Thermal Equilibrium State of the World Oceans
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Thermodynamics Notes
Thermodynamics Notes Steven K. Krueger Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Utah August 2020 Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is thermodynamics? . .1 1.2 The atmosphere . .1 2 The Equation of State 1 2.1 State variables . .1 2.2 Charles' Law and absolute temperature . .2 2.3 Boyle's Law . .3 2.4 Equation of state of an ideal gas . .3 2.5 Mixtures of gases . .4 2.6 Ideal gas law: molecular viewpoint . .6 3 Conservation of Energy 8 3.1 Conservation of energy in mechanics . .8 3.2 Conservation of energy: A system of point masses . .8 3.3 Kinetic energy exchange in molecular collisions . .9 3.4 Working and Heating . .9 4 The Principles of Thermodynamics 11 4.1 Conservation of energy and the first law of thermodynamics . 11 4.1.1 Conservation of energy . 11 4.1.2 The first law of thermodynamics . 11 4.1.3 Work . 12 4.1.4 Energy transferred by heating . 13 4.2 Quantity of energy transferred by heating . 14 4.3 The first law of thermodynamics for an ideal gas . 15 4.4 Applications of the first law . 16 4.4.1 Isothermal process . 16 4.4.2 Isobaric process . 17 4.4.3 Isosteric process . 18 4.5 Adiabatic processes . 18 5 The Thermodynamics of Water Vapor and Moist Air 21 5.1 Thermal properties of water substance . 21 5.2 Equation of state of moist air . 21 5.3 Mixing ratio . 22 5.4 Moisture variables . 22 5.5 Changes of phase and latent heats . -
Thermodynamic State Variables Gunt
Fundamentals of thermodynamics 1 Thermodynamic state variables gunt Basic knowledge Thermodynamic state variables Thermodynamic systems and principles Change of state of gases In physics, an idealised model of a real gas was introduced to Equation of state for ideal gases: State variables are the measurable properties of a system. To make it easier to explain the behaviour of gases. This model is a p × V = m × Rs × T describe the state of a system at least two independent state system boundaries highly simplifi ed representation of the real states and is known · m: mass variables must be given. surroundings as an “ideal gas”. Many thermodynamic processes in gases in · Rs: spec. gas constant of the corresponding gas particular can be explained and described mathematically with State variables are e.g.: the help of this model. system • pressure (p) state process • temperature (T) • volume (V) Changes of state of an ideal gas • amount of substance (n) Change of state isochoric isobaric isothermal isentropic Condition V = constant p = constant T = constant S = constant The state functions can be derived from the state variables: Result dV = 0 dp = 0 dT = 0 dS = 0 • internal energy (U): the thermal energy of a static, closed Law p/T = constant V/T = constant p×V = constant p×Vκ = constant system. When external energy is added, processes result κ =isentropic in a change of the internal energy. exponent ∆U = Q+W · Q: thermal energy added to the system · W: mechanical work done on the system that results in an addition of heat An increase in the internal energy of the system using a pressure cooker as an example. -
Equilibrium, Energy Conservation, and Temperature Chapter Objectives
Equilibrium, Energy Conservation, and Temperature Chapter Objectives 1. Explain thermal equilibrium and how it relates to energy transport. 2. Understand temperature ranges important for biological systems and temperature sensing in mammals. 3. Understand temperature ranges important for the environment. 1. Thermal equilibrium and the Laws of thermodynamics Laws of Thermodynamics Energy of the system + = Constant Energy of surrounding Energy Conservation 1. Thermal equilibrium and the Laws of thermodynamics Energy conservation Rate of Rate of Rate of Rate of Energy In Energy Out Energy Generation Energy Storage 1. Thermal equilibrium and the Laws of thermodynamics Ex) Solid is put in the liquid. specific mass heat temperature Solid Liquid Energy = m( − ) 1. Thermal equilibrium and the Laws of thermodynamics Energy In = − Energy Out = 0 Energy Generation = 0 Energy Storage = ( +) − −( −) >> Use the numerical values as shown in last page’s picture and equation of energy conservation. Using energy conservation, we can find the final or equilibrium temperature. 2. Temperature in Living System Most biological activity is confined to a rather narrow temperature range of 0~60°C 2. Temperature in Living System Temperature Response to Human body How temperature affects the state of human body? - As shown in this picture, it is obvious that temperature needs to be controlled. 2. Temperature in Living System Temperature Sensation in Humans - The human being can perceive different gradations of cold and heat, as shown in this picture. 2. Temperature in Living System Thermal Comfort of Human and Animals - Body heat losses are affected by air temperature, humidity, velocity and other factors. - Especially, affected by humidity. 3. -
Basic Thermodynamics-17ME33.Pdf
Module -1 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions & Work and Heat MODULE 1 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions Thermodynamics definition and scope, Microscopic and Macroscopic approaches. Some practical applications of engineering thermodynamic Systems, Characteristics of system boundary and control surface, examples. Thermodynamic properties; definition and units, intensive and extensive properties. Thermodynamic state, state point, state diagram, path and process, quasi-static process, cyclic and non-cyclic processes. Thermodynamic equilibrium; definition, mechanical equilibrium; diathermic wall, thermal equilibrium, chemical equilibrium, Zeroth law of thermodynamics, Temperature; concepts, scales, fixed points and measurements. Work and Heat Mechanics, definition of work and its limitations. Thermodynamic definition of work; examples, sign convention. Displacement work; as a part of a system boundary, as a whole of a system boundary, expressions for displacement work in various processes through p-v diagrams. Shaft work; Electrical work. Other types of work. Heat; definition, units and sign convention. 10 Hours 1st Hour Brain storming session on subject topics Thermodynamics definition and scope, Microscopic and Macroscopic approaches. Some practical applications of engineering thermodynamic Systems 2nd Hour Characteristics of system boundary and control surface, examples. Thermodynamic properties; definition and units, intensive and extensive properties. 3rd Hour Thermodynamic state, state point, state diagram, path and process, quasi-static -
Thermal Physics
Slide 1 / 163 Slide 2 / 163 Thermal Physics www.njctl.org Slide 3 / 163 Slide 4 / 163 Thermal Physics · Temperature, Thermal Equilibrium and Thermometers · Thermal Expansion · Heat and Temperature Change · Thermal Equilibrium : Heat Calculations · Phase Transitions · Heat Transfer · Gas Laws Temperature, Thermal Equilibrium · Kinetic Theory Click on the topic to go to that section · Internal Energy and Thermometers · Work in Thermodynamics · First Law of Thermodynamics · Thermodynamic Processes · Second Law of Thermodynamics · Heat Engines · Entropy and Disorder Return to Table of Contents Slide 5 / 163 Slide 6 / 163 Temperature and Heat Temperature Here are some definitions of temperature: In everyday language, many of us use the terms temperature · A measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with and heat interchangeably reference to some standard value. But in physics, these terms have very different meanings. · Any of various standardized numerical measures of this ability, such Think about this… as the Kelvin, Fahrenheit, and Celsius scale. · When you touch a piece of metal and a piece of wood both · A measure of the ability of a substance, or more generally of any resting in front of you, which feels warmer? · When do you feel warmer when the air around you is 90°F physical system, to transfer heat energy to another physical system. and dry or when it is 90°F and very humid? · A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample · In both cases the temperatures of what you are feeling is of matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees designated on a the same. -
Laws of Thermodynamics
Advanced Instructional School on Mechanics, 5 - 24, Dec 2011 Special lectures Laws of Thermodynamics K. P. N. Murthy School of Physics, University of Hyderabad Dec 15, 2011 K P N Murthy (UoH) Thermodynamics Dec 15, 2011 1 / 126 acknowledgement and warning acknowledgement: Thanks to Prof T Amaranath and V D Sharma for the invitation warning: I am going to talk about the essential contents of the laws of thermodynamics, tracing their origin, and their history The Zeroth law, the First law the Second law .....and may be the Third law, if time permits I leave it to your imagination to connect my talks to the theme of the School which is MECHANICS. K P N Murthy (UoH) Thermodynamics Dec 15, 2011 2 / 126 Each law provides an experimental basis for a thermodynamic property Zeroth law= ) Temperature, T First law= ) Internal Energy, U Second law= ) Entropy, S The earliest was the Second law discovered in the year 1824 by Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) Sadi Carnot Helmholtz Rumford Mayer Joule then came the First law - a few decades later, when Helmholtz consolidated and abstracted the experimental findings of Rumford, Mayer and Joule into a law. the Zeroth law arrived only in the twentieth century, and I think Max Planck was responsible for it K P N Murthy (UoH) Thermodynamics Dec 15, 2011 3 / 126 VOCALUBARY System: The small part of the universe under consideration: e.g. a piece of iron a glass of water an engine The rest of the universe (in which we stand and make observations and measurements on the system) is called the surroundings a glass of water is the system and the room in which the glass is placed is called the surrounding. -
Lab #4: Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium 1 Physics 123, Fall 2012 Name Lab #4: Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium Temperature and Temperature Scales Temperature is one of the most familiar and fundamental thermodynamic quantities. We have an intuitive feel for temperature, e.g. hot versus cold objects. However, a precise measurement depends on the establishment of a relative temperature scale, based on the change in some physical property of a material as it is heated or cooled over some temperature range. Thus a thermometer may be based on the length of a metal rod, the height of a column of mercury, or the volume of a gas under pressure. In addition, the electrical current carried by certain materials can change with temperature, and thus it is possible to use electronic devices to measure temperature. The familiar Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are just two of many temperature scales set up by early investi- gators of heat and thermodynamics. Both of these scales were set up by taking two fixed points of reliable, easily reproducible temperatures. The Celsius scale was originally based on the freezing point and boiling points of water, 0 ◦C and 100 ◦C, respectively. You will measure temperatures in terms of the Celsius scale. Thermometers In these exercises, you will experiment with two types of thermometers, investigating how the tempera- ture of a substance is affected when it interacts with an environment or another substance at a different temperature. You will use both the familiar glass bulb thermometer and a thermistor. In a glass bulb thermometer, the liquid (alcohol) expands when heated and contracts when cooled, so that the length of the column of liquid can be used to measure changes in temperature. -
Notes on Thermodynamics the Topic for the Last Part of Our Physics Class
Notes on Thermodynamics The topic for the last part of our physics class this quarter will be thermodynam- ics. Thermodynamics deals with energy transfer processes. The key idea is that materials have "internal energy". The internal energy is the energy that the atoms and molecules of the material possess. For example, in a gas and liquid the molecules are moving and have kinetic energy. The molecules can also rotate and vibrate, and these motions also contribute to the gases total internal energy. In a solid, the atoms can oscillate about their equilibrium position and also possess energy. The total internal energy is defined as: The total internal energy of a substance = the sum of the energies of the constituents of the substance. When two substances come in contact, internal energy from one substance can de- crease while the internal energy of the other increases. The first law of thermody- namics states that the energy lost by one substance is gained by the other. That is, that there exists a quantity called energy that is conserved. We will develop this idea and more over the next 4 weeks. We will be analyzing gases, liquids, and solids, so we need to determine which properties are necessary for an appropriate description of these materials. Although we will be making models about the constituents of these materials, what is usually measured are their macroscopic quantities or "large scale" properties of the sys- tems. We have already some of these when we studied fluids in the beginning of the course: Volume (V ): The volume that the material occupies. -
Thermodynamic Temperature
Thermodynamic temperature Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure 1 Overview of temperature and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics. Temperature is a measure of the random submicroscopic Thermodynamic temperature is defined by the third law motions and vibrations of the particle constituents of of thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest tem- matter. These motions comprise the internal energy of perature is the null or zero point. At this point, absolute a substance. More specifically, the thermodynamic tem- zero, the particle constituents of matter have minimal perature of any bulk quantity of matter is the measure motion and can become no colder.[1][2] In the quantum- of the average kinetic energy per classical (i.e., non- mechanical description, matter at absolute zero is in its quantum) degree of freedom of its constituent particles. ground state, which is its state of lowest energy. Thermo- “Translational motions” are almost always in the classical dynamic temperature is often also called absolute tem- regime. Translational motions are ordinary, whole-body perature, for two reasons: one, proposed by Kelvin, that movements in three-dimensional space in which particles it does not depend on the properties of a particular mate- move about and exchange energy in collisions. Figure 1 rial; two that it refers to an absolute zero according to the below shows translational motion in gases; Figure 4 be- properties of the ideal gas. low shows translational motion in solids. Thermodynamic temperature’s null point, absolute zero, is the temperature The International System of Units specifies a particular at which the particle constituents of matter are as close as scale for thermodynamic temperature. -
Thermodynamic State, Specific Heat, and Enthalpy Function 01 Saturated UO Z Vapor Between 3000 Kand 5000 K
Februar 1977 KFK 2390 Institut für Neutronenphysik und Reaktortechnik Projekt Schneller Brüter Thermodynamic State, Specific Heat, and Enthalpy Function 01 Saturated UO z Vapor between 3000 Kand 5000 K H. U. Karow Als Manuskript vervielfältigt Für diesen Bericht behalten wir uns alle Rechte vor GESELLSCHAFT FÜR KERNFORSCHUNG M. B. H. KARLSRUHE KERNFORSCHUNGS ZENTRUM KARLSRUHE KFK 2390 Institut für Neutronenphysik und Reaktortechnik Projekt Schneller Brüter Thermodynamic State, Specific Heat, and Enthalpy Function of Saturated U0 Vapor between 3000 K 2 and 5000 K H. U. Karow Gesellschaft für Kernforschung mbH., Karlsruhe A summarized version of s will be at '7th Symposium on Thermophysical Properties', held the NBS at Gaithe , 1977 Thermodynamic State, Specific Heat, and Enthalpy Function of Saturated U0 2 Vapor between 3000 K and 5000 K Abstract Reactor safety analysis requires knowledge of the thermophysical properties of molten oxide fuel and of the thermal equation-of state of oxide fuel in thermodynamic liquid-vapor equilibrium far above 3000 K. In this context, the thermodynamic state of satu rated U0 2 fuel vapor, its internal energy U(T), specific heats Cv(T) and C (T), and enthalpy functions HO(T) and HO(T)-Ho have p 0 been determined by means of statistical mechanics in the tempera- ture range 3000 K .•• 5000 K. The discussion of the thermodynamic state includes the evaluation of the plasma state and its contri bution to the caloric variables-of-state of saturated oxide fuel vapor. Because of the extremely high ion and electron density due to thermal ionization, the ionized component of the fuel vapor does no more represent a perfect kinetic plasma - different from the nonionized neutral vapor component with perfect gas kinetic behavior up to about 5000 K. -
Chapter 5 the Laws of Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free
Chapter 5 The laws of thermodynamics: entropy, free energy, information and complexity M.W. Collins1, J.A. Stasiek2 & J. Mikielewicz3 1School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK. 2Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, Narutowicza, Gdansk, Poland. 3The Szewalski Institute of Fluid–Flow Machinery, Polish Academy of Sciences, Fiszera, Gdansk, Poland. Abstract The laws of thermodynamics have a universality of relevance; they encompass widely diverse fields of study that include biology. Moreover the concept of information-based entropy connects energy with complexity. The latter is of considerable current interest in science in general. In the companion chapter in Volume 1 of this series the laws of thermodynamics are introduced, and applied to parallel considerations of energy in engineering and biology. Here the second law and entropy are addressed more fully, focusing on the above issues. The thermodynamic property free energy/exergy is fully explained in the context of examples in science, engineering and biology. Free energy, expressing the amount of energy which is usefully available to an organism, is seen to be a key concept in biology. It appears throughout the chapter. A careful study is also made of the information-oriented ‘Shannon entropy’ concept. It is seen that Shannon information may be more correctly interpreted as ‘complexity’rather than ‘entropy’. We find that Darwinian evolution is now being viewed as part of a general thermodynamics-based cosmic process. The history of the universe since the Big Bang, the evolution of the biosphere in general and of biological species in particular are all subject to the operation of the second law of thermodynamics. -
Chapter 20 -- Thermodynamics
ChapterChapter 2020 -- ThermodynamicsThermodynamics AA PowerPointPowerPoint PresentationPresentation byby PaulPaul E.E. TippensTippens,, ProfessorProfessor ofof PhysicsPhysics SouthernSouthern PolytechnicPolytechnic StateState UniversityUniversity © 2007 THERMODYNAMICSTHERMODYNAMICS ThermodynamicsThermodynamics isis thethe studystudy ofof energyenergy relationshipsrelationships thatthat involveinvolve heat,heat, mechanicalmechanical work,work, andand otherother aspectsaspects ofof energyenergy andand heatheat transfer.transfer. Central Heating Objectives:Objectives: AfterAfter finishingfinishing thisthis unit,unit, youyou shouldshould bebe ableable to:to: •• StateState andand applyapply thethe first andand second laws ofof thermodynamics. •• DemonstrateDemonstrate youryour understandingunderstanding ofof adiabatic, isochoric, isothermal, and isobaric processes.processes. •• WriteWrite andand applyapply aa relationshiprelationship forfor determiningdetermining thethe ideal efficiency ofof aa heatheat engine.engine. •• WriteWrite andand applyapply aa relationshiprelationship forfor determiningdetermining coefficient of performance forfor aa refrigeratior.refrigeratior. AA THERMODYNAMICTHERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMSYSTEM •• AA systemsystem isis aa closedclosed environmentenvironment inin whichwhich heatheat transfertransfer cancan taketake place.place. (For(For example,example, thethe gas,gas, walls,walls, andand cylindercylinder ofof anan automobileautomobile engine.)engine.) WorkWork donedone onon gasgas oror workwork donedone byby gasgas INTERNALINTERNAL