disasters. to normalcy in the aftermath of the crisis. Given this CDBM, by its very definition, involves communities context, strengthening or building the resilience of in identifying and assessing risks and acting jointly to communities has emerged as one of the vital strate- reduce disasters-related risks. The devastating gies for disaster management. Adoption of commu- impacts of disasters call for greater recognition and nity-based approaches for disaster mitigation reflects institutionalization of CDBM within the disaster a paradigm shift from only sticking to traditional ap- management framework Advocates and proponents proaches which are wedded to top down, programme of CBDM approach hold the belief that this approach based on extension services. In contrast, community-

Community in Disaster Management: Some Lessons from Odisha 63 based approaches which revolve around community which goes through six sequential stages, namely, ini- adhere to bottom up principle of community organiz- tiating the process by inculcating initial awareness ing for empowering the community. In a flagship part- and rapport building by Block Development Offic- nership with the Ministry of Home Affairs, UNDP ers, Extension Officers, NGOs, community profiling, has helped to develop the capabilities of communities community risk assessment, risk reduction planning, to mitigate the impact of disaster. The partnership implementing and monitoring and evaluation and feed- which evolved into one of the largest community- back. Assistance of youth clubs, self help groups based disaster risk mitigation programmes in the world, (SHGs), village committees, local representatives of has reached more than 300 million people across PRIs etc. are sought to empower communities in this 150,000 villages in high-risk areas and has better regard. Spread of awareness is done through mass equipped them to tackle the disaster (UNDP,2014). meetings, cultural activities, audio-visual aids etc. The Under the leadership of the government, UNDP has World Health Organisation (WHO) in collaboration worked extensively at both national and sub-national with the International Federation of Red Cross and levels, with officials, civil society groups and volun- Red Crescent Societies recommends activities like teers to better prepare communities to manage dis- exercises in first aid, exercises in providing tempo- aster risks. rary shelters, sanitation exercises, mock drills and practice alerts organized by the local authority, dis- The tireless efforts of rural people in Medak semination of information for generating public aware- district of Andhra Pradesh to face the onslaught of ness, training of groups of volunteers available to help drought effectively can be cited here. A local NGO, the community in emergency activities in the event viz. Decan Development Society employs various of a strike of disaster. strategies like promoting afforestation and mini-wa- tershed management, forming women’s collectives Community Preparedness and encouraging collective farming by women etc. In all communities, a variety of groups exist with to help increase local resilience. Sustainable liveli- diverse skills and abilities combined with personal and hoods approach, espoused and advocated by Cham- professional experiences that are critical to successful bers and Conway (1992) has gained wide accept- preparation and response to disasters. Effective ance among the policy makers. Endeavours are made community responses connect these diverse groups in India to curtail the vulnerability of communities and develop action plans to cater to common needs. through strengthening the employment and livelihood Successfully linking local organizations, local strategies. Schemes like Food for Work, Drought populace, and local elected representatives equips a Prone Area Programme etc. are cases in point. strong network for local people and groups to become actively involved in local preparedness and response CBDM can be self-driven and based on part- efforts. This capacity-building process is most nerships. It can also be led by local champions. In effective when it forms a part of a part of a pre- case of self-driven CBDM, communities, over the disaster planning process. The prepared community years, learn and internalize and enhance coping and can also be able to transform itself from a community- adaptive capabilities. Community based organizations at-risk to a resilient community. Community like the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM) of preparedness, capacity and resilience constitute a Uttarakhand promote disaster prevention through critical part of any integrated and sustainable Disaster safe development and organise local campaigns on Management and Disaster Mitigation strategies. the theme. The Gujarat State Disaster Management Experiences, predicaments, capacities etc. of Authority (GSDMA) supported a project on Sustain- communities which are the immediate victims provide able Community Initiative for Disaster Recovery and the input for public policy and strategy. The reasons Preparedness in Rananav Taluka of district can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, they are Porbandar. While the community undertakes the knowledgeable about disasters happening in their own broad range of disaster management activities, in- areas and as a result of which they can easily foresee cluding emergency response as necessary, the em- the impending disaster. Secondly, the estimate of the phasis is on reducing disaster risk reduction process magnitude and intensity of impact can be done properly

64 World Focus May 2016 by them. In the third place, it can be pointed out that both short and long term. Community disaster they are rich in experience of coping both in terms of preparedness is defined as preparing for an effective preparedness and tackling emergency situations. response to a large-scale disaster. The community However, policy interventions should be made and needs to be organized and prepared with the correct external assistance should be rendered to realize the information and tools to know how to respond to a highest potential of the community in this regard as impending disaster. Being prepared and knowing what community encounters innumerable challenges to do can reduce fear and anxiety, thereby reducing including lack of capacity in community organization, losses that may result from a disaster event. A problems of negotiating with government and other community is always the first responder in a disaster organizations etc. Therefore, an effective disaster situation. A well-informed and prepared community mitigation strategy should be designed to remove these could face any emergency in a better manner and hurdles first. Besides this, recognition of the could speed up post disaster recovery process. The resourcefulness of the community, identification of programme envisages strengthening of communities’s the gaps in community coping methods and providing own preparedness and response system from the support, acquisition of the required skills on the part family, neighbourhood and ward level to safeguard of the community, improvement of the infrastructure lives, livelihoods and property in a disaster situation. like information, publicity, warning systems etc., The prepared community could also be able to creation of appropriate financial and human resources, transform itself from a community-at-risk to a resilient strengthening of community organizations etc. are community. “Building Community Resilience” taken into account while formulating an effective constituted the crux of the World Disaster Report disaster mitigation strategy. The goal of disaster (2004). Positive experience emanating from preparedness is to maximize beneficial decision- community-based disaster preparedness in Philippines making under sub-optimal conditions. Against this is noteworthy. The Red Cross has fostered backdrop, the concept of “social resilience” merits community based disaster preparedness by attention. It is also, to some extent, related to “social encouraging people to prepare local preparedness plan capital” which stresses the importance of social and undertake mitigation measures like mangrove networks, reciprocity and interpersonal trust, which protection and tree planning, seawall and river dyke allow individuals and groups to accomplish greater construction, clearing irrigation channels, sand-bagging things than they could by their isolated efforts sections of rivers and building of evacuation centres. (Sampson et al. 2005; Putnam and Feldstein 2003 Barriers to community preparedness need to be cited in Patterson et al, 2000). Stakeholder and removed. community engagement is highlighted to improve the collective “adaptive capacity” of the community. Planning is an important avenue to community There are organizations like Citizen Corps in USA emergency preparedness. The practice of emergency which host community planning meetings, provide response planning is best thought of as a process-a preparedness information and volunteer opportunities continuing sequence of analyses, plan development, to community members and when in need are and the acquisition by individuals and teams of available to a disaster. The Citizen Corps effort is performance skills achieved through training, drills, coordinated at the local level by Citizen Corps Councils exercises. The process varies considerably among or similar coordinating bodies which bring together communities. In some communities, planning is community leaders to plan for emergencies before formalized by a specific assignment of responsibility they happen. Citizen Corps promotes whole to an office having an identifiable budget. In other community participation in disaster preparedness communities, planning is informal. Responsibility is efforts and encourage people to take on active roles poorly defined, and a limited budget is dispersed in preparing themselves, their families and their among many agencies. On the basis of the studies, communities. some basic principles of community emergency planning are highlighted. These principles can be used Community preparedness is the ability of to increase a community’s level of preparedness, communities to prepare for, withstand and recover in regardless of the amount of funding available.

Community in Disaster Management: Some Lessons from Odisha 65 Increased community community preparedness effective manner. OSDMA along with the funding encompasses and technical support from UNDP implemented Com- • Community level disaster planning munity Based Disaster Preparedness Programme in • Public awareness and Information campaigns the 10 most affected blocks of 7 coastal districts of • First responder training Odisha on pilot basis. The programme sought to in- • Hospital preparedness volve communities, PRIs, NGOs, educational institu- tions and government functionaries in this multi-stake • Exposure to “best practices” opportunities (in-coun- holder disaster mitigation approach, where the com- try, regional and international) • munity and other local stake holders would come to- Building code enforcement gether to prepare the Disaster Management Plans • Weather and flood forecasting through Resource, Hazard and Vulnerability Analy- • Early warning systems sis. • Reducing the vulnerability of the community at risks Many projects were undertaken in Odisha • Forging partnership with local governance institu- to foster disaster preparedness. To improve commu- tions, NGOs etc. nity capacity and awareness, some measures were • Emphasis on networking adopted by government of Odisha. Mock drills have • Stress on sustainability been conducted each year in Odisha’s coastal dis- • Focus on mitigation measures tricts. Communities have endorsed and acted accord- ing to instructions issued by the OSDMA and state • Building and reinforcing community resilience and authorities in an emergency. The Government of In- capacity building • dia and United Nations Development Programme Integration of related programmes with develop- project on Disaster Risk Management (DRM) was ment plans. implemented in 18 districts in Odisha by the OSDMA • Addressing the issues and concerns of vulnerable between 2002 and 2009. DRM programme worked groups i.e.women, children, disabled, agd, poor, dalit ensuring the reduction of vulnerability to disasters etc. through improving the capacities of communities to respond to crisis. In this context, support and coop- Some lessons from Odisha eration were sought from communities, civil society Odisha is vulnerable to multiple disasters. Due to its organizations (CSOs), members of PRIs as well as sub-tropical littoral location, the State falls prey to government officials on disaster preparedness. The tropical cyclones, storm surges, flood and tsunamis. viability of disaster mitigation and management de- Lack of preparedness resulted in catastrophic situa- pends on the level of community involvement. In tions in Odisha in the event of strike of Super Cy- Odisha, this civic engagement proved to be an asset clone of 1999. Odisha government totally banked upon in coping with the Phailin cyclone. According to the external sources for relief materials. A Relief Coor- findings of UNDP project, early warning, quick re- dination Centre was set up at Bhubaneswar with the sponse and preparedness both by the government and operations starting from the Kalinga Stadium. The the community accounted for the success of coping approach was totally agency driven and top down with Phailin. The role of OSDMA in ensuring pre- with least participation /intervention of the people. cyclone community preparedness was indeed com- Certain proactive initiatives were later taken by gov- mendable. Another group established by state and ernment. A Disaster Emergency Committee (DEC) local level organizations called the Odisha Phailin comprising national and international NGOs, namely Response Forum (OPRF) sought to coordinate ac- Oxfam, Help Age India, World Vision, Care, Action tivities with the State government. Sustained engage- Aid, International Federation of Red Cross and Red ment between communities and government and Crescent Soieties etc. was set up. The member or- CSOs was emphasized. The successful and exem- ganizations of DEC decided to conduct research on plary disaster preparedness efforts that were carried Institutional innovation in the form of establishment out in response to the cyclone warnings drew world- of Odisha State Disaster Management Authority ( wide admiration and appreciation. By working to- OSDMA), first of its kind in the country, was set up gether proactively, communities and government of- to organize preparedness and offer response in an 66 World Focus May 2016 ficials succeeded in evacuating as many as 900,000 tsunami vulnerable locations in six coastal district of civilians from the dangerous coastal areas. In the Odisha on October 12, 2011. This mock drill exercise community, the response was just as swift. Cyclone was a part of the drill known as “Tsunami Mock Drill- Phailin, despite being similar in size, speed and feroc- IO Wave 2011” organized simultaneously in twenty ity to 1999 Super cyclone, which killed nearly 10,000 Indian Ocean countries including India. Those vil- people throughout Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, did lages included Purunabandha, Narasinghpurpatna, not result in heavy casualties. Response activities for Pipal, Ramnagar, Nuagaon, Krushnanagar of Ganjam, Phailin exhibited major improvements over those per- Puri, Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapada, Bhadrak and formed during 1999 Super Cyclone. Loss of lives was Balasore districts respectively.The drill was conducted restricted to 38. Credit goes to early warning sup- with the active involvement of the community, task ported by increased preparedness of the community force members, Village Disaster Management Com- (UNEP, 2013). Similarly, community preparedness mittees (VDMCs), PRI representatives, NGO part- paid rich dividends and positive outcomes when Cy- ners, volunteers of the tsunami prone villages linking clone Hudhud struck Odisha coast on October 2014. the concerned Block and District Emergency Op- Drop in the extent of casualties during the strike of eration Centres etc. This drill was very successful in Hudhud was indicative of improved community-level Odisha. Awareness programme on tsunami was con- preparedness. Over the past ten years, the Indian ducted at cyclone shelters with active participation government, aid agencies and communities have of community, school children and other stake hold- worked together to achieve this success. This period ers. The community approach provides opportunities witnessed lots of new activities in high risk areas to reduce household vulnerabilities in particular for encompassing disaster simulations, hazard mapping most vulnerable households and groups. etc .Communities have been empowered to handle emergency response equipments, understand warn- Preparation of disaster preparedness plans ing alerts etc. The World Bank is financing the Na- at village, Gram Panchayat, block and district levels tional Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) with active participation of the people and PRIs has (phase I) under implementation in the state of Odisha been undertaken under the Disaster Risk Manage- and Andhra Pradesh. This is a US$255 million project ment Programme to mobilize and motivate the peo- under implementation since March 2011 financed by ple at the grass-root level and stakeholders and dis- International Development Association. This is help- aster managers at the district level to face natural ing the community to be resilient by focusing on the disasters in a more effective manner. A Community early warning system down to the “last-mile” com- Contingency Plan (CCP) has been made by OSDMA munity level. for flood and cyclone. Some women groups of Ganjam district in Odisha assembled together and had dis- UNDP sponsored Community Based Disas- cussion on how to increase community preparedness ter Preparedness (CBDP) was implemented in ten after the occurrence of cyclone Phailin. Around 400 blocks of seven coastal districts on pilot basis. The women from villages of Ganjam, Purushottampur, overarching objective of the programme is “Sustain- Chatrapur and Polosara blocks being motivated by able Reduction in Disaster risk in some of the haz- social organizations like Action Aid, Swosti, Anwesha ard-prone districts” .CM of Odisha Sri Naveen and United Artists’ Association held discussion in this Patnaik commented, “Recognizing the geographical regard. Formation of rescue teams, providing train- position of Orissa, my government has been actively ing to them in search and rescue operations and first pursuing a proactive and technology driven disaster aid by State civil defence department and St. John management strategy through a culture of preven- Ambulance respectively, experience sharing etc. tion, mitigation, preparedness and response to pro- were done to enhance preparedness. Various pro- tect lives, livelihoods and assets”. At the community gramme like Urban Earthquake Vulnerability Reduc- level, disaster awareness activities are being carried tion Programme (UEVRP) lay stress on prepared- out. Orissa State Disaster Management Authority ness planning. UEVRP is being implemented in (OSDMA) with the help of NGO partners organized Bhubaneswar, Cuttack and Sambalpur towns in mock tsunami drills in cyclone shelters of strategic Odisha. This programme envisages strengthening of

Community in Disaster Management: Some Lessons from Odisha 67 communities’ own preparedness and response sys- disaster management.Given this environment, tem from the family, neighbourhood to ward level to community can play a catalytic role in effective safeguard lives, livelihood and property in a disaster disaster management. The lessons learnt over the situations. years can act as a guide for development of better plan for management of other similar disasters in Conclusion future. Major disasters overload the capability of first responders like community. Countries must prepare References for and adapt to the impacts of disaster. Linking short- 1. See www.osdma.org 2. See http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/10/17/ term disaster preparedness to long-term strategies india-cyclone-Phailin-destruction-preparation for adaptation to profound impact would serve the 3. UNDP, (2013 ),” Preparing for Disaster: Lessons from Phailin Response”, available at www.undp.org purpose better. Addressing to the increased 4. Ritchie, George N (2003), “Disaster Risk Reduction by vulnerability of people of the community and making Education, Information and Public Awareness” in Pradeep Sahni and Madhavi Malagoda Ariyabandu (Eds.), Disaster Risk them empowered, prepared and vigilant may prove Reduction in South Asia, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India to be the panaceas. Role and preparedness of 5. Pyles, Loretta (2007), Community organizing for post- community which is the “first responder” provide disaster social development. Locating social work” International Social Work, 50 (3): 321-333. critical input to disaster management policy. Building 6. The Hindu, December 28, 2015 on “Rural women to increase and enhancing community resilience, reducing the community preparedness to face natural disaster”. 7. Patterson, Olivia et al (2010), “The Role of Community in vulnerabilities of the community, augmenting the Disaster Response: Conceptual Models”, Popul Res Policy Rev adaptive capacity of the community and enhancing (2010) 29:127-141 8. UNEP, (2013), Taking the Pulse of the planet; connecting the community-level preparedness are imperatively science with policy required for successful implementation of policy of

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68 World Focus May 2016 Nuclear Disasters across the Globe: Lessons and Imperatives for India Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta

The nuclear disaster that took place at Vulnerability: World vis-à-vis India Fukushima Daiichi (2011), Chernobyl (1986) and According to Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) as of Three Mile Island (1979) were the worst nuclear di- July 2015, 30 countries worldwide are operating 438 sasters in last few decades that the mankind wit- nuclear reactors for electricity generation and 67 new nessed ever since the endeavour to generate nuclear nuclear plants are under construction in 15 power were made by the states across the globe. countries.1According to European Nuclear Society Nuclear disasters are the most devastating with long- and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) term impact among all the man-made disasters that India has 21 nuclear reactors in operation producing the world community has faced so far. Damage to 5,308 MW of electricity as on February 4, 2016 and environment and consequent disasters of different six (6) Reactors are under construction which will forms; of course are counted among the disasters produce 3,907 MW of electricity once in operation. which really causes havoc and suffering to man-kind First Experimental Breeder Reactor EBR-I was con- on a long-term basis and the entire debate on climate structed on December 20, 1951 in Arco, Idaho (USA), change and its consequences revolves around this. and for the first time electricity was produced by ‘Save the planet’ is the catchphrase all over the world nuclear energy. EBR-I was not designed to produce and leaders across the continents are working on the electricity but to validate the breeder reactor con- same. However, nuclear disasters are of varied na- cept. Within a span of less than three years on June ture; and cause multiple damage to both present and 26, 1954, at Obninsk, Russia, the nuclear power plant future generations. It also contaminates the environ- APS-1 with a net electrical output of 5 MW was ment. connected to the national power grid, as the world’s first nuclear power plant that generated electricity Equally important is the fact that nuclear for commercial use. England followed whenit installed energy has turned out to be an alternative sources of its first commercial nuclear power plant at Calder energy which is clean and reduces the greenhouse Hall 1, with a net electrical output of 50MW and con- gases emissions to the environment. Some studies nected it to the national grid within two years of Rus- have also revealed that it is cost-effective both in sian achievement on August 27, 1956.2 Therefore, terms of economics and environment. Nuclear power within a span of six decade and a half the world to- generation is therefore increasing at day by day as day is producing about 384 GW of nuclear-energy more and more countries are aspiring for the same. based electricity in 31 countries and 65 GW are in Moreover, world is increasingly falling into the trap the pipeline in 16 other countries of the world. of climate change on account of industrial and other activities all over the world. Therefore, exploring and Nuclear energy has been branded as a source executing alternative sources of energy has become of clean energy on account absence of its contribu- an essential requirement towards sustainable devel- tion towards contamination and damage to environ- opment and nuclear energy is one such endeavour. ment as compared to thermal and hydroelectricity and However, like other sources of energy this too has several other sources of energy. However, this so- its own pitfalls and consequences. This paper is an called source of clean energy has also made the popu- attempt to explore the Indian imperatives towards lation of the world increasingly vulnerable to disaster management and mitigation of nuclear disasters ow- with increasing number of nuclear reactors in the ing to any eventuality of a nuclear accident as India world. Vulnerability to disasters was less when the too is a great aspirant and leader in the field of nuclear reactors were less and went up as the number of power generation. reactors increased in the world and so has been the

Nuclear Disasters across the Globe: Lessons and Imperatives for India 69 case in India. Increased vulnerability becomes more for each increase in level of scale. These levels con- obvious when we take an account of the different sider three areas of impact: (i) People and the envi- kinds of nuclear disasters that our world has witnessed ronment; (ii) Radiological barriers control; (iii) De- so far. Theory that has often been advanced is that fense in depth. Events without safety significance with growth and advancement of technology the risk are rated as Below Scale/Level 0 (Zero). Events that factors are minimised, but latest disaster at Fukushima have no safety relevance with respect to radiation or Daiichi belied this theory given the level of disaster nuclear safety are not rated on the scale.5 and damage that it perpetuated. Nuclear Disasters: Nuclear Disasters: A Profile The debate around probabilities of a nuclear mishap Definition of Nuclear Disaster: and its likely consequences owing to the possession A nuclear and radiation accident has been defined by of nuclear reactor has been raised ever since the the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as first nuclear reactor for producing electricity came “an event that has led to significant consequences to into existence in 1954. Gradually, it also made the people, the environment or the facility. Examples in- locals aware in whose vicinity the nuclear installa- clude lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity tions were planned and installed. With the ever grow- release to the environment, or reactor core ing technology the civil nuclear program has also melt.”3Simple understanding of a nuclear disaster adopted several technological measures to contain would be that when the core of a nuclear reactor any such mishap with each design and addition of a melts down and significant amount of radioactive reactor. Several technical measures have been materials are released to the environment it leads to adopted to minimize and control the release of radio- disaster. However, one may go beyond the simple active materials in the environment.6 However, de- meltdown of a reactor’s core, because nuclear weap- spite the use of such measures, there have been hu- ons program by nuclear ‘haves’ in the world has per- man errors leading to accidents with varying impacts petuated the fear of spillage of nuclear related radio- as well as near misses and incidents. Further the ex- active materials to non-state actors like terrorist or- ternal events such as earthquake and tsunami also ganizations who are vying for the same. Probabilities contributed to these accidents. According to reports are that if the fissile material as they are called; falls as of 2014 there have been over 100 serious nuclear into the hands of terrorist groups it may lead to disas- accidents and nuclear incidents from the use of trous consequences. Therefore, world today has be- nuclear power. 57 accidents have occurred since the come vulnerable not only on account of civil nuclear Chernobyl accident in 1986, and about 60% of all program but also owing to growing terrorist threat to such nuclear accidents have occurred in USA.7 nuclear installations. Nuclear power accidents lead to major loss How to measure a Nuclear Disaster?: of life; but it also involves large amount of money for The commencement of the Manhattan Project in the remediation work. This shall become obvious from late 1930s, led to the experiment with nuclear power the explanation given below about some of the major and fuel refinement in different countries of the world. nuclear power accidents, submarine core meltdown This led to several mishaps, accidents and tragedies and radiological accidents. Major nuclear power plant in different countries. The International Atomic En- accidents are Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster ergy Agency has classified these disasters on the (2011), Chernobyl disaster (1986), Three Mile Island International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale accident (1979), and the SL-1 accident (1961). (INES), which is a seven-point scale ranging from one (an anomaly) to seven ( a major accident).4 INES Fukushima has been declared as Level 7 disaster uses a nuclear rating to explain the significance of by INES. The disaster occurred owing to an earth- events with sources of ionizing radiation. Levels 1 to quake and consequent tsunami that struck eastern 3 are rated as ‘incidents’ and Levels 4 to 7 are rated Japan on March 11, 2011 and caused a serious acci- as ‘accidents’. The Scale is designed such that the dent at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant severity of an event is approximately ten times greater on the northeastern coast of Japan. The Tohoku earth-

70 World Focus May 2016 quake, as it is known, measured 9.0 was devastating explosion and fire released large quantities of radio- as it reached levels more than twice as high as the active particles into the atmosphere, which spread plant was designed to withstand. Owing to earthquake over much of the western USSR and Europe.12 As there were power outages that caused the reactor many as 31 people13 died during the accident itself coolant pumps to stop, a crippling problem, as it cut- and long-term effects such as cancers are still being off all the external power to the reactors, and dis- investigated. The estimated cost of containing the abled diesel generators. Battery power was quickly disaster was $235 billion.14 In 2011, Igor Gramotkin, exhausted, and overheating fuel in the plant’s operat- former director of the Chernobyl Atomic Energy Sta- ing reactor cores led to hydrogen explosions8 that tion, claimed that it would take 20,000 years for the severely damaged three of the reactor buildings. Fuel 19 miles surrounding Chernobyl to be habitable.15 A in the three of the reactor cores melted, and radiation study published in 2005 estimates that there will even- releases from the damaged reactors contaminated a tually be up to additional 4000 cancer deaths related wide area surrounding the plant and forced the evacu- to the accident among those who were exposed to ation of nearly half a million residents. Luckily reac- significant radiation levels. Radioactive fallout from tors four, five and six were all off otherwise one can the accident was concentrated in areas of Belarus, only imagine the devastation that could have been Ukraine, and Russia. Approximately 350,000 people there.9It is the largest nuclear disaster since the were forcibly resettled away from these areas soon Chernobyl disaster of 1986 and only the second di- after the accident.16 saster (along with Chernobyl) to measure Level 7 on the INES. Although no fatalities due to short-term Three Mile Island accident was a partial nuclear radiation exposure were reported, around 300,000 meltdown that occurred on March 29, 1979 in one of people were evacuated from the area and around 15, the two Three Mile Island nuclear reactors in Dau- 884 (as of February 10, 2014) people died due to the phin County, Pennsylvania, USA. Just weeks after a earthquake and tsunami. As of August 2013, approxi- Jane Fonda movie (The China Syndrome) raised mately 1600 deaths were related to the evacuation questions about the safety of nuclear power, a valve or its consequences.10 in the cooling system of the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor failed. This was followed by a stuck-open The consequences of a disaster sometimes pilot-operated relief valve in the primary system, are felt after few or many years. This has become which allowed large amounts of nuclear coolant to obvious from a recently published report about the escape. It was the worst accident in the US com- consequences of Fukushima disaster. According to mercial nuclear power plant history. The INES rated reports, the population of boars in the region has in- it a Level-5 incident. Researchers found that people creased 330% in five years since the disaster and living near Pennsylvania’s Three Mile Island exhib- the animals continue to breed like rabbits, especially ited higher levels of stress more than a year after the in the quarantine zone uninhabited by humans. The incident compared to individuals outside the area. The wild animals also venture outside the zone, damaging initial clean-up effort cost nearly a billion dollars.17It farms and private property, and injuring pedestrians. has been claimed that forty thousand gallons of con- It has been reported that the radiation levels at the taminated waste spilled into the Susquehanna River Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant will continue near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. to remain toxic for the next 30 years at least.11 Above-mentioned disasters are just repre- Chernobyl by far the catastrophic nuclear power sentative presentations to make the reader gauge the disaster occurred on April 26, 1986 at the Chernobyl causes and consequences of the nuclear disasters. Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine (then officially the The extent of damages to human life and its quality, Ukrainian SSR). INES rated it Level-7 disaster. A wildlife and its long-term impacts are subject matters pair of engineers at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant of investigation and research. This is because the started running a torture test, to find out what would true story and extent of death and damages are never happen if the reactor lost most of its power supply. revealed by the concerned states, as it would cost The test went horribly wrong and consequently, an them their personality, prestige, image, economy, and

Nuclear Disasters across the Globe: Lessons and Imperatives for India 71 confidence of its own population as well as interna- Disaster Management and Mitigation: tional community. There have been continuous concerns within the in- ternational community that a combination of human Other important nuclear disasters are and mechanical error at a nuclear facility could re- Windscale Pile, Great Britain (1957) Level-5; Saint sult in a significant harm to people and environment. Laurent des Eaux, France (1980) Level-4; Nuclear powers systems while have facilitated clean JaslovskeBohunice, Slovakia (1977) Level-4; Chalk energy and electricity on the one hand, then on the River, Canada (1952) Level-5; Kyshtym, Russia other its complexity has also maximised the prob- (1957) Level-6; Tomsk, Russia (1993) Level-4; abilities of occurrence of nuclear disasters. A funda- Tokaimura, Japan, (1999) Level-4; Fleurus, Belgium mental issue contributing to a nuclear power system’s (2006) Level-4; Buenos Aires, Argentina (1983) complexity is its extremely long life time. The time- Level-4; SL-1 Experimental Power Station, Idaho, frame from the start of the construction of a com- USA (1961) Level-4; Goiania Accident, Brazil (1987) mercial nuclear power station through the safe dis- Level-5; Enrico Fermi Unit 1 Michigan USA (1966). posal of its last radioactive waste, may be 100 to 150 Some others disasters are radiotherapy accident in years.19Thus, given the complexity of constructing Costa Rica, radiation accident in Morocco, Goiania and maintaining over such a long period of time makes accident, radiation accident in Mexico City, radio- the countries with nuclear reactors increasingly vul- therapy unit accident in Thailand, and the Mayapuri nerable and hence there is strong imperative for dis- radiological accident in India. Nuclear-powered sub- aster management and mitigation mechanism to be marine core meltdown and other mishaps include the put in place. K-19 (1961), K-11 (1965), K-27 (1968), K-140 (1968), K-439 (1970), K-222(1980) and K-431(1985).18 Disaster management and mitigation in case of its occurrence depends upon plan and infrastruc- The Impacts of Nuclear Disasters: ture that have been developed to ensure nuclear Some of the immediate and long-term impacts of safety and security. IAEA has defined nuclear safety nuclear disasters have been delineated above. Prima as “The achievement of proper, operating conditions, facie the immediate impacts may be difficult to con- prevention of accidents or mitigation of accident con- tain but so is the case even for long-term impacts of sequences, resulting in protection of workers, the pub- such disasters. The long term effects can often spread lic and the environment from undue radiation haz- over thousands of years. It is estimated Chernobyl ards.” IAEA defines nuclear security as “The pre- won’t be inhabited for at least another 20,000 years vention and detection of and response to theft, sabo- as pointed out above. The impact on wildlife has been tage, unauthorised access, illegal transfer or malicious pointed out in case of increasing population of boars acts involving nuclear material, other radioactive sub- in Fukushima which is manifold. Therefore, it is nec- stances or their associated facilities.”20This covers essary to identify the impact of nuclear disasters in nuclear power plants and all other nuclear facilities, terms of immediate, short-term and long-term as it the transportation of nuclear materials, and the use would help towards articulating relevant response to and storage of nuclear materials for medical, power, manage, contain, and if possible mitigate the disas- industry, and military uses. IAEA has elaborate safety ters in future as well minimise the damages. How- and security structure designed on its website but the ever, no such studies have been carried out but one preparedness against such disasters depends on the gets to read the long-term consequences of bomb- extent of translating the safety and security meas- ings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Often newspaper ures as delineated by IAEA in the framework of na- reports that still some children are born with anoma- tional policy making and execution of different coun- lies which are the consequences of radiation impact tries using nuclear reactors. and consequent mutation of genes. Therefore, there is an imperative for research about short-term and IAEA has conceived a Global Nuclear Safety long-term impacts of such radiation related disasters and Security Network (GNSSN) which is one of the by the scientific community and institutions. elements of the Global Nuclear Safety and Security Framework (GNSSF) and is related to the sharing of

72 World Focus May 2016 information and knowledge among the global expert tory institutions and framework have been developed community. This includes active or latent interactions across countries. Yet the disasters have taken place between them that can support work related to which raises questions on effectiveness and prepared- nuclear safety and security matters. The Vision and ness of such regulatory mechanisms. Mission of GNSSN was set up with the aim of en- suring that critical knowledge, experience, and les- The National Academy of Sciences, which sons learned about nuclear safety and security are was commissioned by US to investigate the incident exchanged as broadly as they need to be. It intended at Fukushima, found that US plants are designed to to promote and enhance the nuclear safety and se- withstand crises such as equipment failures, loss of curity framework, by coordinating stakeholder ac- power, or an inability to cool the reactor core. But tivities of global safety and security networks, re- it’s the “beyond-design-basis events”, like natural dis- gional safety networks and national nuclear regula- asters, that pose the greater risk and have behind tory portals. The GNSSN is thus, the worldwide gate- meltdowns at Fukushima, Three Mile Island, and way to sharing nuclear safety and security knowl- Chernobyl.25 edge and services to facilitate capacity building among its Member States.21 Similarly, the Global Nuclear Technology up-gradation obviously is one of Safety and Security Framework (GNSSF) is the glo- the major ways of containing nuclear disasters for bal framework for achieving and maintaining world- which proper and adequate facilities related to re- wide a high level of safety and security at nuclear search and development is needed. It has been noted facilities and activities. A cornerstone for the effec- that nuclear plant at Onagawa was closer to the fault tiveness of the GNSSF is strengthening networking. line but avoided damage on the scale of Fukushima GNSSN has public and registration parts, in which Daiichi’s because of good design for earthquake and public part provides access to information available tsunami hazards. Undoubtedly, the nuclear power in- to all users without registration in GNSSN, other dustry has improved the safety and performance of Agency websites and relevant external sources. The reactors, and has proposed new and safer reactor restricted site is used as a collaboration platform for designs. However, a perfect safety can never be safety and security teams, forums and user commu- guaranteed as external events plays a crucial role. nities and requires an official nomination and a regis- The designers of reactor at Fukushima in Japan never tration.22 anticipated that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed Earlier IAEA Convention on Nuclear Safety to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake.26 was adopted in Vienna June 17, 1994 and entered into force on October 24, 1996. The objectives of the It makes it quite obvious that a technologi- Convention are to maintain a high level of nuclear cally advanced country like Japan, which is also eco- safety worldwide, to establish and maintain effective nomically empowered could not manage the occur- defences in nuclear installations against potential ra- rence of the disaster and visualise the manner and diological hazards, and to prevent accidents having extent of devastation in case of an external event radiological consequences.23The Convention was like earthquake and tsunami. Contemporary world amended in 2015 by the Vienna Declaration on has added newer dimensions to the existing problem Nuclear Safety24 which led to the adoption of com- like terrorist attack, insider sabotage, and cyber-at- prehensive principles to be followed by nation-states tacks which may be lethal and catastrophic. It is there- to minimize the risk factor by evolving institutional fore made necessary that proper regulatory frame- and regulatory framework. work and institutions are strengthened alongside critical knowledge and technology advancement. Therefore, disaster management relating to nuclear mishaps have be in the consciousness of Many nations utilizing nuclear power have mankind since long and have been reemphasised with developed specialist institutions overseeing and regu- each happening of a nuclear disaster. Measures have lating nuclear safety. Civilian nuclear safety in the also been adopted to further strengthen it and regula- US is regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commis-

Nuclear Disasters across the Globe: Lessons and Imperatives for India 73 sion (NRC). However, critics of the nuclear industry levels. Total loss was incurred to the extent of 78 complain that the regulatory bodies are too intertwined million dollars and took nearly one year for repairing. with the industries themselves to be effective. The Third incident took place at the same site on May 13, Doomsday Machine for example, offers a series of 1992 when malfunctioning of a tube caused a re- examples of national regulators, as they put it ‘not lease of 12 curies of radioactivity leading to a loss of regulating, just waiving’to argue that, in Japan “regu- US$ 2 million. Fourth mishap occurred on March 31, lators and the regulated have long been friends, work- 1993 at Narora Atomic Power Station in ing together to offset the doubts of a public brought Bulandshahar, Uttar Pradesh when a fire at two of up on the horror of the nuclear bombs.”27Therefore, its turbine blades damaged the heavy water reactor it is high time that at the global level a comprehensive almost leading to a meltdown and causing a loss of regulatory mechanism, framework, network and criti- 220 million US dollars. Fifth nuclear disaster took cal knowledge is developed and strengthened in terms place on February 2, 1995 at the Rajasthan Atomic not only of its structure but also in terms of its func- Power Station in Kota, where leakage of radioactive tions in letter and spirit. helium and heavy water into the RanaPratapSagar River, necessitating a two-year shut down for repairs Nuclear Disasters in India: and causing a loss of 280 million US dollars. Another India so far has not faced any major disaster which accident was on October 22, 2002 at Kalpakkam, could have been rated by INES. India has been pur- where almost 100 kg radioactive Sodium at a fast suing both a peaceful nuclear power program as well breeder reactor leaked into a purification cabin, ruin- as a weapon grade program. India has been a wit- ing a number of valves and operating systems thereby ness to some minor nuclear mishaps which were con- causing a loss of 30 million US dollar.29 On June 28, trolled immediately by shutting down the reactors and 2007 Narora II experienced a heavy water leak.30 In later the repairing was done. It is clear from the policy June and July of 2012, there were two significant plans that India aspires and is working aggressively heavy water leaks at the Rajasthan Atomic Power for manifold enhancement of alternative sources of Station, one involving radiation exposure to 38 work- energy and electricity. India thus have been working ers.31 hard and continuously to develop the nuclear sector. Indo-US Nuclear Agreement better known as 123 Therefore, it becomes quite obvious that even Agreement and plea for consequent waiver to join though these accidents did not lead to any fatalities Nuclear Supplier Group28 (NSG) for easy availability and ended with minor monetary losses; such acci- of fissile materials is suggestive enough of India’s dents are indicative enough that an escalated disas- aspirations. Subsequent establishment of over 21 re- ter of some levels as defined by INES may be in the actors at different nuclear power stations also sup- offing, on account of human error and natural ca- port the India’s avowed aim of maximizing nuclear lamities. Therefore, there is a strong imperative that energy. It makes it obvious that India too will con- India must have a standing cutting-edge infrastruc- tinue to be vulnerable to nuclear disasters. Some such ture for disaster management in any such eventuali- minor disasters have also taken place in the past with- ties and minimize the loss of both life and money. out causing fatalities in terms of life but did incurred heavy cost for repairing. Nuclear Safety Framework in India: As mentioned above India aspires to develop at gal- The first such incident took place loping speed alternative sources of energy and elec- atKalpakkam on May 4, 1987 when a refuelling ac- tricity to meet the norms of carbon emission at global cident occurred in Fast Breeder Test Reactor that level. Nuclear power is one of the major sources ruptured the reactor core, resulting in a two-year shut- alongside many other sources like solar, wind, and down. The cost involved was 300 million US dollar. tidal etc. It has also witnessed nuclear disasters of Second such disaster was on September 10, 1989 at varying severity and continues to operate over 21 Tarapur, Maharashtra where operators at the Atomic reactors and other facilities associated with the Power Station found that the reactor has been leak- nuclear fuel cycle, under the auspices of Department ing radioactive iodine at more than 700 times normal of Atomic Energy (DAE) and other associated orga-

74 World Focus May 2016 nizations.32 Fact remains that under such huge instal- later accepted by the management that it was aworst lations a major accident in a densely populated coun- ever accident in India.36 The culture of ‘blame game’ try like India would be catastrophic and prove dooms- and ‘passing the buck’, ‘not owning the responsibility day in real sense of the term. Therefore, it makes it by management’, ‘negligence, ignorance and neutral- imperative to decipher its nuclear safety and regula- ity of political leadership’, have been the culture of tory mechanisms33, as also to explore the culture of safety and security of nuclear power industry in In- a nuclear safety and security which is most neces- dia as it has been revealed in most other accidents in sary is there or not?There is no doubt that nuclear Indian nuclear power installations. energy contributes to reduction of greenhouse gas emission and hence requires to be expanded at a faster Safety regulation is the responsibility of pace. Therefore, nuclear safety mechanism of India Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)37 in In- gains importance both for national and international dia, except for those facilities that have potential community. nuclear weapons applications, including fuel cycle facilities such as reprocessing plants. Since its incep- The safety mechanism as it becomes obvi- tion AERB has reported to the Atomic Energy Com- ous from earlier discussion that focusses on two ar- mission (AEC), which is headed by the operational eas: first is the technology, and second is the opera- head of the DAE. Indian nuclear power plant started tion and management of organizations or institutional in 1969 and it took almost fourteen years to evolve a mechanism of regulation. So far as technology is con- regulatory body and mechanism, which even to this cerned the major emphasis has been on ‘design of day may not be claimed full-proof. Following the reactor’ and has been termed as ‘defence in depth’ Fukushima accidents there have been widespread by some experts. This area does not require an elabo- expressions of concern about the safety of Indian rate discussion as India uses reactors purchased from nuclear facilities, including the AERB’s lack of inde- the international market and hence would prefer the pendence. Consequently, Indian government has pro- best and appropriate design. What is needed to be posed changing this arrangement but have not made delved into is the Indian organization, institutions and any substantial move in this direction. This is obvious their preparedness and behaviour within the regula- from the remarks of the UN International Atomic tory framework and network at the global level.34 Energy Agency that India needs a ‘national policy’ Care also requires to be taken that the personnel who for nuclear safety and radioactive waste manage- are involved with the management, upkeep and op- ment, and needs more ‘internal emergency arrange- eration of nuclear reactors are properly and ad- ments’. The IAEA review came when India invited equately trained, skilled and equipped. it to conclude handing over its civilian nuclear reac- tors for international scrutiny, and submitted to IAEA The framework for regulation, monitoring, requirements for accounting for spent fuel and other safety and security of nuclear reactor sites in India nuclear processes.38 got an impetus in the aftermath of Kalpakkam inci- dent35 when the employees union, the BARC Facili- IAEA came to India in 2015 on a 12-day ties Employees Association (BFEA), wrote a letter review of India’s nuclear safety standards.39IAEA to the Director articulating ten safety related demands, pointed out that India has a strong commitment to including appointment of a full-time safety officer. safety but its AERB needs more independence and The letter also recounted two previous incidents where separation from the government. According to a re- workers were exposed to high levels of radiation in lease from Vienna, six preliminary suggestions were the past two years. The high officials have always given at the end of the review which included: na- argued for urgency of operation but they have failed tional policy for nuclear safety, nuclear waste man- to show same urgency for their safety. Later the agement, and internal emergency arrangements. workers resorted to strike to press their demands. These were accepted by the Indian Agency as Chair- The workers under the authoritarian pressure tactics man of the AERB, SS Bajaj said, “AERB is commit- of management joined back. However, it left many ted to pursuing the improvements suggested by the pertinent questions and became obvious when it was mission towards further strengthening the regulatory

Nuclear Disasters across the Globe: Lessons and Imperatives for India 75 framework.”40Therefore, it is quite obvious that In- ing and declining. India must learn from the draw- dia though is committed to nuclear safety and secu- backs of others and put its institutional mechanism in rity but all in words and not in deeds. letter and spirit at home to avoid any such disasters either on account of human error or owing to exter- Conclusion: nal events like earthquake. Despite the threat of nuclear disasters, Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) are prominent and provide approxi- Footnotes 1 Available on http://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/World-Statistics Retrieved on April 02, mately 5.7 % of the world’s energy and 13% of the 2016. According to the same source Nuclear Power plants provided 10.9 % of the world’s electricity production in 2012. In 2014, 13 countries relied on nuclear energy to supply at least one-quarter of their total electricity. The world’s electricity. Nuclear Regulatory Commission statistical figure may differ slightly depending upon the different sources as European Nuclear Society mentions on its website www.euronuclear.org that total number of reactors in operation are 442 and under construction are 66 as on February 4, 2016 and mentions the source as IAEA. Therefore, these statistics must be considered as indicative. and the nuclear industry require actively seeking in- 2 See for detail on https://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclear-power-plant-world-wide.htm Retrieved on April 1, 2016. formation on new hazards and incorporating modern 3 “International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale User’s Manual, 2008", Vienna, Austria, p.184. Archived from PDF May 15, 2011 version. risk concepts into safety requirements, and examine 4 According to IAEA website INES is a tool for promptly and consistently communicating to the public the safety significance of events associated with sources of ionizing radiation. The primary purpose being to facilitate off-site responses. India cannot be an exception to communication and understanding between the technical community, the media and the public on the safety significance of events. The aim is to keep the public as well as nuclear authorities accurately informed on the occurrence and consequences of reported events. this requirement. A nuclear power program is a ma- 5www.iaea.org This scale applies to any event associated with the use, storage and transport of radioactive material and radiation sources, whether or not the event occurs at a facility; this includes events involving loss or theft of jor undertaking requiring careful planning, prepara- radioactive sources or packages and the discovery of orphan sources, such as sources being discovered in scrap metal. This may also be used for the rating of events resulting in actual exposure of workers and the public in medical, tion and a major investment in time and human re- research and educational institutions. It is intended for use in civil, i.e. non-military applications and only relates to the safety aspects of an event. 6 Matthew Wald, “The Nuclear Ups and Downs of 2011”, New York Times, February 29, 2012. sources. While nuclear power is not unique in this 7Benjamin K Sovacool, “A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Energy in Asia”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol.40, no.3, August 2010, pp.393-400. respect it is different because of the safety issues 8 An explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction is known as a nuclear explosion. The reaction resulting into an explosion may be nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, or a multistage associated with the possession and handling of nuclear cascading combination of the two. There are also atmospheric nuclear explosions that are associated with mushroom clouds. Nuclear explosions produce radiation and radioactive debris. material and the long time commitment to ensuring 9See more at: http://www.processindustryforum.com/hottopics/nucleardisasters#sthash.zcEMhfS9.dpuf 10 “Five Years of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear disaster: Six worst Nuclear Disasters in history of mankind”, www.indiatoday.in , New Delhi, March 12, 2016. safety after the decision to embark on a nuclear power 11 Lara Rebello, “Fukushima: Radioactive boars on rampage in nuclear disaster site”, International Business Times, April 8, 2016, http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/fukushima-wild-boars-rampage-nuclear-disaster-site-1553771 program has been made. The life of individuals must 12Ibid., no.10. 13 Some other news reports claim 53 direct deaths, and countless chronic illness. not be endangered for lack of proper and adequate 14See http://www.takepart.com/photos/11-worst-nuclear-accidents/chernobyl-ukraine-ines-level-7-1986 However, ac- cording to process industry forum the battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion Roubles. The official Soviet casualty count of 31 initiatives on part of the political leaders and scien- deaths has been disputed. See more at: http://www.processindustryforum.com/hottopics/ nucleardisasters#sthash.zcEMhfS9.dpuf tific community. 15 See http://www.takepart.com/photos/11-worst-nuclear-accidents/chernobyl-ukraine-ines-level-7-1986 Retrieved on April 2, 2016. 16Benjamin K Sovacool, “A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907-2007, Energy Policy , 36(2008), pp.1802-1820. India has tremendous potentials to enhance 17Ibid., no.10. 18 “The Worst Nuclear Disasters”, TIME.com, March 25, 2009. 19 Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen, “Nuclear Power: The Energy Balance’, 2008. its capacity in the field of nuclear energy and elec- 20 For further detail see IAEA Safety Glossary, Version 2.0, September 2006, www.iaea.org 21 Readers can long on to www.iaea.org for elaborate Network Structure and Plan of IAEA which undoubtedly is feasible tricity, thereby making important strides to address and convincing that if it is put in place it shall greatly ensure effective management and mitigation of nuclear disasters in different parts of the world. However, the fact remains that it could be made possible only if the network its energy shortfall. However, it also has an opportu- is developed and integrated among the countries possessing nuclear reactors or are dealing with the fissile materials. 22 For complete details of the Network, Framework and its activities refer www.iaea.org nity to develop itself into a world leader in nuclear 23For detail refer IAEA Convention on Nuclear Safety. 24For details refer Vienna Declaration on Nuclear Safety. 25 See http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/07/heres-how-american-scientists-plan-to-prevent-the-next- technology over the next few decades and if it is nuclear-disaster/452946/ Retrieved on April 2, 2016. 26 Hugh Gusterson, “The Lessons of Fukushima”, Bulletin of Atomic Scientists“, March 16, 2011. See also Francois taken to its logical conclusion it could create a path- Diaz Maurin, “Fukushima: Consequences of Systemic Problems in Nuclear Plant Design”, Economic and Political Weekly, 46(13), March 26, 2011, pp.10-12. way for India to become an exporter of nuclear tech- 27Martin Cohen and Andrew McKillop, “The Doomsday Machine“, Palgrave, 2012, p.74. 28 At this stage the waiver to India for membership to NSG has so far been made conditional to it signing the NPT. India has not yet signed NPT but is diplomatically pursuing for a membership. nology and energy at least in the South Asian region 29 These information have been compiled from Benjamin K Sovacool, “A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol.40, no.3, August 2010, pp.393-400. to being with. Such development shall have numer- 30Annual Report 2007-8, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, Mumbai, 2008, p.38. 31 For a details discussion on the same one may look into M V Ramana and Ashwin Kumar, “Nuclear Safety in India: ous positive geopolitical ramifications for the country Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence”, Journal of International Studies , vol.1, no.1, July-December 2013, pp.67. and the South Asian region. However, for such and 32 Examples of such affiliated or related organizations are the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL), the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), and the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR). 33 The regulatory and safety systems ensure that equipment at DAE’s nuclear facilities are designed to operate safely endeavour India’s nuclear establishment must pivot and even in the unlikely event of any failure or accident, mechanisms like plant and site emergency response plans are in place to ensure that the public is not affected in any manner. In addition, detailed plans which involve the away from a strategy of nuanced, inward-looking local public authorities are also in place to respond if the consequences were to spill into the public domain. The emergency response system is also in a position to handle any other radiation emergency in the public domain that safety culture to a more global and principled ap- may occur at locations which do not even have any DAE facility. “Nuclear Safety and Regulation”, The Hindu, March 28, 2015. 34 For a details discussion on the same one may look into M V Ramana and Ashwin KumarIbid., no.31, pp.49-72. proach to gain the confidence of its own people and 35 Author has used the terms ‘incident’ and ‘accident ’ interchangeably which is not in consonance with IAEA’s International Nuclear Event Scale (INES). The author the regional and international community. This is more intents to emphasize that all such events have safety significance and demands immediate and adequate interventions by the regulatory bodies in the larger interest of people. so when over a six decade of experience with pro- 36 For a details discussion on the same one may look into M V Ramana and Ashwin Kumar, Ibid., no.31, pp.55-56. 37 The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board was constituted on November 15, 1983 by the President of India by exercising duction of nuclear energy world has come to realise the powers conferred by Section 27 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (33 of 1962) to carry out certain regulatory and safety functions under the Act. The regulatory authority of AERB is derived from the rules and notifications promulgated under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. The mission of the that nuclear power is a safe means of generating Board is to ensure that the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to health and the environment. See “Nuclear Safety and Regulation”, The Hindu, March 28, 2015. The detail regulatory electricity. With each accident at nuclear installations documents of AERB are available at www.aerb.gov.in 38SuhasiniHaider, “India needs national nuclear safety policy”, The Hindu, March 28, 2015. the world has further reduced the likelihood of such 39 Director General of IAEA visited Mumbai, Delhi and the Rajasthan Atomic Power Stations and demanded that more on-site inspections at the nuclear power plants (NPPs) be provided under international safeguards. 40 As quoted in SuhasiniHaider, “IAEA praises India occurrence and evidenced that risk of accident is wan- ’s commitment to safety”, The Hindu, March 27, 2015. It has also been reported that the Integrated Regulatory Review Service (IRRS) in its draft mission report found India to be strongly committed to nuclear safety. 76 World Focus May 2016 Mitigating Greenhouse Gases in the Paris Agreement: A Case of New Market Mechanism Dr. Vijeta Rattani

Introduction outcomes (ITMOs) among themselves to meet the International units or offsets have always been a targets they’ve set in their country specific climate controversial issue in the global fight against climate action plans, called in the legal parlance as the change. Apart from ethical issues concerning Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDCs). commodification of environment, there is a risk that by using foreign emissions reductions countries could The same article establishes a new do lesser efforts domestically to mitigate emissions, mechanism to “contribute to the mitigation of thereby delaying the crucial task of de-carbonizing greenhouse gas emissions and support sustainable their own economies. The same concerns were development”. Many commentators have referred to echoed by civil society and many developing countries this as a new “Sustainable Development Mechanism” in the run up to the Paris Summit in December 2015. or the “ITMO Mechanism”. The mechanism shall Despite their opposition, market mechanism as an operate under the “authority and guidance” of a body instrument to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions to be designated by countries who have signed the finally found its way into the Paris Agreement text agreement, and a technical group under the that was adopted on 12 December 2015. The UNFCCC, which would be formed later, would language of the text however is uncertain and leaves formulate rules governing the mechanism’s operation. many question marks and issues unresolved in the context of what would be the design of the New The Paris Agreement clearly sets the aims of this Market Mechanism (NMM). The previous market new market mechanism enlisted below: regime under the Kyoto Protocol was fraught with (a) “To promote the mitigation of greenhouse gas many in discrepancies and accused of being pro- emissions while fostering sustainable development”. developed countries. With further negotiations on the However, the concept of sustainable development can issue of new market mechanism being set to begin have country specific connotations unless an from mid May onwards, this article intends to explore international definition or guidelines are formulated. the dynamics concerned with the new market (b) “To incentivize and facilitate participation in the mechanism, its significant features, outlines the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions by public and various issues involved and suggests what could be private entities authorized by a Party”. Though the done to make it equitable. mechanism talks about voluntary participation by the Parties, it nevertheless encourages maximum The New Market Mechanism under the Paris participation. Agreement 2015 (c) “To contribute to the reduction of emission levels While the term “carbon markets” is not explicitly used, in the host Party, which will benefit from mitigation Article 6 of the Paris Agreement does provide the activities resulting in emission reductions that can also initial framework for nations to voluntarily pursue be used by another Party to fulfill its nationally cooperative approaches to reduce GHG emissions. determined contribution”. The Agreement text also It allows parties to voluntarily use “International warns against the use of double counting of the Transferred Mitigation Outcomes” (ITMO or trading ITMOs as the text clearly states that emission units) to help meet their reduction targets, while reductions shall not be used to demonstrate ensuring that transparency and the environmental achievement of the host Party’s nationally determined integrity of the regime is maintained. Thus, the Article contribution if used by another Party to demonstrate assumes that countries will develop markets achievement of its nationally determined contribution. internally, and it says they can trade mitigation

Mitigating Greenhouse Gases in the Paris Agreement: A Case of New Market Mechanism 77 (d) “To deliver an overall mitigation in global (developed countries) can acquire emission units from emissions”. On a crucial note, there was no such other countries with commitments under the Protocol requirement in the Kyoto Protocol which established and use them towards meeting a part of their targets. the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). An international transaction log, a software-based accounting system, ensures secure transfer of The Agreement thus talks about the emission reduction units between countries. The EU transferring of mitigation allowances from one Emission Trading System is an example of emission country to another and highlights the need for a trading mechanism and is most comprehensive but UNFCCC-governed mechanism to support mitigation similar initiatives are being taken by many other and sustainable development. There are no clear countries including in Japan, Norway and the US. guidelines for scope of this mechanism though. It could ¾Joint Implementation (JI) mechanism within which be the case that the mechanism could operate down a developed country with an emission-reduction to a single project, as was the case under the Clean limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol may Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto take part in an emission-reduction (or emission Protocol (the legal treatise to address climate change removal) project in any other country with a that came into force in 2005), or become a crediting commitment under the Protocol, and count the unit within a baseline system that operates across an resulting emission units towards meeting its Kyoto entire NDC or within a sector covered by an NDC. target. JI projects earn emission reduction units Such a unit could be traded between systems, acting (ERUs), each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. JI is as the agent to link baseline-and-credit designs or between two developed countries albeit, with even cap-and-trade designs. different levels of technological development and advancement. Additionally, the Paris Decision calls on the ¾The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is technical group in formulating the rules and procedures contained in the Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol. for the new mechanism to be guided by the following This provision allows governments or private entities principles: in industrialized countries to implement emission • Voluntary participation authorized by each Party reduction projects in developing countries and involved; receive credits in the form of certified emission • Real, measurable, and long-term benefits related reductions or CERs, each equivalent to one tonne to the mitigation of climate change; of CO2, which they may count against their national • Specific scopes of activities reduction targets. The CDM serves the co-benefit • Reductions in emissions that are additional to any agenda designed to benefit both the developed and that would otherwise occur the developing countries. These CERs can be traded • Verification and certification of emission reductions and sold, and used by industrialized countries to a resulting from mitigation activities by designated meet a part of their emission reduction targets under 1 operational entities; and the Kyoto Protocol. • Experience gained with and lessons learned from existing mechanisms and approaches Among the market mechanisms, CDM and ET have been most popular but at the same time have also been fraught with wide variety of Market Mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol challenges. The civil society has particularly been Market mechanisms are not new phenomena. Most against CDM. It is argued that the CDMs allow of the international transfers take place in the context investors in developed countries to build up their of carbon markets established under the Kyoto carbon reduction credits in a cheap fashion by “picking Protocol. These mechanisms were meant for the the low hanging fruits” in the developing countries developed countries to meet a part of their global and selling emission credits for big profits. An example mitigation commitments. of a low hanging fruit is hydropower generation in ¾Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol creates Emission developing countries in which developed countries Trading (ET) mechanism under which countries with can easily earn emission credits. Another political issue quantified commitments under the Kyoto Protocol 78 World Focus May 2016 regarding the CDM is their uneven geographical market mechanisms continue to operate though the distribution. In African countries, the number of tradable volumes of credits have gone down since projects has remained low in number despite the the financial crises of 2009. efforts to facilitate the increase. However, the CDM market declined following the global financial Differences between the Kyoto Market recession of 2009 and by 2012 had essentially Mechanisms and the New Market Mechanism collapsed. Following the economic recession, the Although, it is not clear as to what would be the design industrial activity drastically went down resulting in and the scope of the new market mechanism, still the the fall of emissions too. Thus, the rich developed basic framework and the guidelines clearly countries no longer required to earn carbon credits demarcates some significant features which makes for their emission reductions. Due to the collapse of it different from the previous market mechanisms the market, price of carbon went down extremely under the Kyoto Protocol. The NMM is different from which could never recover. Even when they were the previous market mechanism because under the functional, it was argued that the CDM activities were new architecture of global climate regime there is no clearly driven by project related business interests capped and uncapped environments as in Kyoto. In and not with the objective of real emission reductions. the Kyoto Protocol, developed countries were Although the CDM is not perfect, it is a medium for categorized under Annex I and developing under Non- investment in low cost renewables for driving low Annex I. Only the Annex I or the developed countries carbon transformation in developing countries. For could invest in other developed or developing countries example, new, clean renewable energy CDM projects to offset their own emissions. This categorization is account for more than 110,000 MW of renewable now gone under the Paris Agreement implying electricity capacity, which is about the same as the countries are more or less on the same pedestal when total power generation capacity of Africa. Moreover, it comes to reducing their national emissions. The one of the main goals of the CDM has been achieved: new mechanism doesn’t contain any geographic all project types require less money to implement restrictions. Emissions can be reduced in a developed under the CDM than they would in similar, non CDM or developing country and be bought by any other projects in developed countries. CDM has also country. catalyzed large investment from the private sector: the total investment in registered or soon-to-be Secondly, there is a looming question of a registered CDM projects as of June 2012 was uniform metric as the content of the commitments estimated at USD 215.4 billion. However, its are very differently designed unlike in Kyoto where contribution to sustainable development in developing economy wide emission targets were clearly countries is largely unknown. CDM projects also earmarked for industrialized countries. In the Kyoto claim technology transfer in the developing countries. Protocol, only the Annex I (developed) countries had Roughly, 27–39% of CDM projects report technology quantified emission reduction targets under the Kyoto transfer as a component of the project design. The regime. However, in the current regime countries have leading countries in terms of transferring technologies voluntarily and freely chosen their commitments plans are Japan, Germany, the USA, Denmark, Italy and and actions not always characterized by absolute the United Kingdom. mitigation reduction target. The climate action plans of the countries also comprise commitments of Several issues are identified with regard to renewable energy, energy efficiency, adaptation goals the Emission Trading mechanism as well. It is argued etc. On a significant note, the Paris Agreement notes that while emission trading works well among large that the new market mechanism must result in overall businesses and industries, it may not be the most global emission reductions. There was no such effective instrument for addressing emissions from requirement in the Kyoto mechanisms which aimed smaller businesses and industries and is difficult to at largely offsetting emissions. apply to the transportation, agriculture and household sectors. It can also be said that emission trading has Moreover, it also appears that the new not realized its potential till date. Even with their flaws, mechanism is intended to go beyond a purely individual

Mitigating Greenhouse Gases in the Paris Agreement: A Case of New Market Mechanism 79 project-based offset mechanism like the CDM, and potentially creating significant new pockets of instead is likely to endorse and support new policies, domestic demand. programmes, activities and initiatives in terms of -The new mechanism advocates that all units financial support or to improve energy efficiency in resulting from mitigation approaches that meet certain the building sector of a country or to help implement conditions, and that are transferred internationally, can a renewable energy policy. It is also broad enough to be used, and counted, for international compliance support the linking of emissions trading schemes by a Party towards its NDC. It needs to be further between parties. discussed what those conditions would be. -Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) – Issues at Large One of the main outcomes of the Paris Agreement is The open-ended and unclear specifications in the a transparency framework to track how countries language used in the Paris Agreement text regarding are progressing on their commitments. For this, rules market mechanisms leave many significant issues and guidelines need to be devised in order to formulate which need to be resolved in the coming negotiations. a stringent MRV system. -The Agreement text talks about cooperative -Double Counting – The Agreement text notes that approaches to promote sustainable development and emission reductions outcomes cannot be used by two environmental integrity. This gives rise to the need of parties. However, there is no mechanism to ensure an international definition of sustainable development that the same mitigation outcomes are not transferred and environmental integrity or at least guidelines to internationally twice, and/or are not used towards ascertain how ITMOs would be subjected to NDC twice, by different Parties. sustainable development and environmental integrity requirement. -Registration of ITMOs- Considering that the -The text further mentions that the market mechanism content of Nationally Determined Contributions is must deliver “an overall mitigation in global heterogeneous, the mitigation outcomes may not be emissions”. This needs to be interpreted and provided in the form of units. A critical question emerges with a definition. As it currently stands, it does not regarding the registration of ITMOs if they are not in talk about how to operationalize this paragraph. units. Another closely related question in this regard -The future of existing market mechanisms- It is also is the question of accounting which is whether not clear if the new market mechanism shall replace different accounting treatments will be required, the existing mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol depending on the type of NDC. or the existing mechanisms would be integrated into the new mechanism. -Challenge of sufficient demand- In the current context, it appears only 13 countries including Canada, Along with the above mentioned issues, the Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, Switzerland, and new mechanism must also take into account the possibly Norway – are likely buyers of international learnings from the market mechanisms under the offsets (ITMOs). The vast majority of other Parties Kyoto Protocol. intend to participate as sellers. In addition, five Parties intend to use domestic markets, while seven Parties Learnings from the Kyoto Market Mechanisms have expressed interest in using both, domestic and As mentioned earlier, market mechanisms, especially international markets. Hence, a balance must be CDM, have been experiencing many challenges. It struck between allowing for large participation of has been criticized for weak environmental integrity, Parties on the one hand and ensuring environmental high transaction costs and complex governance. Only integrity. But since the new market mechanism is 19 CDM projects out of more than 7000 projects open ended and not only between countries and may have complied with the sustainable development tool be sub-national or among sectors, it may well be the devised in the Kyoto regime. Thus, the contribution case that countries that choose not to purchase of CDM in promoting sustainable development in emission reductions internationally may still develop developing countries is not much. Further, analysis carbon markets at home in order to meet their targets, points out that the transaction costs of trading are

80 World Focus May 2016 high particularly for small investors which must be Challenge of Equity and Common but reduced. The governance structure is also complicated Differentiated Responsibility- The market leading to inconsistencies in monitoring, accounting mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol have been and compliance. It is thus imperative that the new fraught with allegations of being pro-developed market mechanism under Paris Agreement addresses countries and largely inequitable. In the regard, the above challenges. The accurate measurement and Association of Small and Island States (AOSIS), a reporting of emissions is essential, along with the negotiating group in climate negotiations, put forward rigorous and consistent enforcement of penalties for a proposal which basically talked of incorporation of fraud or non-compliance. This would ensure that both principles of Common but Differentiated developed and developing countries are able to Responsibility (CBDR) and equity in the new market accurately reflect and account for emissions trading, mechanism by providing capacity building assistance when appropriate. Also critical is transparency, such and technical assistance to developing country Parties as public access to source-level emissions and that are interested in participating in the new market allowance data. Simplicity should be applied to all mechanism. This support could include, for example: elements of the program, including applicability assistance in collecting sectoral baseline data; thresholds (determining which sources are affected), developing a time series of emissions; establishing trading rules, reporting requirements and penalty regulatory systems for data collection or for assessments. monitoring, reporting and verifying emissions; preparing reports that propose sectoral caps or The ambition and coverage of carbon crediting thresholds; and /or assistance in establishing mechanisms under Kyoto Protocol was not global national registries or links to a centralized registry and sometimes restricted to only some cities only. adopted or adapted under the Convention. Such Further, the CDM has so far not been successful in initiatives if taken into incorporated in the new market mobilizing activities in transport, forestry and mechanism would result in a market regime that agriculture. One can hope for an accelerated ambition would help the developing countries in switching to and coverage in the new market mechanism as it is low carbon economy while being fair and equitable. inevitable that post-2020 period would witness interlinked global markets. Conclusion Carbon markets are a reality and forms an important Ex-post analysis of the EU Emission Trading component of the Paris Agreement. However, the System (ETS) shows that in the future, the risk of uncapped nature of the Paris Agreement means that carbon leakage2 is real as long as carbon price signals the new market mechanism framework will need to are strong and differ significantly between be able to accommodate flows in many directions, jurisdictions. Moreover, this risk tends to only affect unlike North to South flow under Kyoto Protocol. a limited number of exposed sectors and can be The eventual goal remains the globally linked market effectively mitigated through policy design. Analyses which though in principle appears complicated, is also reveal that EU ETS’ lack of flexibility in the actually a better and a feasible idea as it expands the structure of the EU ETS cap, and its inability to cope pool of participants and can broaden emission with the altered economic conditions in the face of reduction opportunities and reduce volatility. Experts the financial crisis, threatens to undermine its efficacy believe that linking of carbon markets is not that tough in providing incentives for abatement. and it requires including comparable monetary reporting and verification systems, comparable As compared to Kyoto market mechanisms, regulations, complementary climate policies of the two the efficiency of the new market mechanisms in jurisdictions. As per the Paris Agreement, we would scaling down emission reductions could be increased witness globally linked markets post 2020 and experts by striking a better balance between risk and risk- believe that the prospects of a global carbon market control measures, by revising existing practices, and capable of delivering cost-effective emission by taking steps to increase user-friendliness. reductions have never looked stronger. It is imperative that the new market mechanism is equitable and in

Mitigating Greenhouse Gases in the Paris Agreement: A Case of New Market Mechanism 81 favour of developing countries and must include transactions, but on how much it results in net emission capacity building, flows of investment and technology reductions. It is hoped that the coming Bonn climate transfer. At the end, the success of the new market negotiations starting 16 May 2016 proceed on such mechanism would be measured not on the number of lines.

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234Recent Market Developments 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234The markets continue to operate within the Kyoto Protocol’s second commitment period. Seven 5 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234- 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234CDM projects got its registration done in April 2016 bringing the total number of registered CDM 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234projects up to 7703. Over 121 million CERs have been issued to the CDM projects during 2015, 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234which is higher than in 2014. According to the global carbon market Report, carbon market in 2016 is 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234expected to be worth €60bn. 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234-In a new development, California and Quebec which launched their emissions trading systems in 2013 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234formally linked their systems in 2014, allowing the two systems to trade each other’s carbon allowances 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234and in 2015 it included transport emissions as a sector. This arrangement operates outside of Kyoto 5 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345

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12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234Increasingly, countries and businesses are supporting a price for carbon which can be in the form of 5 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234· 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234emission trading or carbon tax. Carbon tax is directly linked to the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234emissions, often expressed as a value per tonne CO2 equivalent. Carbon taxes can be introduced as an 5 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234independent instrument or they can exist alongside other carbon pricing instrument, such as an energy 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234tax. Currently, more than 15 countries and jurisdictions including India has imposed a tax on carbon. 5 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234·It is important to note that in a series of initiatives by the World Bank, 73 Countries and over 1,000 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234Businesses have spoken out in support of a global price on carbon. This move has brought two groups 5

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234to work together to address climate change. 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234·In terms of transactions, the International Carbon Action Partnership ICAP predicts that Europe and 5 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234North America will continue to represent more than 95 per cent of the market. It also predicts that by 5

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12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012342017 carbon market coverage will jump to 16 per cent of emissions and 49 per cent of GDP, with the 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234launch of China’s and Ontario’s trading system. The Chinese emission trading system is set to roll out in 5 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345

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12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012342017 with their rules and policies in data monitoring and regulation still not clear. According to the 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234report, emission trading will remain modest in China and South Korea, despite the huge emission 5 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345

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1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234volumes covered by their emission trading schemes 5

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345 The box above points out at recent developments in terms of market mechanisms.

UNFCCC (2016), “New Market Mechanisms”, Online: Web, Accessed on 12 March 2016, References http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/market_and_non-market_mechanisms/items/7710.php Baker and Mckenzie (2016), “Global Climate Change Treaty”, Online: Web, Accessed on 16 World Bank (2015), “Carbon pricing”, Online: Web, Accessed on 29 March 2016, http:// March 2016, http://www.bakermckenzie.com/files/Uploads/Documents/Environmental/ www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/SDN/background-note_carbon- ar_global_climatechangetreaty_jan16.pdf tax.pdf Carbon Market Watch (2016), “Future for offset Credits and Carbon Markets”, Online: Web, https://theconversation.com/how-will-carbon-markets-help-the-paris-climate-agreement- Accessed on 2 March 2016, http://carbonmarketwatch.org/what-future-for-offset-credits- 52211 and-carbon-markets/ World Bank (2015), Emission Trading, Online: Web, Accessed on 29 March 2016,https:// Carbon Market Watch (2016), Paris Outcomes, Online: Web, Accessed on 26 March 2016, openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/23874/ETPSynthesis.pdf http://carbonmarketwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Paris-outcomes- http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/pricing-carbon analysis_FINAL_clean.pdf World Bank (2016), “Carbon Pricing Readiness”, Online: Web Accessed on 29 March 2016 Carbon Market Monitor (2016), “America to the Rescue”, Online: Web, Accessed on 4 http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Climate/background- March 2016, http://trmcs-documents.s3.amazonaws.com/3501ec8eae589bf note_carbon-pricing-readiness.pdf bef9cc1729a7312f0_20160111104949_Carbon%20Market%20Review%202016_1.5.pdf World Bank (2015), “New World Bank facility promotes carbon market mechanisms, Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS) (2016), Online: Web, Accessed on 4 March “America to the Rescue”, Online: Web, Accessed on 12 March 2016, http://www.carbon- 2016, http://www.carbon-mechanisms.de/fileadmin/media/dokumente/publikationen/ mechanisms.de/en/2015/new-world-bank-facility-promotes-carbon-market-development/ PP_Accounting_fin_bf.pdf World Bank (2016), “Paris Agreement”, Online: Web, Accessed on 12 March 2016, http:// Clean Development Mechanism, Online: Web, Accessed on 12 March 2016, http:// blogs.worldbank.org/climatechange/carbon-markets-paris-agreement-early-holiday-gift www.cdmpolicydialogue.org/research/1030_impact.pdf http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/09/22/governments-businesses-support- International Carbon Action Partnership (ICAP) (2015), “Status Report 2015”, Online: Web, carbon-pricing Accessed on 15 March 2016, https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/status-report-2015 http://blogs.shell.com/climatechange/category/cdm/ UNFCCC (2012), Clean Development Mechanism, Online: Web, Accessed on 15 March 2016, http://cdm.unfccc.int/about/dev_ben/CDM-Benefits-2012.pdf UNFCCC (2015), “Paris Agreement Text”, Online: Web, Accessed on 11March 2016, https:/ Footnotes /unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf 1 http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/mechanisms.pdf UNFCCC (2015), “Mechanims under the Kyoto Protocol”, Online: Web, Accessed on 12 2 Carbon leakage occurs when production of goods is moved to countries with laxer constraints March 2016, http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/items/1673.php on greenhouse gas emissions than the original country. This could lead to an increase in their total emissions. 82 World Focus May 2016 Locating Gender within the Realm of Natural Disasters Dr. Kalindi Sharma and Prof. P. C. Joshi

Socio-cultural Perspectives of Disasters is placed on their unpredictability and magnanimity. Although sociological studies in the field of disasters Henceforth, hazards and disasters have remained can trace their origin to wartime researches of the integrated with the society (Oliver-Smith, 1996) 1920’s on the populations experiencing bombardment and ammunition impacts (Oliver-Smith, 1999), the There exists consilience between the researches have gathered momentum in the recent analytical questions posed by disaster studies and the times owing to the imminent threats of natural as well idyllic nature of socio-cultural approach employed by as man-made catastrophes. anthropology (Malinowski, 1922; Torry, 1979). Of vital concern are the cultural systems of the human society, Researchers in the past have understood which include the beliefs, the customs, the institutions, hazards, as a systemic element of the environment and the interpersonal relationships of individuals within almost impervious to human perversion (Torry, 1979). a particular group or community vis-à-vis disasters. However, escalating instances of disasters hold This can be understood in the light of the fact that testimony to the failures of human capacity to sustain anthropologists do not treat disasters as a ‘concept natural adversities, the inefficiency of the so-called in isolation’ but an abrupt phenomenon that triggers ‘resilient’ technologies and also the malpractices that a chain of events thatare in continuity with each other contribute to the threats to the natural environment. and can be explored theoretically. To a social scientist, The frequent occurrence of disasters can be a decisive the entire gamut of disaster impacts, response, relief, indicator of human frailties in terms of natural vulnerability and mitigationis intriguing and therefore adaptability and social cohesiveness. The man-nature worthy of exhaustive research. Therefore synergy combined with technology provides bearings theconceptualdeconstruction of disasters requires the to disasters to hold the stage for devastation (Oliver- inclusion of comparative, typological, processual,and Smith, 1996). Post-disaster, the loss and damage sociological approaches(Hoffman &Lubkemann, within a society goes to prove this lack of sustainability 2005; Henry, 2005). The perusal of these concepts in terms of development. has led to therecognition of the human-environment dichotomythat not only acknowledges the The proliferating interest in the field and the environmental impact on human life but also the effects barter of research methodology between social of reckless human voracity for natural resources science disciplines can be ascribed to the implicit urgency of the field and its unbigoted global nature in Pursuing disasters from asocio-cultural affecting communities at large (Bernard, 1994; Oliver- viewpoint, several unique and innovative perspectives Smith 1996). Consequently, sites of disasters have can be established. The complete life cycle of emerged as natural laboratories that facilitate the disasters sustains variability in impacts in different testing of socio-cultural theories (Oliver-Smith, 1996). communities. To a social scientist the factors that lead Moreover, the persistent exclusion of culturally to this variability are not always physical but palpable relevant research within the scientific database of enough to predispose few communities to disasters disaster studies had contributed to an ambiguous more than the others. Some of these factors include understanding of disastersthat was strictly based on gender-based discrimination, racial or ethnic mortality graphs and fiscal losses (Henry, 2005). differences, history of colonial exploitation, insufficient resources (natural or man-made), underdevelopment, Hazards have now been acknowledged as and poverty within communities (Henry, 2005;Oliver- an integral part of the environment and less emphasis Smith 1999). These underlying factors create a class

Locating Gender within the Realm of Natural Disasters 83 of vulnerable individuals or communities that face disadvantaged groups’ (Bolin, Jackson & Crist, 1998; impacts of disasters that are more lasting owing to p. 27). The applause came in the wake of a review their sub-standard establishments (Bodley, 1982; of United States disaster researches that have Johnston, 2001). Sociologists and Anthropologists take remained reluctant in acknowledging ‘experiences of into account thesocio-cultural model of a community women’. The ignorance can be attributed to their while researching disasters and their impacts. Much conceptual understanding of disasters as events that emphasis is laid on the understanding of thelocal are ‘objectively describable occurrences that result models of risk construction in relation with the existing from various natural forces that impact ‘human vulnerability of the community and the resulting systems’. Those systems then respond to disaster preparedness behavior (Wolfe 1988; Cernea 2000; events in a relatively predictable and orderly fashion Henry, 2005). The risk perception and the as they attempt to re-stabilize’(Bolin, Jackson & Crist, naturalization of risks within a population depend 1998; p. 27). Other than this objective appraisal of largely on the changing social order (Henry, 2005). disasters as events, the researches in U.S. also remain Mileti (1999) claims that any shift in the vulnerability- oblivious to the aspect of human activity and practices preparedness behavior of community is a by-product that interfere with the environment and are sometimes of shifts in its cultural premises that facilitate almost responsible for the ‘events’ (Oliver-Smith, 1986; Bolin, all the institutions that are likely to be affected by Jackson & Crist, 1998). Moreover, they remain disasters. The technological means that claim to heedless of the social constructions that prompt social overcome nature with the intention of safeguarding hierarchies, differences, and inequalities of disaster communities against natural disasters are likely to victims; even if they are classified, it is an objective create a false blanket of security as dependence on classification based on measured ‘background such technologies relaxes the threshold of risk taking characteristics’ (pp. 27). There is also paucity of behavior within populations (Mileti, 1999). Therefore, historical literature on marginalized (based on class, ‘disaster is an unfolding process beginning with caste, culture, race, and gender) victims of disasters socially constructed conditions of vulnerability to concern one with, at any moment in research in which a community lives’ (Oliver-Smith, 1993, (Blaikie et al., 1994; Hewitt, 1995; Morrow & pp. 111-112). Enarson, 1996; Bolin, Jackson & Crist, 1998). The disaster policies are quantitatively informed decisions Gendered Matrix within Disasters rather than being qualitative as well as quantitative Sociologists and Anthropologists engage in researches resolutions. The objective and functionalist approach predominantly emerging from the developing world has led to oversimplification of disaster as a which position them to comment on issues related to conceptual model (Blaikie et al., 1994; Hewitt, 1995; disasters owing tohigh vulnerability of the regionto Bolin, Jackson & Crist, 1998). ‘Disaster research in natural disasters (Henry, 2005). The developing world the US has failed to engage feminist theory, gender experiences three times the disaster related casualties analysis, or critical political economic theory, any of and losses in the developed parts of the world which could lead to new questions being asked about (UNDRO, 1984). Moreover, the staggering number social inequality, cultural difference, and social power’ of technological disasters have also claimed the (Best &Kellner, 1991; Pred& Watts, 1992; Lorber, attention of many researchers who have shown 1994; Farganis, 1995; Horlick-Jones, 1995; Bolin, particular interest in studying the affected Jackson & Crist, 1998 pp. 28). The rationale behind community’s/organization’s social responses (Oliver- frequent reference to the U.S. disaster literature, Smith, 1999). within the academic confines of this thesis, is to project the polarity between disaster research literature of Several researches have introduced the third the developing world and the developed world. world disaster researches with a clearly optimistic view for their penchant for unhesitatingly accepting Suffice to say, the traditionalist approach and the recent theoretical developments in social sciences. quantitative perusal to establishing theories in the U.S. Therefore, they have been ‘more attuned to the disaster literature has sadly conferred obscurity to effects of disasters on women and other the prevalent social inequalities and vulnerabilities.

84 World Focus May 2016 In contrast, bulk of disaster researches being carried systems in order to ensure coordination between out in third world countries have remained extremely stakeholders and expeditious recovery of the society. prone to permeability of social theories granting it an The long-term goal of this framework is reduction of evolutionary and progressive model. Furthermore, vulnerability of communities and regions under researches in the developing world are generally more frequent disaster threats. As part of physical cognizant of the diverse nature of its society, the vulnerability reduction by the government several complexities and the heterogeneity of class, culture, projects have been undertaken, for instance ethnic and gendered identity; hence they are construction of embankments in flood prone extremely conscious of biases and generalizations areas,standardization proceduresregulated by Bureau (Bolin, Jackson & Crist, 1998). of Indian Standards (BIS) to allow construction of only earthquake safe buildings or to retrofit old Let us now focus on the scenario in India structures that cannot be demolished, and also the with regard to natural disasters and its vulnerability constitution of a national core group for cyclone profile. India’s vulnerability to disasters is not limited monitoring and mitigation in coastal regions (Report to its geophysical features that jeopardize its safety by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, when a disaster strikes; it extends to its socio-cultural 2004). fabric. ‘Moreover, India is also vulnerable to Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear The cultural notions about gender, caste, (CBRN) emergencies and other man-made disasters. class, and other classifications within a society render Disaster risks in India are further compounded by certain members more vulnerable than the rest increasing vulnerabilities related to changing (Agarwal, 1992; Shaw, 1992; Fothergill, 1996; Bari, demographics and socio-economic conditions, 1998; Henry, 2005). The vulnerability that exists in unplanned urbanization, development within high-risk the pre-disaster stage is likely to get aggravated in zones, environmental degradation, climate change, the post-disaster phase (Jackson, 2003; Henry, 2005). geological hazards, epidemics and pandemics’ The caste hierarchy and class based organization of (NDMA, 2009; p.13). The loss of life and property the Indian society is as evident and discernible in times translates into severe economic erosion of the of disaster as it is in any other time frame. country’s infrastructural capacities and its overall development suffers major setbacks. As claimed in a The sustenance of every domain of culture Ministry of Home affairs report (2004), post-colonial is but an entailed interaction between processes ruled India already had a functional relief and rehabilitation by the principles of difference in construction of a mechanism, a disaster management policy framework phenomenon. Among the most powerful symbolic was still required in the wake of enhanced risk of vehicles for both structuring and legalizing such disasters. differentiation around the world has been the representation of persons in gendered terms. The On a general note the introduction of a socio-cultural web functions on the ability of human disaster management policy held testimony to a subconscious to perceive things in their individual paradigm shift within the political machinery that manner and such distinctiveness are borne in the intended to proceed with a preventive perspective gendered arrangement of the entities. So far, we have without halting the growth and development of the rather efficiently established that the societies across country. This meant an inclusion of strategies that the world are structurally ‘gendered societies’ and introduced disaster management policies and this forms the basis of a rudimentary form of programs to the smallest administrative councils classification. (panchayats); that assisted the regional administration in building volunteer based networks Gender studies within the scope of disaster across villages; that facilitated knowledge exchange research have a relatively short history, dating to the between government and non-government bodies; latter half of the twentieth century (Enarson& and that emphasized community awareness, skill Morrow, 1998). Gender has emerged as one of the training as well as installation of early warning most complex elements of human existence, yet an

Locating Gender within the Realm of Natural Disasters 85 enticing one within the academic domain of disciplines race, class, ethnicity, and so on (Wiest, Mocellin, of social sciences. The complete genre of gender &Motsisi, 1994; Enarson, 1999). studies remains pertinent in social research, as it is one of the instruments for the deconstruction of We must also consider the eco-feministic culture. Therefore it has enjoyed phenomenal growth view to these patriarchal notions in disasters. Quite a and generated intense interest among the few debates on ‘women and environment’ or ‘gender contemporary practitioners of Anthropology in the last and environment’ have emerged in the recent years. two to three decades due to its great theoretical and Aggarwal (2012) remarked that according to Eco- topical diversity. However, gender research within feminists, the status of women is likened to the the confines of disaster studies has been frequently environment affected by aggressive material criticized for substituting gender with ‘women’ and exploitation and therefore they are both at the mercy primarily focusing on the ‘issues of women’s of men.Ecofeminists have been known for drawing concerns’. Within disaster research women have parallels between women and the environment and been deemed an ineradicable category of vulnerable this image of ‘an organic cosmos with a feminine irrespective of their social class, race, age, economic earth at its center’ has been challenged by the earliest status and ethnicity. Both anthropological and scientific revolution that has transformed this image sociological endeavors of acquiring knowledge on with a mechanized and commercial outlook disasters have proved insufficient in understanding (Merchant, 1980; Aggarwal, 2012 pp. 456). Dr. the gendered nature of society. Vandana Shiva, an eminent environmental activist, explained that the continuum between ‘women and The interpersonal communication between environment’ in the developing parts of the world genders within a family or an institution is modeled needs to be addressed separately from the monolith according to the gender-based perceptions of the of progression. Shiva also claimed that women in the society. The interactions whether personal or third world have ‘special dependence on nature and professional in nature, the general attitudes towards a special knowledge of nature’ (Agarwal, 2012 pp. genders, are the foundations on which society 459) but the rhetoric of development has structurally constructs, decides, and acts. Post disaster the society eroded the connect between this knowledge and the continues to conform to the pre-disaster view of the way environment is dealt with. Shiva also affirmed community, thereby identifying women as passive and that the modern technological advancement is yet debilitated members of the society. Women as another patriarchal indoctrination which leads to repositories of knowledge and capabilities are veiled subordination of women (Shiva, 1988; Aggarwal, behind this non-progressive thought. Moreover, 2012). However convincing it may appear, the gender based disparities also find expression in limited argument has been subjected to rigorous analytical property rights of women, inferior socio-political status, criticism. For instance Bina Aggarwal opined that restricted economic holdings, limited political rights, Shiva’s analysis of ‘ecofeminism’ in third world is and increased exposure to violence. These disparities problematic at many levels viz. the generalizations remain constant even in the times following disasters. based on her research among rural women of north- Despite the inequalities, the assumption that women west India tend to conflate women of the third world are usually ‘passive’ victims seems rather absurd and in one category; the gender discourse also fails to rudimentary (Ariyabandu, 2006). The manner in acknowledge the ethnic and religious diversity of which women’s disaster based vulnerability is India; it also holds the western territorial expansion perceived is rather simplistic wherein most of it is in third world accountable for environmental attributed to impoverishment and paucity of resources. degradation and feminine oppression whilst ignoring While poverty cannot be entirely excluded there are the history of pre-colonial era (Aggarwal, 2012). several other factors that interact with the prevalent economic condition and expose women to greater The preferences granted to men in a normal risks in disasters such as their household structure, patriarchal society extend even in the phases following their marital status, age, physical ability, or disability, disasters. Despite the social bias it cannot be refuted that men are as severely affected in disasters as

86 World Focus May 2016 women. The idea of masculinity and male identity sustainability and resilience within communities that predisposes men with the role of the provider (Oliver-Smith, 1996). Adaptation to hazards and and that of the protector of the family is equally disasters is synonymous to the question of debatable. At the time of the disaster, their roles are sustainability of resources in the face of challenged and their position as the head of the environmental degradation and resource depletion household or the provider does not allow them the (Oliver-Smith, 1999). Whilst some feminist scholars access to psychosocial support for they are expected consider ‘development’ yet another patriarchal to maintain a strong exterior and stay ‘manly’. On indoctrination that strengthens feminine subordination, the other hand, women receive special assistance in one cannot remain oblivious to the needs of the times of disaster. It has also been pointed out as a community within the present developmental schema. concern over the fact that men are unable to learn There is a need to impress upon policymakers to domestic chores as domesticity is considered a reassess policies that are primarily relief oriented and woman’s role and they are expected to champion the lack a sustainable framework to deal with gender household responsibilities. It has been observed that inequalities (Aggarwal, 2012). failure to redress the concerns and anxieties of men is a major reason behind alcohol addiction and References Aggarwal, B. (2012). The Gender and Environment Debate. In R. Ray (Ed.), Handbook of Gender (p. increased cases of violence against women in post- 573). New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Ariyabandu, M. M. (2006). Gender Issues in Post-tsunami Recovery Case of Sri Lanka .Earthquake disaster scenario (Ariyabandu, 2006). Spectra , 22 (3), 759-775. Ariyabandu, M. M., &Wickramasinghe, M. (2004). 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Menlo Park, California: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company Inc domains, which makes women vulnerable in the face Bolin, R., Jackson, M., & Crist, A. (1998). Gender Inequality, Vulnerability, and Disasters: Theoretical and Empirical Considerations. In E. Enarson, & B. Morrow (Eds.), The Gendered Terrain of Disaster: of disasters. The men on the other hand are expected Through Women’s Eyes (pp. 17-44). Westport: Greenwood. Cernea, M. (2000). Risks, Safeguards, and Reconstruction: A Model for Population Displacement and to protect the women, elderly members, and the Resettlement. In M. Cernea, & C. McDowell (Eds.), Risk and Reconstruction Experiences of Settles and Refugees (pp. 11-55). Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Farganis, S. (1995). The Social Reconstruction of the Feminine Character. New York: Rowan- children of the household. In a situation of disaster, Littlefield. Fothergill, A. (1996). Gender, Risk, and Disaster.International Journal of Mass Emergencies and when the complete social fabric of the community Disasters (14), 33-56. Henry, D. (2005). Anthropological Contributions to the Study of Disasters. In D. McEntire, & W. breaks down, it becomes increasingly difficult to Blanchard (Eds.), Disciplines, Disasters and Emergency Management: The Convergence and Divergence of Concepts, Issuess and Trends from the Research Literature.Emittsburg, Maryland: provide protection and care. The women and young Federal Emergency Management Agency. Hewitt, K. (1995). Excluded Perspectives in the Social Construction of Disaster. International Journal girls become extremely vulnerable to physical assault, of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 13 (3), 317-340. Hoffman, D., & Lubkemann, S. (2005). Warscape Ethnography in West Africa and the Anthropology rape, domestic violence, and increased instances of of “Events”. Anthropological Quaterly, 78 (2), 315-327. Horlick-Jones, T. 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Introduction inequitable government response and the severity of As is now widely believed in academic and policy the disaster. It has been further found in few studies panning circles, the disasters are not natural but a conducted by various scholars that vulnerabilities result of man-environment relationship, a set of created by natural disasters can be exploited by rebel interactions between the natural hazards, socio- groups; droughts increase civil war in Africa and that political conditions and the conditions of vulnerability natural disasters increase the risk of violent civil that put communities at risk and lead to greater loss conflict in the short and medium term in low and of life and property. It is interesting to look at the middle income countries. disaster – conflict interface in the context of a country like India, beset with the recurring disasters like, There is also trend of increasing urbanisation, droughts, floods, earthquakes, accidental and increase in demand for goods and services, cost industrial disasters on one hand, and at the same time, escalation and inflation affecting the larger segments struggling to contain the real threats of insurgency, of populations and making their living difficult or extremism, and Naxalism in many states. Kellet and miserable. The dependency of people, as consumers, Sparks (2012) report that from 2005-2009, more than on market for goods and services produced by ‘others’ 50% of people impacted by ‘natural’ disasters lived leads to mass production of goods and subsequently, in fragile and conflict-affected states across globe. accumulation of wealth in the hands of few and mass Precisely, the communities and the states marred by production of risks affecting majority of the population conflict and war like situations undoubtedly are faced cutting across regional and class divides. Ulrich Beck with the issues of lack of governance, scarce (1992 p:19), too rightly puts forth that ‘in advanced resources and distressed economic conditions to meet modernity the social production of wealth is the short term and long term needs of its population systematically accompanied by the social production groups. This usually is, either, because of the unequal of risks’. The techno-scientifically produced risks distribution of the resources, issues of poverty, hunger, coupled with real dangers of climate change and other unemployment, competing ideologies or the prevailing human induced factors leading to concurrence of atmosphere of insecurity, violence and infighting for disasters and conflicts pose a serious threat to the control over resources and power. It seems the survival of mankind. At the same time, the conflict inadequate response to a disaster situation, uprooting between those who have access to unlimited of people due to acquisition of their land and natural resources and control over them versus those who resources for various development activities of the struggle to live and sustain are becoming more evident state add to the alienation of the people. On the one and a growing number of cases are coming to fore. hand, where, the models of development itself may In such situations of struggle to live, the webs of be fraught with disasters, the neglect of people in domination, control and power hierarchy create not decision making and depriving them of their rights only inequity but also lead to either neglect in initiating over their native land and resources ostensibly leads measures to avert disaster situations or poor response to a situation of conflict and breeds alienation. This in mitigating the impact of disasters, when it comes gives credence to the fact that the disasters and to suffering of the marginalized and the poorer conflicts in near future are more likely to coincide. sections of the society.

Drury and Oslon (1997, 1998) found a Lessons from Floods in Kashmir Valley relationship between natural disasters and political On September 6, 2014 the valley of Kashmir was unrest and the variables such as insufficient and inundated due to heavy rains, leading to over 6 lakh

88 World Focus May 2016 people getting stranded , about 200 killed and leaving fact that there is minimal preparedness even at the the summer capital cut off from rest of the world for national level to deal with extreme climatic conditions. a couple of weeks. The magnitude of devastation The state of Jammu and Kashmir in 2014 floods also caused by floods was such that all the vital suffered because of the lack of planning prior to installations, defence establishments, communication disaster situation, and importantly even the lack of networks and essential services were badly affected. coordination among various state agencies in the It was one of the worst floods of the last 60 years. It immediate aftermath of the floods situation. The task would not be wrong to say that the valley of Kashmir of rescuing the people marooned in floods, taking affected by the spate of violence for last two decades, them to safer locations, providing food and other relief had been badly hit on the front of transparent materials besides life saving medicines was mostly governance and pursuit of development agenda, left to the locals- most of whom were victims or especially because containing the violence had/ has survivors of the flood situation.. Rather strangely, been the topmost priority. This to some extent took there was no administrative set up in sight for quite away the attention and energy of the administration long hours, as the vital installations and the government from checking the unplanned development on the offices and machinery too were submerged due to riverbanks. There have been large scale floods and rendered immobile and ineffective. encroachments of wetlands, ponds, and lakes in and around the city of Srinagar and most of it has While one may arrive at the conclusion that happened in the last few decades. At the same time, given that the energy and resources of the state and even after the devastating floods of 2005 in Mumbai, central government are usually directed towards Cloudbusrt in Leh (J&K) in 2010 and the floods in containing the problem of law and order, besides, Uttarakhand in 2013, in which few thousand lives dealing with the internal as well as external security were lost and economic losses worth corers were threats, the disaster management takes a back seat. suffered, there seems to have been very little lessons However, the disaster management preparedness at learnt, in terms of the advance preparedness even at the national level even after suffering repeatedly due the national level to either foresee such a calamity or to floods has not translated into a better coordination to respond adequately and timely in terms of relief among concerned agencies as well as the prevention and rescue operations. of such disasters. This tells that disaster management grid in India needs to be strengthened and upgraded The J&K state even did not have a flood to a level where adequate response and prevention forecasting station, the Central Water Commission of disaster becomes the norm and not a sort of one stations in Jammu and Kashmir just detect the rise in example among many failures. water levels and monitor the flow of water as required under the Indus water treaty of 1960. There were The people living in conflict affected states glaring instances of not taking notice of the signs have also been found to suffer on account of the which gave enough indication of a prelude to the strategic importance of such regions and usually disaster. According to the Indian Meteorological because the national / international aid agencies find Department estimates, the state of Jammu and it difficult to render assistance. Be it the immediate Kashmir usually records around 100mm rainfall in medical help, assistance in relief and rescue operations the month of September and the rainfall recorded in or the long-term rehabilitation and reconstruction the first four days of September 2014 stood at 400mm. measures, the aid from international bodies / And yet proper warning / sound of alert was nowhere organisations is either not accepted or not allowed in to be heard. The valley of Kashmir has witnessed time due to internal security and foreign diplomatic major floods in the past as well; it is not as if, no reasons The lack of coordination between local floods had happened in the Kashmir valley. At the administration, civil society and the international same time, even if one goes by the expert reports on agencies also leads to either waste of resources or climatic changes, especially the IPCC Assessment no aid reaching the victims in situations of disaster Report (2011) floods and droughts are likely to more so in conflict situations- when it is needed the increase in India’s. Any such analysis points to the most. Under such circumstances, the people affected

Floods in Kashmir Valley: A note on the Disaster and Conflict Interface 89 by sudden disasters and ongoing conflict/ war like diagnostic labels. The anthropological perspective of situation are left to manage at their own. Therefore, looking at the cultural constructions, meanings and the question of resilience and coping mechanism manifestations in such a social suffering is largely adopted by such people to survive and sustain their missing. living cannot be suitably answered without analysing the local resource availability and the social support In a study conducted by first author in the mechanisms. The survivors of floods in Kashmir valley aftermath of flash floods in Ladakh, Jammu and showed tremendous power of resilience and in-depth Kashmir, around 90 percent of the participants studies are required to understand how people reported subclinical to mild symptoms which are in conducted rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures contrast to higher levels, found elsewhere, especially in very hostile and challenging circumstances- with in individualistic societies. Collective sharing of grief very little support of men and material from outside and religious healing emerges as important coping in the immediate aftermath of floods. mechanism. Monks i.e. Lama’s played a crucial role during the initial days in helping survivors come Mental Health and Disasters to terms with the loss and return to their places. In the context of J&K, it is important to note that The individualistic society models of trauma suffering even though the mental illness is stigmatized. need to be carefully applied in collectivist However, during the recent period of conflict and societies.The affect of disaster goes beyond the violence, the attendance of persons visiting lone individual to the family and the community level. So, mental hospital in Kashmir region of J&K has gone social processes and the cultural contexts in which up from may be less than 2000 in early 1990’s to such process and institutions function in the post more than 100000 in late 2000’s. This is what the disaster situation need to be taken into account even state health services statistics say. However, in a for individual targeted trauma healing interventions. study conducted by the first author it was found that people visiting local religious shrines too seemed to The discipline of clinical psychology and be on rise. One may deduce that the factor of religious psychiatry owing to their dominant western medical healing and effects of modern medicine demand a illness perspective tend to practice an individualistic thorough investigation in this context. No doubt, the orientation in diagnosis and treatment of mental illness onset of suicide phenomena and parallel drug addiction (De, Jong, 2004). As a result of which, we find that is a new addition in this field of investigation in the the disturbing symptoms of victims of disasters are, context of J&K in clinical terminology labelled as, Conditions like Acute Stress Reaction (ASR, the old disaster Mental health issues of J&K due to violence syndrome), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), offer anthropologists and behavioural scientists a very somatoform disorders, depression, anxiety, alcohol and good opportunity to study the interplay of modern drug abuse [Green, Freedman, and DeJong, 2003; medicine and folk / religious healing. The population Green 1994], and Herman (1992) reports the of J&K especially, Kashmir valley based have prevalence of complex PTSD among survivors of traditionally and historically been, by and large regular disasters. As the treatment model is based on the visitors of shrines, and Sufi saints for seeking peace individualistic orientation, the treatments are usually of mind relief from sufferings in everyday life. So I Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) and think the medicalization of social suffering needs to psychotherapy for PTSD to help individuals affected be investigated in this context and critically analyzed by traumatic events. However, such diagnostic and whether modern medicine alone can be effective in treatment models do not take into account the aspects this healing process, or the indigenous cultural merits of sufferings of collectivist societies. In collectivist recognition. There have been few studies by societies, the individual’s location within the family Medicines Sans frontiers (MSF) and the department and the community is very important and the family of Psychiatry Govt. Medical College Srinagar, J&K, and community are part of the self, their identity and which have primarily focused on reporting rates of consciousness. Daya Somasundaram (2007) reports psychological / psychiatric suffering under various on the basis of research work conducted in the Sri

90 World Focus May 2016 Lanka that in collectivist societies, the demarcation 3.Breslau N (2001). Outcomes of posttraumatic stress between the individual self and the outside becomes disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (62):55-59. blurred. 4.Byrne C A, Riggs D S (1996): The cycle of trauma; relationship aggression in male Vietnam veterans with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Violence Vict There is a less recognition or understanding (11) :213-225. of the effects disasters have at Collective, Family, 5.De Jong JTVM, Komproe IH, Spinazzola J, van der Kolk Community level. It may be more appropriate to talk B, van Ommeren M: DESNOS in four post conflict settings: in terms of impacts on family rather than on individual cross-cultural construct equivalence. J Trauma Stress 2005, personalities. This assumes significance in view of 18:13-23 the rising incidence of phenomena of collective trauma 6.de Jong JTVM, Komproe IH, Van Ommeren M, El Masri M, Araya M, Khaled N, van de Put W, Somasundaram D. suffering. By collective trauma suffering, is meant . (2001): Lifetime events and posttraumatic stress disorder the disaster situations and conflict situations that in 4 postconflict settings. JAMA( 286):555-562.\ expose large population groups to hazards and result 7.De Jong JTVM (2004): Public Mental Health and Culture: in loss of life and property at large scale in one go or Disasters as a Challenge to Western Mental Health Care in a sustained manner over a longer period of time- Models, the Self, and PTSD. In Broken Spirits: The especially in the protracted conflict situations. The Treatment of Asylum Seekers and Refugees with PTSD Western Psychiatric models commonly report Edited by: John P Wilson, Boris Drozdek. Brunner/ Routledge Press, New York;pp:159-179. prevalence of mental disorders like posttraumatic 8.Daya Somasundaram (2007).Collective Trauma in stress disorder in populations affected by war and Northern Sri Lanka: A Qualitative Psychosocial- ecological conflict. At least every sixth person and sometimes Study. International Journal of Mental Health Systems.1:5 even every other person, among adults have been 9.Drury, A. C. And Olson, R (1997). Un-therapeutic found to be affected by PTSD (De Jong et al, 2001; Communities: A Cross National Analysis of post Disaster Pham, Weinstein and Longman 2004 and Scholte et Political Unrest. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disaster, 15(2):221-238. al, 2004). Children also suffer from PTSD (Thabet 10.Drury, A. C. And Olson, R (1998). Disaster and Political and Vostanis, 2004). However, what needs to be Unrest: An Empirical Investigation. International Journal further explored is the psychological impact of such of Contingencies and Disaster, 15(2):221-238. situations on the resilience and coping mechanism of 11.Green BL, Friedman MJ, de Jong JTVM, (eds): Trauma family and community functioning? The increasing interventions in war and peace: prevention, practice and mental illness prevalence rate also leads to an increase policy New York: Kluwer/Plenum Press; 2003. in disease burden and health costs for populations 12.Green B.L. (1994). Psychosocial Research in Traumatic Stress: An Update. J Trauma Stress, (7):341-362. already devastated and economically weakened by 13.Herman J. L. (1992). Trauma and Recovery London: the disasters. Summerfield (2004) advocates against Pandora;. import of western concepts and techniques to war 14. Kellet, J. And Sparks, D. (2012). Disaster Risk affected societies on the grounds that every culture Reduction: Spending Where it Should Count. Global has its own perspective on mental health and norms Humanitarian Assistance. Summerset, UK for seeking help in times of crises. So the universal 15 Pham PN, Weinstein HM, Longman T (2004). Trauma criteria of diagnosis and using the standardised and PTSD symptoms in Rwanda: implications for attitudes toward justice and reconciliation. JAMA, (292):602-612. treatment models may not be the best way of taking 16.Schnurr PP, Green B L (2003). Trauma and Health: care of the mental health needs. Therefore, the Physical Health Consequences of Exposure to Extreme resilience mechanism of a community needs to be Stress. American Psychological Association (APA);. explored and accordingly interventions made to deal 17.Scholte WF, Olff M, Ventevogel P, de Vries GJ, Jansveld with mental health impacts. E, Cardozo BL, Crawford CA (2004). Mental health symptoms following war and repression in eastern . JAMA, (292):585-593. References 18.Summerfield D (2004). Cross cultural perspectives on 1. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and the medicalisation of human suffering. In Posttraumatic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd Ed., DSM- stress disorder. Issues and controversies Edited by: Rosen 111),(4 Ed., DSM IV), Washington: Author; 1980 1994. G. New York: John Wiley. 2. Beck, Ulrich (1992). Risk Society: Towards a New 19.Thabet AA, Abed Y, Vostanis P (2004). Comorbidity of Modernity Translated by Mark Ritter. London: Sage PTSD and depression among refugee children during war Publications. conflict. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 45:533-542.

Floods in Kashmir Valley: A note on the Disaster and Conflict Interface 91 Vulnerability of Women in Disaster: A Glance at Kosi Floods Dr. Minakshi and Prof. P. C. Joshi

Introduction recent past like droughts, floods, cyclones, The status of women in modern India is a sort of earthquakes, landslides, etc and as a result millions paradox. If on the one hand, she had achieved great of people each year have been affected with varied strides in many areas with notable progress in impact. Indian subcontinent, with its geographical reducing gender gaps, on the other hand, she is silently diversity, invokes varied climatic responses, which suffering the violence afflicted on her by her own sometimes results in natural calamities in the form of family members. The mere fact that “Women hold flood, cyclone, tsunami, earthquake and so on. up half the sky” does not mean that they enjoy position Different areas are particularly vulnerable to special of dignity and equality (Swayam, 2005:2). The kind of disaster depending upon various inherent inequalities persists in all spheres of her life, geomorphologic factors like soil type, climatic i.e. access to education, health care, physical and condition, etc. Socially, disaster affects a large number financial resources or the opportunities in the political, of people and the entire community experiences its economic, social and cultural spheres. Even today, impact in varying degrees. It is important at this point women are struggling to make their position felt in of time to recognize that due to multiple factors, the country like ours, which claims it to be one of the certain groups of people become more vulnerable in largest democracies of the world and whose edifice disaster situation. This includes women, children, aged has been built on the principle of peace and non- and disabled, who need special attention and care in violence. the aftermath of disaster.

Not only in normal circumstances, but in Gender and Disaster Research adverse situation like disaster; women’s vulnerability Despite of the recognition that disaster is a social and underlying societal inequalities have been phenomenon and it is rooted in the structure of society, highlighted since last two decades (see Weist et al. one of the basic components of social structure i.e. 1994; Fordham, 1999; Enarson, 2000; and Fisher, Gender, remains underdeveloped in disaster literature. 2005). The issue of vulnerability is one of the widely Often a gender-neutral position was adopted and discussed topics in disaster scholarship in recent years thereafter male oriented approach existed. Women’s and this underscores the earlier notion that natural & role, experience and suffering were a marginalized technological disaster have uniform impact on all issue (Fordham, 1998:126). Gender awareness and section of society, and that it is the great ‘leveler’. A sensitivity in disaster research and management closer examination of disaster literature reveals that remain uncommon; tend to focus on the developing any disaster event has multiple and differential impact rather than developed world (Fordham, 1998). The on the affected population. The hardest hit shift to gendered perspective was late in coming and communities are poor people, racial and ethnic in the last decade gender perspective gained minorities, single parents, old, disabled and women momentum in disaster theory. The gender and disaster (Enarson, 1998). Women’s disaster vulnerability has literature, which has been steadily growing over the recently been recognized in the way as Enarson past decade, has highlighted the way in which a commented that pets, tourists, and cultural artifacts significant proportion of disaster planning, receive more attention than battered women in the management and research overlooks gender, despite disaster literature (Enarson, 1998). recognition within social sciences generally that there exists a gendered dimension to the responses to any Disaster in India is not a new phenomenon. social event.(Cupples, 2007) Consequently, there is It has witnessed devastating natural catastrophe in an acknowledged need to mainstream gender within World Focus May 2016 92 disaster planning, management and research, as well than being helpless victims possess valuable strengths as to take advantage of the windows of opportunity and capacities that should be utilized during disaster that are opened up (see, for example, Peacock, management. Overall it is argued that gender must Morrow and Gladwin, 1997; Enarson and Morrow, be a consideration of every aspect and stage of 1997; 1998; Enarson, 1998; Fordham, 1998).Despite disaster management and women must be equal the fact that natural disaster impact women differently participants in all policy, planning, implementation and and disproportionately than men, earlier research on decision making (Byrne and Baden, 1995). disaster were male oriented if not male dominated. Increased globalization and change in social scenario This has received some recognition in the inspired to focus on the gender issue (Fothergill, international realm. Despite the recognition, gender 1996). In the last several years however a lively perspective in disaster management have not become discussion on the importance of gender in disaster mainstream and frequently cited reason is that in the research has emerged and set the stage for an exciting “tyranny of the urgent”, gender consideration and research agenda that has put women at the center of overall good practice can be neglected (Bradshaw, the inquiry (Fothergill, 1996). In last decade authors 2004). The greatest challenge then is to overcome such as Wiest, Mocellin and Motsisi(1994) have this, and to use disaster management to actually advocated a gendered analysis of disaster benefit long-term goals of gender equality rather than management and response. The differential have them undermined by short-term goals during experience of disaster for men and women with emergency relief (OXFAM GB, 2004). women particularly vulnerable to the impacts was highly recognized during those periods. Commonly Vulnerability approach for studying gender and cited reasons are the economic marginalization of disaster women and their unequal access to resources, According to Enarson etal., (2006) there is no single women’s responsibility for domestic duties which theoretical orientation for disaster research on gender. increase and are more difficult in times of disaster, In discussing the dominant theoretical framework and women’s role as the primary care providers for which guided gender disaster research, researcher children, the elderly and sick (Fischer, 2005). Women began with the Social vulnerability approach, which also have specific reproductive health needs and are was used earlier by most of the researcher (see, more vulnerable to gender based violence (WHO, Hewitt, 1997; Balakie, Cannon, Davis and Wisner, 2002). 2004). Social vulnerability approach assumes that disasters are fundamentally human constructs that After recognizing that natural disaster has reflect the global distribution of power and human differential impact across gender researches started uses of natural and man-made environment. Disaster focusing on the issue of women’s vulnerability. It was risk is socially distributed in ways that reflects the found through various researches that women’s social division that already exist in society. It also overall vulnerability is rooted in their subordinate inspires many researchers to investigate specific status in both the family and society at large. structural sources to vulnerability related to sex and Economic, social & political reasons make different gender, from reproductive health and gender violence groups of people vulnerable in different ways. Those to land rights and poverty (Enarson and Morrow, particularly vulnerable include low-income women &, 1998). widows, pregnant woman & those belonging to marginalized social and cultural groups (Enarson, Women and Vulnerability to Health in Disaster 2000). Disasters are traumatic events that are experienced by many people and may result in a wide range of While women and children’s vulnerability had mental and physical health consequences (Norris, been acknowledged there has been little engagement Friedman, Watson, et al., 2002). The resulting impacts with the underlying social causes, and the associated from disasters are frequently more severe on women inequalities in terms of power and resources. Also and girls than those of their male counterparts and argued was the need to appreciate how women rather women’s physical, reproductive and mental health

Vulnerability of Women in Disaster: A Glance at Kosi Floods 93 needs, along with other facets of women’s lives, have may suffer different negative health consequences largely been ignored in the whole process (Laska et after the disaster. Women and men have specific al., 2008). According to WHO, there is pattern of vulnerabilities to risk and disaster (OXFAM, 2011). gender differentiation at all level of disaster process: According to Blaikie et al.,(1994)vulnerability is a key exposure to risk, risk perception, preparedness, concept in predicting and understanding the existence response, physical impact, psychological impact, of differentiated impacts on the various groups in a recovery and reconstruction and there is evidence society. So, in researching women in disaster situation, showing that women and men may suffer different there is a series of technical and social vulnerability negative health consequences after the disaster which somehow affect women’s overall response and (WHO, 2002). However, it is not clear whether this recovery in the aftermath of disaster. Let’s have a is due to biological differences between the sexes, glimpse of kosi flood in Bihar. because of socially determined differences in women’s and men’s roles and status or because of State’s Vulnerability the interaction of social and biological factors (WHO, The National Human Development Report (2007) of 2002). Following the disaster the adverse reproductive the Planning Commission shows that Biharcomes at health outcomes have also been reported, including the bottom of the Human Development Index (HDI) early pregnancy loss, premature delivery, still births, among the 15 states which werestudied. Bihar’s HDI delivery related complications and infertility, like in (0.476) is too low compared to the first ranking Kerela Israel a study reported an increase in delivery rates (0.827). Bihar is waybelow the average national HDI during the 48 hours following an earthquake and a (0.612). significant increase in premature delivery rate (WHO, 2002). Further, social taboos around menstruation and The 2008 Kosi river floods impacted already norms about appropriate behaviour for women and vulnerable communities with low human and girls are reported to contribute to health problems in economic development indicators and relatively low young women in disaster situations (WHO, 2002). coping capacities. Bihar is the third most populous state in India with nearly 8.5 percent of the country’s Differences between women and men in the population. Although there have been many positive nature of psychological impact of disaster have also developments in the areas of economic growth, been reported.(Norris et al, 2002, Norris et al 2004, female literacy, infant mortality, and others, the state Carr VJ et al ,1997) Several studies have found remains one of the poorest in India with 42 percent greater proportion of women and girls report suffering living below the official poverty line and a rural poverty from emotional disorders and distress, as compared ratio of 45 percent in 2004, the second highest after to men and boys (WHO, 2002). Female sex, lower Orissa.The average annual per capita income of Bihar social support and being older were associated with is a third of the national average. The state is also higher post disaster psychological distress after 1989 highly rural with 89 percent of the population living in Australian earthquake (WHO, 2002). A survey of rural areas (GoB, WB and GFDRR, 2010.) children affected by the 1995 Great Hanshin Awaji earthquake showed that girls were more heavily The five districts i.e. Supaul, Madhepura, affected by trauma and that being female was a higher Araria, Purnea and Saharsa, affected by the flood risk factor for distress. Women’s dramatically were among the least developed even before the 2008 expanded care-giving roles following a disaster, and flood. Available district-level indicators show that they putting family needs before their own, may explain lagged behind the state as a whole: literacy rates in overall decline in emotional well-being (WHO, 2002). 2001 were lower than the state average of 47.5 percent. Female literacy rates were even lower, less Kosi Flood: What Made Women More than 20.5 percent on average (GoB, WB and GFDRR, Vulnerable? 2010). The state of infrastructure was poor in these Closer examination of disaster literature has revealed districts. Rural connectivity levels were extremely that there is pattern of gender differentiation at all low, with less than half of the villages in each district level of disaster process and that, women and men having access to a paved road (Census 2001).

World Focus May 2016 94 Vulnerability to flooding find nothing wrong with what is a punishable offence In an estimate it was found that 16.5% of the total under the Indian Penal Code and the Protection of flood area of the country is from Bihar and 56.5% of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2004. These the total flood affected people in the country is from are the findings of the latest National Family Health Bihar. Out of this 76% belong to N. Bihar (N. Bihar Survey-III, covering the period 2005-2006 for the District Models Childlines, 2008).The population in entire country and 2006-2007 for Bihar. According Bihar is perennially affected by floods with Bihar to the survey, 59% of women in Bihar have been being the most flood-prone in the country. About 30 beaten by their husbands and 32% of women find of its 38 districts (73 percent of its geographical area) such abuse justified if a woman argues with her is flood prone and afflicted by floods almost annually, spouse, shows disrespect to her in-laws or is especially from the rivers west of the Kosi. Bihar’s suspected of having an extra-marital relationship. hydrological vulnerability is aggravated by its flat More than half the surveyed adults in the age group topography, high rainfall (more than 2,500 mm of 15-49 (57%) believe it is justified for a husband to annually and up to 80 percent of annual precipitation beat his wife under specific circumstances. The survey from June to September) and high sediment loads of found that in Bihar, the perpetration of physical, sexual rivers. In particular, the Kosi River is well-known in and emotional violence against women cut across India for rapid and frequent changes of its course demographic categories. If 66% of males in the lowest and the extensive flood damages it causes almost wealth index scales had perpetrated violence on their every year. As its waters carry a heavy silt load and wives, those in the highest wealth index were not far the river has a steep gradient, the river has a tendency behind at 56%. Wife beating in middle class homes to move sideways. In about 200 years, the river has stood at 55%. The survey found nuclear families were moved laterally by about 150 km (GoB, WB and likely to record more widespread violence, with 63% GFDRR, 2010). women saying they were victims of domestic violence (NFHS-III, 2005). Women and Gender Issue Bihar has around 49.6 million women and 54.2 million So, the pre-existing technical (concerned with men. While the sex ratio of the state declined from infrastructure and the ability to resist the impact of 919 (Census of India, 2001) to 916 (Census of India, the disaster) and social vulnerability (concerned with 2011), child sex ratios in the same period declined literacy, poverty, health dimension) in the area steeply from 942 to 933. The age of marriage is compounded by the vulnerability to flooding has its increasing and the fertility rate is declining – both of huge impact in creating vulnerability among particular which are positive developments. However, high level section of society, gender being one of them. of illiteracy coupled with a high maternal mortality rate – both indicators of low human development of References women – is a cause of alarming concern. In Bihar, Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., Davis, I. and B. Wisner. 1994. strong footholds of caste and patriarchy are everyday At Risk: Natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and realities in women’s lives. These two institutions disasters. London & NewYork: define and govern a woman’s status, her work, and Routledge. agency. Yet, there are slow and steady changes in Bradshaw, S. 2004. Socio-Economic impacts of natural the policy. Women’s reservation in the Panchayat is disasters: a gender analysis. Manual prepared for the a crucial landmark in this regard. Its ramifications ECLAC and the Women and Development Unit. are going to be far reaching in the decades to come Santiago. Chile. U.S. (Sharma et al., 2012). Byrne, B. and S. Baden. 1995. Gender Emergencies and Humanitarian Agencies Assistance. Bridge Vulnerability to violence Report.No. 33. Brussels. Belgium. According to NFHS-III, Bihar has the dubious Carr, V. J., Lewin, T. J., Webster, R.A. and J. A. distinction of being the state with the highest number Kenardy. 1997. A synthesis of the findings from the of women having been beaten by their husbands. Quake Impact Study: a two-year investigation of the Making the situation worse, many women in the state psychosocial sequelae of the 1989 Newcastle

Vulnerability of Women in Disaster: A Glance at Kosi Floods 95 earthquake. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. Vol. Considerations. In. Katrina and the Women of New 32. pp.123-136. Orleans.pp.11-22. CHILDLINE India Foundation. 2008. A Plan for Post National Family Health Survey (NFHS-III), 2005. Monsoon Floods Relief for Children.North Bihar International Institute for Population Sciences.Vol-II. District Model. Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, Cupples, J. 2007. Gender and Hurricane Mitch: C. M., Diaz, E. and K. Kaniasty. 2002. 60,000 disaster reconstructing subjectivities after disaster. victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the Disasters.Vol. 31(2). pp.155—175. empirical literature.1981-2001. Psychiatry.Vol.65. pp. Enarson, E. and B. H. Morrow. 1997. A gendered 207-239. perspective: The voices of women. In. Peacock, W. Norris, F. H., Murphy, A. D., Baker, C. K. and J. L. G., Morrow, B. H., & H. Gladwin. (1997) (eds.). Perilla. 2004. Post-disaster PTSD over four waves of Hurricane Andrew: Race, Gender and the Sociology a panel study of Mexico’s 1999 flood. J Trauma Stress. ofDisaster. London: Routledge. pp.116-140.Enarson, Vol. 17. pp. 283-292. E. 1998.Surviving domestic violence and disasters. OXFAM, G. B. 2004. We Can Campaign. Oxfam Vancouver. BC: The FREDA Centre for Research on International Violence Free Lives for Women Update. Violence against Women and Children. Oxfam. U.K. Enarson, E. and B. H. Morrow. 1998. The gendered OXFAM. 2011. Gender and Disaster Risk Reduction terrain of disaster: Through women’s eyes. Florida: Training Pack. Maria CaterinaCiampi, Fiona Gell, Lou International Hurricane Center. Lasap, and Turvill, Edward. Oxford: Oxfam GB. Enarson, E. 2000. Gender Issues in Natural Disasters: Available at: http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/ Talking Points and Research Needs. Paper prepared publications/gender-and-disaster-risk-reductiona- for the International Labour Organization. Geneva. training-pack-136105/ Switzerland. Peacock, W.G., B.H. Morrow and H. Gladwin. 1997. Fisher, S. 2005. Gender-based violence in Sri Lanka Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and the Sociology in the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami crisis: The role of Disasters. Routledge: London. of international organisations and international NGOs Sharma, A. N., Datta, A. and J. Ghosh. 2012. in prevention and response to gender-based violence. Development Research on Bihar: A Compendium. Master of Arts in International Studies.University Institute for Human Development. ofLeeds. Swayam, 2005.The Status of Women: A reality check- Fordham, M. 1998. Making women visible in disasters: Facts on inequality and crimes against women. Problematising the private domain. Disasters.Vol.22(2). Accessed fromSwayam Home: http:// pp. 126-143. www.swayam.info/swayam_gi_leaflet_31mar.pdf. Fordham, M. 1999. The intersection of gender and WHO, 2002.Violence and disasters.World Report on social class in disaster: Balancing resilience and violence and health.World Health Organization. Geneva. vulnerability. International Journal ofMass Emergencies Switzerland. and Disasters.Vol.17(1). pp. 15-36. WHO, 2002.World report on violence and health. Freedy, J. R. and W. M. Simpson. 2007. Disaster- Available at: www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/ Related Physical and Mental Health: A Role for the violence/world_report/en/ Family Physician. Am Fam Physician. Vol. 75(6). pp. WHO, 2002. Gender and Health in Disasters.WHO 841-846. Report. Geneva. Switzerland. GoB, WB.GFDRR.2010 & Bihar Kosi Flood. 2008. Press Trust of India, 2011. India ranks second in world Needs Assessment Report.Prepared by: Government for natural disaster: UN. January 24. of Bihar.World Bank.Global Facility for Disaster WHO, 2002.Gender and Health in Natural Reduction & Recovery. Disasters.World Health Organization.Geneva. Hewitt, K. 1997. Regions of Risk: A Geographical Switzerland. Introduction to Disasters. Essex. England: Addison Wiest, R., Mocellin, J. and T. Motsisi. 1994. The needs Wesley Longman Limited. of women in disasters and emergencies. Technical report Laska, S., Morrow, B.H., Willinger, B. and N. Mock. for the United Nations 2008. Gender and Disasters: Theoretical DisasterManagement Training Programme. Manitoba: University ofManitoba.

World Focus May 2016 96 Leh (Ladakh) Flash Floods of 2010: A Case Study Sonam Joldan and Urfat Anjem Mir

Introduction Tibet, Persia, Yarkand and China. Though the majority Ladakh is the northernmost part of Jammu and of the Ladakhi lived by subsistence agriculture, yet Kashmir State, linked with the Kashmir valley by the trade played a vital role in the development of its Zojila pass (3529 meters) and forms a part of the economy and culture. And by 1940s the old caravan trans-Himalayas. It is one of the most elevated regions trade came to an end. In 1834, Ladakh annexed by of the earth, the altitudes ranging from 3000 meters the Dogras, the Hindu rulers of Jammu, and continued to 7000 meters. It lies roughly between 32 to 36 North under their jurisdiction until 1947. After India’s latitudes and 76 to 79 East longitudes. independence, Ladakh became part of the northern Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir. Its geographical The chief mountain ranges in Ladakh are the position made it strategically important in India’s Karakoram, and Ladakh ranges. The highest relationship with both Pakistan and China and It mountain in Ladakh is the Karakoram, situated on remained restricted area until 1974. the north-east of the Shayok and Nubra valleys.1 The Ladakh range has no major peak; its average height The total population of the leh district as per is a little less than 6,000 meters, and a few of its census 2011 is 133487 persons. It consists of 78971 passes are less than 5,000 meters. The Indus valley males and 54516 females. It has a geographical area is bounded to the south by the Zanskar range. of 451110.0 sq. kms. The central government has Ladakh has been referred by many names, the most declared eight communities of Kargil and Leh common being Ladakh, or in Ladakhi La-dvags, the (Ladakh) as Scheduled Tribe. These tribes are 1)Balti land of many passes. Formerly, it was also called 2)Beda 3)Bor or Bota 4) , Drokpa ,Dard ,Shin “dMar-yul” Red-land.2 Ladakh consists of various 5) 6)Garra 7)Mon and . regions known as Zanskar, Suru valley, Kargil, Rupshu, Nubra valley and Central Ladakh situated Loss due to Flash Floods along the different rivers. For example, the region The Leh District in Ladakh Region received heavy composed of upper, central and lower Ladakh, situated rainfall in intervening night of 4th & 5th August 2010 along the Indus River, the Nubra valley is situated and on the midnight of 6th August 2010, sudden along the Shyayok River, the Zansker region lying cloudburst triggered very devastating flash floods in along the two main tributaries of the Zanskar River Leh town. As per the Leh Hill Development Council and the Suru Valley and Kargil situated along the Suru official count more than 200 persons lost their lives, River. Administratively Ladakh is now divided into more than 400 persons suffered injuries, 1401 hectares two main districts; Leh and Kargil. of cropped agriculture land was damaged, around 638 kucha houses were fully damaged, besides, the Area and the People number of partially damaged houses (both kucha and The present day population of Ladakh is a mixed race, pucca) were around 597. Gupta, Khurana and the chief of which are the Tibetan (Mongoloid) and Majumdar4 (2012) put the figure of dead at 234 and the Dardic (Indo-Iranian).3 According to the 2001 injured 800 and the number of houses collapsed over census the population of Ladakh was 2, 32, 864, 1000. Around 52 villages were affected in the Leh divided almost equally between Buddhist and district and similarly, 29 villages were affected in the . There is also small percentage of , by this devastating disaster. Besides, Christians and Sikhs. For centuries, Leh, due to its the flash floods caused serious damage to roads that strategic location had developed into an active and connect Leh district town with different regions of important centre for commercial intercourse with Ladakh, as well as the roads that connect with

Leh (Ladakh) Flash Floods of 2010: A Case Study 97 Kashmir and Manali in Himachal Pradesh. Many deceased of those killed, and relief of Rs. 0.50 lakh bridges were washed away. The only government each to the seriously injured persons. Similarly, the hospital (SNM) Leh was also flooded and the patients Chief Minister of the State had also announced Rs. 1 had to be shifted to lone military hospital. The lakh each an ex-gratia to the next of kin of the telecommunication facility too was severely damaged deceased of those killed, and relief o the injured from resulting in the main telephone exchange becoming the Chief Minister Relief Fund. In addition, Rs. 1 Lakh defunct. The Airport was flooded and the runway was also paid out of CRF to the families of the was rendered non-functional. In brief, the town of deceased, injured too were given relief as per scale Leh was cut off from the rest of the country quite for laid down in CRF guidelines. Lastly, the Prime few hours till the army could swing into action and Minister had announced a package of Rs. 125 Crores open its facilities for use by the local population in for rehabilitation and reconstructions works. distress and also make the airport functional for the Accordingly, Rs. 2 Lakh each to the fully damaged relief material to arrive. houses and Rs. 1 Lakh to the partially damaged houses. These payments of ex-gratia and relief Rescue and Relief Operations amounts were required to be directly transferred into Since the cloud burst had happened in the darkness the beneficiary’s bank account. of night when most victims were asleep, the rescue operations were hampered by the darkness because Relocation and Rebuilding houses the electricity supply was affected, roads suffered Choklamsar village is about seven kilometers away damage, hospital building got inundated and it was from Leh main city and it was the one of worst near collapse of the civilian government machinery affected village in Ladakh Flash floods. Most of the in the first few hours. The ladakh region being casualties were from this village and the affected strategically very important has a large presence of people of the region in general and those living in the defence forces especially, Army and by early morning, Choklamsar Village were taken to Solar Colony in the Army had swung into action to carry out rescue Leh (which was close to their village) and where and relief operations. Other than the rescuing people temporary tents had been erected to provide shelter from debris, providing essential medical services to the survivors. The authors visited Leh in the month which were rendered from the Army Hospital, clothes, of October, almost two months after the flash floods food items and safe drinking water arrangements had occurred, chilly winter was fast approaching, were also made available by the army and other when the temperature falls to minus 30 degree in this paramilitary forces present in the area for the part of the world, the respondents were found busy immediate succor of victims. In the following days, in rebuilding their houses. Hindustan Prefab Ltd. too the State government took charge of the rescue, relief had generously donated single hutment to each family and rehabilitation measures with active support of and these prefab structures were fast coming up. civil society and many non- profitable organizations. There were visible signs of state and central Since the communication link too had been badly government’s economic package percolate down to affected, the army communication systems along with real beneficiaries, as we saw a combination of local the private mobile network (airtel) limited connectivity Kucha houses and prefab structures coming up. The were made available to the victims and for Leh district administration had allotted land to those coordinating rescue and relief operations. In affected families, who had agreed to relocate from coordination with different government departments, devastated area, and as many as 157 affected families Army, Paramilitary forces, likes Indo Tibetan Border had taken possession of their piece of free land allotted Police (ITBP), the District Administration, Non- as per their previous land holding. governmental organizations (NGOs) and volunteers the rescue and rehabilitation operations in all the Rs. One lac and twelve thousand cash affected villages was carried out. compensation towards rebuilding their houses had also been transferred into the bank accounts of individual The Prime Minister of India had announced disaster affected families. The cost of construction Rs. 1 lakh each an ex-gratia to the next of kin of the material, especially the local bricks (pagbu) which

98 World Focus May 2016 would cost Rs. 4/pagbu, was Rs 9/ pagbu, labour staff was allowed to work in the army hospital as the charges too had seen a steep rise from Rs. 200 to civilian hospital had suffered extensive damage to 400-450 per day. The affected families had no choice the building and the medical equipments. This once but to get the houses rebuilt at the earliest, irrespective again showed that any disaster situation in India, be it of cost escalation. There was little time for the earthquake, floods in plains, Train accidents, tsunami families to mourn the loss rather the fear of harsh etc cannot be handled without the assistance of armed and chilly winter knocking at their doors had everyone forces. The lack of adequate disaster preparedness on toes. And It was widely observed that all the and any effective contingency plan in the civil surviving members of the affected families (be it male/ administration results in loss of life and property that female, younger or elder) were found engaged in could have been minimized or at best averted. construction work without any break from dawn to However, the assistance provided by civilian dusk. Surprisingly, even though they still continued to government, civil society/ non-governmental live in tents provided by various relief agencies, they organizations and by other public and private agencies were putting all efforts to erect permanent roof over did help the survivors in getting their shelters erected their head. before the onset of harsh winter.

Conclusion Acknowledgments: Ladakh, the high altitude desert, normally used to The financial support for carrying out the fieldwork receive lots of snow fall in winter and very less rains was provided by the Islamic University of Science in summer. Most of the villages in Ladakh depend on and Technology, Awantipora, J&K and the authors the snow and glaciers melted water for their are thankful to the University authorities for agricultures and drinking. But the victims shared that facilitating this study. Author 2 was a Faculty at the it slowly was changing and less snow fall in winter IUST when this study was undertaken. and more rains in summer were being experienced. This claim could not be substantiated by any of the verifiable records of data. The recent flash floods, which resulted in large-scale devastation and loss of life and property in the Ladakh region was reported as the worst floods that the local people have ever heaving experienced or heard from elders. Many people linked the recent flash floods to global climatic changes. Whatever the cause of the flash flood, which of course needs to be studied, this disaster situation also brought to fore the collective resilience shown by the victims in rebuilding their lives and getting back to life. Construction of house at Solar Colony, Choklamsar, Photo by authors It is impossible to predict or anticipate natural disaster like flash floods. However, this incident of flash floods once again brought to fore the failure of disaster management grid in the initial hours when the response time is very critical for saving the lives. However, even after the collapse of government infrastructure, communication facilities, damage to Footnotes lone government hospital, damage to roads, airport 1 Janet Rizvi, (1983), Ladakh: Crossroad of High Asia, (Delhi: Oxford University Press), p. 20. runway, the Indian Army could restore the emergency 2 A. Cunningham (1970), Ladakh, Physical, Statistical and Historical, (London: services within a gap of few hours and even helped W. H. Allen, 1854, Reprinted, New Delhi: Sagar Publication), pp. 18-19. 3Luciano Petech, (1977), The Kingdom of Ladakh, C. 950-1842 A.D (Roma: in rescue and relief operations. The Army hospital Istituto Italiano Per IL Medio Ed Estremo Orient), p. 6. was opened for civilian victims, even the local medical 4 Gupta, P, Khanna A, Majumdar, S. (2012). Disaster Management in Flash Floods in Leh (Ladakh): A Case Study. Indian J Community Med (37):185-90

Leh (Ladakh) Flash Floods of 2010: A Case Study 99 Locating Floods and Droughts in Uttar Pradesh within the Vulnerability Paradigm of Understanding Disasters Dr. Prashant Khattri

Introduction related disasters is concerned then India stands sec- Disasters are global phenomenon. Both northern and ond only after China. Floods account for maximum southern hemispheres of the planet are affected by economic loss after storm globally. Loss of livelihood disasters which are either human-made or natural. is included in this economic loss as loss of assets in Global data on disaster occurrence and its impact, the form of land and livestock is linked directly to collected by the Center for Research in Epidemiol- livelihoods. ogy of Disasters (CRED), Brussels, Belgium nar- rate a story of loss of human life and property, glo- The average number of disasters per year bally. The CRED and the United Nations Office for has increased almost twice when we compare the Disaster Risk Reduction (United Nations International time period of 1985-1994 with that of 2005-2014. Strategy for Disaster Reduction) recently published Flood and drought were two such weather related a report on the ‘Human Cost of Weather Related disasters that affected 3.4 billion people globally be- Disasters (HCWRD)’1 in which global disaster trends tween 1995 and 2015. This comprised 82 percent of along-with their impacts have been presented for two the total population that was affected by weather re- decades from 1995-2015. On the basis of the global lated disasters between the said period. data on weather related disasters, the report outlined that weather related disasters like flood and storms Two issues clearly emerge out of the above are increasing globally. Out of all weather related discussion and statistics: i) that there is a global in- disasters, flooding alone accounted for around 47 crease in the number of disasters over a period of percent between 1995 and 2015. As far as its impact time and we are living in a scenario that has increased is concerned, it affected nearly 2.3 billion people. our vulnerabilities to natural disasters and ii) that there Most strikingly, out of these, around 95 percent were is a differential impact of such weather related di- Asians. There is a recorded increase of 14 percent sasters as impacts are spatially differentiated- low- in weather related disasters between 2005 and 2014 income countries are more vulnerable to disasters as when compared with the time period between 1995 they face more mortality and resulting morbidity due and 2004. Between the assessment years 1995 and to disasters. 2015, India along with China suffered from maxi- mum number of hydro-climato-metrological disasters. Developmental Discourse and Vulnerability to When compared with geophysical disasters like earth- Disasters quake, weather related disasters like floods and There was a paradigm shift in the conceptualization storms outnumbered geophysical disasters for the of disasters during the 1970s. Before 1970, disasters same assessment period. The report also highlighted were viewed as physical occurrences requiring largely that out of all weather related disasters, floods had technological solutions. However after 70s disasters the maximum occurrence and were the most fre- were viewed as a result of human actions and in the quent type of natural disasters accounting for 47 per- words of Lewis (1999), ‘disasters occurred due to cent of the total natural disasters that occurred be- actualization of social vulnerability’. Scholars like Terry tween 1995 and 2015 followed by storms, earthquakes Cannon argued that hazards may be natural but di- and extreme temperatures. Death tolls due to floods sasters occur when hazards meet vulnerable popula- in India is also on a rise as figures suggest that in tions. Vulnerability can be spatial, social, economical, 2007 floods killed around 3,300 people in India and in cultural and temporal in dimension. Vulnerability can 2013 people dying due to floods were 6,500. As far largely be understood in the context of power rela- as the absolute number of people affected by weather tions that are operative in the society. Such power

100 World Focus May 2016 relations generate hierarchies that make some people The low-middle income countries recorded more vulnerable than others. Structural inequalities the highest percentage of deaths due to weather re- that exist in the social systems lead to vulnerability of lated disasters. This shows that populations in the different social groups. From the vulnerability para- low middle income countries are more vulnerable to digm, it is largely the human systems and not the natu- disaster impacts as compared to high or upper-middle ral systems that make people vulnerable to disasters. income countries. “By linking disasters to devel- Human systems define the ways in which human opment by way of poverty, vulnerability shares beings interact with themselves and their environ- many issues with parallel, and at times overlap- ment. Such interactions can be at the level of the ping, discourses in social security and sustain- individual, household, community or the society. The able livelihoods. All three are primarily engaged production of vulnerability and its realization in the with the means by which individuals and the com- disaster context is a complex process that may in- munities they constitute attempt to cope with risk, volve the categories of class, caste, gender, ethnicity uncertainty and insecurity in their lives (Hilhorst and governmental policies. The vulnerability paradigm and Bankoff, 2004; 2).” has also altered the ways in which interventions for disaster mitigation are planned. Since the 1980s, di- Vulnerability is also linked to development in saster mitigation is seen more as a function of reduc- a way that development agendas and policies of gov- ing vulnerabilities rather than technological interven- ernance make people vulnerable to disasters. Global tions in the form of predicting hazards and modifying data for the year 2001 suggests that almost 56 per- its impacts through technological solutions. Vulner- cent disasters occurred in countries with medium ability is also the product of people’s perception about human development rank. Such countries are under- their environment and their assessment of risk. This going development. Around 19 percent disasters oc- discourse suggests that vulnerability is also a subjec- curred in low human development countries and 25 tive realization of one’s socio-economic position in percent disasters occurred in high human develop- the society. This may lead to helplessness and a ment countries. This suggests that vulnerability that greater tendency to depend upon external agencies is considered as a function of social and cultural pro- for relief and rehabilitation in the event of disasters. cesses is linked to grand processes of development. Such increased expectations may not match the ac- “Disasters are not simply the product of one-off tual support that people get during disasters. The ‘felt natural phenomena…..but are equally the result vulnerabilities’ of people corresponds to their knowl- of environmentally unsustainable development edge and perception about the science, governance projects over time (Hilhorst and Bankoff, 2004; 3).” and indigenous knowledge about disasters. People’s Such unsustainable development can also be called knowledge and perception about the role of state in as ‘development aggression’. National and interna- the disaster situation may increase their ‘felt vulner- tional politics play an important role in manufacturing ability’ (Khattri and Joshi, 2012). vulnerable situations. Developmental policies are in- tertwined with more local hierarchies and inequali- The vulnerability paradigm also links disas- ties. Conversely, local vulnerabilities are a product of ters to the developmental theories. Disasters and as- larger national and international political and economic sociated risks and destructions within this context are considerations. seen as developmental issues. Disasters impact less in more developed countries as compared to less de- Vulnerability to Disasters and the Nature-Cul- veloped or under-developed countries. This thesis is ture Debate corroborated by the following figure that shows the The debate linking vulnerability to development is situ- number of weather related disasters and number of ated within the backdrop of a more fundamental dis- deaths caused globally due to weather related disas- course on the relationship between the nature and ters in countries falling into different income brack- the society. The human-nature interactional system ets for the period between 1995 and 2015. is a dynamic one and is based on the ideologies to- wards and the conception of the environment. An- thropological literature on tribes across the globe sug-

Locating Floods and Droughts in Uttar Pradesh within the Vulnerability Paradigm... 101 gests that the tribal cosmology towards its environ- nature and the modern western society of the ‘whites’ ment can be situated in the context of nature-human- as more civilized and ‘cultured’. “The nature/cul- spirit complex. This is a more integrated conception ture dichotomy thus becomes important in terms of nature where human and the spiritual/supernatu- of vulnerability in that those put into the nature ral world is seen as inseparable part of the nature. category are frequently the most vulnerable to This world-view is in opposition to the dominant west- disasters…..(Oliver-Smith, 2004; 13)”. This dichoto- ern world-view that is based on a dichotomous un- mous understanding objectified nature that can be derstanding of nature and culture. The tribal used a commodity for the welfare of the human be- worldview is essentially integrative in nature. It is ings. Human beings had every right to use this object based on the understanding of the existence of anima called ‘nature’ for their own good. This established a or soul in both animate and inanimate objects. Souls relationship of domination and subordination between have to be placated in case the nature is used for nature and culture. This idea was further extended human good. Malinowski (1922) talks about the ap- during the era of enlightenment when nature was peasement of the soul or spirit of the trees by the supposed to be under the control of the human be- Trobrinand Islanders before the tree wood can be ings. Human emancipation and self realization was used for making the boats. Such discourses on hu- supposed to be contingent upon the control and use man-nature interaction come under the pagan forms of nature (Harvey, 1996). Complementing this idea of animism. This was opposed to the dominant dis- of human-nature interaction was the belief that the course generated in the context of the Christian nature will benefit from the human activities. Nature Church. “The Christian church was elaborating was visualized as crude, raw and violent and human theological doctrine that set humans, like God, in control over it could tame its aggression. “From the transcendence over nature as early as the third disaster perspective, such a vision also implicitly century……Christian abolition of pagan animism juxtaposed the violence and disorder of nature altered human environment relations from mutu- with the order of human culture and civilization ality between sentient beings to more utilitarian (Oliver-Smith, 2004; 13)” Human reason was sup- perspective towards the natural world that even- posed to be emancipatory even for the nature and tually became dominant in the 17th and 18th cen- was supposed to bring order in the otherwise disor- turies (Redmond, 1999; 21 and Oliver-Smith, 2004; derly nature. This led to a relationship of domination 12 and 13).” of human beings on nature. In other words culture/ civilization dominated the environment and this kind The philosophical discourse of Hobbes, of domination was backed by an ideology that was Locke and Rousseau was concerned with locating essentially dichotomous in nature. Nature and cul- humans within the cultural domains (Horigan, 1988). ture were assumed to be two different systems in- Nature provided a reference point that was used to teracting in time and space. dichotomize the cultural and the natural. The con- struction of the human identity as cultural in opposi- The larger market-oriented political economy tion to natural was the aim of such a discourse. Locke is at the base of such dichotomous understanding of (1965) asserted that since God has given the Earth to nature and culture. The Christian church supported the humanity, it is the duty and right of the individual such an ideology in that it made people realize that who is a projection of the larger humanity to use na- God has created human beings and therefore every ture to meet its ends. The nature-culture dichotomy individual is free to realize its potentials to the fullest. is one that presupposes a superiority of culture over Further, nature is the biggest gift of God to human nature. Sherry Ortener (2006) has used this dichotomy beings and they should use it to its maximum for real- to understand the universal subjugation of women and izing their goals in life. Nature in this context is re- superiority of men. Women are considered to be closer duced to the status of an object that plays in the hands to nature as opposed to men who symbolize culture. of human beings. It is also worth mentioning here Within the category of human beings some are con- that the idea of subordination of nature to human be- sidered to be ‘in a state of nature’. Within the evolu- ings is not only reflected in the capitalist paradigm tionary paradigm, tribes are considered to be close to but is also the cornerstone of the socialist and Marx-

102 World Focus May 2016 ist ideology. While discussing the dialectics, Marx chotomy between human and the environment is in- emphasized that the earliest form of dialectical rela- herent in the western ecological paradigms. This tionship was between human and its environment. largely shapes the human actions towards its envi- “Although the dialectical relationship between ronment. With the realization of environmental deg- humans and nature was a central feature in Marx’s radation and the resulting hazards of uncontrolled thought, he was also deeply impressed with the human development, a counter narrative of sustain- powers of human rationality expressed in capi- able development emerged that talked about how we talism to mobilize the forces of production in or- can use the environment by not compromising the der to bring nature under control (Murphy 1994 resource base of the future generations. This has led and Oliver-Smith, 2004; 15).” Nature as an object to a situation where we have become more cautious and a destructive force is also implicit in the Marxian about the environmental impacts of human actions. analysis of social change. The theory of dialectical Safeguarding nature from the ill-effects of human materialism tries to explain that how change comes action on environment has become the key response in the society. It is based on the premise that conflict strategy. The solution to environmental degradation is the engine of progress. Every thesis has its own is thought to be in synchronizing the human actions anti-thesis. Contradictions and conflicts lead to vis-à-vis environment. However, scholars have ar- change in the society. Marx and Engles were of the gued that such a strategy, although cannot be ques- view that the earliest form of society was that of tioned owing to the spirit of environmental protection ‘primitive communism’. Such a society was state- envisioned in it, is fundamentally flawed in that it vi- less, without any religion, private property, and classes. sualizes the human-environment system as dichoto- This was a classless society. This kind of society did mous in nature. This is a dualistic view in which envi- not have what Marx called- man to man contradic- ronment is thought to be something which is ‘out there’ tion because all were equal. In the absence of any on which human beings need to act. “The result of man to man contradiction, a question arises that how such a conceptualization in the case of disasters, then such a society underwent change. If contradic- among other issues, may be policies and prac- tions lead to change then there must be some form of tices that address symptoms, even effectively, but contradiction present in the earliest forms of societ- do little to address causes, condemning us to con- ies that led them to change. This contradiction Marx stantly repeat the exercise since both causes and said was between man and nature. The nature being symptoms evolve with our attempts to address them ruthless demanded men to succumb to its pressures (Oliver-Smith, 2004; 14).” while man being inventive and creative wanted to bring nature under its control. Man desired to tame Vulnerability to Recurrent Floods: the nature. This was only possible through technol- Contextualizing Uttar Pradesh ogy. The very formation of class in the society began This discourse brings us to visualize two weather re- after human beings started to tame the nature for lated disasters in the context of Uttar Pradesh (UP), their purposes. The resolution of the contradiction India viz- Floods and Drought. The total geographi- between man and nature led to the formation of cal area of Uttar Pradesh is 240.93 lakh hectares. classes (Murphy, 1994). Floods and droughts are recurring phenomenon in this region. The Uttar Pradesh State Disaster Manage- This brings us to believe that disasters are more a ment Authority (UPSDMA)2 has identified four ‘natu- product of the ideologies that govern our actions to- ral disasters’ that cause a lot of damage to life and wards the environment. Such ideologies are essen- property in the region. These are- floods, drought, tially hierarchical in nature placing human beings in a fire and earthquakes. Floods, droughts and fires are superior position to nature. Such ideologies also have responsible for damages amounting to hundreds of a tendency to naturalize and hegemonize the interac- crores of rupees annually in UP (UPSDMA website). tion between human beings. This is at the base of the It has been realized that even after considerable ef- creation of vulnerabilities. The underlying assump- forts that are made by the state and the people equally, tions regarding the human-environment system is frequency of disasters and losses due to them are essentially dualistic in nature. The duality and di- not declining. This points towards the fact of increased

Locating Floods and Droughts in Uttar Pradesh within the Vulnerability Paradigm... 103 vulnerabilities due to disasters. The UPSDMA real- of the funds allocated under flood control and the izes that “The emerging context is an increase in rest 38 percent was surrendered. The CAG3 report frequency of disasters, their escalating cost, ris- also observed the following in the context of flood ing levels of vulnerability, narrowing differences control: between natural & manmade disasters amidst an 1. “The government of Uttar Pradesh did not increasingly fragile environment. This underscores prepare the required long-range basin-wise and the dire need for a holistic approach to dovetail region-wise master plans. Various structural and mitigation efforts with development programmes non-structural measures for long term flood con- in the State (UPSDMA website).” trol as suggested by Rashtriya Barh Ayog, Ganga Flood Control Commission, Central Water Com- Approximately 11 percent or 27 lakh hect- mission and Planning Commission, Government ares of area is inundated due to floods every year in of India were not adopted. UP. Damages due to annual flooding amounts to 2. Flood control works, mainly anti-erosion around 430 crores in the region. Conversely, after works, were planned without conducting any every 6 to 8 years, the Eastern Uttar Pradesh suf- detailed and holistic hydrological and morpho- fers from highly deficient rainfall2. For West UP this logical studies, which led to execution of anti- period is 10 years. In the 21st century the years 2002 erosion works repeatedly on the same/adjacent and 2004 witnessed severe drought that led to the sites. loss of crop, livestock and property worth Rs. 7540 3. During 2009-13, the state suffered losses/dam- crores and 7292 crores respectively2. Floods are the ages due to floods ranging between Rs. 117.87 most common type of natural disasters in UP. Flood- crores and Rs. 3259.53 crores. ing is mostly caused due to overflowing of the rivers 4. Only 341 (42 percent) out of 805 approved Ganga, Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomti, Sharda, Ghaghra, projects were taken up. Sixty nine percent of the Rapti and Gandak. The pattern of rainfall in the state projects, taken up in 11 test-checked districts, is such that it increases from west to east and from were incomplete for period upto 11 years from south to north. Floods also follow the similar pattern. the date of sanction of the projects. Around 30 percent of the geographical area of UP is 5. The department did not build the capacity for flood prone which is around 73 lakh hectares2. As management of floods by imparting specialized per the estimates of the irrigation department only 59 training to the officers/staff and by adopting new lakh hectares can be protected from floods, how- technologies; and ever, data till March 2004 shows that only 16 lakh 6. The monitoring mechanism was inadequate hectares have been protected from floods. The most and was unable to oversee the execution of flood flood affected regions within the state fall in the east- management works3.” ern part. These are mostly the terai regions or the foothills of Himalayas bordering Nepal. Recurrent Droughts: Uttar Pradesh in Perspec- tive The vulnerability of people to floods gets ag- Drought is another major disaster affecting UP2. This gravated in the context of luke-warm response of assumes significance in the backdrop of the fact that the state to disasters like floods. In the performance the state of UP is agriculture intensive as 21 percent audit of the state undertaken by the Comptroller and of the all food grains in the country is contributed by Auditor General (CAG)3 of India on general and so- UP2. One third of the irrigated area is dependent upon cial sectors for the year ending on March 31, 2014, monsoon rains. Another 67 percent of irrigation is flood control measures in the state has been evalu- tube-well based for which ground water is harnessed. ated as an underperformer. Through the performance More than 80 percent of the total recharge of the audit it is evaluated that whether the government pro- ground water is dependent upon rains2. Meteorologi- grams are benefiting the target beneficiaries or not. cally, UP is divided into East and West where East The performance audit of flood control revealed that UP is more prone to recurrent droughts than West the financial management regarding flood control was UP. Mitigation measures for reducing the drought inadequate as the state could utilize only 62 percent impact in the state includes- construction of reser-

104 World Focus May 2016 voirs, digging of bore-wells, deepening of existing Exposure to Floods and Droughts: Mapping wells, diversion of flood water for ground water re- Vulnerability in the context of Uttar Pradesh charge, conserving soil moisture by proper crop rota- The UP State Action Plan on Climate Change tion and use of drought resistant varieties of crops2. (UPSAPCC)4 has undertaken the vulnerability analy- However, such measures are not enough. The year sis of the state. The vulnerability index used in the 2016 has seen severe drought like situations in Uttar vulnerability analysis is given below. There are basi- Pradesh. The situation was worse in the Bundelkhand cally three variables of vulnerability followed by dif- and Eastern UP regions. There were almost no agri- ferent sub-variables within each variable. cultural activities in these regions even during the peak of the agricultural cycle. Rural livelihoods and econo- For the sake of this paper we will take into mies are severely affected by droughts. Scholars have account only two variables viz- climate sensitivity and argued that the production of vulnerable situations socio-economic. These two variables have important and vulnerability of people is more a function of the bearing on the disaster vulnerability especially vul- lack of political and bureaucratic will in addressing nerability to floods and droughts in the state. As far the issues related with farmers in drought hit regions as rainfall and temperature is concerned, the annual (Mahaprashasta and Ramakrishnan, 2016). There are rainfall is predicted to increase by 15 to 20 percent detailed drought manuals outlining the role of various by 2050s. It is also predicted that by 2080s, the an- stakeholders in drought management but it has been nual precipitation of the state might increase by 25 to found that such provisions of drought management 35 percent of the present baseline precipitation4. This are not implemented on the ground level. The drought data has important bearing on the occurrence of floods manual talks about four measures that a state gov- in the state. It can be stated that climate change may ernment should take in case of drought. These are- lead to increase in flooding in the region. As far as use of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment temperature is concerned, it is predicted to increase Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) to provide imme- by 2.1 degree centigrade during pre-monsoon period diate livelihood options to people who are affected and 1.8 degree centigrade during the monsoon pe- by drought, strengthening of the public distribution riod by 2050s4. mechanisms for ensuring food security, initiating ac- tions for recharging the ground water by building Uttar Pradesh scores low on the Human De- check dams and the government should waive off velopment Index (HDI). The HDI value for UP is farmers loan and arrange for compensation for loss .380 which is below the all-India value of .4674. This of crops. In 2016, 12 states have been declared as has important bearing on the capacity of the people drought affected, “however, none of these measures in the context of disaster resilience. When disasters has been fully implemented in any of the drought are seen within the larger context of development affected states (Mahaprashasta and Ramakrishnan, then a low HDI has direct bearing on the vulnerabil- 2016).” ity of the people.

Drought has impacted the nutritional status of people Exposure related vulnerability in the context in several districts of the Bundelkhand region of UP. of extreme events like drought, flood and warm years Number of child marriages has gone up in the between 1970 and 2010 for various districts in Uttar Bundelkhand region as it has been projected as a Pradesh is given in the table below: drought-relief measure by various political parties in the region. Caste divisions that are prevalent in the Conclusion society come up to the fore during the crisis. In the The Indian scenario of disaster management is largely drought affected Bhadauna village in Lalitpur district guided by two documents viz- the Disaster Manage- of UP, Dalits were allowed to draw water from the ment Act (DMA), 2005 and the National Policy on only tube-well functioning in the village only after the Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009. As recently dominant Yadav community has collected water as on February 26, 2013, a multi-stakeholder National (Mahaprashasta and Ramakrishnan, 2016). Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR) has been constituted by the Government which is headed

Locating Floods and Droughts in Uttar Pradesh within the Vulnerability Paradigm... 105 by the Union Home Minister and which has a tenure 7. Mahaprashasta A.A. and Ramakrishnan V. March of not more than five years, after which a review of 4, 2016. Rural Tragedy. Frontline. its constitution shall take place. Both the policy and 8. Malinowski B. 1922. Argonauts of the Western the act recognizes a pro-active approach to disaster Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and management which not only realizes relief as an im- Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian portant part of disaster management but also takes New Guinea. Routledge. London. into account pre-disaster risk reduction and mitiga- 9. Murphy R. 1994. Rationality and Nature. tion processes as central to better management. The Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado. state needs to adopt a more pro-active approach for 10. National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction. flood and drought management as is envisaged and Ministry of Home Affairs, Disaster Management Di- visualized in the Disaster Management Act, 2005 and vision Resolution. February 26, 2013. The Gazette the National Policy for Disaster Management, 2009. Of India. New Delhi. Sustainable livelihood forms an important component 11. National Policy on Disaster Management. of vulnerability reduction in disaster context. Unless, 2009. Ministry of Home Affairs. National Disaster this is integrated in the disaster management frame- Management Authority. Government of India. (The work and plan, disaster management cannot reach policy is available online, on the website of National the goals that it has set for itself. There are countries Institute of Disaster Management [NIDM] http:// like Australia that suffer from annual wild forest fires. nidm.gov.in/policies.asp) Australia has taken initiative and has made specific 12. Oliver-Smith A. 2004. Theorizing Vulnerability State Disaster Management Acts. In the Indian con- in a Globalized World: A Political Ecological Per- text, the federal structure permits states to form laws spective. In Bankoff G., Frerks G. and Hilhorst D. and acts that suit their conditions. Also according to (eds.). Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Devel- the Indian constitution flood and drought management opment and People. Earthscan. UK. are largely the responsibility of the state and the cen- 13. Ortner S.B. 2006. Is Female to Male as Nature ter can only act as a facilitator. In this context the is to Culture?. In Lewin E. (ed.). Feminist Anthro- state should not be satisfied with guidelines and gov- pology: A Reader. Blackwell. USA. ernment orders for resettlement and should move a 14. Redmond C.L. 1999. Human Impact on An- step forward with making binding legal provisions that cient Environments. University of Arizona Press. may incorporate people’s entitlement to better resil- Tucson. ience and vulnerability reduction in disaster context. 15. The Disaster Management Act. 2005. (The act is available online, on the website of National Insti- References tute of Disaster Management [NIDM] http:// 1. Harvey D. 1996. Justice, Nature and the Ge- nidm.gov.in/policies.asp) ography of Difference. Blackwell. Oxford. 16. Yadav S.K. 2014. Questioning the Idea of Di- 2. Hilhorst D. and Bankoff G. 2004. Introduction: saster. Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. XLIX. Mapping Vulnerability. In Bankoff G., Frerks G. and No.39. pp: 21-24. Hilhorst D. (eds.). Mapping Vulnerability: Disas- ters, Development and People. Earthscan. UK. Footnotes 3. Horigan S. 1988. Nature and Culture in West- 1 file:///C:/Users/Owner/Downloads/ ern Discourses. Routledge. London. HCWRD_2015%20(1).pdf accessed on March 28, 4. Khattri P. and Joshi P.C. 2012. People’s Percep- 2016 tion and State’s Response During Floods: Evidence 3 Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of from Bahraich District of Uttar Pradesh. The Asian India on General and Social Sector for the year ended Man. Volume 6. Issue 1. Pp- 08-15. 31 March 2014, Government of Uttar Pradesh Re- 5. Lewis J. 1999. Development in Disaster-Prone port No. 3 of the year 2015. Places: Studies of Vulnerability. Intermediate 4 Uttar Pradesh State Action Plan on Climate Change. Technology Publications. London. 2014. Department of Environment, Government of 6. Locke J. 1965. Two Treaties on Government. Uttar Pra New American Library-Mentor. New York. desh.

106 World Focus May 2016 Anthropological Perceptions of Disaster, Vulnerability and the Society Sapam Ranabir Singh

Disaster research is now moving well beyond (1984: 312), disasters are “events, observable in time the earlier parameters of disasters being sudden, and space, in which societies or their larger sub-units unexpected, unprepared for, and abnormal to the (e.g., communities, regions) incur physical damages understanding that these could be natural or man- and losses and/or disruption of their routine made occurrences resulting in phenomenal loss of functioning. Both the causes and consequences of life and property. These perceptions have now resulted these events are related to the social structures and in new sites being explored, and new understanding processes of societies or their sub-units”. For being constructed which reveals that disasters are Qurantelli and Dynes (1977), ‘disaster is a sponge diverse and complex social processes extending world’ while for others it is ‘a collective stress beyond simple calculations of loss of life and property. situation’ (Barton; 1969) identified with a period of For instance, historical and archaeological research social crisis. The basic argument in all these definitions has illuminated the significance of the temporal is to locate disasters in the context of existing social dimensions of disasters. Knowledge of disasters is situations, structures and built-in vulnerabilities. now understood to be a chronic, culturally embedded knowledge and a quintessential component of all For years, we have looked at disasters as a societies and cultures across the world. Many severe, relatively sudden and unexpected disruption traditional coping strategies in disaster preparedness of normal structural arrangements within a social have taken into cognizance indigenous technologies system over which the system has no firm control. in disaster response and mitigation. The long wave, Disaster researchers are persistently challenging this sequential, cyclic and social nature of disasters has perspective. A disaster may be viewed as a significant contributed to evolving several resilience mechanisms departure from normal experience for a particular within the disaster-prone communities. The need of time and place (Turner; 1978) but its texts were written the hour is to tap into that resource and strengthen it in the social histories of local communities. Barton with external support for better mitigation efforts. The has defined, “Disaster as a sudden, large, task of uncovering such strategies and technologies unfavourable change in the inputs of a social system. is now finding its way into anthropological and cultural The system affected may be anything from a small geography research (Haque and Zaman; 1994, Lavell; group to a national or world society. The change may 1994, Oliver-Smith and Hoffman; 1999). be unexpected or expected, covering the entire system or only a segment. The inputs which change may be Disasters in recent researches are viewed physical conditions, economic relationships, power as primarily the result of human actions – as the relationships, or the belief systems of the population” actualization of social vulnerability (Lewis; 1999: 8). (1963: 3). It is now argued that while hazards are natural, disasters are not. Social systems generate unequal Social systems are continuous processes and exposure to risk by making some people more prone any disruption that occurs in its functioning has a past to disaster than others and these inequalities are that determines its present and shall be responsible largely a function of the power relations (class, age, for its future course, unless proactive interventions gender and ethnicity) that are operative in every are meted out to sort out existing anomalies within society (Cannon; 1994: 14-19). Scientists, the system. It is imperative that in order to do this we geographers, disaster managers and social science have to understand physical, geographical events specialists over the years have constructed and before exploring social systems and their conceptualized disasters in several ways. For Kreps susceptibilities. One of the primary concerns of the

Anthropological Perceptions of Disaster, Vulnerability and the Society 107 present research work is to study impact of cyclonic time, and of regarding disasters as purely physical natural hazard events and its immediate convergence happenings requiring largely technological solutions. into a disaster on the coastal fishing communities. To Disasters were more properly viewed as primarily understand how natural hazards become disasters, it the result of human actions; that while hazards are is important to briefly comprehend the contours of natural, disasters are not. Social systems generate the natural phenomenon described as cyclones. unequal exposure to risk by making some people more Disaster in this context is interpreted as an unexpected prone to disaster than others and these inequalities happening causing a huge loss of life and properties are largely a function of the power relations (class, which may be both natural as well as man-made. age, gender and ethnicity among others) operative in Natural disaster which originates from a natural every society. geological event such as a tsunami, cyclone, The number of natural disasters by country from 1976 earthquake, cloud-burst or heavy rainfall, floods, to 2005. The most frequently disaster occurred hurricane, etc. is seen as a regular part of life around countries include USA, USSR, Australia, Iran India, the world. In the recent past, climate change activities Indonesia and China, while occurrences of disasters have furthered risks of disasters all over the globe. and the total damage caused by it from the year 1900 to 2015. Millions of lives were lost, made homeless Definitions of Disaster and damaged by disasters. So it is the best time to The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster find out the root causes of disasters to tackle nature’s as “ a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave fury. occurrence in any area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which Disaster Vulnerability and Management in results in substantial loss of life or human suffering India: A Brief Account or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage India is highly vulnerable to a large number of to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a disasters like floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping landslides, avalanches and forest fires due to its geo- capacity of the community of the affected area” climatic and socio-economic condition. More than (Government of India (MHA) 2011: 1). According to 58.6% landmass of Indian sub-continent is prone to the definition of IFRC (International Federation of earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity; over Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies)1, “a disaster 40 million hectares (12%) of its land is prone to floods is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts and river erosion; and out of 7516 kilometres of long the functioning of a community or society and causes coastline around 5700 kilometres are prone to cyclone human, material, and economic or environmental and tsunamis. It is listed as one of the ten worst losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability disaster prone countries of the world. The factors to cope using its own resources. Though often caused which make India prone to disaster are geo-climatic by nature, disasters can have human origins”. CRED conditions, topographic features, environmental (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of degradation, population growth, rapid urbanization, Disasters) defines a disaster as “a situation or event non-scientific development practices, etc. Our which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a country has lost millions of human lives in more than request to a national or international level for external 400 major disasters that have hit and shores in the assistance; an unforeseen and often sudden event last thirty years (Government of India (MHA); 2011). that causes great damage, destruction and human The maximum damage to property and life is caused suffering” (Guha-Sapir, Hoyois and Below; 2012:7). by floods and storms. The coastal belt supports millions Over the year’s scientists, geographers, disaster of lives and provides sustenance to communities that managers and social science specialists have survive on this single natural resource for their constructed and conceptualized disasters in several livelihood. Theses disasters directly impact economies, ways. According to the Bankoff (2006), by the 1980s, agriculture, food security, water, sanitation, the it was apparent in both the developed and the environment and health each year (Sharma and developing world that to be “at risk” was not just a Kaushik; 2012). These disasters also result in major question of being in the wrong place at the wrong changes in the socioeconomic profile of not only the

108 World Focus May 2016 devastated communities, but also the states in which of 1999 followed by the Bhuj earthquake in 2001, these occurrences take place. Consequently, these Tsunami in 2004, and it was only after these colossal are a major challenge to any nation and in particular human tragedies that the government agencies swung to a developing economy like India. It also sometimes into action and for the first time in the history of creates social chaos like crime, unrest, evils and Independent India, there was a formal document on starvation and its impact is worse among the poor or National Policy on Disaster Management in 2009. marginalized section. Thereafter, disaster management became a buzzword in the NGO sector and in national, state and district India’s average economic loss due to planning documents. The government of India have disasters is estimated to be $ 9.8 billion in a report brought a new paradigm shift in the approach to given by the United Nations global assessment report. disaster management that proceeds from the Out of this, S 7 billion loss is caused by the floods. conviction that development cannot be sustainable The other causes are earthquake ($ 19 million), unless disaster mitigation is built into the development cyclones ($ 447 million), storm surge ($ 727 million) process. It took a defining step by enacting the and tsunami ($ 1160 million). This report was given Disaster Management Act, 2005 which envisaged the by the Global Assessment report 2015 of UN office creation of the National Disaster Management for Disaster Risk Reduction2. So the government of Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, India should focus on both physical and social State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) vulnerability as a disaster mitigation program. The headed by the Chief Ministers, and District Disaster most vulnerable areas and populations must be located Management Authorities (DDMAs) headed by the to make provisions to build resilient infrastructure. Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner as the case may be, to spearhead and The recent floods in Kashmir, cloudburst in adopt a holistic and integrated approach to disaster Ladakh, flash floods in Uttarakhand, and the flood in management (http://ndmindia.nic.in /NPDM- Chennai are worth mentioning. Mankind cannot 101209.pdf). confront Nature’s fury but we can tackle it by minimising its effect. So, proper planning and National disaster management Policy in its mitigation programs must be the main focus of pre- approach presents the philosophy of “community- disaster events. based Disaster Management (DM), including last mile integration of the policy, plans and execution” and Public Policy and Hazard Management also talks about “multi-sectoral synergy and capacity Natural hazards when get translated into social development in all spheres”. The diagrammatic disasters often disrupt the development efforts of a presentation in the policy document presented here country with a widespread human, material, talks about a “typical continuum comprises of six economic or environmental loss (Quarantelli; 1998). elements: pre-disaster phase includes prevention, Developing and under-developed countries struggling mitigation and preparedness, while the post-disaster to feed its millions and meeting other socio-economic phase includes response, rehabilitation, reconstruction challenges are often the worst victims of social and recovery” bound by a legal and institutional disasters and natural hazards. The World Bank data framework. suggests that low-income countries account for more than 70% of the world’s disaster “hotspots”.3 Anthropologist Role Environmental scientists and planning experts are Anthropology is a discipline which study infinite unanimous in their opinion that one of the top priority curiosity of human beings. In early days concerns of any modern nation state is to evolve anthropologists are considered to be individuals who national policies that focus on ‘prevention strategies; travel to little-known corners of the world to study rather than calamity relief. exotic peoples, their cultures, social norms, values, mores and customary ways of life. Gone were the India had been lax in its political management days where the anthropologists focused on the of disaster prior to the occurrence of Super Cyclone traditional ethnographic study of the so called

Anthropological Perceptions of Disaster, Vulnerability and the Society 109 “primitive society”. But there is paradigm shift in the Disaster research is now moving well beyond present scenario with the anthropologist started the earlier parameters of disasters being sudden, working in their own and complex society by using unexpected, un-prepared for, and abnormal. Instead, its holistic or multifaceted approach to the study of new sites are being explored, and new understandings human beings. The anthropological orientation towards are being constructed which reveal disasters as understanding of climate has been a very pertinent diverse and complex social processes. For instance, part of studies by anthropologists relating to historical and archaeological research has been able subsistence practices of hunting and gathering, fishing, to illuminate the significance of temporal dimensions herding and agriculture throughout the 20th century of disasters. Knowledge of disasters is now (Evans-Pritchard 1940; Richards 1948). Margaret understood to be a chronic, culturally embedded Mead (1977) is recognised to be one of the first knowledge in many cultures. The long wave, anthropologists to talk about climate change. Classic sequential, cyclic and social nature of disasters has studies in environmental anthropology by Conklin led to many traditional coping strategies in disaster (1957), Mauss (1950, 1979) and Steward (1955) preparedness, and to the development of indigenous delved deeply into emic or native views of climate. technologies in disaster response and mitigation. The In the contemporary society this orientation has task of uncovering such strategies and technologies shifted from being part of larger ethnography to more is now finding its way into anthropological and cultural comprehensive understanding about climate change geography research (Lavell; 1994, Haque and Zaman; research and emerging policy as anthropology of a 1994, Oliver-Smith and Hoffman; 1999). Anthropology new generation of disaster studies (Vadya and with its unique holistic and multifaceted approach will McCay; 1975, Oliver Smith; 1996)4. be the most appropriate subject to find out the root causes of vulnerability. Anthropology attempts to engage its subjects holistically and comparatively, placing its focus on the Conclusion broader context of human interactions in Disaster management agencies in India and in several contemporary, historical, and pre-historical time, as other developing economies have not acknowledged well as the interrelationships between cultural, social, the in-built factors of social vulnerability. There is a political, economic, and environmental domains. In growing concurrence among researchers that its approach to studying disasters, this has meant detailed in-depth studies are required to assess social calling attention to how risks and disasters both vulnerability. Several studies have shown that it is influence and are products of human systems, rather imperative to have a social cartography of vulnerable than representing simply isolated, spontaneous, or populations in pre-event planning of disaster analysis unpredictable events. There is especial concern with (Mendes; 2009). Blaikie, et al. (1994) and Wisner, et how cultural systems (the beliefs, behaviors, and al. (2004), through their research, have shown that institutions characteristic of a particular society or disasters are largely socially constructed. The holistic group) figure at the center of that society’s disaster approach has to examine vulnerability in the context vulnerability, preparedness, mobilization, and of local knowledge. Assessing disasters within their prevention. A holistic approach examines the complex cultural, socio-economic, political and environmental interrelationships between humans, culture, and their context is a must for disaster mitigation and planning. environment, from the human actions that may cause With a view to revising established paradigms of or influence the severity of disaster, to the position of disaster analysis and to emphasise the importance of social vulnerability that defines disaster impact, to the pre-event planning, it was imperative to have a social range of socio-cultural adaptations and responses, cartography of vulnerable research populations. It including the impact of aid and the infusion of donor was also essential to take into account social money. The comparative, relativistic approach of the inequalities and the citizenship rights of those discipline has often given it a critical stance, privileging marginalized sections of the Indian populations. The local knowledge and local ways of management, while role of social networks was critical in potentiating problematizing the dominant models of relief (cf. individual and group resilience and resistance to Henry; 2005). natural and technological hazards along with any

110 World Focus May 2016 Blaikie, P., T. Cannon, I. Davis and B. Wisner. 1994. At Risk: Natural Hazards, indigenous modalities they have evolved after People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. London, UK: Routledge. confronting natural hazards for decades. Cannon, T. 1994. Vulnerability Analysis and the Explanation of “Natural” Disasters in A. Varley (ed.) Disasters, Development and the Environment, pp. 13-29. Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto and Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. A structured analysis of social inequalities Conklin, Harold C. 1957. Hanunoo Agriculture: A Report on an Integral System related to hazards allows for a clarification and of Shifting Cultivation in the Philippines. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. redefinition of the involved citizenship rights and their Dynes, Russel R., B. De Marchi and C. Pelanda. 1987. The Sociology of Disasters. Milan, Italy: Franco Angeli Press. implications for the trust of citizens in public Evans-Pritchard, E. E. 1940. The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood institutions. The concerned individuals, social groups and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People. New York: Oxford University Press. and communities must participate in the knowledge Government of India (MHA). 2009. National Policy on Disaster Management. New Delhi: National Disaster Management Authority. http://www.ndma. gov.in/ production process about the territory and in the images/guidelines/national-dm-policy2009.pdf mapping of social vulnerability. Interventions must be Government of India (MHA). 2011. Disaster Management in India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs. set in a structural and long term perspective that deals Guha-Sapir, Debarati, Philippe Hoyois and Regina Below. 2012. Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2012: The Numbers and Trends. Brussels: Centre with public health provisions and poverty relief, instead for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), Institute of Health and of short durations and urgent responses. Disasters Society (IRSS). Haque, C. E. and M. Q. Zaman. 1994. Vulnerability and Response to Riverine provide unusual circumstances requiring human Hazards in Bangladesh: A Critique of Flood Control and Mitigation Processes in A. Varley (ed.) Disasters, Development and Environment, pp. 65–80. London: adaptation processes to make immediate adjustments. John Wiley and Sons. Henry, D. 2005. Anthropological Contributions to the Study of Disasters in These are the true tests of human resilience. Social Disciplines, Disasters and Emergency Management: The Convergence and scientists are intrigued by human response patterns Divergence of Concepts, Issues and Trends from the Research Literature. D. McEntire and W. Blanchard (eds.). Emittsburg, Maryland: Federal Emergency to these extraordinary circumstances. These are Management Agency. (http://training.fema.gov/emiweb/edu/ddemtextbook. asp) Kreps, G. 1984. Sociological Inquiry and Disaster Research in Annual Review peculiar situations for studying human behaviour, at of Sociology, Vol. 10, pp. 309-330. times, in which social adaptation and instinct are often Lavell, A. 1994. Prevention and Mitigation of Disasters in Central America: Vulnerability to Disasters at the Local Level in A. Varley (ed.) Disasters, more clearly revealed. Since disasters bring Development and Environment, pp. 49-63. Chichester: Wiley. Lewis, J. 1999. Development in Disaster-Prone Places: Studies of Vulnerability. disruptions in the normal social life, create chaos, tear London, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications. down social structure and contribute to destroy social Mauss, Marcel, with Henri Beuchat. 1950 (1979). Seasonal Variations of the Eskimos: A Study in Social Morphology. Transl. by James J. Fox. London: order, disaster research may be viewed as the study Routledge and Kegan Paul. Mead, Margarett. 1977. Preface in William. Kellogg and Margaret Mead (eds.) of social pathology (Dynes, Marchi, and Pelanda; The Atmosphere: Endangered and Endangering, pp. xix-xxiv. Bethesda, MD: 1987). The job of a researcher is to search for causes Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Services, National Institutes of Health. that are responsible for that pathological condition. Mendes, José Manuel de Oliveira. 2009. Social Vulnerability Indexes as Planning Tools: Beyond the Preparedness Paradigm in Journal of Risk Research, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 43-58. Natural disasters not only cause life and Oliver-Smith, A. 1996. Anthropological Research on Hazards and Disasters in Annual Reviews of Anthropology, Vol. 25, pp. 202-328. economic loss, but in many cases create social Oliver-Smith, A. and S. Hoffman (eds.). 1999. The Angry Earth: Disaster in Anthropological Perspectives. New York and London: Routledge. divisions within communities (e.g., Aeta after the Quarantelli, E. L. 1998. Epilogue: Where we have Been and Where we might Go in E. L. Quarantelli (ed.) What is a Disaster? Perspectives on the Question, pp. eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991, as 234-273. London: Routledge. noted by Tsuda and Tamaki; 2001) and can also be Quarantelli, E. L. and R. R. Dynes. 1977. Response to Social Crisis and Disaster in Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 3, pp. 23-49. responsible for creating political upheaval (e.g., the Richards, Audrey. 1948. Hunger and Works in a Savage Tribe: A Functional Study of Nutrition among the Southern Bantu. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. famine in Bangladesh in 1974 triggered by flood, as Sen, A. 1981. Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. noted by Sen; 1981, 1999). They also bring to the Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sen, A. 1999. Development as Freedom. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. fore existing social, economic and political inequalities Sharma, Vinod K., and Ashutosh D Kaushik. 2012. Natural disaster management in India. Yojana 56: 30-36. often addressed as structural inequalities in this study. Steward, Julian H. 1955. Theories of Culture Change: The Methodology of Disaster management is intimately intertwined with Multilinear Evolution. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Tsuda, M. and M. Tamaki. 2001. Shizensaigai to Kokusai Kyoryoku (In Japanese). fields such as environment, rural and urban planning, Tokyo: Shinhyoron. Turner, B. A. 1978. Man-Made Disasters. London: Wykeham Science Press. and community participation in its reconstruction. Vayda, Andrew P. and Bonnie J. McCay. 1975. New Directions in Ecology and Ecological Anthropology in Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 4, pp. 293- 306. References Wisner, B., P. Blaikie, T. Cannon and I. Davis. 2004. At Risk: Natural Hazards, nd Bankoff, G. 2006. The Tale of the Three Pigs: Taking Another Look at Vulnerability People’s Vulnerability, and Disaster, 2 edition. London: Routledge. in Light of the Indian Ocean Tsunami and Hurricane Katrina. http:// understanding katrina.ssrc.org/Bankoff/ (Accessed on October 8, 2010). Footnotes 1 Barton, Allen H. 1969. Communities in Disaster: A Sociological Analysis of (Source:http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-management/about- Collective Stress Situations. New York: Doubleday & Company Inc. disasters/what-is-a-disaster/; retrieved on 10/4/2016) 2 Barton, Allen H. 1963. Social Organization under Stress: A Sociological Review (Source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Disasters-cost-India-10bn- of Disaster Studies. Disaster Study # 17 Washington DC.: Disaster Research per-year-UN-report/articleshow/46522526.cms; retrieved on 7/4/2016) 3 Group National Academy of Sciences. C.f. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/disasterriskmanagement 4 Cf. Dove, Michael R., ed. 2014. The Anthropology of Climate Change: An Historical Reader. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. Anthropological Perceptions of Disaster, Vulnerability and the Society 111 Extreme Events and Adaptation in Himalayan Region: Issues and Strategies Md. Arif Husain and Pankaj Kumar

Introduction Various studies suggest that warming in the Himalayas Mountains are among the most fragile environments has been much greater than the global average of on Earth. They are also rich repositories of biodiversity 0.74 ˆC over the last 100 years (IPCC, 2007a; Du and water and providers of ecosystem goods and et al., 2004). services on which downstream communities sustain. The Himalayas is one of the youngest mountain of Precipitation trends the world, geologically the most fascinating panorama During the last few decades, inter-seasonal, inter of India, is essential for sustenance of life in this annual and spatial variability in rainfall trends have subcontinent as well as for nurturing geological been observed across Asia. In the Himalayan region, investigations in this setting (ICIMOD). both increasing and decreasing trends have been detected. Increasing trends are found on the Tibetan Climate change is widely acknowledged to Plateau in the north-east region (Zhao et al., 2004) be having a profound effect on the biosphere with and eastern and central parts (Xu et al., 2007), while many and diverse impacts on global resources. It is the western Tibetan region exhibits a decreasing trend; also true, mountains are hotspot of the climate change northern Pakistan also has an increasing trend (Farooq and very sensitive’s to disasters like flood, landslides and Khan, 2004); Nepal showed no long-term trend and earthquake. Himalaya’s ecosystems are highly in precipitation between 1948 and 1994 (Shrestha et sensitive to climate change. Climate change is a al., 2000; Shrestha, 2004). change in the distribution in weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. There is a major need for more research on Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic Himalayan precipitation processes, as most studies processes, variations in solar radiation receives by have excluded the Himalayan region due to the region earth, plate tectonic and volcanic eruption. s extreme, complex topography and lack of adequate rain-gauge data (Shrestha et al., 2000). Climate Change and Issues in Himalaya Rising temperatures Glacial retreat IPCCs Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC, 2007a; The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC, 2007a; 2007b) concludes that there is more than a 90% 2007b) states that there is a high measure of chance that the observed warming since the 1950s is confidence that in the coming decades many glaciers due to the emission of greenhouse gases from human in the region will retreat, while smaller glaciers may activity. Temperature projections for the 21st Century disappear altogether. Various attempts to model suggest a significant acceleration of warming over changes in the ice cover and discharge of glacial melt that observed in the 20th Century (Ruosteenoja et have been made by assuming different climate change al., 2003). Based on regional climate models, it is scenarios. One concludes that with a 2 ºC increase predicted that the temperatures in the Indian sub- by 2050, 35% of the present glaciers will disappear continent will rise between 3.5 and 5.5ˆC by 2100, and runoff will increase, peaking between 2030 and and on the Tibetan Plateau by 2.5 ˆC by 2050 and 5 2050 (Qin, 2002). ˆC by 2100 (Rupa Kumar et al., 2006). However, because of the extreme topography and complex Runoff over time and space reactions to the greenhouse effect, even high The effects of climatic change are of tremendous resolution climatic models cannot give reliable importance to the often densely populated lowland projections of climate change in the Himalayas. regions that depend on mountain water for their

112 World Focus May 2016 domestic, agricultural, and industrial needs (e.g., Nepal earthquake (magnitude7.8) on 25 April Barnett et al., 2005; Graham et al., 2007). Changes 2015 with an epicenter 77 km (48 miles) northwest in precipitation type (rain, snow) and its amount, of Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, that is home intensity, and distribution over time and space have a to nearly 1.5 million inhabitants, and at a focal depth direct impact on total and peak river runoff, potentially of approximately 10-15 km. This earthquake was the moving it away from agricultural and dry season one of the most powerful earthquakes to strike Nepal demands and towards monsoon flash floods. Climate since the 1934 Nepal-Bihar earthquake (magnitude change induced glacial melt could seriously affect 8.1). Based on the information by the United Nations, half a billion people in the Himalayan region overall eight million people have been affected by the massive and a quarter of a billion people in China, who all 2015 earthquake in Nepal, more than a quarter of the depend on glacial melt for their water supply (Stern, Nepal’s population. 2007). In South Asia, hundreds of millions of people depend on perennial rivers such as the Indus, , This earthquake induced many mass and Brahmaputra – all fed by the unique water movements in mountainous areas and resulted in reservoir formed by the 16,000 Himalayan glaciers. landslide lakes, which could be another cause of The current trends in glacial melt suggest that the secondary disasters. The mass movements and low flow will become substantially reduced as a deformation of weathered soft soil cover are the main consequence of climate change (IPCC, 2007a). causes of the collapse or heavy damage to buildings and heavy casualties in mountainous areas. In addition, Climate change vulnerability the earthquake also triggered a major avalanche on The Himalayan region contains one of the most the south slopes of Mt. Everest, located approximately dynamic and complex mountain systems in the world. 160 km east-northeast of the epicenter. The avalanche This mountain system is extremely vulnerable to global destroyed the base camp of climbers. According to warming (Bandyopadhyay and Gyawali, 1994). reports, the avalanche killed at least 17 people and Climate change creates disaster on large scale. Flash injured 61 others. The earthquake also triggered flood, landslide, avalanche and earthquake are avalanches in Himalayas, killing some people. Some common cause of disaster in Himalayan region. We other adjoining countries such as India, China and have seen several disasters in recent year like Bangladesh were also affected by the earthquake disaster in Uttarakhand state (2013) is a wakeup call with causalities. for development planners. There is a need to look at ecological sensitivity of the place before starting any Landslides development project. There is a very significant role The Northeast hill of Himalaya ranges experience of foresters and ecologist in planning development in considerable landslide activity of varying intensities. eco -sensitive regions. River erosions, seismic movements and heavy rainfalls cause considerable landslide activity. The rock and Earthquakes debris carried by the rivers like Kosi originating in The Himalayan mountain ranges are considered to the Himalayas cause enormous landslide in the valleys. be the world’s youngest fold mountain ranges. The The seismic activity in the Himalayan region also subterranean Himalayas are geologically very active. results in considerable landslide movement. The In a span of 53 years four earthquakes exceeding Government of India is collaborating with a wide range magnitude 8 have occurred in this region. The main of Indian academic institutions on hill research. One cause of earthquakes in these regions is due to the of the worst tragedies took place at Malpa movement of the Indian plate towards the Eurasian Uttarakhand on 11th and 17th August1998 when nearly plate at the rate of about 50 mm per year. For 380 people were killed when massive landslides instance, in a short span of about 50 years, four such washed away the entire village. This included 60 earthquakes occurred: Assam earthquake of 1897 pilgrims going to Lake Mansarovar in Tibet. (magnitude 8.7), Kangra earthquake of 1905 Consequently various land reform measures have (magnitude 8.6), Bihar-Nepal earthquake of 1934 been initiated as mitigation measures. (magnitude 8.4), and the Assam-Tibet earthquake of 1950 (magnitude 8.7). Extreme Events and Adaptation in Himalayan Region: Issues and Strategies 113 Avalanches through impacts on water balance and availability and Avalanches constitute a major hazard in the higher hazards, to socioeconomic and health impacts on the elevations of Himalayas. Parts of the Himalayas population. The impacts are embedded in and affected receive snowfall round the year and adventure sports by a range of other global and local drivers of change. are in abundance in such locations. Severe snow The impact of climate change on biodiversity will occur avalanches occur in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal in concert with well established stressors such as Pradesh and the Hills of Uttarakhand. The population habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive species, of about 20,000 in Nubra and Shyok valleys and species exploitation, and environmental contamination, mountaineers and trekkers face avalanche hazard on to name just few (Chase et al. 1999). Problems account of a steep falls. Losses of life and property associated with modernization like greenhouse gas have been reported due to avalanches. (GHG) emissions, air pollution, land use conversion, deforestation, and land degradation, are slowly Flash-Flood creeping into mountain regions (Pandit et al. 2007). Generally, flood occurs in a river when the flow rate The out-migration of the rural workforce has exceeds the capacity of the river channel. Water flow decreased economic activities in rural areas. Thus, can be increased in rivers due to several reasons such landscapes and communities in mountain regions are as sudden excessive rainfall, melting of glacier, being simultaneously affected by rapid environmental increase of river load, landslide etc. In plain land flood and socioeconomic threats and perturbations. is occurred comparatively slowly but in high altitude it happened suddenly. This short of sudden flood is Adaptation and Strategies known as Flash Flood which associated with landslide The government at various levels too, has responded and earth flow. by taking appropriate measures for prevention and mitigation of the effects of disasters. While long term Though, initially flood is a natural hazard but preventive and preparedness measures have been due to excessive human interference in river courses taken up, the unprecedented nature of the disasters such as deforestation, divert of river course, has called in for a nationwide response mechanism construction of bridge, dams and hydro projects, wherein there is a pre-set assignment of roles and transforming it to a quasi natural hazard. The Flash functions to various institutions at central, state and Flood of Uttarakhand in 2013 is the best example of the district level. it. The main cause of flash flood is cloud bust. Cloud bust is an extreme amount of precipitation over a Community Participations smaller area within a shorter period. Sometime hail Community participations are emerging as powerful and thunderstorm are associated with it and can create tools to mitigate the impacts of disaster. It has great flood or flash flood conditions causing loss of life and importance; local people are familiar to their area properties. It is observed that during the Cloud Bust rather than others. In the event of actual disasters, the rate of rainfall can be reached up to 10 cm/hr. It the community, if well aware of the preventive actions is a localized phenomenon affecting an area not more it is required to take can substantially reduce the than 20-30 square km but some time it may be 50 damage caused by the disaster. Awareness and square km. There are several man made cause training of the community is particularly useful in areas excavation (particularly at the toe of slope), loading that are prone to frequent disasters. of slope crest, drawn-down (of reservoir), deforestation, irrigation, mining, artificial vibrations and Non Governmental Organizations water impoundment and leakage from utilities. NGO is another emerging player in managing impacts of disaster and one of the most effective alternative Impacts of climate change means of achieving an efficient communication link Climate change effects both environment and human between the Disaster Management agencies and the life on large scale. These impacts are closely affected community. Many different types of NGOs interlinked, ranging from biodiversity impacts and are already working at advocacy level as well as related effects on ecosystem goods and services, grassroots level; in typical disaster situations they can

114 World Focus May 2016 be of help in preparedness, relief and rescue, managing the natural disasters. These are reviewed rehabilitation and reconstruction. and updated periodically based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the State. Preparedness The frequency of disaster indicates that we will have Calamity Relief Fund to prepare before the disaster. Preparedness A Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) has been set up in the measures such as training of role players including State as per the recommendations of the Eleventh the community, development of advanced forecasting Finance Commission (Centre contribute 75 percent systems, effective communications, and above all a where as State 25 percent). States can get assistance sound and well networked institutional structure through National Calamity Contingency Fund involving the government organizations, academic and (NCCF) and also through Prime Minister Fund. research institutions, the armed forces and the non- governmental organizations have greatly contributed Departments of Relief & Rehabilitation to the overall disaster management in the country At the State level, response, relief and rehabilitation (Vinod K Sharma and D Kaushik Ashutosh, 2012). are handled by Departments of Relief & This can clearly be seen from the various instances Rehabilitation. The State Crisis Management of reduced damages from disasters due to better Committee is set up under the Chairmanship of Chief preparedness and coordinated inter-agency response. Secretary in the State. All the concerned Departments and organizations of the State and Central Government Programs and Policies Government Departments located in the State are Government puts effort to reduce effect of disaster represented in this Committee. This Committee on national level. The Ministry of Home Affairs is reviews the action taken for response and relief and the nodal Ministry for all matters concerning disaster gives guidelines/directions as necessary. The district management. The Central Relief Commissioner level is the key level for disaster management and (CRC) in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal relief activities. The Collector/Dy. Commissioner is officer to coordinate relief operations for natural the chief administrator in the district. He is the focal disasters. The CRC receives information relating to point in the preparation of district plans and in forecasting/warning of a natural calamity from India directing, supervising and monitoring calamities for Meteorological Department (IMD). relief. National Disaster Management Act 2005 Emergency Operation Room The National Disaster Management Act has been An Emergency Operations Center also known as passed in November 2005, which brings about a Control Room exists in the nodal Ministry of Home paradigm shift in India’s approach to disaster Affairs, which functions round the clock, to assist management. The centre of gravity stands visibly the Central Relief Commissioner in the discharge of shifted to preparedness, prevention and planning from his duties. The activities of the Control Room include earlier response and relief centric approach. The Act collection and transmission of information concerning provides for establishment of National Disaster natural calamity and relief, keeping close contact with Management Authority (NDMA), State Disaster governments of the affected States, interaction with Management Authority (SDMA), and District other Central Ministries, Departments, Organizations Disaster Management Authority (DDMA). In general in connection with relief, maintaining records the chief mitigatory measures to be adopted for containing all relevant information relating to action Himalayan region are drainage correction, proper land points and contact points in Central Ministries etc., use measures, reforestation for the areas occupied keeping up-to-date details of all concerned officers by degraded vegetation and Creation of awareness at the Central and State levels. among local population etc. State Relief Manuals Conclusion State Government has relief manuals/codes which Climate change is one of the most complex and identify that role of each officer in the State for difficult challenges for the Himalayan countries.

Extreme Events and Adaptation in Himalayan Region: Issues and Strategies 115 Scientific data to monitor climate and environment IPCC 2007b.,Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and change are lacking in the Himalayas region. For Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the example IPCC has identified Hindu-kush Himalayas Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel region as the data deficient. Long-term research and on Climate Change [Parry, M.L.; Canziani, O.F.; Palutikof,J.P.; van der Linden, P.J.; Hanson, C.E. (eds)], comprehensive data are needed to plan adaptation p976.0 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and mitigation program to deal with future changes. Madhav Karki, “Climate Change in the Himalayas: Uncertainties about the rate and magnitude of climate Challenges and Opportunities”, ICIMOD, Kathmandu. change and potential impacts prevail, but there is no New, M., Lister, D., Hulme, M., & Makin, I., “A high- question that climate change is gradually and resolution data set of surface climate over global land powerfully changing the ecological and socioeconomic areas”, Climate Research, (2002) pp 21. landscape in the Himalayan region, particularly in Pandit, M. K., Sodhi, N. S., Koh, L. P. Bhaskar, A. Brook, B. W., “Unreported yet massive deforestation driving loss relation to water. The hole eco-system of Himalayas of endemic biodiversity in Indian Himalaya”,Biodiversity will be disturbed if water system will get disturb. Most Conservation Vol. 16, (2007)pp 153-163 of disasters are occurred due to water in mountain Qin, D. H. “Glacier Inventory of China Maps”. Xi’an: Xi’an region like flood, landslide, flash flood, lake out bust Cartographic Publishing House. (2002) etc. It is imperative for environmental decision makers Ruosteenoja, K., Carter, T. R., Jylhä, K.,Tuomenvirta, H, and managers to revisit and redesign research 2003, Future climate in world regions :An inter comparision agendas, development policies, and management and of model based projections for the new IPCC emission conservation practices, and developed appropriate scenarios. sinki:Finnish Environment Institute, pp 81. Tuomenvirta, H. “Future climate in world regions: an inter technologies. Local participations is most important comparison of model-based projections for the new IPCC to mitigate the impact of disaster and make them emissions scenarios”, Helsinki: Finnish Environment aware about the impact of climate change. Institute.644: (2003) p 83. Rupa Kumar, K., Sahai, A. K., Krishna Kumar, References K.,Patwardhan, S. K., Mishra, P. K., Revadkar, J. V.,Kamala, Aydan, O., and R. Ulusay., A quick report on the Gorkha K., &Pant, G. B. “High resolution climate change scenario (Nepal) Earthquake and its Geo-Engineering Aspects. for India for the 21stCentury”,Current Science, 90: (2006) (2015) pp 334–345. Barnett, T. P., Adam, J. C., and Lettenmaier, D. P.”Potential Shrestha, A. B. “Climate change in Nepal and its impact on impacts of a warming climate on water availability in a Himalayan glaciers”, Paper presented at the European snow-dominated region”. Nature, 438(17): (2005) pp 303– Climate Change Forum Symposium on Key vulnerability 309. regions and climate and adaptation in relation to Article 2 Bandyopadhyay, J., & Gyawali, D., Himalayan water of the UNFCCC, Beijing.(2004) resources: ecological and political aspects of Shrestha, A. B., Wake, C. P., Dibb, J. E., & Mayewski, P. A., management’. Mountain Research and Development, “Precipitation fluctuations in the Nepal Himalaya and its vol.14 (1): (1994). pp 1–24. vicinity and relationship with some large-scale climatology Chase, ‘Simulated impacts of historical land cover changes parameters”, International Journal of Climatology 20: on global climate in northern winter’. Climate (2000) pp317–327. Dynamics,(1999)pp 93-105. Stern, N.Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change. Farooq, A. B., and Khan, A. H. “Climate change perspective Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, p 692. in Pakistan”, Proceedings of Capacity Building APN Vinod K Sharma and D Kaushik Ashutosh, “Natural Workshop on Global Change Research, Islamabad, (2004) Disaster Management in India”, Yojana, (March,2012) pp 39–46. Xu, Z., Gong, T., & Liu, C. “Detection of decadal trends in Graham, L. P., Hagemann, S., Jaun, S., and Beniston,M. precipitation across the Tibetan Plateau. Methodology in “On interpreting hydrological change from regional climate Hydrology”, Proceedings of the Second International models. Climate Change”, (2007)doi:10.1007/s10584-006- Symposium on Methodology in Hydrology held in 9217-0. Nanjing, China, (October–November 2005). IAHS Publ. IPCC 2007a., Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science 311,(2007), pp 271–276. Basis. Contribution of Working Group Ito the Fourth Zhao, L., Ping, C. L., Yang, D. Q., Cheng, G. D.,Ding, Y. J., Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Liu, S. Y. 2004.,”Change of climate and seasonally frozen Climate Change Solomon,S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, ground over the past 30years in Qinghai-Tibetan plateau”, Z.; Marquis, M.;Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M.; Miller, H.L. China’. Globaland Planetary Change, 43: (2012) pp 19– (eds)], pp 996. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge 31. University Press. 116 World Focus May 2016 Disaster Management and Technology Subhash Anand, Usha Rani and Mijing Gwra Basumatary

Introduction ena. The flyover collapse of Delhi in 2010 and re- There has been an increase in the number of natural cently in 31st march, 2016 in Kolkata, all are because disasters across the world. In the past decade, of poor construction. Though, technology cannot stop weather – related natural hazards have been the disaster from striking but its application can definitely cause of 90% of natural disasters and 60% of re- reduce its impact. lated deaths, and have been responsible for the 98% of the impacts on disaster –affected populations, the Disaster Management majority in areas of developing countries (IFRC, The word ‘Disaster’ has derived from the French 2005). A disaster is not bound by political, geographic, word ‘Desastre’ which means evil star. Disaster is social, economic boundaries. When it occurs, it im- an unpredictable and sudden event in devastating pacts without any boundary. The impact of such ca- nature, which causes human suffering and loss of lamity, however, does not remain confined to its physi- property, plants and animals etc. This damage is im- cal component but transcends beyond it and impacts measurable and varies according to the geographical the socio-economic conditions of affected persons location and degree of vulnerability (Ghosh, 2012). and places. It is not only limited to Indian political According to the UN, disaster is the occurrence of region, but also to almost all countries. Disaster can sudden or major misfortune which disrupts the basic strike anywhere and at anytime, it is natural as well fabric and normal functioning of the society or com- as man-made phenomena. The most important char- munity. The creation of plans through which commu- acteristic of the disaster is that it does not show mercy nities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with to anybody be it advanced country or underdevel- disaster is known as disaster management. The man- oped country. It impacts and scares more in devel- agement does not avert or eliminate the threats; in- oping and underdeveloped than the developed coun- stead, it focuses on creating plans to decrease the tries, which are having efficient technology. The tech- effect of disaster. The goal of Sendai Framework for nology plays very important role in forecasting, tack- Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 is to prevent new ing and mitigating the disaster. and reduce existing disaster risk through the imple- mentation of integrated and inclusive, economic, struc- Hazards are phenomena that cause a threat tural, environmental and technological and institutional to human beings or economic assets, it become di- measures that prevent and reduce hazard exposure saster only when it cause human suffering and dam- and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness age of property, plants and animals. Majority of di- for response and recovery, and thus strengthen resil- sasters are associated with man-made conditions and ience. environment, for example earthquake is hazard and it originate at focus and hit the epicentre, in that case The process of disaster management covers if the buildings are earthquake resistant like in Japan the range of activities designed to maintain control it will cause minimal damage or no damage at all and over disasters/ emergency situations and to provide but on the other hand if, it hit the epicentre where the a framework for helping the community to avoid, re- construction is poor, it will cause huge casualty and duce the effects of, or recover from impact of a di- damage and it that case it become monster disaster. saster. The four essential parts to disaster manage- So, what happens in developing countries is that, the ment are prevention, preparation, relief and recov- entire scheme of thinking, organisation, research, fore- ery. Therefore, disaster management plan has to cast and belief, depicts disaster as natural where the cover three issues such as, first, how to implement a agents of destruction and killing are natural phenom- fair warning system so that people are alerted on time Disaster Management and Technology 117 before occurrence of disaster, secondly, educating If scientists can develop the efficient technology to the people about what they should do when they are study the animal behaviour and geological phenom- in the midst of a disaster by providing Do’s and Don’ts ena, definitely loss of human – animal life and dam- and thirdly, how they should help to each other out age of property can be reduced to greater extent. after the disaster gets over. Use of latest technologies mentioned above can prove useful in its mitigation after the impact by providing Disasters in India the latest information for rehabilitation. Disasters are as old as civilization of human being. On account of the unique geophysical setting and geo- Cyclone climatic conditions, India has been traditionally vul- Cyclone is the phenomenon which is caused due to nerable to natural disasters. The geo-climatic zone in the difference in the atmospheric pressure. The main which India is located, the large land mass located in reason is that air from the high atmospheric pressure vulnerable areas along with the physical, social and region move towards the region of low atmospheric economic vulnerability of people living in high risk region. As Indian subcontinent is located in northern areas makes it one of the most disaster prone coun- hemisphere, impact of cyclone is mostly felt on east- tries in the world. United Nations Development ern part of the subcontinent. If difference in atmo- Programme has developed a Disaster Risk Index sphere pressure can be measured early with the help (DRI) with a global level of observation and a na- of barometer, prediction of the cyclone will reduce tional level of resolution allowing comparison between its impact by giving early warning to the coastal dwell- countries with respect to three types of hazards, viz., ers. Even after, disaster manager can reduce the loss earthquake, cyclones, and floods (India ranks high- by giving real time data about the shortest possible est risk prone to floods, for cyclones India ranks sec- way to evacuate the disaster spot and providing the ond after China and for earthquake India is ranked timely help. 10th) (UNDP, 2007). India is one of the ten worst disaster prone countries of the world. In India 50 % Flood of land is susceptible to seismic hazard; 12% of total Flood is caused due to the overflowing of water. It is geographical area is prone to floods and river ero- caused due to the heavy rainfall or ill maintenance of sion; 68% of total cultivated area is vulnerable to the dam and outburst of the cloud. We can reduce its drought (Malhotra, 2016). Building Material Council impact by building proper check dam and proving and Technology Promotion prepared a vulnerability timely real time information about the rainfall phe- map of India, showing multi – hazard zones based on nomena from the India Meteorological Department. earthquakes, wind and cyclones and floods. This aids Its impact is faced generally on the river bank. We in preparedness, quick risk assessment and action can build proper embankment to check the dam. In as well as being an invaluable tool for proactive plan- case of flood we can reduce the loss of life and prop- ning and has given enough warning regarding pos- erty by providing timely help with the application of sible hazards that might get converted into disasters latest technology. We can give the real time data to in the future (Singh and Kumar, 2015). reach the rescue team to reach the spot and infected people to move out of the disaster region. Earthquake Earthquake is the sudden tremor that is cause due to Train Disaster the displacement of the plate. The displacement of Train disaster is very frequent phenomena in India. It plate happens due to the plate tectonic movement, happens due to human error as well as due to flood, volcanic activity and manmade explosions. The place cyclone and earthquake in our country. The real time of origin of the earth quake is known as the focus information at correct time can solve many problems and the epicentre in the place where its impact can related to train disaster for example if the signal man be felt directly on the earth surface. Even today, no- can update the error and damage of track and sched- body can predict the earthquake time exactly but fore- uled of the train timing precisely and accurately. So, casting may be done to some extent by studying the the train disaster can prevent to greater extent with strange animal behaviour and geological phenomena. the help of latest and efficient technology. Even after

118 World Focus May 2016 the disaster if the rescue team reach the spot in time, the vulnerable areas by analysing the toposheet, sat- it can save the maximum loss of life and property. ellite and areal map. Generally it is used in disaster management for search and rescue purpose. It is used Application of Technology for Disaster Manage- for disaster relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction ment purpose after the disaster occurs. ‘Technology’ this words has been used several time, by now you may be wondering what actually the Global Positioning System (GPS) technology means. Here comes the meaning of tech- It is a space based navigation system that provides nology, it means nothing but the integration of com- location and time information in all weather condi- puter hardware and software that is designed to tions. It provides information anywhere or near the complement the cognitive process of human in their earth surface and for its function minimum four sat- decision making. Technology has become an integral ellites is required. At present, this system is also found part of modern decision support system. The man- in smart mobile phone and vehicle also. It gives in- agement of disaster can be done efficiently with the formation about the real time latitude, longitude and application of technology. Various scientific and tech- altitude. Its can give the real time velocity and posi- nological measures can be taken pre, post and during tion of the objects which can be used for ground truth emergency situations. verification of the doubtful locations. By the applica- The Technology can be applied for managing disas- tion of this device it is possible the forecast the disas- ter are : 1) Geographical Information System, 2) Re- ter. mote Sensing, 3) Global Positioning System, 4) Infor- mation Exchange, 5) Data Mining, 6) Knowledge Data Mining Management, 7) Geospatial Web Service and 8) Night The overall goal of the data mining is to extract the time Sensor. previously unknown and useful information from the already collected data. It is an interdisciplinary sub- Geographical Information System (GIS) field of computer science. It is sometimes called as The GIS is the database for capturing, storing, dis- or knowledge discovery. It is the process of analysing playing, updating manipulating, and analysing, in or- data from different perspective and summarizing it der to solve complex management problem. It links into useful information. Technically, data mining is maps with database and with its help one can analyse the process of finding correlation or pattern among over time and space. It is helpful in assessing the dozens of fields in large relational database. level of vulnerability of different areas and different Disaster Analyzer and Tracking Environment (DATE) people. One can forecast the possibility of disaster at is new software which provides a timeless and open location over time. It gives the shortest possible route architecture for catastrophic disasters through data to mitigate the disaster area. Rapid action and help mining. For instance, epidemic detection like epidem- can be reached to disaster area; it will reduce time to ics of infectious disease, terrorism, earthquake, wild- reach people in need. It can give the data and infor- life fire, contamination of resource like water and mation of the availability of the safe place, hospital, food supplies, flood, etc based on data mining tech- transportation, fire station, telecommunication, refu- niques to detect epidemic illness, caused by infec- gee camp, electric power, water, gas, bank and fi- tious diseases (Ghosh, 2012). nance. All this information is accompanied with metadata for quick action. Information Exchange It is an informal term that is used to exchange the Role of Remote Sensing information among the various department such as It is the technique of acquiring the information of the exchange of information among the fire station, po- distant object without physical in touch. The simple lice department, hospitals and citizens to tackle the example is our eye by which we see and capture the common problem. The information can be exchange information of the things we see. Data can be analysed within the country or among different nation to share and captured with the help of Earth Resource Data its experience to solve the problem of disaster. In Analysis System (ERDAS) and GIS and can assess case of disaster mitigation, it will be very helpful to

Disaster Management and Technology 119 share the method and technology to deal with the tional level of resolution allowing comparison between disaster in efficient way so that the disaster can be countries with respect to three types of hazards, viz., tackle with the minimal loss of life and property. earthquake, cyclones, and floods (India ranks high- est risk prone to floods, for cyclones India ranks sec- Geospatial Web Service ond after China and for earthquake India is ranked The Geospatial Web have a profound impact on man- 10th) (UNDP, 2007). India is one of the ten worst aging knowledge, structuring workflows within and disaster prone countries of the world. In India 50 % across organizations, and communicating with like - of land is susceptible to seismic hazard; 12% of total minded individuals in virtual communicating. The en- geographical area is prone to floods and river ero- abling technologies for Geospatial Web are geo sion; 68% of total cultivated area is vulnerable to browser such as NASA World Wind, Google Earth drought (Malhotra, 2016). Building Material Council and Microsoft Live Local 3D. These three-dimen- and Technology Promotion prepared a vulnerability sional platforms revolutionize the production and con- map of India, showing multi – hazard zones based on sumption of media products. They not only reveal earthquakes, wind and cyclones and floods. This aids the geographic distribution of Web resources and in preparedness, quick risk assessment and action services, but also bring together people of similar in- as well as being an invaluable tool for proactive plan- terests, browsing behaviour, or geographic location. ning and has given enough warning regarding pos- Web service technologies facilitate data and service sible hazards that might get converted into disasters sharing among disaster management community. In- in the future (Singh and Kumar, 2015). formation sharing among different disaster manage- ment stakeholders is essential for coordinated disas- Conclusion ter management, particularly at the response phase. The impact of disaster is no more new phenomena now days. It can cause anytime and anywhere, so Application of Night Time Sensor the best way to solve this problem and reduce the With the development of latest remote sensing tech- loss of life and property is to stay alert and active all nology now, it is possible that to access the actual the time. Human being cannot stop disaster but location during night time with the help of latest Night minimise its impact by the use of technology. To man- Time sensor. The limitation is that the observation age the climate change – disasters – security nexus, can be carried out when the area to be imaged is the country needs to have improved scientific under- known. In fact, they can have sensitivity high enough standing, capacity building, networking and broad to provide information useful in the aftermath of natu- consultation processes across every section of the ral disaster such as earthquakes, when first respond- society (Singh and Kumar, 2015). It has been ob- ers proving relief action need to know the location served that nations with advanced technology had and the extant of the damaging areas, the potential tackled the impact of disaster more efficiently than amount of population involved and the place where the nation with low technological development. People survivors are concentrated (Cruz et al., 2007). living in vulnerable area may be well informed in ad- vance, even during and after the disaster, rescue team Disasters in India tackle the problem with the help of available technol- Disasters are as old as civilization of human being. ogy and save the huge loss of life and property. Proper On account of the unique geophysical setting and geo- risk assessment should be there and science advice climatic conditions, India has been traditionally vul- during emergency situations plays a very a very sig- nerable to natural disasters. The geo-climatic zone in nificant role in disaster management. The rescue which India is located, the large land mass located in teams with appropriate scientific training facilities are vulnerable areas along with the physical, social and necessary to cope up with disaster prone areas. economic vulnerability of people living in high risk (Singh, 2016). The scientist community should im- areas makes it one of the most disaster prone coun- prove the technological level to reduce the impacts tries in the world. The United Nations Development of disaster for sustainable future earth. Programme has developed a Disaster Risk Index (DRI) with a global level of observation and a na-

120 World Focus May 2016 References IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Bhatta, B. “ Remote Sensing and GIS, Second Crescent Societies) (2005) World Disaster Report: Edition” New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011. 2005: Focus on information in disaster. IFRC, Geneva. Cruz, et al . (2007) “On the application of Night time Malhotra, Promey (2016) Disaster Management, Sensors for Rapid Detection of Areas Impacted by Partiyogita Darpan, Jan, 2016 Issue 114, pp 99 -102. Disaters”. Geomatics solutions for Disaster Man- Singh, R. B. (2016) Message for magazine Geo- Vi- agement, (eds) Li Jonathan and Zlatanova, S, pp 17- sion 2016, Disaster Preparedness – Knowledge for 36. New York, Springer. Life, SSN College, University of Delhi, Delhi. Geography Site: Gujarat Earthquake 2011, A case Singh, R. B. and Kumar Ajay (2015) Understanding study, http://www.geography.site.co. Climate – induced Disasters for Sustainable Future Geospatial web.com Earth: Case Studies of Rajasthan and Uttarakhand Ghosh, R. (2012) “Natural Disaster Management, Himalaya, World Focus, Oct, 2015, pp 23- 33. New Technologies and Opportunities”. Agartala: UNDP (2007) Human Development Report 2007/8. Icfai University Press, pp 4 -10. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Hyndman, D. and Hydman, D. “Natural Hazards and Tomaszewski, B. “Geographic Information Disasters” Canada: Yolanda Cassio,2012. System(GIS) for Disaster Management.” London, New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2015.

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Disaster Management and Technology 121 Community-based Disaster Management Nirbhav and Yuthika Agarwal

Introduction IDNDR Initiatives Disasters destroy lives and livelihoods around the Since the International Decade for Natural Disaster world. Between 2000 and 2012, 1.7 million people Reduction (IDNDR) in the 1990s disasters have taken died in disasters and an estimated US$ 1.7 trillion of an increasingly high priority on the global political damage was sustained. Disaster risk reduction ac- agenda. Increasing attention is being given to the ris- tivities aim to reduce the human, economic and envi- ing impacts of disasters and to ways to reduce the ronmental costs of such disasters and science and exposure and vulnerability of communities and as- technology can play an essential role in these efforts. sets to natural hazards. While the hazard posing a There are now programmes to forecast floods, de- disaster risk a tsunami, storm or earthquake gener- tect tsunami waves, prevent infectious disease out- ally cannot be influenced, the impact and frequency breaks with vaccination and effectively communicate of disasters can be significantly reduced through the disaster risk to enhance community resilience. coordinated efforts of governments, experts and com- Thus, science and technology is already helping to munities to mitigate against, prepare for, respond to save lives and livelihoods in some instances. For di- and recover from disasters. This is disaster risk re- saster risk reduction, science is considered in its wid- duction. Examples of disaster risk reduction activity est sense to include the natural, environmental, so- include extreme weather forecasting, improving build- cial, economic, health and engineering sciences. ing design and urban planning, provision of insurance Science and Technology can: to households and businesses, and exercising of di- • be driven by the need to address the adverse ef- saster plans. Disaster risk reduction requires strate- fects of disasters on lives, livelihoods, economies and gic planning and implementation as well as technical societies and scientific expertise. • enable more focused disaster risk assessment • reduce the impact of disasters by better forecast- The adoption of disaster risk reduction strat- ing egies requires not only investment but also a differ- • improve disaster risk mitigation programmes ent approach to policy development. In disaster-prone areas, the exhaustion of resources in responding to a Disasters and Disaster Risk disaster, and the disruption it causes, can be a per- The number, scale and cost of disasters are increas- verse obstacle to investment in risk reduction strate- ing. Many disaster hazards are becoming more fre- gies even though they may provide long-term protec- quent as a result of climate change while human ex- tion and reduce future vulnerability to similar events. posure and vulnerability to hazards is increasing grow- ing and ageing populations, unplanned settlements, The Role of Science in Disaster Management and increasing assets all put communities at greater Science is knowledge obtained through study or prac- risk of physical and economic harm when a disaster tice. For disaster risk reduction, scientific capacities occurs. In addition, between 2005 and 2009 more must be interpreted broadly to include all relevant than 50% of people affected by natural disasters lived matters of a scientific and technical nature, where in fragile and conflict-affected states. There is strong science is considered in its widest sense to include evidence that conflict and fragility increase the im- the natural, environmental, social, economic, health pact of natural disasters, and there is an expectation and engineering sciences. Similarly, the term ‘techni- that disasters and conflict will collide more in the fu- cal’ includes relevant matters of technology, engineer- ture. ing practice and implementation. Scientific and tech- nical work often requires the participation of practi-

122 World Focus May 2016 tioners and other intermediaries in addition to schol- ties (the first responders) are actively engaged in the ars and scientists. Science can be applied to mitigate identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and risk and vulnerability throughout the whole of the risk evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their reduction cycle: through prevention (where possible), vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities. Due to prediction and early detection to resilient systems for the severity and widespread nature of natural disas- response and recovery. ters in India, the need for the institutionalization of The scientific research agenda for each stage of the CBDRM in government policy making and risk reduction cycle will reflect the varying degrees programmes has been considered as of significant of predictability of the challenges to be faced. On the value to the nation. one hand, the need for development of sensor tech- nology for the detection of hazards leads to a re- Community participation has been recognized search programme with clear-cut goals for the early as the additional element in disaster management nec- detection phase of the cycle. Such research must essary to reverse the worldwide trend of exponential support the rapid design and development of better increase in disaster occurrence of and loss from small interventions to be implemented as the disaster re- and medium scale disasters, build a culture of safety, sponse is mobilized. The over-arching scientific re- and ensure sustainable development for all. Major search agenda for disaster risk reduction must offer benefits of the community based risk assessment, miti- a vision of this whole cycle, recognizing the different gation planning and implementation processes under- research challenges at each stage and delivering a scored include building confidence, pride in being able portfolio of understandings which will support disas- to make a difference, and enhanced capabilities to ter response teams in managing the particular chal- pursue disaster preparedness, mitigation as well as lenges they face. But in order to be integrated into bigger development responsibilities at the local disaster risk reduction policy-making, the output of level.Good practices in the community based ap- scientific research must be: proaches to disaster mitigation highlight key success • Useful factors such as applying best practice methodologies • Usable of community development to community based di- • Used saster mitigation, tapping traditional organizational This concept of ‘Useful, Usable and Used’ was dis- structures and mechanisms (including formal and in- cussed by Boaz and Hayden, where they considered formal community leaders), and capability building the issues around evidence-based policy making, activities with the community disaster committees and which can present challenges for researchers since volunteers. Preparedness to face disasters is required the requirement to deliver `the right information, at at all levels right from the Household to the state the right time, for the right people’ can appear to com- Government to minimize the impact of Disasters. The promise traditional academic roles and responsibili- Government cannot reach out immediately to each ties. and every Household/village at the time of disaster. The UNISDR Scientific and Technical The community is the first responder of any disaster Committee’s 2009 report ’Reducing Disaster Risks and develops some traditional coping mechanisms to through Science: Issues and action’ discussed how reduce their vulnerabilities. this challenge can be overcome through improved dialogue between scientists and decision-makers, Community Preparedness making the case that science can be made useful for The involvement of the community is the key factor disaster risk reduction. The case studies in this as- in any disaster preparedness. The participation of the signment provide ample evidence that science is us- community is vital to sustain the activities of rebuild- able for disaster risk reduction. ing the shattered community life. Community Based Disaster Preparedness is: Community Based Disaster Risk Management • A response mechanism to save life, livelihood, live- Plan stock and assets with available resources within the Community Based Disaster Risk Management community. (CBDRM) is a process in which at –risk communi-

Community-based Disaster Management 123 • Leads to multi-pronged development interventions Earthquakes to address the root cause of vulnerability. An important element of earthquake mitigation is community awareness and participation.Awareness • Leads to a self-reliant disaster proof community. of earthquake risk and a desire to live in houses safe In order to generate the preparedness and response from seismic forces helpmotivate construction of within the people, Community Based Disaster Pre- earthquake-resistant buildings. Knowledge of what paredness Plans (CBDP) has to be developed in all to do in theevent of an earthquake can be increased the vulnerable areas. A CBDP is a list of activities a by earthquake drills and public community decides to follow to prevent loss of life, awarenessprogrammes. Community organizations livelihoods and property in case of a disaster. It also and local officials should develop plans to prepare identifies well in advance, actions to be taken by indi- and react tothe emergency. The plan might include viduals in the community so that each one is aware the following elements and activities: of his/ her responsibilities when an emergency warn- • ing is received. The plans involve providing training Identifying and training teams for search and res- to the community people to make them aware and cue operations. responsible to protect themselves during and post di- • Ensuring the rapid availability of detection equip- sasters. The Components of any CBDP Plan neces- ment. sarily include: • Identifying and training teams for disaster assess- 1. Community Profile: this includes the community ment. characteristics including its physical, administrative, • Identifying safe sites and emergency shelters geographic, demographic, socio-economic and infra- where vulnerable populations could berelocated. structure profile, its development position and the • context upon which disaster will impact the area. Training personnel in trauma care and first aid. 2. Resource Inventory: Involves analyzing the local • Planning for an alternative water supply. resources available within the community, which can • Preparing plans to clear streets for emergency ac- be harnessed and enhanced for disaster prepared- cess. ness and response. It shall include a listing of trained • Preparing emergency communication systems and manpower, livelihood activities, health, education, water, sanitation, electricity, communications and messages to the public regardingtheir security. transport facilities. It shall also include the local com- • Training teams to determine if buildings are safe mittee Task forces and Emergency directory. for reoccupancy. 3. Community Maps: this shall include the Open • Preparing flood plans for susceptible areas. spaces, Medical Facilities, Communication Facilities, • Coordinating preparations with voluntary organiza- Transportation Facilities, Water Facilities, Temporary tions. Shelters, Sanitation Facilities, Search and Rescue Operation facilities Landslides 4. Future Mock Drill: this is a list of dates when the The most damaging landslides often occur as a result periodic mock drill in the community will be conducted. of the activities of people.Construction of roads, hous- Community Based Disaster Risk reduction ing, and other infrastructure frequently causes land- strategies slides. Thusthe most effective preparedness measures The paper focuses on specific activities for reducing are those taken before people occupy avulnerable the risks associated with thefollowing hazards: area. Public education programmes help people un- • Earthquakes derstand the causes andeffects of landslides in addi- • Landslides tion to helping them identify unstable areas and avoid • Floods and water hazards settlingthere.Communities should be trained to rec- ognize potential land instabilities, identify • Storms (typhoons, hurricanes, tropical storms and activelandslide areas, and avoid siting houses in haz- tornadoes) ardous locations.Immediate relay of information is • Droughts and desertification essential in places whererockfalls or debris flows are

124 World Focus May 2016 likely to occur rapidly. In these cases, use of the media radio, television, warning sirens or bells should or otherwidely reaching information systems may be bedevised. required. Monitoring and warning systemsshould placeinhabitants on alert when heavy rains occur or Storms (Typhoons, Hurricanes, Tropical storms if ground water levels rise. and Tornadoes) Communities can help reduce their risk of damage Floods and Water Hazards from storms by preparing evacuationplans and warn- The majority of deaths and much of the destruction ing systems to be implemented in the event of a storm; created by floods can be prevented bymitigation and by constructingwind-resistant or easily rebuilt houses; preparedness measures. Communities can be actively by securing and fastening down those elements involved in reducingthe risk of flood damage. Aware- thatcould blow away and cause damage or injury else- ness of water hazards can be reflected in where, such as metal sheeting, fences, andsigns; by livingpractices such as constructing elevated storage taking shelter in strong, wind-resistant buildings; by and sleeping areas.Monitoring and warning systems taking protective measuresfor boats, building contents at the local(and regional) level are also important or other possessions at risk; and by protecting food components of a risk reduction strategy.Inhabitants storagefacilities from storms. of flood prone areas usually have a number of tradi- tional methods for copingwith floods. Some aspects Droughts and Desertification of flood planning and response can be managed at Communities can construct check dams, reservoirs, the villagelevel and upgraded with outside assistance. wells and water tanks as well asdevelop planting and These are: re-forestation efforts to reduce the risks of drought • Issuing warnings at the local level. and desertification.They can also change cropping patterns and livestock management practices, • Participating in flood fighting by organizing work introducewater conservation policies, build sturdier parties to repair embankments or clear debris from wells, start dry-season well-irrigated gardens drainage areas, pile sandbags and stockpile needed anddevelop alternative non-agricultural industries. materials. • Facilitating agricultural recovery. Conclusion • Planning emergency supplies of food and clean Disasters destroy lives and livelihoods around the drinking water. world. Thus science and technology is already help- • Identifying traditional mitigation and preparedness ing to save lives and livelihoods in some instances. measures and determining theireffectiveness. For disaster risk reduction, science is considered in its widest sense to include the natural, environmen- • Explanations of the function of flood plains, loca- tal, social, economic, health and engineering tion of local flood plains anddrainage patterns. sciences.Science and Technology can be driven by • Identification of flood hazard and warning signs. the need to address the adverse effects of disasters • Advice on how to flood-proof possessions and de- on lives, livelihoods, economies and societies enable velop personal escape plans. more focused disaster risk assessment reduce the • Explanation of local evacuation plans and warning impact of disasters by better forecasting improve di- saster risk mitigation programmes. Many disaster systems, and appropriate postdisasteractivities. • hazards are becoming more frequent as a result of Emphasis on personal responsibility for flood pre- climate change while human exposure and vulner- vention/mitigation in day-to-dayliving practices. This ability to hazards is increasing growing and ageing includes the use of proper farming practices, preven- populations, unplanned settlements, and increasing tion ofdeforestation and maintenance of drainage assets all put communities at greater risk of physical systems. and economic harm when a disaster occurs. Increas- • Evacuation procedures should be practiced on a ing attention is being given to the rising impacts of regular basis and ways todisseminate warnings via disasters and to ways to reduce the exposure and vulnerability of communities and assets to natural

Community-based Disaster Management 125 hazards. While the hazard posing a disaster risk a References tsunami, storm or earthquake generally cannot be in- Bühler, Y.;Hüni, A.; Christen, M.; Meister, R. and fluenced, the impact and frequency of disasters can Kellenberger, T., (2009). Automated detection and map- be significantly reduced through the coordinated ef- ping of avalanche deposits using airborne optical re- forts of governments, experts and communities to mote sensing data. Cold Regions Science and Tech- mitigate against, prepare for, respond to and recover from disasters. . The adoption of disaster risk reduc- nology, 57, 99 – 106 tion strategies requires not only investment but also a Bühler, Y.A.; Egli, L.; Ginzler, C. (2011b).Towards the different approach to policy development. wide area high resolution snow depth mapping using airborne optical scanner data. [Abstract] In: 6th Early warning system technologies are now EARSeL Workshop “Cryosphere, Hydrology & Climate available for almost all types of hazards, although for interactions”, 07 - 09 February 2011. Department of some hazards (such as droughts and landslides) these technologies are still less developed. Most countries Geography, University of Berne. Available from Internet: appear to have early warning systems for natural di- http://www.conferences.earsel.org/abstract/s how/ saster mitigation; however, there is still a technologi- 2113 cal and national capacity divide between developed Dey, B. and Singh, R.B. :Natural Hazards and Disas- and developing countries. Geospatial technologies play ter Management, CBSE, Delhi, pages 45, 2006. a significant role in disaster management cycle. The www.cbse.nic.in/natural%20hazards %20&%20disas- recent large-scale earthquake and tsunami events have ter %20management.pdf (Internet Pub.) demonstrated their uses in post-disaster emergency responses. Remote sensing provides synoptic and Sen Roy, S. And Singh, R.B.: Climate Variability, Ex- detailed data required for emergency and post-disas- treme Events and Agricultural Productivity in Moun- ter responses. It is the unique source of timely data tain Regions, Oxford & IBH Pub., New Delhi, pages captured in hard-hit and inaccessible areas after a 232, 2002. disaster. Geospatial tools and services, including mo- Singh, R.B.: Space Technology for Disaster Monitor- bile and web-based solutions, have extensively de- ing and Mitigation in India, INCEDE, Inst. Of Indus- ployed in emergency responses and relief efforts. The geospatial web-based platforms have been used for trial Science, University of Tokyo, Pages 58, 1994. dispatched management and planning, community Singh, R.B.: Natural Hazards and Disaster Manage- participatory mapping and reporting. ment, Rawat Pub., Jaipur, Pages 352, 2006. Singh, R.B.: Disaster Management, Rawat Pub., Jaipur, pages 333, 2000.

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126 World Focus May 2016 Concepts and Practices of Disaster Management Nikhil Roy and Bindhy Wasini Pandey

Introduction however, understanding of this concept is now be- Disaster Management is the process of reducing the coming more comprehensive, to include susceptibil- risk of, and vulnerability to hazards. Traditionally Di- ity, exposure, coping capacity, adaptive capacity, so- saster Management meant the measures taken to cial inequalities, and physical, institutional, and eco- bring quick and effective relief to disaster hit areas. nomic weaknesses. However, contemporary studies of disaster manage- ment focus on preventing disasters by pre-planning 2. Disaster Risk: effective measures for regions that are prone to di- Risk is a measure of the expected losses (deaths, saster; both man made as well as natural. injuries, property, economic activity etc) due to a haz- ard of a particular magnitude occurring in a given The International Federation of Red Cross area over a specific time period. A community/local- defines Disaster Management as the organization and ity is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards management of resources and responsibilities for deal- and is likely to be adversely affected by its impact. ing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in Thus, Disaster risk can be explained most simply as particular preparedness, response and recovery in the function of a specific hazard, physical exposure order to lessen the impact of disasters. of elements at risk and human vulnerability (Asia- Pacific Disaster Report, 2012). A fundamental prin- To understand Disaster Management, it is ciple of strategic disaster management is recognizing necessary to understand the concepts of Vulnerabil- that risk and trying to minimise it. Risk management ity, Risk, Hazard and Disaster that are embedded in comprises risk assessment and analysis, and the imple- the process of Disaster Management. These have mentation of strategies and specific actions to con- been discussed below. trol, reduce and transfer risks. It is widely practiced by organizations to minimise risk in investment deci- 1. Vulnerability: sions and to address operational risks such as those Vulnerability is a very relative concept. It refers to of business disruption, production failure, environmen- the inability of an individual, group, society, or a na- tal damage, social impacts and damage from fire and tion to deal with disasters effectively. It has been natural hazards. observed that when a disaster strikes any region, the people most affected are more likely to be poor, 3. Hazards: women, children, and old. These are the groups that Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or are referred to as vulnerable. Many factors like eco- event, that threat or have the potential for causing nomic, social, and political affect the capacity of people injury to life or damage to property or the environ- to deal with disasters. For example low income ment.” A hazard may be any event that threatens life groups are more likely to live in areas that are ex- and property and disrupts normal life. Hazards can posed to disaster risk and more thus more likely to be both natural as well as man mad (Unnatural). bear the brunt of any such event. Conversely, when • Natural Hazards: These are extreme events caused a disaster strikes, it is the poor who have a paucity of by physical forces working on or within the earth’s resources to deal with it. surface. Examples of natural hazards include earth- quakes, volcanoes, floods, cyclones, droughts etc. Vulnerability can generally be described as Because natural hazards are created by physical the potential for loss (Cutter, 1996). In the past, Vul- forces, it is not possible to stop them. However, by nerability has been limited to physical susceptibility;

Concepts and Practices of Disaster Management 127 proper planning and policymaking, the risk to these saster at all levels. Disaster management occurs at hazards can be drastically reduced. three stages. These are: • Man Made Hazards (Unnatural Hazards): These 1. Pre-Disaster: Pre-disaster management of di- hazards are caused by human agencies either through saster is the steps taken to reduce the risk of disas- negligence or for vindictive purposes. Examples of ters. The processes involved in pre-disaster man- Unnatural Hazards include terrorism, fire, accidents agement are: etc. Through raising awareness, better education, • Preparedness: This refers to the formulation of and better urban and rural management, these haz- plans and policies for developing early warning sys- ards can be tackled and removed. tem and relief and rescue operations. • Mitigation: Disaster Mitigation refers to all the 4. Disasters: steps that are taken to reduce the vulnerability of The United Nations defines a disaster as a serious people to disasters. Thus providing irrigation and disruption of the functioning of a community or a so- water harvesting techniques in drought prone area, ciety. Disasters involve widespread human, material, creating embankments in flood prone area, and build- economic or environmental impacts, which exceed ing strong and resistant infrastructure in earthquake the ability of the affected community or society to prone areas come under mitigation measures. cope using its own resources. 2. During Disaster: This includes the rescue op- Disasters are caused when hazards strike a erations that are carried out when natural hazards human population. The key to understand disasters is strike any place. Supplying food and water, ensur- that without the presence of human population is a ing safe sanitation, and providing accessibility come must for a hazard to become a disaster. Natural Haz- under rescue measures. All these steps come under ards like earthquakes and floods have occurred “Response” to a disaster. throughout the history of the earth. However, in the past there was no human population to be affected 3. After Disaster: When a society experiences di- physically or economically by hazards. With the emer- saster, it can scar the collective consciousness of the gence, spread, and expansion of human population, people. Thus, after the disaster is over, it is impor- hazards became disasters. Thus, disasters can be tant that proper trauma treatment is available to the describes as the effect of hazards on human society. people. Apart from this, many new things are learned Because disasters are derived from hazards, there- during disaster that can be included in future man- fore, disaster can also be called natural or manmade. agement techniques. The inclusion of these also However, in recent years, a concept that has gained comes under “Recovery”. currency is that no disaster is natural, rather all are manmade. Natural Hazards become disaster only Conclusion when they cause damage to life and property. With From the above discussions it is clear that even though proper planning, the effects of all types of hazards hazards are unavoidable, disasters are preventable. can be greatly reduced. Thus, if by using proper pre- This has created the discipline and the practise of ventive measures, loss to human population during a Disaster Management, wherein, the risk of disaster hazard is negated, then the hazard would not be called and the vulnerability of people to disaster is reduced. a disaster. The fact that hazards turn into a disaster An example of how disaster management reduce the because proper planning and disaster mitigation tech- loss to life and property is the case of the coastal niques have not been implemented has led to all di- areas of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa in India. When sasters being called Unnatural or Man-made Disas- cyclone struck the coastal areas in 1999, almost 10,000 ters. people lost their lives and property worth millions were destroyed. After learning through mistakes of 1999, Practice of Disaster Management: new techniques and new technologies were incorpo- Disaster management can thus be defined as the body rated in management of cyclones. Using these tech- of policy and administrative decisions and operational niques, in 2014 and 2015, the loss because of equally activities which pertain to the various stages of a di- deadly cyclones was reduced to a minimum. Thus,

128 World Focus May 2016 through proper management of disaster, hazards could Pearce, L. (2003). Disaster management and com- be stopped from becoming disasters. munity planning, and public participation: how to achieve sustainable hazard mitigation. Natural haz- References ards, 28(2-3), 211-228. Abhay S. Prasad, Bindhy W. Pandey, Walter Prakash S, Begum I and Rita (2014). Activity Book Leimgruber and Ripu M. Kunwar (2016) Mountain on Disaster Management for School Students, Na- hazard susceptibility and livelihood security in the tional Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi upper catchment area of the river Beas, Kullu Val- Reducing Vulnerability and Exposure to Disaster ley, Himachal Pradesh, India) In Springer Journal (2012). The Asia Pacific Report Geoenvironmental Disasters (2016) 3:3 DOI Singh, R.B.(2005) Risk Assessment and Vulnerabil- 10.1186/s40677-016-0037- x ity Analysis, IGNOU PG Diploma in Disaster Man- Cutter, S. L. (1996). Societal responses to environ- agement- MPA-003, New Delhi., pages 355. mental hazards.International Social Science Jour- Singh, R.B.(1994) Space Technology for Disaster nal, 48(150), 525-536. Monitoring and Mitigation in India, INCEDE, Inst. Dey, B. and Singh, R.B. (2006) Natural Hazards and Of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Pages Disaster Management, CBSE, Delhi, pages 45. 58, www.cbse.nic.in/natural%20hazards% 20&%20di- Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assess- saster %20management.pdf (Internet Pub.) ment Guide (2013) Homeland Security Hazards Disaster and Your Community, Natural Di- Yodmani, S. (2001). Disaster risk management and saster Management Division, Ministry of Home Af- vulnerability reduction: Protecting the poor. The fairs, Government of India Center.

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Concepts and Practices of Disaster Management 129 India-Bangladesh Disaster Management in Sundarbans Delta Dr. Anna Nath Ganguly

Introduction ing people to live in poor conditions (World Bank, Climate change has become critical to issues per- 2009). In the last two decades millions have been taining to human security, resource availability and affected by natural disasters in the SAR. Though the accessibility, and ecological stability of a nation, since region shares many commonalities but at the same hydro-climatic hazards like droughts, floods, earth- has divergent interests. SAR also spans variety of quakes pose threats to human life and exacerbate climate zones, it shares common ecological limits, and socio, economic and political tensions. John Cook et so natural hazards frequently trail national boundaries. al (2013) in a survey to measure the effect of an- thropogenic global warming which was published in Common Calamities across South Asia Environmental Research Papers on May 2013, indi- Floods are known as slow onset disasters as they cated that an examination of climate-related papers often take time to develop, unlike earthquakes and published from 1991 to 2011, points out that there is cyclones, but its impact is greatest. In the past four an agreement among scientific experts and scholars decades in SAR, floods have been accounted as a that humans and their activities are causing global major contributor to health risk impacting individuals warming through emissions. The vulnerability pro- and economic losses caused in vast scale (World voked by human activities is visible through the in- Bank, 2012). The second most commonly occurring crease in the natural disasters in contemporary times. disaster in SAR is cyclone that has caused panic and In Asia alone, from 2001 to 2010, over seven thou- susceptibility in low-lying Bangladesh and parts of sand natural disasters have been recorded in the 1 India. Among the worst disasters in South Asia, the world (Tourism Review, 2011).The rapid change in 1970 cyclone killed approximately 300,000 people, the the global environment has come to threaten us with 1991 cyclone killed almost 140,000, Cyclone Sidr in grave realities disrupting lives in ecologically fragile 2007 and Cyclone Aila in 2009 all affected a large parts that demonstrate extreme vulnerability in terms population across India and Bangladesh. Also major of huge economic and environmental challenges. population in South Asia inhabit areas in coastal ar- Major causes for ecological change in Asia have eas and vulnerable belts exposed to dangers which been identified as increase in population followed by are expected to increase significantly in the next few lack of awareness about habitat. During the Poznan decades (World Bank, 2012). (Poland) UN Climate Change Conference in 2008, it was pointed out that increase in population will lead Bangladesh has been a victim of sea-level to declining resource base on an already stressed rise, cyclones and floods for decades and is subjected Common Property Resource(CPR) base that has to unwarranted climate risks. Cyclones have in- been subject to abuse from wars, technological boom creased from five per decade in 1901 to 48 per de- and modernisation process (World Bank, 2008). cade in 2000. Flooding has increased from 0.6 per In South Asia, where the regional composition is much year in 1960 to 2.9 per year in 1990, and the intensity different from the developed territories in Europe and of flooding is expected to increase by 10 percent in America, more severity in climate change through coming decades (CUTS, 2011). rising temperature, dry and humid weather, irregular and sometimes incessant rainfall, and extreme change Nicholls et al. (2011), specify that sea-level in weather events result to aggravating conditions. It rise and its impacts on the shorelines have attracted is estimated that South Asia’s population by 2050 is considerable attention since the 1980’s. High con- likely to exceed every year in huge numbers and small centration of population and assets around the coastal climate shocks may result in irrevocable losses forc- areas has increased over the years, which makes the 130 World Focus May 2016 picture dismal with climate hazards. In the twentieth salinisation. Coastal wetland that comprises salt century sea levels has risen by an average of around marshes, mangroves and intertidal are highly produc- 1.7mm a year. The latest satellite data marks the rise tive and support key functions like food protection, at around 3mm a year, Greenpeace (2012). The IPCC nature conservation and environmental stability; how- assessment also presents a gloomy picture making ever their decline has a high human cost predictions between 26 and 59cm (10-23 inches) sea- (OECD,2003) and puts the ecosystem in danger. level rise in 21st century. However there has been much speculation and uncertainties on these estimates Over the years inundation tied with reduced (IPCC, 2001a). flows through upstream rivers during winter has ac- celerated salt water intrusion in inlands waters and Since a large portion of the coastal areas of affects agriculture and fishery sectors seriously, on Bangladesh are within a distance of one metre from which is dependent the livelihoods of millions. Un- the sea level. A projected 15 cm rise in sea level will checked erection of basins and inadequate freshwa- perennially flood six percent of the total area. In In- ter for consumptive uses; besides the sinking of delta dia sea level has raised between 1.06 to 1.75 mm per due to local groundwater withdrawal and extraction; year, according to IPCC figures. Situation is expected has led the reduction of the outlet (Ericson et al. 2006). to be more complex with changing climatic patterns In addition is the ordeal of scarce economic resources, towards the end of the century (IPCC, 2001a). Rain- infrastructure, and absence of protection from social fall patterns have also become irregular over time. In implications. The countries in South Asia in case of CUTS (2011) it is cited that number of rainy days is disaster preparedness are also ill-equipped in terms expected to decline, though the intensity of rainfall of early warning and disaster response systems, vic- would increase by one to four mm per day in India. tim relief and recovery assistance. Though there has Eustatic sea-level rise (of range between 1.5 and 2 been a somewhat positive development in disaster mm yr”1) presents tremendous challenge to popula- preparedness since the past five years. There is sig- tion living within 1 m of sea level. The IPCC Fifth nificant gap between climate consciousness, alterna- Report (2001) has predicted an increase from 1-3.5ºC tive approaches and solutions in terms of adaptation over the next 100 years, which if true may create and mitigation strategies. alarming situation for coastal parts of South Asia (IPCC, 2001a). Human activities more than safeguarding have rather disrupted livelihoods generation in the According to Hazra (2011) sea-level rise pose coast. In tropical and subtropical mangrove forests serious threats to the existence of small islands and and temperate salt marshes, large-scale ecosystem island states, and coastal areas, and a possible con- conversion for agriculture, industrial and urban de- sequence of anthropogenic effects. A minor level in- velopment, and aquaculture, sand mining and hydro- crease in water levels in sea can lead to disastrous carbon production, harvests of fisheries and other liv- impact in terms of coastal flooding, submergence, ing resources, introductions of invasive species and eroding shorelines, ecosystems changes, salinisation, construction of seawalls and other structures, have salt water contamination of fresh water supplies, practically made the coastal and low-lying area more flooding of coastal wetlands and barrier islands and susceptible and fragile. Many engineering activities, other such harsh realities. even soft solutions like beach nourishment and con- struction to meet larger commercial and energy Economic Cost of Climate Change on Coastal needs, like damming, channelisation and diversions Systems and Low-Lying Areas of coastal waterways have harden the coast, chang- Deltas, low-lying coastal plains, coastal wetlands, ing the circulation patterns and altering freshwater, coral islands, beaches, barrier islands and estuaries sediment and nutrient delivery. faces greater threat with the increase in water-lev- els in the coast and thus have varied impact like inun- In the paper ‘The Economics of Climate dation and displacement of wetlands and lowlands, Change’, Stern (2006) deliberates that current green- coastal erosion, increased coastal storm flooding and house gas emissions are on a dangerous mark, and

India-Bangladesh Disaster Management in Sundarbans Delta 131 the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmo- sults in multiple challenges from loss of livelihood sphere could reach double its pre-industrial level as means, water conflicts, refugee problem, economic- early as 2035, and the common practice of ‘business ecology fracas that spawns a diplomatic thorn be- as usual’ to counter the impact of climate change tween the two countries. could only be detrimental in ecologically marginalised regions. As growth and climate change are inter-re- The Delta and its surroundings have a dy- lated, climate change makes profound impact not just namic physiographical and geo-morphological evolu- on the environment but on the social and economic tionary history characterised by fused multi-genera- activity, prosperity and development of the region and tion deltas that have prograded2 in phases during the country. Individual countries consequently need to interglacial eustatic sea level changes occurred dur- assess their policy positions together on how to gen- ing the Plio-Pleistocene time towards the Bay of Ben- erate strong international action. gal, according to Geological survey of India. The delta surrounded by Bay of Bengal in the south has wit- Adaptation and Mitigation nessed increasing sea temperature over the past three Adaptation and mitigation policies are the two ways decades which have been higher than the global av- of fighting climate change, and both are not alterna- erage and even higher than the increase in Sea Sur- tives, but essential. However in developing countries face Temperature (SST)3(CSE Report, 2012). adaptation needs to be widely adopted as it will help to build resilience and minimise cost. Adaptation is The Indian Subndarbans Delta (ISD) has ex- an essential policy for poor marginal areas. Tackling perienced both decline in freshwater supplies and net climate change is a pro-growth strategy, and it is es- erosion since 1969 and lost 210.247 km till 2009, out sential to change the ways in energy technologies of which 65.062 km has been lost in the current de- and in the structure of economics to create opportu- cade. The climate of the region is tropical with high nities to decuple growth from greenhouse gas emis- humidity levels. The high sea surface temperature in sions. the ISD has resulted in extreme storm events which are frequent during the pre-monsoon period, and from While twentieth century was focused to- September through November. The Centre for Sci- wards the eradication of poverty, the twenty-first ence and Environment, an Environmental NGO in century is devoted towards countering and mitigating India divulged that on a daily basis livelihood is be- climate change that aggravates the situation of pov- coming disagreeable in Indian side of Sundarbans as erty and health risks. A report from Christian Aid climate change is leading to adverse impact on land, (2006) points out that it is the poor people who are sea and the ecosystem. Bangladesh being a low-ly- the ones who stand at the edge of the cliff, and when ing country, its paths is traversed with tropical cy- any disaster strikes, they may have limited or no route clones, wide and shallow continental shelf and the to escape the tempest that awaits them. In many re- funnelling shape of the coast. Due to the proximity to gions due to lack of access to formal information the Bay of Bengal there is heavy rainfall and high networks to alert residents in advance; or proper post- humidity levels. There is a six-month dry season in disaster mechanism the poor settlements fall prey to Sundarbans. Storms are common in May and Octo- the adverse calamities. ber-November and may develop into cyclones, usu- ally accompanied by tidal waves of up to 7.5m high, Sundarbans climate shocks as stated by IUCN/WCMC Data Sheet (1997). The Sundarbans is no ordinary delta, though like other coastal region of Bangladesh is particularly vulner- coasts it does witness wave motions, micro and able to cyclonic storm surge oods which originate in macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents that influ- the central and southern parts of the Bay of Bengal ences its physical changes; the environmental quan- or in the Andaman Sea. daries caused by climate change creates an hostile atmosphere both in the side of Indian Sundarbans Sea-level Rise in Sundarbans and Bangladesh, and even conflicts between the two As cited in many climate change documents a 1 m countries. Being at the epicentre; climate change re- rise in sea level would inundate 18% of Bangladesh’s

132 World Focus May 2016 total land, directly threatening 11% of the country’s largely to adapt to climate change and prevents mas- population with inundation. The Khulna region that sive destruction. lies along the country’s south-western coastline in Bangladesh is the most exposed to sea level rise. The WWF (2011) study reported a land loss Cyclone Sidr and Aila that ensued in Bangladesh and of 97.16 sq km from some of the most vulnerable India brought with it trajectory of worries that left southern islands of the Indian Sundarbans. In the south deep scars among the populations. On 14 November, western part of the Sundarbans, and islands with 2007, Tropical Cyclone Sidr also known as Very Se- dense mangrove substantial erosion took place. Some vere Cyclonic Storm, moved towards the Bay of of the most vulnerable islands identified are Dakshin Bengal and across the south-western coast combined Surendranagar, Sagar, Namkhana, Moushuni, with rain and high waves that destroyed the large Ghoramara, Dhanchi, Dalhousie, Bulchery, part of the mangrove forest. In Bangladesh around Bhangaduni and Jambudwip. 5,000 people were dead as it was a very strong cy- clone that hit Bay of Bengal and Bangladesh after A preliminary survey made in Sundarbans 1991 where over 143,000 Bangladeshis were affected over the last 30 years point out that close to 7000 that year. Researchers predict the onslaught of such people have been displaced from original habitat, be- cyclone like the Sidr on Sundarbans mangrove forest ing converted to environmental refugees, and will will take at least 40 years for the people to recover witness an increase in the coming years. Centre for from its impact. It has been scientifically proved that Science and Environment (CSE), one of India’s lead- villages which are bordered by mangroves are at low ing environment pressure groups, in partnership with risk to be affected by tidal waves and floods, WWF the Kolkata-based South Asian Forum for Environ- (2010). After two years again in May 2009, another ment (SAFE), has raised an alarm on the continuous devastating cyclone Aila hit India and Bangladesh loss of habitat from climate change but also a com- resulting in devastation and damages to livelihoods plete lack of climate-sensitive development planning. and property. The ecologically vulnerable zone of the Inadequate development planning is forcing people Sundarbans Delta in West Bengal received a hit in this fragile region to migrate to other parts of India sweeping away river embankments and bringing in in search of livelihoods, while the number of climate large scale soil erosion, and eroding paddy fields in refugees in the area swells and vast swathes of agri- the mangrove delta. Post-Aila, thousands of farmers cultural land is either devoured by the encroaching at Gosaba block, South 24 Parganas in West Bengal, sea or rendered unfit for cultivation. India still face extreme hardships as most of them are dependent on agriculture and soil deposits on ag- Mangroves use and degeneration in the delta riculture fields which has made farming impossible Mangroves refer to a tidally influenced wetland eco- for almost a year. The displacement and hardship system within tropical and subtropical latitudes, also has also led to trafficking of young women, accord- found in areas without a tidal regime. It features ing to findings by Press Trust of India (The Hindu, marine tidal forests that include trees, shrubs, palms, 2011). The human death toll during Aila was around epiphytes and ferns. The Sundarbans mangroves 100 people in Sundarbans with 50,000 huts being par- occupy about 62% of the southwest corner of tially or fully damaged. Almost all the islands were Bangladesh; to the south the forest meets the Bay of submerged in saltwater. Marginal increase in the Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar monsoon and post monsoon rainfall makes it difficult River, to the west by the Sundarbans National Park for cultivators because they are yet to adjust to the of India and to the north there is a sharp interface temporal shift in precipitation which adversely im- with intensively cultivated land. The mangrove wet- pacts agricultural productivity. Areas surrounded by lands functions as nursery grounds for a wide variety mangroves during the onslaught of cyclones how- of aquatic species and a sanctuary of living marine ever faced less damage when compared with those resources. Shared between India and Bangladesh; with only concrete embankments, and hence greater the mangroves anchors important brackish water fin- efforts after the catastrophe is being made to restore fish and shellfish that forms vital source of food and and regenerate mangroves since they contribute income for the populations.

India-Bangladesh Disaster Management in Sundarbans Delta 133 The mangrove forest consists of about 200 In Bangladesh, the National Environment islands, separated by about 400 interconnected tidal Policy of 1992 was a breakthrough towards sustain- rivers, creeks and canals. Among the ‘intangible’ able management of the environment. The Policy benefits, mangroves protect the coast against wave aimed to maintain the ecological balance through over- and wind erosion; moderating the effects of coastal all development and improvement of the environment; storms and cyclones; nutrient sink-effect and reduc- sustainable use of all natural resources; besides fo- tion in excessive amounts of pollutants, and entrap- cussing to remain associated with all international en- ment of upland runoff sediments saving shore reefs vironmental initiatives. Followed by the National En- and reducing water turbidity. vironmental Management Plan (NEMAP) in 1995 which aimed at implementing NEP, the government Climate policy of India and Bangladesh of the country sought attention to issues of better To adapt to climate change India formulated the Na- management of scarce resources, reducing the rate tional Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and of environmental degradation, promoting sustainable launched it in June 2008. Out of the eight missions, development and improving quality indicators of hu- most important were the creation of climate friendly man. The NEMAP proposed actions and interven- sustainable habitats, water mission for integrated tions for government agencies, NGOs and wider civil water resources management; promoting sustainable society and include activities relating to fisheries and agriculture, enhancing ecosystem services of forests, agriculture. Other significant policies were the Na- developing strategic knowledge base to address the tional Water Policy, 1999 with some 50 clauses of concerns of climate change among others. States relevance to the environment and to ensure protec- under the gloom of climate change needed to de- tion, restoration and preservation of natural habitats, velop their prioritised action plan vis a vis their re- particularly wetlands, mangroves, other forests and spective climate change concerns under the endangered species that depend on them. The Coastal overarching objectives and missions of the National Zone Policy in 2005 and the NAPA in 2009, along Action Plan on Climate Change. The NAPCC pro- with Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Ac- vided more opportunity for identifying the risks and tion Plan (2009) are some significant steps to ensure opportunities of climate change, mainstreaming the Sundarbans sustainability. climate change concerns by introducing low climate resilient developmental activities in the state and gen- The National Adaptation Programme of Ac- erates pipeline investment ready initiatives that can tion (NAPA) prepared by the Ministry of Environ- be directly adopted. Given the adverse climate situa- ment and Forest (MOEF), Government of the tion, the national climate action plan appears as a People’s Republic of Bangladesh comes as a re- major step, but it is also becomes essential to imple- sponse to the decision of the Seventh Session of the ment it with a sense of urgency (NAPCC, 2008).The Conference of the Parties (COP7) of the United Government of West Bengal considering that climate Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change change can prove to be a threat as well as opportu- (UNFCCC). It seeks to address the challenges laid nity for the state identified key sectors and regions down by climate change in the vulnerable areas in that are likely to be most vulnerable. The State Ac- the country (NAPA, 2005). After the new democratic tion Plan has identified following sectors - water, ag- government came into power Bangladesh Govern- riculture, horticulture, fisheries, animal husbandry, ment revised Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy forestry, energy efficiency, non-conventional energy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) of 2008, and building on sources, and marked Sundarbans, Darjeeling it and expanding on the National Adaptation Himalayas, habitat, institute for climate change stud- Programme of Action (NAPA) it brought into effect ies. the new BCCSAP 2009 where the climate change In view of the above, the state government constraints and opportunities are being integrated into aims to enhance the activities around Sundarbans and the over-all plan and programmes involving all sec- that of Sundarban Development Board with a sus- tors and processes for economic development (MoEF, tainable plan to address the needs of the delta (West Bangladesh, 2009). Bengal SAPCC, 2010).

134 World Focus May 2016 Through capacity building programmes and saster Risk Reduction, as most practical solutions in sustainable development programmes, communities the delta. Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) strategies are to be convinced by institutions and agents to inte- play essential role in reducing the impact of natural grate IK with modern scientific knowledge. Doing conflict with communities. But in ecologically vul- so would enable development initiatives that are both nerable parts, technologies and strategies related to environmentally and economically appropriate. Re- DRR are either absent or policymakers fail to incor- cent strategy documents for environmental manage- porate local knowledge in DRR approaches. Early ment and agricultural extension in the delta by the Warning Systems (EWS) play crucial role in reduc- Government of Bangladesh is increasingly laying ing impact of climate change. In post-assessments emphasis on Indigenous Knowledge (IK), particu- of disasters like Aila and others it has been found larly that relates to natural resources management. that EWS systems, proper evacuation plan and The National Environmental Management Action infrastructural facilities to adapt to the crisis are ab- Plan (NEMAP) 1995 includes in its recommendation sent. When Aila came down upon Sundarbans, innu- that actions on land resources must integrate indig- merable lives and assets were lost. DRCSC in their enous land out practices, to increase efficiency of assessment of Aila found that inhabitants in the production system and its application. Sundarbans India are familiar with the odds of cli- mate change. The inland communities and those liv- Sundarbans-REDD Initiative for Carbon Con- ing near the coast have not experienced a cyclone of trol such an intensity or scale in the last two decades A UNEP led project ‘Restoration of mangrove habi- before Aila. Also preparedness to such a disaster was tat and coastal biodiversity for sustainable environ- hampered by the fact that it could not be predicted mental development towards REDD Plus implica- that the embankments would suffer such extensive tion and poverty alleviation in Sundarbans of India’, damage. Absence of electrification further prevented through community participation, partnership and eq- timely information to reach to communities. Experi- uity’ in 2010-11 has envisaged developing a commu- encing cyclonic torment of such high scale with ex- nity sustained mangrove nursery and reforestation tensive flooding and waves, communities could not as a means of alternative livelihood for the people of organise and systemically evacuate to safer locations. Sundarbans. Remote captive islands of deltaic The EWS in many of the islands was at a dismal sundarbans with more than 400 economically chal- state. lenged beneficiaries of tribal origin have been cho- The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) sen and efforts were made to generate awareness that issues warning to prevent one from the stirring and community interest in protecting mangrove for- danger, though in this occasion raised the alarm yet it ests as a social tool in adopting Reducing Emissions has failed to meet its objective by being too generic from Deforestation and Forest Degradation(REDD) in nature and non-action oriented. In 2011, Sabuj plus for policy implications. Further, it was directed Sangha, in partnership with Concern Worldwide and to assess and account Carbon Offset Credit earned the European Commission, introduced a disaster re- through reforestation and prevention of forest degra- sponse programme focused on reducing the vulner- dation as a financial intervention to compensate the ability of twelve villages in the Brajaballavpur GP of opportunity cost of the community. REDD plus in Patharpratima block to cyclones and other natural climate vulnerable areas of Sundarbans is viewed as disasters. ‘Gram Samsad Level Early Warning Mes- a win-win situation to conserve mangrove and sus- sage System’ was initiated in Sundarbans to warn tain development and redefine anthropocentric con- vulnerable communities of potential flooding. This servation paradigm in coastal zone management system works by issuing details to the Centre for policy. Knowledge and Skills on height of water, speed of wind and rainfall for the following 48 hours. Each of Disaster Risk Reduction and Response these indicators is then graded relative to risk – green To minimise the negative effects of climate change signifying no danger, yellow symbolising moderate the advocates of sustainable development are pro- threat and Red meaning high risk. This content is moting natural resource management and DRR (Di- then passed on through SMS to members of local

India-Bangladesh Disaster Management in Sundarbans Delta 135 Early Warning Taskforces force members and other (TV channels) and non-electronic media coordinates like boatmen, fishers and other vulner- (newspaper)(DRCSC, 2011). able groups who were trained under the ‘Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction Programme’, includ- An important post-disaster arrangement is ing search and rescue teams, first aid teams, coordi- rescue centres or cyclone shelters. In Ramganga and nation and temporary shelter construction teams to G-Plot GP in Indian Sundarbans there are no cyclone/ handheld global positioning systems (GPS). flood shelter. In Brajaballavpur GP there is one cy- clone/ flood shelter. The affected people during di- After receiving training the messages of saster mostly move to the school premises and in specic vulnerable locations were collected. The mes- other public buildings to prevent themselves from the sages received depending on their priority were then approaching crisis. Cyclone Aila damaged most of sent to the Indian National Centre for Ocean Infor- the houses made of local materials and not robust mation Services (INCOIS) for further examination enough to withstand the damage anticipated. In and analysis and assimilation into the satellite infor- Ramganga GP around many of the houses collapsed mation management system. The process normally alongside Mridangabhanga River and several culti- takes a week or more, at INCOIS level, and for the vable lands were swamped with saline water turning entire coast of West Bengal for locations are then lands unsuitable for cultivation. Likewise in G-Plot sent to the resource agency, i.e. Center for Knowl- more than half of the households located in the east- edge and Skills (CKS), for further dissemination. From ern side of the GP collapsed. The situation in there on SMS alerts to identied volunteers within com- Brajaballavpur GP was no different were more than munities well- known among the villagers are circu- 50% of the houses shrunk in the eastern fringes of lated. These individuals are then responsible for up- the villages. Three villages of Brajabhallavpur GP dating specific message boards in their area. If flood were flooded and saline water for several days after is anticipated then they send alerts to a host of people AILA damaged the cultivable lands rendering them who are likely to be affected. Simultaneously, infor- unfit for any production purpose. Rainfall patterns in mation is also posted on the boards, and circulated Sundarbans over the years have become irregular, among staff and members of schools and community unpredictable and unconventional affecting cultiva- through the use of ags, sirens and megaphones. tion of crops.

The initiative is expected to benefit parts of Modern technologies of rainfall and weather Sundarbans, where large scale climate variability af- monitoring are installed in villages or the venues of fects large members of the communities and hence units of development organisations to stay abreast of site specific information is the needed. However chal- monsoon pattern and serve as warning tools. In lenge remains to take the process further to develop Ramganga GP, DRCSC in support from Christian Aid intra-community warning mechanisms (Sabuj Sangha, has installed two different types of equipment’s to 2010-11). At the state level, till date there has been monitor weather and rainfall patterns and study its no establishment for disaster management in the state variabilities. One of the equipment is installed in to aid in crisis. Existing communication network sys- Biswanathpur village in the houses of farmers in tems are PSTN, CELLULAR NETWORK & Broad- Ramganga GP. Also another weather and humidity Band network from State level to Gram Panchayat gadget is installed at the venue of DRCSC office of level. Some District Magistrates are equipped with Indraprastha Srijan Welfare Society in Indraprastha Inmarsat phones. At present the existing system of village. receiving and conveying the cyclone warning system and other natural hazard reports are originated from Many cyclone shelters have been con- the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and structed overtime along with improved early warning then it is conveyed simultaneously to State Disaster systems that have been instrumental in declining nega- Management department, concerning District and tive impacts of cyclones. Until 2011, over two thou- Zilla Parishad authorities and to the AIR & electronic sand multi-purpose cyclone shelters had been built that could accommodate upto three thousand people.

136 World Focus May 2016 Besides coastal volunteer network to disseminate *IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate change 2007, Working Group II: Adaptation and Vulnerability, https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/ warnings systems, coastal afforestation to reduce loss wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter6.pdf, Climate Change 2007: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. and damage have been established to minimise nega- *IUCN/WCMC Data Sheet (1997), Sundarbans Wildlife Sanctuaries, tive impacts. Bangladesh carbon emission volume is Bangladesh, [Online: web] Accessed 5 January, 2011, URL: http:// whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/798.pdf. very low, and the urgency of economic growth is ur- *ODI (2002), Poverty and Climate Change: Assessing impacts in Developing gent and thus Bangladesh has been exempted from Countries and the initiative s of the International Community, [Online: web] Accessed on 11 May, 2012, and URL: http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/ emission reduction undertakings under UNFCCC. files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/3449.pdf *OECD(2003), Case study on sea-level rise impacts, Working Parity on Global and Structural Policies, OECD Workshop on the Benefits of Climate Policy: SAFE chairperson Dipayan Dey, points out Improving Information for Policy Makers, Accessed 20 September, 2013, URL: http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/2483213.pdf that the paradigm for sustainable development in the *World Bank (2008), Climate Change, Why is South Asia vulnerable?[Online: Sundarbans must shift from disaster-based hazard web] Accessed on 12 June, 2012, URL: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/ EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/ mitigation to community-based climate adaptive in- 0,,contentMDK:21991827~menuPK:2246552~p tervention, also (strong) political will to advocate com- agePK:2865106~piPK:2865128~theSitePK:223547,00.html. *World Bank (2009), ‘Why is South Asia Vulnerable to Climate Change?’, The munity governance of natural resources must emerge. Regional Scene: South Asia’s Climate Vulnerability and Contribution to Green- house Gas Emissions, [Online: web] Accessed 17 May, 2012, URL: http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/223546- A demand is raised by ecologist to frame 1171488994713/3455847-1232124140958/SouthAsiaVulnerableClimate Change.pdf policies that will ensure proper distribution of relief *World Bank(2012), Disaster Risk Management in South Asia: A Regional and rehabilitation from loss and damage from extreme Overview, Washington,[Online: web] Accessed 26 may 2013, URL: http:// reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ events. Generally, during and after the catastrophe, Disaster%20Risk%20Management %20in%20South%20Asia%20- %20A%20Regional%20Overview.pdf. policymakers and donor agencies focus their atten- Christian Aid (2006), The climate of poverty: facts, fears and hopes, [Online: tion to rehabilitation efforts. However policies should web] Accessed 2 May, 2011, URL: http://www.christianaid.org.uk/Images/cli- mate-of-poverty.pdf. seek to bridge disaster management and climate CUTS (2011), Climate Change and Food Security in South Asia, Accessed on 23 change adaptation approaches, recognise local per- June, 2012, DRCSC (2012), Integrated Farming System, Concept and Farm design, A Hand- ceptions of loss and damage, and incorporate indig- book, Kolkata enous coping strategies and practices. It is suggested Ericson et al. 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Nicholls, et al. (2011), Sea-level rise and its possible impacts given a ‘beyond calls for fair treatment and opportunities for commu- 4%C world’ in the twenty-rst century,[Online: web] Accessed 15 March, 2013, nities and regions that are doubly disabled in terms of URL: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/369/1934/ 161.full.pdf+html. income growth and ecological stability. Stern, Nicholas (2006) What is the economics of climate change?, world eco- nomics, vol 7, no 2, April-June 2006, [Online: web] Accessed 13 May, 2012, URL:https://www.humphreyfellowship.org/system/files/stern_summary___ References what_is_the_economics_of_climate_change.pdf *DRCSC (2010), Collective Action to Reduce Climate Disaster Risks and En- Tourism Review (2011), “Natural Disasters: A survey”, [Online: web] Accessed hancing Resilience of the Vulnerable Coastal Communities around the Sundarbans 17 April, 2010 URL:file:///C:/Users/Anna/Downloads/a-survey-of-natural-di- in Bangladesh and India, Online: web] September 30, 2010, URL: http:// sasters-in-the-decade-2001-2010.pdf Footnotes www.drcsc.org/CCDRER/docs/PVA%20Report.pdf 1 *DRCSC (2012-13), Reconnaissance Study of five Blocks in Sunderbans, India Ubyrisk Consultants has made the revelation after conducting studies on man- under CCDRER, Online: web] Accessed September 14, 2010, URL: project,http:/ agement of natural disasters and taking records from across the world. Their /www.drcsc.org/CCDRER/docs/Reconnaissance%20Study%20Report.pdf estimates indicate an average of 756 incidents of natural disasters per year(Tourism Review, 2011) *Ghosh, Amitav (2004), The Hungry Tide, New Delhi, HarperCollis. 2 *Hazra, S (2011), Climate Change Policy Paper II, Accessed on 11 January, 2012, Seaward growth ofa beach, delta, fan, etc., by progressive deposition of sedi- ment by rivers or shoreline processes URL:http://awsassets.wwfindia.org/downloads/climate_change_ 3 adaptation_in_coastal_region_of_west_bengal.pdf The SST is the watertemperature close to the oceans *IPCC (2001a), Climate Change 2001: Mitigation, Contribution of Working surface. The exact meaning of surface varies according to themeasurement method Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on used, but it is between 1 mm (0.04 in) and 20 m (70 ft) below the sea surface) in Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, UK the Arabian Sea on the western coast of India(CSE, 2012)

India-Bangladesh Disaster Management in Sundarbans Delta 137 Contributor’s Profile

Prof. R.B. Singh Vice President, International Geographical Union (IGU) and Professor, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Prof. P. C. Joshi (Guest Editor)Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi Prof. Umesh Kulshrestha Professor, School of Environmental Sciences, J.N.U, New Delhi Anshu Sharma School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Prof. Tridib Chakaborti Professor, Department of International Relations, Jadavpur University, Kolkata Pratyay Dutta Research Scholar,Department of International Relations, Jadavpur University, Kolkata Prof. Manas Chakrabarty Emeritus Professor (UGC), Department of Political Science, University of North Bengal, Darjeeling, W.B. Prof. Abhik Ghosh Professor, Department of Anthropology, Punjab University,Chandigarh Dr. Sanju Gupta Associate Professor, Dept. of Pol. Science, Janki Devi Memorial College, Delhi University Dr. Vichitra Gupta Associate Professor, Dept. of Pol. Science, Moti lal Nehru College (Eve.), Delhi University Dr. Sabita Harichandan Associate Professor in Political Science, B.J.B. Autonomous College, Bhubaneswar, Odisha Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta Associate Professor, Center for Political Studies, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya, Bihar Dr. Vijeta Rattani Climate Change Programme, Centre for Science and Environment, (CSE), New Delhi Dr. Kalindi Sharma Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Anthropology, Amity University, Noida Urfat Anjem Mir Assistant Professor, School of Liberal Studies, Ambedkar University Delhi (AUD) Sombala Ningthoujam Faculty, IBS Gurgaon, Haryana Dr. Minakshi UGC Post-Doctoral Fellow, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi Sonam Joldan Sr. Assistant Professor, Rinchen Shah Center for West Himalayan Cultures Islamic University of Science and Technology, One University Avenue, Awantipora , J&K Dr. Prashant Khattri Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Allahabad University, Allahabad Md. Arif Husain Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Pankaj Kumar Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Subhash Anand Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Usha Rani Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Mijing Gwra Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Nirbhav Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Yuthika Agarwal Lecturer, Department of Management, Mewar Institute of Management, Vasundhara, Gaziabad (U.P.) Nikhil Roy Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Bindhy Wasini Pandey Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Dr Anna Nath Ganguly Assistant Professor, Galgotias University, Greater Noida

138 World Focus May 2016 World Focus: 2009-2016

· January 2009 Japan in World Affairs* · February 2009 Chile : Democracy & Development* · March 2009 China* · April 2009 Pakistan · May 2009 India and West Asia: Development Perspectives · June 2009 NAM: India & Egypt* · July 2009 Developments in Sri Lanka* · August 2009 Central Asia: The Global Flashpoint* · September 2009 Environment & Sustainable Development* · October 2009 India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) ·Nov-Dec. 2009 (Annual Number) Dynamics of India’s Foreign Policy ·January 2010 Af-Pak: Anti-Terror Strategies ·February 2010 Changing Bangladesh: New Leap Forward* ·March 2010 Climate Change: Beyond Copenhagen* ·April 2010 US & South Asia* ·May 2010 India: An Economic Power ·June 2010 Why is Gandhi relevant even today ? ·July 2010 Revisioning SAARC* ·August 2010 Russia in the changing World* ·September 2010 China Today* ·October 2010 Re-whetting India’s Look East Policy* ·Nov.-Dec. 2010 (Annual Number) Emerging India’s Foreign Policy* ·January 2011 Rabindranath Tagore* ·February 2011 in the Contemporary World* ·March 2011 Disaster Management in India* ·April 2011 South China Sea Dispute: Emerging Developments* · ·May 2011 India & Neighbours (Series One) ·June 2011 India’s Neighbourhood Policy: Harmony & Development (SeriesTwo) ·July 2011 US Policy Responses to Developments in the Arab World* ·August 2011 Mahatma Gandhi & Gandhism* ·September 2011 Contemporary China* ·October 2011 Re-emergence of Russia in the horizon?* ·Nov-Dec.2011 (Annual Number) India’s foreign Policy: Perspectives & Prospects* ·January 2012 Pakistan at Crossroads* ·February 2012 Growing Indo-Bangladesh Relations* ·March 2012 SAARC & India* ·April 2012 Re-energizing India - Nepal Relations* (Series I) ·May 2012 Nepal in Transition* (Series II) ·June 2012 Changing Equations in Asia-Pacific & ASEAN Region ·July 2012 Contemporary Korean Peninsula ·August 2012 Swami Vivekananda’s Vision: Lessons for the 21st Century* ·September 2012 China Today ·October 2012 A Glance at India’s Economic Growth* ·November 2012 (Annual Number) UPA & India’s Foreign Policy (Series-1)* ·December 2012 (Annual Number) UPA & India’s Foreign Policy (Series-2)* ·January 2013 Asian Maritime Diplomacy* ·February 2013 India & European Union* ·March 2013 Energy Security: Indian Perspectives* ·April 2013 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar & Social Justice: A National & Global Perspective* ·May 2013 Environment and Sustainable Development* ·June 2013 India & West Asia* ·July 2013 India & Neighbours* ·August 2013 M.N. Roy: The Veteran Indian Internationalist* ·September 2013 India and Afghanistan * ·October 2013 India & Myanmar Relations* ·November 2013 Global Governance & Decentralization* ·December 2013 (Annual Number) India’s Foreign Policy* ·January 2014 Indian Diaspora* ·February 2014 Climate Change* ·March 2014 China in a changing * ·April 2014 Philosophical Thoughts of Buddha, Gandhi & Dr. Ambedkar: Contemporary Relevance* ·May 2014 Ethics & Indian Civilizational Thought: Global Implication* ·June 2014 India & ASEAN* ·July 2014 Disaster Management in India* ·August 2014 India’s Economic Growth* ·September 2014 India & Neighbours * ·October 2014 India’s Quest for Energy Security* ·November 2014 (Annual Number) India’s New Foreign Policy (Series-1)* ·December 2014 (Annual Number) India’s New Foreign Policy (Series-2)* ·January 2015 Oil Diplomacy in Central Asia & West Asia* ·February 2015 Environmental Diplomacy and Sustainable Development* ·March 2015 Makers of Modern India* ·April 2015 India’s Economic Diplomacy* ·May 2015 Energy Security Needs of Rising India* ·June 2015 India & China Relations* ·July 2015 Conflict Zones of the World* ·August 2015 India & Neighbours* ·September 2015 Regional Diplomacy: SAARC, ASEAN & BRICS* ·October 2015 Climate Change* ·November 2015 India’s Foreign Policy - Series 1* ·December 2015 India’s Foreign Policy - Series 2* ·January 2016 Global Politics of Oil in West & Central Asia* ·February 2016 Terrorism and Geopolitics* ·March 2016 India and East Asia* ·April 2016 India’s Economic Diplomacy*

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