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Understanding Empathic Leadership in Sport

by

Peter Sear (B631507)

A Doctoral Thesis

Due date: 14th July 2021

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of

Doctor of of Loughborough University

Supervisors: Professor James Skinner & Dr Steve Swanson

Word Count 86457

© Peter Sear 2021

UNDERSTANDING EMPATHIC LEADERSHIP IN SPORT

List of Contents

LIST OF CONTENTS II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VI ABSTRACT VII PRESENTATIONS & PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM THIS THESIS: XI GLOSSARY OF TERMS XII CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background 1 1.2. Context 4 1.3. Objective 5 1.4. Research Questions 5 1.5. Thesis Overview 6 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1. Leadership 7 2.2. 8 2.2.1. Affective/Emotional Empathy 11 2.2.2. Cognitive Empathy 14 2.2.3. Developing Empathy 17 2.3. Empathy and Leadership 21 2.4. The Trend Towards Empathic Leadership 24 2.5. The Empathic Leadership Style 30 2.6. Communication and Empathic Leadership 34 2.7. Relationships, Empathy and Leadership 37 2.7.1. 37 2.7.2. Distance 38 2.7.3. Balance and Burnout 39 2.7.4. Exploitation and Bias 41 2.8. Psychological Safety 43 2.8.1. Managing 44 2.8.2. Psychological Wellbeing 46 2.8.3. Innovation 48 2.9. Chapter Summary 48 CHAPTER 3. THE CONTEXT OF SPORT 50 3.1. Sport Organisations 50 3.2. Leadership in Sport 52 3.2.1. Empathic Practices 54 3.2.2. Situational Leadership 58 3.2.3. Experience and Self-Awareness 59

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3.2.4. Gender 65 3.2.5. Culture 66 3.2.6. Burnout 67 3.3. Empathic Accuracy 69 3.4. Communication Between Head Coach and Athletes 72 3.5. The Team Climate 75 3.5.1. Athlete Wellbeing 78 3.1. Chapter Summary 82 CHAPTER 4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND 84 4.1. Ontological and Epistemological Foundations of the Research 84 4.2. Research Design 86 4.2.1. Research Questions 90 4.3. Data Collection: A Mixed Methods Approach 91 4.4. Phase One: A Qualitative Approach 92 4.4.1. Participants and Sampling 95 4.4.2. Data Collection: Semi-Structured Interviews 100 4.4.3. Pilot interviews 102 4.5. Data Analysis: Phase One 103 4.5.1. Templates and Coding 103 4.6. Phase Two: A Quantitative Approach 109 4.6.1. Sampling 109 4.7. Vignettes Study 110 4.7.1. Pilot Vignettes 111 4.7.2. The Vignettes 112 4.7.3. Data Analysis: Phase Two 113 4.7.4. Triangulation of Data 114 4.7.5. 115 4.7.6. 116 4.8. Chapter Summary 116 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: PHASE ONE 118 5.1. Interview Data 118 5.2. RQ1. A Trend: Leadership Has Become More Empathic 119 5.2.1. Timescale 119 5.2.2. Changes 128 5.2.2.1. Safe Climate 129 5.2.2.2. Close Relationships 134 5.2.2.3. Empathic Communication 153 5.2.2.4. Empathic Accuracy 161 5.2.2.5. Athlete-Centred 169 5.2.2.6. Develop Empathy 180 5.2.2.7 Challenges 187 5.3. Summary of Findings: RQ1 198 5.4. RQ2. Key for Employing an Empathic Leadership Style 200 5.4.1. Achieve a Safe Climate 201 5.4.2. Gain an Understanding of Athletes 204

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5.4.3. Enhance Athlete Commitment 215 5.4.4. Increase Team Cohesion 219 5.4.5. Encourage Athlete Wellbeing 224 5.4.6. Satisfy Expectations 228 5.5. Summary of Findings: RQ2 235 5.6. RQ3, RQ4. Opportunities to Demonstrate an Empathic Leadership Style 236 5.6.1. Trend Situations 236 5.6.2. Safe Climate Situations 241 5.6.3. Closer Relationships Situations 245 5.6.4. Communication Situations 248 5.6.5. Empathic Accuracy Situations 253 5.6.6. Athlete-Centred Situations 257 5.6.7. Developing Empathy Situations 262 5.7. Summary of Findings: RQ3 and RQ4 265 5.8. Chapter Summary 265 CHAPTER 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF PHASE TWO 267 6.1. The Vignettes Data 267 6.1.1. Vignette A: Team selection notification 268 6.1.2. Vignette B: Touchline behaviour 271 6.1.3. Vignette C: Post-match hugging 274 6.1.4. Vignette D: Choosing a communication method 277 6.1.5. Vignette E: Telling an athlete, they have been dropped 280 6.1.6. Vignette F: Athlete life-event 282 6.1.7. Vignette G: Group work 284 6.2. Summary of Findings: Phase Two 286 6.3. Chapter Summary 287 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION 288 7.1. Research Questions 288 7.2. Theoretical Contributions 293 7.2.1. Motivations for Empathic Leadership 294 7.2.2. Components of Empathic Leadership 296 7.2.3. Situations for Empathic leadership 299 7.2.4. Methodological Contributions 301 7.3. Practical Implications and Recommendations 301 7.4. Limitations 304 7.5. Future Research 304 7.6. Concluding Summary 306 REFERENCES: 307 APPENDIX A 355 APPENDIX B 359 APPENDIX C 361 APPENDIX D 363

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List of Figures

Figure 4.1 The Sequential Approach ...... 91 Figure 4.2 Sports Represented in the Sample ...... 97 Figure 4.3 Nationality of Participants ...... 98 Figure 4.4 Country of Work ...... 99 Figure 4.5 Gender of Coach and Team ...... 100 Figure 4.6 Template of Provisional Codes ...... 105 Figure 4.7 Template of Final Codes ...... 108 Figure 4.8 Sports Represented in Phase Two ...... 110 Figure 5.1 Six Key Motivations ...... 200 Figure 6.1 Themes to Vignettes ...... 268 Figure 6.2 Results: Vignette A ...... 269 Figure 6.3 Results: Vignette B ...... 272 Figure 6.4 Results: Vignette C ...... 274 Figure 6.5 Results: Vignette D ...... 277 Figure 6.6 Results: Vignette E ...... 280 Figure 6.7 Results: Vignette F ...... 282 Figure 6.8 Results: Vignette G ...... 284 Figure 7.1 Six Components of Empathic Leadership in Elite Sport ...... 296

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Acknowledgements

This work relied on the generosity of twenty head coaches. Despite the demands of leading in elite sport these individuals found the time to share their stories, inner-thoughts, , and emotions. It was an honour and a to spend time with these people and I can never thank them enough for supporting this research.

I would like to thank Professor James Skinner and Dr Steve Swanson, for their supervision, Dr Allan Edwards, Dr Holly Collinson and Dr Emily Heyday for their insight,

Professor Tony Ghaye for exchanging ideas, Joel Warburton from Liquid Lab for advice on data, Mary Lorimer for advice on vignette data, and Angie Applegate for being an empathic librarian. Thank you to Stel Stylianou for introducing me to some interesting people. I’m grateful to Sir Peter Bazalgette for taking the time to talk to me about his work on empathy,

Nick Duffell for passing on his knowledge of empathy leaders and Michael Brearley OBE for his advice on empathy in leadership in sport. Thank you to Michael Whan for helping me to make . Emma-Jane, Tina and JP, thank you for being kind enough to support my research.

I’m grateful for the support and understanding of my whole family and feel fortunate to have you all. A special thank you to Jennifer, Heidi and Isabel for putting up with the path

I chose, and for making every day of my life so wonderful.

I’d like to dedicate this work to the memory of my uncle, Keith Brewer (1945-2018), who showed me that learning is a life-long commitment, that giving up isn’t an option and that if you stare at something for long enough you will eventually understand what it is.

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Abstract

Studies have shown that leaders who display empathy are more effective than those who do not (Ashkanasy et al., 2002; Holian & Prysby, 2014; Kock et al., 2019; McDougall, 2019;

Sadri et al., 2011; Skinner & Spurgeon, 2005). Empathy is now viewed as the key ingredient of better leadership (Natale, Libertella, & Doran, 2013; Socas, 2018). The empathic leadership style focuses on an understanding of the feelings and perspectives of others, creating emotional bonds, addressing a team’s and/or customer’s needs, and appreciating and drawing on people’s abilities, and including them in decision-making (Tzouramani, 2017).

Today’s employees prefer a closer relationship with their leaders, which fuels demand for an empathic leadership style (Marques, 2015). Despite some in other disciplines there has been a lack of research concerning empathic leadership in the sports industry (Peachey,

Zhou, Damon & Burton, 2015). The current study attends to this by discovering: (1) if leadership in sport has moved towards a more empathic style; (2) what motivations there may be for employing an empathic leadership style; (3) what scenarios provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic style; and (4) what is understood to be an empathic leadership style in these scenarios.

The design for this research was a narrative inquiry supported by mixed methods.

Phase One of the data collection involved twenty semi-structured interviews with head coaches in elite sport. The interview data provided insights across three key areas. First, thematic analysis of the interview data confirmed that: leadership in sport has become more empathic and that this consists of a more athlete-centred approach, a greater focus on empathic communication, closer relationships between leader and follower, safer climates, leaders using empathic accuracy, and leaders working to develop empathy in teams. Second, six key motivations for employing a more empathic leadership style in the leadership of elite

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teams in sport were discovered. These were to: achieve a safe climate, gain an understanding of athletes, enhance athlete commitment, increase team cohesion, encourage athlete wellbeing, and to satisfy expectations. Third, seven common scenarios that provided head coaches with an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style were identified: (A) team selection notification, which focused on how and when a head coach announces the team to his athletes; (B) touchline behaviour, which focused on awareness of how a leader’s behaviour can influence the athletes during competition; (C) post-match hugging, which focused on the benefits and potential pitfalls of such physical contact between head coach and athlete; (D) preferred communication method, which focused on the reasons for choosing methods of communications; (E) telling an athlete they have been dropped, which focused on how and when to convey such to the athlete; (F) athlete life event, which focused on the leader’s reaction when an athlete comes to them with a personal issue; and (G) group work, which focused on practices employed by the leader to develop empathy in a team.

Phase Two of the data collection utilised the data collected through interviews to create seven vignettes, which were used to validate and explore in greater depth what is understood to be an empathic leadership style in specific situations that are common in sport.

Through an online , thirteen participants were asked to consider a leader’s response and to state whether or not they understood the leadership action reflected an empathic leadership style. Participants were then asked to explain if and how a leader could employ a more empathic style, with the following results:

(A) Participants confirmed that selection notification methods representing an empathic leadership style are based on clear and consistent policies, which consider the perspectives and concerns of athletes, which are gained through dynamic communication. The timing of notifications was also reported as an important consideration. (B) Participants demonstrated

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an appreciation of how touchline behaviour can be experienced by athletes and also the impact that it may have on climate, safety, , and performance. Participants suggested empathic leaders are more likely to be calm, in control and to be actively managing emotions, and therefore the safety of the climate. (C) Post-match hugging was accepted to be part of an empathic leadership style, provided the coach is authentic, and considers the perspective of the athlete, and their relationship. Participants cautioned that the situation can be complicated by gender differences. (D) Participants claimed that an empathic leadership style should focus on face-to-face communication where possible to avoid misunderstandings and to gather more knowledge of the athlete. It was also recognised that some athletes may not enjoy face-to-face conversations, and that this needs to be taken into consideration.

Participants held that clarity of communication and understanding of the athlete’s perspective should be priorities for the empathic leader. (E) Dropping an athlete in front of teammates just before a competition was not considered representative of an empathic leadership style.

Participants held that informing the dropped athlete on a one-to-one basis, well ahead of the match, would demonstrate a more empathic leadership style. (F) Participants revealed that to demonstrate an empathic leadership style the coach should react with concern, understanding and support, when an athlete approaches them with a personal issue. (G) Participants recognised that asking athletes to share biographical narratives represents an empathic leadership style. Such practices were revealed as ways of developing team cohesion.

The findings from this research may be useful for recruiters of elite coaches, and coaches themselves who are eager to learn from elite practices the of empathic leadership. The results provide a guide of practices and behaviours of empathic leadership style in sport. This work focused on the views of head coaches as leaders in sport. Future research could investigate the perspectives of other stakeholders, like athletes, fans, and

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recruiters, on an empathic approach to leadership, or focus on creating an empathic leadership scale to facilitate comparisons between head coaches in different sports, and with leaders in other industries.

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Presentations & Publications Arising from this Thesis:

• Collaborating with Loughborough University London, “Empathy Times” - poster

presentation, Loughborough University, London. March (2017).

• PhD Research Seminar, Loughborough University London, “Empathic Leadership in

Sport”. November (2017).

• European Association for Sport Management (EASM) Conference, PhD Seminar.

“Empathic Leadership in Sport”, Malmö, Sweden. September (2018).

• University of Canberra – Europe Tour, Loughborough, London, “The Role of

Empathy in the Leadership of Teams in Sport”. May (2019).

• The Compassionate Mind Foundation Conference, Edinburgh, “Empathic Times” -

poster presentation. October (2019)

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Glossary of Terms

The following terms are employed throughout the literature on empathy and empathic leadership and within this thesis. Definitions are provided here for the reader’s reference:

• Automatic Empathy: describes situations where empathy occurs without control

(Hodges & Wegner, 1997, p. 312).

• Cognitive Empathy: where one is aware and comprehends the feelings, thoughts,

perspectives and intentions of another, without experiencing the emotions (Blanke,

Rauers, & Riediger, 2016).

: a that motivates a to help (Goetz, Keltner & Simon-

Thomas, 2010).

• Compathy: shared emotions due to shared circumstances (Ickes, 2003).

• Controlled Empathy: cognitive methods such as reframing and suppression to avoid

experiencing emotional empathy (Hodges & Biswas-Diener, 2007).

• Dynamic Communication: a process of gaining continual feedback from the person

with whom one is empathising (Beattie & Ellis, 2017; Main, Walle, Kho, & Halpern,

2017).

• Emotional (Affective) Empathy: the vicarious affective experience, a feeling

response (Dziobek et al., 2008; Hoffman, 2000).

(EI): an individual's ability to apply his or her knowledge of

emotions to manage one's own behaviour (or, to influence others) - not to be confused

with Emotional Quotient (EQ) a measure of knowledge of emotions and how they

work, not the ability to put that knowledge to work in real, everyday situations

(Bariso, 2018).

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• Empathic Accuracy: an ability to accurately infer the specific content of another

person's thoughts and feelings (Ickes, 1993).

: an empathic approach that leads to altruistic behaviour (Batson,

1991; Batson & Ahmad, 2009).

• Empathic Distress: the distress felt due to negative empathy (Redmond, 1989).

• Empathic Leadership: a theory in development that describes a leadership style in

which leaders manage an expressed understanding of others’ emotions, and support

the handling of those emotions, allowing followers to enjoy their situation and

perform better as a consequence (Kock et al., 2019).

• Empathy: an ability to share the feelings of others (Singer & Klimecki, 2014, p.

R875); allowing an understanding another’s emotions by experiencing their

perspective (Ickes, 2003).

• Empathy- Hypothesis: suggests that if we feel empathy, we will react pro-

socially (Batson, 1991)

• Mimpathy: imitating another’s emotions, without experiencing them oneself (Ickes,

2003).

• Negative Empathy: describes sharing in another’s negative emotional state

(Andreychik & Migliaccio, 2015; Morelli, Lieberman, & Zaki, 2015).

• Perspective Taking (Mentalising): a cognitive practice to consider the world from

another’s viewpoint, widely accepted to be cognitive empathy (Gilin et al., 2013).

• Positive empathy: where people share in one another’s positive emotions, like

sharing the of a lottery winner (Morelli et al., 2015).

: concern about another person’s emotional state, without impacting one’s

own emotional state (Decety, 2010).

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• Transpathy or : where one is infected by another’s emotions

(Ickes, 2003).

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Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The role of empathy in leadership has been researched in various domains (Sadri et al., 2011): health leadership (Skinner & Spurgeon, 2005), military leadership (McDougall

2019) and political leadership (Holian & Prysby, 2014). A review of the literature reveals a lack of research on empathic leadership in sport (Peachey et al., 2015). Sport represents an industry where emotional climates are particularly intense and unstable (Arnold et al., 2017), and where the ability to understand and predict the actions of employees is valued as an influence of organisational success (Schneider, 2013).

Studies suggest that leaders who display empathy through their general behaviour are more effective leaders than those who do not (Ashkanasy, 2002). This effectiveness is achieved through increasing commitment (Joireman, Daniels, George-Falvy, & Kamdar,

2006), improving employee wellbeing (Burch et al., 2016; Scott et al., 2010), job satisfaction

(Kock et al., 2019) and enhancing communication and the quality of leader-employee relationships (Barbuto & Burbach, 2006). These and other consequences of empathy in leadership have been shown to improve emotional climates, which influence organisational performance (Ozcelik, Langton, & Aldrich, 2008) and team performance in sport (Cotterill,

2012). Empathy can be of influence on multiple levels; in that a team leader can influence the team environment to become more empathic, through example, a leader of an organization can spread empathy throughout that organisation (Burch et al., 2016).

Sports organisations are renowned for being challenging emotional environments

(Larner, Wagstaff, Thelwell, & Corbett, 2017). A sport leader’s inability to understand employee emotions hampers organisational performance (Schneider, 2013). Since empathic leadership focuses on the understanding of emotions, and responding to emotional needs at

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individual, team and organisational levels (Tzouramani, 2017), it appears to be well-suited to a sport context.

The context of sport presents leaders with scenarios rarely encountered in other industries. A leader of a team of athletes sends them out to compete without going with them.

Any contact or communication is limited by distance and this may be further inhibited by crowd noise. Decisions need to be made regarding team selection on a weekly basis, sometimes more often. This can place strain on the coach/player relationship. Further, the leader relies on both the psychological and physiological performance, and therefore the wellbeing of athletes.

This research will explore the role of empathy in leadership and the motivations for employing an empathic style of leading in specific elite sport situations. Leadership takes place in situations (Billsberry, 2009; Grint & Jackson, 2010) and is created through actions, conversations and other interactions within that situation (Foldy, Goldman, & Ospina, 2008).

Although published academic research has rarely documented the role of empathy in sport leadership, there are indications across wider media to suggest empathic approaches are becoming common (Ancelotti et al., 2017; Balague, 2018; Brealey, 2013; Carroll, Roth, &

Garin, 2011; Coyle, 2018; Lorimer, 2013). Empathy’s role in leadership is now widely discussed in the sports media (Lineker, 2019; Murray, 2019). This shows there is in the role of empathy in sport leadership.

The role of empathy in leadership focuses on relationships (Tzouramani, 2017).

Leadership is something that goes beyond the individual (Ferkins, Skinner, & Swanson,

2018). The style of leadership emerges from relational experiences and constructions from people in a particular context (Grint & Jackson, 2010.; Kihl et al., 2010). Leadership is “a social process in which everyone in the community participates” (Drath & Palus, 1994, p.

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13). How leaders lead depends on the social processes taking place within the context (Kihl et al., 2010) and these social processes are influenced by emotions (Ashkanasy & Dorris, 2017).

Emotions are adaptive responses to the demands of an environment and have a wide variety of consequences (Wagstaff & Hanton, 2017). Sport provides a complex and often chaotic environment (Wagstaff, Fletcher, & Hanton, 2012) and so moods, emotions and the expression of emotions a central role in sport leadership (Schneider, 2013). However, research into the management of emotions within the realm of sport leadership appears deficient (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018; Schneider, 2013). Moreover, Goleman, McKee and

Waytz (2017) suggest sport leadership researchers have failed to focus on what has been described as a major component of emotional intelligence (EI), empathy.

Empathy has caught the attention of leadership researchers in business (Kock et al.,

2019; Wan Abdul Rahman & Castelli, 2013), ( & Pappas, 2018) and education

(Branson & Gross, 2014). It has also been claimed that in sport leadership “empathy raises everyone’s performance” (Hanold, 2011, p. 163). Researchers are demonstrating their interest in the role of empathy in sport (Rollnick, Fader, Breckon, & Moyers, 2019), without focusing on the role of empathic leadership in elite sport.

The theory of empathic leadership is described as one in development (Kock et al.,

2019). Kock and colleagues proposed that future research should expand on the foundations of empathic leadership, capture its spectrum, examine a wider range of workplace outcomes in different settings, and consider what leads to lesser or greater expressions of empathic leadership. Observing the sports industry, specifically the leadership of teams of athletes, provides an opportunity to do this.

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1.2. Context

It has been recognised that in leadership research, particularly in sport management settings, it is important to consider context (Kihl et al., 2010; Porter & McLaughlin, 2006).

There is long held consensus that different situations call for different leadership approaches

(Fielder, 1967). People behave differently in different settings and in different company

(Tyson, Jones & Elcock, 2011). As such, “everything you do is influenced by the situation in which you do it… and the situation that surrounds an action is called its context” (Baez,

García & Ibáñez, 2018). Further, there is an interlinking of leadership with context (Kihl et al., 2010, p. 246). Empathy is no different: “Particular empathic behaviours vary in their functional in specific contexts” (Main et al., 2017, p. 360). Empathic processes are dependent on contextual factors (Zaki & Ochsner, 2012).

Context does not merely refer to the environment, but to the entire situation (Abowd et al., 1999). There may be an opportunity to act on a certain agenda or a particular , which may not be obvious to the observer. For example, a mentor may refrain from helping a mentee at a certain point, due to an understanding of the mentee’s desire to become more independent (Main, Walle et al., 2017). Other situational factors have been demonstrated too, like how much the observer values the target (Batson, Eklund, Chermok,

Hoyt & Ortiz, 2007).

Employing an empathic leadership style may prove particularly advantageous in the context of sport, where the ability to understand and predict the actions of followers is valued as something that influences sporting success (Schneider, 2013). As part of a general leadership style certain scenarios in sport may benefit from an empathic leadership approach.

While considering the skills required to lead in a tough environment, like sport, it is worth remembering that there is a positive correlation between hard demands and soft skills like

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empathy (Chalmers Mill, 2010). Empathy appears to offer an advantage, like in business, organisations in sport are always searching for new approaches to gain an advantage over the competition.

There appears to be a paucity of research that shows whether or not leadership in sport has followed the trend towards a more empathic style, or that considers leader empathy in the distinct context of sport. Nor is there work which offers evidence of which scenarios, if any, lead to lesser or greater expressions of an empathic leadership in sport. The findings of this research should enable a deeper understanding of the role that empathy plays in sport leadership. This understanding will include discovering the situations in which an empathic approach would assist leaders, and provide motivations for employing empathy in an elite sport setting. Further, learning what is understood to be an empathic leadership style in certain situations, will provide the basis for an initial definition of empathic leadership in sport.

1.3. Objective

This research seeks to discover if sport leaders are empathic and to understand how, when, and why an empathic leadership style is deployed in the leadership of elite teams in sport. The background, context and objective inspired the following four research questions

(RQ):

1.4. Research Questions

RQ1. Has leadership in elite sport become more empathic? If so, how?

RQ2. What are the key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style in

elite sport?

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RQ3. What situations in elite sport provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic

leadership style?

RQ4. What is understood to be an empathic leadership style in elite sport contexts?

1.5. Thesis Overview

This thesis consists of seven chapters. Chapter One introduces the subject and structure of the research. Chapter Two presents and discusses discoveries made by reviewing the literature, with a focus on the role of empathy in leadership, contributions to the developing theory of empathic leadership, the motivations for using empathy in leadership and the challenges to employing empathic leadership. Chapter Three focuses on the unique context of sport and its compatibility with an empathic leadership style. Chapter Four details the philosophical approach and methodology employed in this research and outlines the two phases of research design: Phase One; designed to discover if leadership in the sport industry has become more empathic? If so, how? What motivations there may be for this? and to determine what situations provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style, and what is understood to be an empathic leadership style in specific situations in sport., Phase Two; designed to validate and explore in more depth on the findings of Phase

One. Chapter Five presents the results and discussion of Phase One. These findings are structured by the research questions with reference to the literature reviewed. Chapter Six presents the results and discussion of Phase Two. These findings are presented and discussed one vignette at a time with reference to the findings of Phase One and the literature reviewed.

Conclusions are drawn in Chapter Seven where the theoretical and practical implications of this research are presented. The chapter concludes by outlining the limitations of the research and providing suggestions for future work. Chapter Two begins by drawing on the literature to gain an understanding of the semantics of leadership and empathy.

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Chapter 2. Literature Review

2.1. Leadership

The term “leadership” originated in the 17th century (Holt, Marques, Hu & Wood,

2017), however, research of the phenomenon began in the twentieth century (Bass, 1985) and has since revealed the changes in how it has been understood. Early in the twentieth century, leadership was viewed as “an instrument of domination and control by one individual over others” (Holt et al., 2017, p. 3). Views on leadership evolved with psychologists insisting that leadership success relies on the ability to satisfy the needs of the group members (Bell &

Hall, 1954). This has been consistently supported by researchers (Barbuto, Gottfredson &

Searle, 2014; Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006; Greenleaf, 1977) and reaffirms that an understanding of the needs of a group is an important part of leadership (Murphy, 1941).

Towards the end of the twentieth century leadership had become more about shared visions and less about domination and control. This period of transition seems to have confused academic researchers who by the 1980s had reached an agreement that they no longer agreed on what leadership was (Northouse, 2015). By the beginning of the 21st century leaders and followers were being described as partners or collaborators (Reicher, Haslam, &

Hopkins, 2005). The idea of a follower as a focal point signalled a move away from top down theories of leadership (Foster & Thompson, 2010). At any one time, leaders may assume a follower’s role and followers may assume leadership roles (Gilbert & Matviuk, 2008).

Therefore, a leader-follower relationship focuses on two or more persons working together, with emphasis on behaviour and the work rather than on positions (Walthall & Dent, 2016).

As the quality of leader-follower relationships has become a focal point, the value of relationship skills like empathy have increased (Kouzes & Posner, 2012). It may be argued that the relationship between empathy and leadership goes back as far as history

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(Rifkin, 2010), however, it is only in recent years that empathy has truly gained the attention of leadership researchers (Socas, 2018).

If satisfying the needs of followers is valued, a primary task is gaining an accurate understanding of their emotions (Goleman et al., 2017; Riess & Kraft-Todd, 2014). A skilled and motivated leader can achieve this with empathy (Goleman et al., 2017; Kerr & Speroff,

1954). The ability to decipher the emotions of a team and notice “inner state changes” facilitates resonance (Wetterauer & Ruhl, 2011, p. 1581), and engagement (Burch, 2013).

Further, empathy in leadership has been shown to: a leader’s prediction of the behaviour of followers (Sherman, Lerner, Renshon, Ma-Kellams & Joel, 2015; Jamil Zaki, Bolger &

Ochsner, 2008), enhance respect (Cornelis, Van Hiel, De Cremer & Mayer, 2013; Luisa,

2019), and improve team performance (Gentry, Weber & Sadri, 2007; Humphrey, 2013;

Sadri et al., 2011). As the word empathy has existed for little more than a century (Lanzoni,

2018), it seems important to establish comprehensive understanding of its meaning and etymology.

2.2. Empathy

Empathy is described to be “the capacity to share the feelings of others” (Singer &

Klimecki, 2014, p. R875) and stems from of the German word Einfühlung (in- feeling or feeling into), into the Greek empatheia, from , meaning feeling. By experiencing another’s perspective one is able to better understand their current emotions

(Ickes, 2003). Empathy represents “the act of perceiving, understanding, experiencing, and responding to the emotional state and ideas of another person” (Barker, 2008, p. 141).

Crucially, the empathic process facilitates understanding through a process of decentering (Redmond, 1989); “the act of imagining what is significant from another person’s perspective” (Main, Walle, Kho, & Halpern, 2017, p. 358). Empathy seems to allow

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the empathiser to gather intimate knowledge. The empathic way of understanding is perhaps best characterised as an ability to “read people” (Korn Ferry Institute, 2014, p. 1).

Empathy has also been described as “a vital emotional force that scaffolds everything from close relationships to large-scale cooperation” (Zaki, 2014). As such, empathy can be utilised by organisations in all industries where relationships are involved, whether those relationships are between colleagues or employees and customers. For example, empathy is used by designers, who cannot design products for people without knowing what it’s like to be them and so ‘feel into’ the perspectives of their potential customers (Senge & Krahnke,

2013). In order to maintain a relationship with customers there usually has to be some kind of human contact, and empathy provides an opportunity to acquire critical information (Patnaik

& Mortensen, 2009).

Although it is widely held that empathy is a process of feeling or knowing how another feels (Burch, Bennett, Humphrey, Batchelor & Cairo, 2016; Hoffman, 2001), which echoes the old adage to walk a mile in his/her shoes (Czech & Forward, 2010), a deeper explanation of empathy may vary depending on who we ask. In , empathy has been described as a dispositional trait or ability (Hoffman, 2001). A politician may tell us that empathy is a quality of character, which can change the world (Obama, 2006). Whereas in clinical empathy is often talked about as a situation-specific cognitive-affective state (Duan & Hill, 1996). Developmental psychologists insist that empathy is an emotional response stemming from the understanding of another’s affective state or condition

(Eisenberg & Fabes, 1991). Nevertheless, the consensus seems to be that we have an innate ability to develop empathy rather than being born with it (Decety, 2015).

We are born with a capacity for empathy, which can be nurtured and/or trained

(Engen & Singer, 2013; Lanzoni, 2018). Consequently, empathic development tends to begin

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during the second or third years of life (Decety, 2010). Decety explains that the of empathy involves several components, each with its own complex network of interacting regions of the brain. This includes generating an isomorphic affective state in the self, while retaining knowledge that the cause of the affective state is the other (Engen & Singer, 2013).

This indicates that empathy is a connection that can transmit knowledge (Lanzoni, 2018) not in itself an ; the focus of the empathiser is not on inner feeling, but the situation of another (Wondra & Ellsworth, 2015). Some individuals find empathy arduous, and there may be cultural variations in empathic behaviour and the way empathy is experienced (Chopik,

O’Brien, & Konrath, 2017). However, more empathic individuals are psychologically in tune with others’ feelings and perspectives (Decety & Lamm, 2006).

Being in tune with another, can be a positive or a negative experience. Positive empathy is where people share in one another’s positive emotions, like seeing a lottery winner celebrating on the television (Morelli et al., 2015). This can be measured using the

Positive Empathy Scale (PES), which shows how infectious states like can be

(Morelli, Lieberman & Zaki, 2015). Conversely, negative empathy describes sharing in another’s negative emotional state (Andreychik & Migliaccio, 2015; Morelli et al., 2015).

Negative empathy can be extreme and result in an experience of empathic distress, with motivation to reduce this distress, by aiding an observed victim (Redmond, 1989). The experience of distress may undermine the rationalisation of knowledge gained through empathy, leading to regretted action (Malisoff, 1940).

Ultimately, empathy provides us with knowledge and that determines our response

(Bloom, 2017). It seems unclear as to whether empathy includes a process of rationalisation and a subsequent behavioural response. This may depend on the kind of empathy employed; affective or cognitive. Distinctions have been made concerning the distinct experience of the

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empathiser. The empathic experience can be either an affective/emotional or a cognitive understanding of, other people’s experiences (Carré, Stefaniak, D’Ambrosio, Bensalah &

Besche-Richard, 2013; Hatfield, Rapson & Le, 2013; Preston & de Waal, 2001; Wieseke,

Geigenmuller & Kraus, 2012). Affective or emotional empathy provides a vicarious affective experience, a feeling response (Dziobek et al., 2008; Hoffman, 2000). Empathy is sometimes described as a state of mind that we can reflect upon (Hodges & Wegner, 1997). Cognitive empathy describes an awareness and comprehension of the feelings, thoughts, perspectives and intentions of another (Blanke et al., 2016). Some authors have extended this, offering three parts to empathy: (1) an affective response to another person, which entails sharing in that person’s emotional state; (2) a cognitive capacity to take the perspective of the other person; and (3) monitoring mechanisms that keep track of the origins (self vs. other) of the expected feelings (Lamm, Batson & Decety, 2007). A more detailed review of these empathic experiences will now be presented.

2.2.1. Affective/Emotional Empathy Affective empathy, also known as emotional empathy (Lanzoni, 2018), is automatic and occurs before conscious awareness, as a form of imitation employing mirror neurons

(Burch et al., 2016). This mimicking provokes emotional contagion and empathic concern; feelings of concern for the of others (Simon, 2013). Coke, Batson and McDavis

(1978) proposed that taking the perspective of a person in need increases empathic emotion, which in turn increases helping behaviour. Batson’s (1991) empathy-altruism hypothesis suggests that if we feel empathy, we are motivated to act with care. This is revealed in the care we show to our children or others we have bonds with, like friends and group members, and helps us to act more morally, whether it’s within families or large-scale corporations

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(Zaki, 2014). The urge is to respond helpfully to the other’s plight and wellbeing (Decety,

2015) or needs (Senbel, 2005).

Empathy’s altruistic motivations (Batson & Ahmad, 2009) are comparable to feelings of sympathy (Eisenberg, Fabes, Nyman, Bernzweig, & Pinuelas, 1994) and compassion

(Singer & Klimecki, 2014). Some authors insist that empathy requires the addition of sympathy (de Vignemont et al., 2006) or compassion (Seppälä et al., 2017) in order to ensure a pro-social response. Sympathy is due to the concern about another person’s emotional state, without impacting one’s own emotional state (Decety, 2010). If emotions are aroused it is intentional (Ickes, 2003). To sympathise is to feel for but not like another individual (Decety

& Chaminade, 2003; Hein & Singer, 2008). In other words, sympathy is considered incongruent whilst empathy is congruent (Hein & Singer, 2008).

Compassion is defined as “the feeling that arises in witnessing another’s and that motivates a subsequent desire to help” (Goetz, Keltner & Simon-Thomas, 2010, p. 351).

Whereas empathy is about understanding feeling and perspective, compassion is focused on a concern for the plight of an individual and is considered a key component of pro-social behaviour (P. Gilbert, 2017). Singer and Klimecki suggest ccompassion is feeling for and not feeling with the other ( 2014). It has been said that compassion consists of sympathy and

(Goetz et al., 2010). Pity is felt for others who are in need or in a negative situation due to conditions out of their control (Weiner, Graham, & Chandler, 1982). Both compassion and pity are more closely related to sympathy than empathy, as they are concerned with feelings towards someone’s plight rather than shared feelings or experiences of it (Cuff, Brown,

Taylor, & Howat, 2016). The experience of feeling sympathy, compassion or pity may or may not lead to action and empathy appears no different (Zaki, 2014).

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It has been suggested that a behavioural response is part of empathy (Eisenberg &

Miller, 1987). This view insists that the empathic process includes a cognitive review of the knowledge gained (Coplan & Goldie, 2011) before any behavioural action or non-action is decided upon (Singer & Klimecki, 2014). It should be noted that choosing not to act when observing suffering might be viewed as a reaction in itself (Cuff et al., 2016). Levenson and

Ruef (1992) include a behavioural response in their three qualities to empathy: (1) knowing

(cognitive) what a person feels, (2) feeling (affective) what a person feels and (3) responding compassionately to what a person feels.

However, the inherent behavioural response is regularly contested, with behaviour viewed instead as a consequence of empathy. Redmond (1989) states that empathy produces comforting and helping behaviours; yet the helping behaviour is not seen as part of empathy, it is a product of it. Therefore, empathy is a potential motivation for behaviour (Eisenberg &

Miller, 1987). In other words, empathy is about understanding not action, with no intrinsic behaviour (Cuff et al., 2016). The differences in the ways that researchers conceptualise empathy in this regard has had a knock-on effect to the semantics of empathy in subsequent research (Mann & Barnett, 2013). Some researchers have attempted to resolve this issue by employing the afore mentioned term ‘empathic concern’ to distinguish an empathic approach that leads to altruistic behaviour (Batson, 1991; Batson & Ahmad, 2009).

It is also possible that a behaviour following empathy is anything but altruistic. Chismar

(1988) explains: “Empathy, then, implies sharing something of the other's feelings without necessarily feeling , positive regard or the desire to help” (p. 258). Empathy may be experienced without an associated behaviour in cases of competing interests or due to situational factors (Polaschek, 2003). Breithaupt and Hamilton (2019) considered that empathy may be employed in order to enjoy the of others. Empathy could provide a way of

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understanding in order to pursue self-gain; a business owner seeking to undermine a competitor, for example (Hodges & Biswas-Diener, 2007). For some it may be difficult to fight the altruistic urge. Affective empathy may lead to too much self-sacrificing or “costly altruism”

(FeldmanHall, Dalgleish, Evans & Mobbs, 2015, p. 348). This may present a challenge to those in certain positions, like leaders. The solution may be found in a different kind of empathy: cognitive empathy.

2.2.2. Cognitive Empathy Cognitive empathy refers to an awareness of another’s emotion or the understanding of the thoughts and feelings of another person without an emotional experience (Burch et al.,

2016; Simon, 2013). An example of cognitive empathy is perspective taking or mentalising

(Gilin et al., 2013). Perspective taking doesn’t focus on emotions being shared, yet it still represents an attempt to understand (Cuff, Brown, Taylor & Howat, 2016). This colder view of empathy is not always well received and some refuse to accept that perspective taking is really empathy at all (Galinsky, Maddux, Gilin, & White, 2008).

Perspective taking can be useful for those wishing to do harm. However unpalatable this may be, it is widely held that some acts of are facilitated by high-levels of empathy (Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). This includes the characteristic manipulation of others often seen in (Babiak & Hare, 2006). It is suggested that psychopaths employ cognitive empathy in order to understand the feelings of others, without actually feeling or suffering from those feelings themselves (Babiak & Hare, 2006; Cuff et al., 2016).

Whether or not psychopaths are skilled at controlling this, or lack the emotional capabilities required, remains unclear.

It is not only psychopaths who employ cognitive empathy. Any negotiator who fails to understand the other party's interests will struggle to obtain the best outcome for themselves (Galinsky, Maddux, Gilin & White, 2008). Understanding another’s thoughts and

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feelings, a skill known as ‘empathic accuracy’ is sure to help in predicting their next move

(Ickes, 1997; Lorimer, 2013). Cognitive empathy has been shown to be employed more than affective empathy in empathic accuracy tasks (Mackes et al., 2018). Perspective taking

“allows an individual to anticipate the behaviour and reactions of others” (Davis, 1983, p.

115). If an accurate understanding of an opponent’s strategy is critical for success, then perspective-taking is a useful competency (Gilin, Maddux, Carpenter & Galinsky, 2013). In this respect, perspective taking has been shown to be more powerful than affective empathy.

It is preferable to think with than to feel with one’s adversaries; “more beneficial to get inside their heads than to have them inside one’s own heart” (Galinsky et al., 2008, p. 383).

An example of how understanding another person helps to predict their reaction or behaviour occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis, in October 1962. The episode required some vital perspective taking; the Kennedy administration had to find a solution that would satisfy their own public, and Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, who had his own needs, which needed to be fully understood: “this deal allowed Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev to declare that he had saved Cuba from attack, and therefore satisfied his core interests of saving face and retaining power (Galinsky et al., 2008, p. 378).

As Galinsky (2008) explains, it is the details and background to this event that reveal the powerful advantage of having a deep understanding of one's opponent. The solution came from Tommy Thompson, one of Kennedy’s advisors, who had lived with Khrushchev and had intimate knowledge of his fundamental interests and perspectives, which facilitated an empathic understanding of his needs and how they could be served. Thompson knew

Khrushchev worried about appearing weak to his people and that any solution had to allow him to proclaim an achievement and be seen as strong. Contemplating the perspectives of

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others provides crucial insight (Malisoff, 1940) and such insight is likely to be valued by any leader who is looking to understand an opponent or get more from their team.

Leadership in the political spectrum also offers examples of the dangers of lacking empathic understanding too. Before World II, as well as Prime Minister Chamberlain,

Britain sent Lord Halifax, and Sir Nevile Henderson to meet Adolf Hitler in attempts to gauge his intentions. Having had no prior relationship with Hitler, gaining an empathic understanding, through perspective taking, proved impossible and all three men returned certain that Hitler did not intend to go to war (Gladwell, 2019).

The ability to accurately acknowledge the mental states of others is something that psychologists often refer to as Theory of Mind (ToM) (Astington, Harris & Olson, 1990). As previously discussed, this accuracy depends on knowledge of the other person. However,

ToM ability appears to vary from person to person and it seems that practice brings improvement. Subjects who score higher for ToM tend to read more works of fiction than those who record lower scores (Mar & Oatley, 2008). Films, novels, plays and television dramas also offer the opportunity to practice perspective taking, by projecting ourselves in to the social interactions and emotional experiences of others (Mar & Oatley, 2008). Moreover,

Mar and Oatley suggest “Engaging in the simulative experiences of fiction literature can facilitate the understanding of others who are different from ourselves and can augment our capacity for empathy and social inference” (p. 173).

Whether taking the perspective of a real person or a literary character, some clarity is required about the empathic process in that it is “not putting oneself in another’s shoes; rather, cognitive empathy is about imagining what it is like to be the other person in that person’s shoes” (Main et al., 2017, p. 363). Cognitive empathy insists on obtaining the perspective of another person rather than remaining egocentric; by getting perspective, not

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simply taking perspective (Eyal, Steffel & Epley, 2018). Not only does cognitive empathy require us to stop being ourselves for a moment and see the world from another’s situation, it requires us to pay close attention to that person. This requires soft skills related to empathy, such as listening. By actively listening to people, we are more able to remove our egocentric bias and get closer to their genuine perspective (Eyal et al., 2018). Aside from individuals with rare personality disorders, it seems there are options available to those who struggle to empathise.

2.2.3. Developing Empathy Developing empathy is possible even in narcissists (Hepper, Hart & Sedikides, 2014).

Specific training programmes designed to develop empathy have proved effective (van

Berkhout & Malouff, 2016). There are school programmes, including Roots of Empathy

(Gordon, 2012) which began in Canada and is spreading around the world, and Step By Step

(Alexander, 2016) in Denmark. In medicine there is a growing emphasis on empathy development through education (Cunico, Sartori, Marognolli & Meneghini, 2012; Han &

Pappas, 2018; Riess, Kelley, Bailey, Dunn & Phillips, 2012; Stepien & Baernstein, 2006).

Business schools are starting to train their students in empathy (Baker, 2017). In 2018 the world’s first empathy training for diplomats began (The Center for Empathy in International

Affairs). Corporations have begun to employ psychologists to develop cognitive skills like perspective taking, as the link between a company’s success and the EI of its leaders is becoming more evident (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, & Finkelstein, 2017). Goleman et al believe that “emotional intelligence has proved to be twice as important as other competencies such as technical skills and IQ in determining outstanding leadership” (p. 362) and empathy is the most prominent of all EI abilities (Goleman, 1996).

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Interventions to develop empathy grow out of a societal awareness of empathic deficit

(Obama, 2006) and an “empathy gap” in leadership (Goleman et al., 2017, p. 58). Whilst progress is welcomed, these interventions may not be prevalent enough. Empathy may be becoming a popular theme in research, however, training in western societies in particular still focuses more keenly on intelligence and individualism rather than empathy or altruism

(Lanzoni, 2019).

A focus on developing empathy supplements our social experiences. Our first development of empathy begins after we leave the womb. Whether we describe our inheritance as hard-wired (De Waal, 2009) or soft-wired (Rifkin, 2010) we are born with a capacity for empathy, not with empathy (Heyes, 2018). Our unique life experiences and social learning decide how our development of empathy proceeds (De Waal, 2009; Heyes,

2018). Psychodynamic theory suggests that a person’s character patterns develop “as a consequence of the interaction of a broad but finite range of instinctual needs of the person and the environment’s ability or inability to respond appropriately to them” (Johnson, 1994, p. 7). The environment we experience begins with the one provided by our parents and widens with the increased range of relationships and interactions as we mature (Erikson,

1995). Where interactions create issues that go unresolved, we may continue to let them influence us (Johnson, 1994) causing defensive, and adaptive strategies (Edelson,

1988). Therefore, a leader’s life experience, even before their career has begun, is likely to have a substantial influence on their professional character (Schwartz & Malach-Pines,

2007), and their emotional response to a situation or issue is unconsciously connected to their history (Boyatzis et al., 2012).

This means we all arrive in adulthood with different degrees of empathic ability and so developing empathy in leaders may require tailored programmes that entail “both

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cognitive and affective experiences” (Tzouramani, 2017, p. 197). There are various examples of strategies employed by organisations to develop empathy and ongoing research may inspire others. Just the sharing of and listening to experiences of others dissolves boundaries and allows empathy to grow, which connects people, uniting them into a more harmonious group (Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2012). Where empathy is developed, team spirit, enjoyment at work and customer satisfaction can improve (Costa & Glinia, 2003, p. 284). One of the largest and most successful organisations of our time provides a example. Karen May, the vice president for people development at Google, employs a training method that she refers to as ‘speedback’. Halfway through a training session, trainees are paired off and asked to sit knee to knee. They are then given three minutes to answer the question: ‘What advice would you give me based on the experience you’ve had with me here?’ (Hughes, 2018, p.

161). This requires trainees to think about what is best for the other person and more and more companies seem to be valuing this approach. In this “empathy is a mechanism for creating a shared existence and thus moves the focus from I to WE” (Pavlovich & Krahnke,

2013, p. 3) and is the bridge that connects us to one another (Trout, 2010).

Successful empathy development training will enhance the worker’s willingness and ability to take the perspective of others (Coulehan, Platt,& Egener, 2001). The traditional approach is through the training of communication skills, like dialogue (Isaacs, 1999;

Mazutis & Slawinski, 2008) and active listening (Jentz, 2007). However, this often seems to be packaged as a way of improving relationships at work, rather than developing skills within each individual. Another approach is to teach emotional identification, understanding and management, but there is a lack of research concerning the impact of such training upon the emotional environment and levels of empathy (Atkins, 2013). Mindfulness and are associated with enhancing empathy (Atkins, 2013). Mindfulness is renowned for reducing

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personal stress, but it is also positively related to the development of perspective taking skills

(Thomas & Otis, 2010; Tipsord, 2009), general empathy (Atkins, 2013) and empathic accuracy (Lesh, 1970). This is particularly relevant as mindfulness programmes are becoming more popular in the workplace (Glomb, Duffy, Bono & Yang, 2011), and mindfulness training has indeed been linked to increases in empathy (Atkins, 2013). A regularly cited study that showed mindfulness training failed to improve empathy was, the authors suggest, due to the subjects being nurses and, therefore, likely to already have been high in empathy

(Beddoe & Murphy, 2004).

It is thought that mindfulness or meditation training increase empathy by helping people take their judgements of others less seriously and instead notice social and emotional cues in each moment (Atkins, 2013). This improves self-regulation of emotions and helps mould relationship goals and values (Atkins & Parker, 2012). It also enhances self- awareness, reducing personal distress, leaving more room for empathic responses (Atkins,

2013). A study of trainee psychotherapists found daily meditation increased felt compassion and towards themselves and their clients (McCollum & Gehart, 2010). It has also been shown that meditative practices increase the grey matter of a region of the brain that is associated with empathy: the angular gyrus (Decety & Lamm, 2007).

In medicine, where there is a strong emphasis on empathy development (Díez-Goñi &

Rodríguez-Díez, 2017; Han & Pappas, 2018) it has been demonstrated that role models can foster empathy within teams (Lynoe, Löfmark & Thulesius, 2008). Therefore, recruiting appropriate role models is important (Murinson et al., 2010). Ideally, such individuals will have a personality that demonstrates “positive, respectful attitudes” towards others and will act with “honesty; politeness and enthusiasm” (Elzubeir & Rizk, 2008, p. 272). As already noted, empathy is usually contagious (Humphrey, 2002; Simon, 2013).

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Empathy can also be developed by using perspective taking or role taking instructions

(Stanger, Kavussanu, & Ring, 2012). Although making these behaviours habitual may take time the effects of perspective taking on empathy are positive in the long term (Herrera,

Bailenson, Weisz, Ogle, & Zaki, 2018). Taking the perspective of others, even when instructed to do so, makes negative emotional reactions stronger (Stanger et al., 2012). Some suggest the approach is too simplified, and that a more nuanced perspective may be necessary

(Zaki & Cikara, 2015). It is important to remember that practising perspective taking, or as it’s sometimes called “mentalising” (Zaki, 2014, p. 1628), requires becoming the other in the moment rather than placing one’s self in the shoes of another (Lanzoni, 2018). The draining impact might be managed better where the empathy is more cognitive than affective. Any programmes designed to develop empathy within teams or organisations seem to have a better chance of avoiding negative effects, like increased instances of burnout if they focus on developing cognitive empathy.

Reading, listening to, or watching any experiences of individuals that can be imagined into, seems to provide an opportunity to develop empathy. Going to the theatre, for example, provides a safe space to learn empathy (Kinney-Petrucha, 2017). Likewise, the cinema

(Vezzali, Stathi, Giovannini, Capozza & Trifiletti, 2015) and watching television (Hammond,

2019). Deeper participation in such art, like writing or acting, is also said to enhance empathic ability (Korbey, 2016). In summary, the evidence suggests there are a variety of methods available to anyone wishing to develop empathy.

2.3. Empathy and Leadership

Human beings require empathy in all aspects of daily life (Edmondson & Lei, 2014).

At home, empathy comes from friends and family; colleagues may fill this gap in the workplace (Kock et al., 2019). More than ever, people have a desire to be understood and

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empathy allows leaders to send that message (Czech & Forward, 2010). A leader lacking empathy will no longer live up to societal expectations (Tzouramani, 2017).

Knowledge of another’s perspective, feelings, and intentions may help a leader in all relational activity, not just with colleagues, but when dealing with customers, and even rivals, too. A skilled empathiser will achieve high levels of empathic accuracy (Ickes, 1997;

Lorimer, 2013; Sherman et al., 2015). The shared experience of another’s situation facilitates a calculation (or even affective ) of what the other will experience next

(Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019). This ability to forecast reveals how people are likely to behave (O’Neil, 2011).

When it comes to the leadership of teams empathy can help by enhancing social cohesion (Friedkin, 2004). Cohesion is important for team performance (Salas, Grossman,

Hughes, & Coultas, 2015) and is a focus for leaders in both business and sport (Weinberg &

McDermott, 2002). The cohesion associated with empathy appears to extend to the relationship between leader and follower. Those who score highly for empathy are also described as likeable, friendly, outgoing, warm individuals, very much at ease in interpersonal situations (Hogan, 1969). Empathic people tend to have more friends (Kardos,

Leidner, Pléh, Soltész & Unoka, 2017) and are perceived to be more popular (Heward, 1994).

Popularity may help a leader since it enhances influence (Lansu & Cillessen, 2015), however, another way a leader may choose to use this influence is to manage emotions.

Managing emotions has become a greater part of leadership today (Kilduff, Chiaburu,

& Menges, 2010) and empathy helps with this. With empathy, a leader can help others to regulate their emotions to achieve desirable goals (Polychroniou, 2009).

Patnaik and Mortensen (2009) suggest that we shouldn’t underestimate what we have to gain by tuning in to the emotions of others. Empathy allows an accurate identification of

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the emotions that others feel (Kraus, Cote & Keltner, 2010) and, therefore, provides insight to their meanings, and intentions (Wilson, 2011). Empathy seems to offer leaders several advantages; not only does it facilitate understanding, but also enables the prediction and explanation of behaviour (Argo, Zhu & Dahl, 2008).

Conversely, a leader may be susceptible to a cognitive bias known as ‘the empathy gap’, where mental states inhibit understanding of the way we and other people make decisions (Kang & Camerer, 2013). This may be intrapersonal, where leaders struggle to predict how they themselves might behave in different emotional circumstances, or it may be interpersonal; where a leader who is feeling relaxed struggles to imagine the perspective of another who is feeling threatened. The empathy gap can also change the way a leader seeks solutions. A leader looking to fight over something will find it difficult to imagine that another may be seeking a peaceful resolution. Many powerful leaders described as narcissistic exhibit empathy gap characteristics (Maccoby, 2017). Narcissistic leadership styles encompass , arrogance, entitlement, fragile self-esteem, and grandiose systems motivated by a need for power and respect, rather than empathic concern for those they lead (Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006).

This reported lack of empathy in leadership aligns with a reported decline of empathy in society (Persson & Kajonius, 2016), a point highlighted by former US President Barrack

Obama in the 2007 Presidential Debate at Dartmouth College:

Part of what we've lost is a sense of empathy towards each other. We have been

governed in and division, and you know, we talk about the federal deficit, but we

don't talk enough about the empathy deficit, a sense that I stand in somebody else's

shoes, I see through their eyes. (Obama, 2007, para. 4)

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Bridging the empathy gap can improve a leader’s decision making and have a positive impact on their own life, as well as those they lead (Trout, 2010). In some industries, like education and health, there is growing evidence of an appetite to tackle this lack of empathy in leadership (Luisa, 2019). In 2013, over one thousand business organisations were found to be using the word empathy in recruitment descriptions (Anders, 2013). It seems that the leaders of tomorrow are less likely to lack empathy, as business schools have started to include empathy development in curriculums (Baker, 2017; Socas, 2018), suggesting a trend towards empathic leadership.

2.4. The Trend Towards Empathic Leadership

The Type X leader of the twentieth century (McGregor, 1960) led autocratically and lacked concern for the views and emotions of others (Marques, 2015). The style failed to appreciate that empathy makes leaders more influential (Shootman, 2018), and can make the working environment more humane, considerate and less stressful (Costa & Glinia, 2003).

Emotional skills have become a focus, with empathy being described as the core emotional trait for leadership (Jin, 2010). By empathising with both positive and negative emotions (Mahsud, Yukl & Prussia, 2010) leaders can be in tune with those they lead (Jin,

2010). This is important since leaders are now expected to uphold positive relationships with workers in order to lead effectively (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans & May, 2005; George & Sims,

2007). These relationships facilitate the understanding required when making decisions for the good of a whole team or organisation (Kellett, Humphrey & Sleeth, 2002; Wolff,

Pescosolido & Druskat, 2002). There seems to be a growing acceptance that “as a critical adjunct to understanding, empathy ties directly to leadership” (Natale, Libertella & Doran,

2013, p. 94). A look at the popular styles of leadership in the twenty-first century seems to support this (Kock et al., 2019).

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By leaving behind a century of mechanical production where leaders viewed people as cogs, leaders are now recognising the authentic presence and creativity of those they lead

(Scharmer, 2009). Senge and Krahnke (2013) suggest that “in a world where things are happening with increasing speed, a different way of knowing is required based on slowing down in order to be able to see the larger system, to make connections, and to recognise real issues” (p. 199).

The verb lead has its roots in the Indo-European word leith, which means to cross a threshold. It is a leader’s duty to “step into the unknown and explore new ways” (Senge &

Krahnke, 2013, p. 200). In this age, the threshold appears to include emotions. It has become accepted that emotions play a role in leadership (Fineman, 2004) and decision making

(Damasio, 2003). By understanding emotions leaders can make more informed decisions.

Therefore, since empathy helps us to understand emotions (Wetterauer & Ruhl, 2011), organisational functioning can benefit from its inclusion at decision making levels (Kleinlogel,

2013); this understanding has the additional advantage of bringing people together.

A recent survey, conducted across twenty-nine countries from around the world, found that millennials want a more open and collaborative relationship with their employers, with flexible working environments (Deloitte, 2016). The survey notes that employees are less loyal when they recognise that employers treat them as assets rather than real people with emotions.

The emotional perspective of the employee was predominantly ignored until the end of the twentieth century, with a few exceptions (Kets de Vries & Miller, 1984; Schneider &

Shrivastaval, 1988; Zaleznik, 2004; Zaleznik, Kets de Vries & Kets de Vries, 1975). It wasn’t until the 1990s that research into leadership began to seriously consider if efficacy was due to more than cognitive abilities (Fineman, 2004; McBane, 1995). There has been a realisation that

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leaders should be conscious of the deeper parts of the people they lead and that this can be achieved by greater empathy (Heaton & Travis, 2013).

Leadership theory and research is constantly evolving (Ferkins, Skinner & Swanson,

2018). Together with the drive for efficacy, the changes have been driven by evolving societal values, greater employee awareness and a higher expectation of job satisfaction (Higgs, 2003).

As a consequence, twenty-first century leaders tend to work alongside those they lead rather than watch over them (Marques, 2015). Organisations are now embracing a more eclectic and holistic view of at work (Ashkanasy et al., 2002). Leaders are less likely to be narcissistic aggressors who command what have become known as climates of fear (Ashkanasy

& Nicholson, 2003), choosing instead to actively listen (Kelly & Finkelman, 2011).

Arguably, we are now entering an age in which the ‘nicest’ leaders are considered to have the potential to be the most successful leaders with their so-called softer skills offering harder results (McDonald, 2008). Empathy is referred to as one of these soft skills that has been acknowledged as an important quality for leaders (Gentry, Weber & Sadri, 2007; Haiyan,

Walker & Walker, 2014; Kock et al., 2019; Tzouramani, 2017). This is a response to the very different demands of the modern era that have radically changed the approach to leadership

(Holt & Marques, 2012). Whilst traditional leadership skills like problem solving remain important, social skills are now seen as equal determinants of success (Boatwright & Forrest,

2000; Wolff et al., 2002). Leaders are now more aware of and willing to develop emotion focused skills like empathy (Jin, 2010). It is also becoming more widely accepted that empathy should be a consideration for organisations when they recruit and train future leaders (Jin, 2010;

McColl-Kennedy & Anderson, 2002). This can be achieved through a focus on empathy and interpersonal skills in management development programmes and executive coaching (Mahsud et al., 2010).

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Leaders often emerge from within an organisation as skilled managers of emotions

(Pescosolido, 2002). Empathy in these candidates is demonstrated by their understanding of the emotions that run through groups and individuals, and by their recognition of the needs of their peers and the needs of the team they are part of (Wolff et al., 2002). With empathy now considered as an integral part of leading (Natale et al., 2013), individuals wishing to be seen as leaders by their peers, need to demonstrate their empathic abilities through their behaviours

(Kellett, Humphrey & Sleeth, 2006).

Several popular leadership styles and models incorporate empathic abilities and behaviours, including: charismatic leadership (Choi, 2006), Leader Membership Exchange

(LMX) (Amabile, Schatzel, Moneta & Kramer, 2004; Mahsud et al., 2010), servant leadership

(Washington, Sutton & Feild, 2006), and transformational and task orientated leadership

(Kellett et al., 2006; Megerian & Sosik, 1997).

Charismatic leadership (Bass, 1985; Conger & Kanungo, 1987; House, 1976; Yukl,

1990) is said to have three core components: envisioning, empowerment and empathy (Choi,

2006). Charisma is an attribution based on followers' and interpretations of their leader's behaviour. Charismatic leaders are empathic in that they are likely to be sensitive to the needs and emotions of their followers (Conger & Kanungo, 1998). They understand what followers want and focus on the issues followers see as important (Pillai, Williams, Lowe &

Jung, 2003). They also share the feelings of followers and in doing so form a tighter bond

(Salovey & Mayer, 1990), leading followers to feel affiliated and at one with their leader (Choi,

2006).

LMX (Graen & Cashman, 1975; Lloyd, Boer & Voelpel, 2017) is a model that specifically focuses on the bonds between leaders and followers. Leaders provide followers with greater respect and (Cashman, Dansereau, Graen & Haga, 1976), which

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improves performance (Geertshuis, Morrison, & Cooper-Thomas, 2015). Empathy is an essential part of the development of such bonds and LMX is fundamentally a non-monetary exchange process, where both parties tend to offer more than the work contract requires (Kock et al., 2019).

The exchange highlighted in LMX is not a requirement of Servant leadership

(Greenleaf, 1977; Russell & Gregory Stone, 2002). Servant leadership is an emerging theme in sport leadership in particular (Peachey et al., 2015) and focuses on serving the needs

(including emotional needs) of individuals or teams (Ruben & Gigliotti, 2017). Empathy offers a proficient way of understanding needs (Barker, 2008) and is vital for servant leaders.

However, servant leadership advocates its own ethical framework, stating how leaders should treat their followers in certain situations (Mikkelson, Sloan & Hesse, 2017; Russell & Gregory

Stone, 2002), which may conflict and potentially overrule knowledge gained via empathy.

Empathy also has a role in transformational and task orientated leadership; in decision making, building and , and managing employee (Jin, 2010).

Miller (2009) claims that empathy is specifically employed by transformational leaders when empowering followers, recognising their strengths and weaknesses, and building relationships.

Within the Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ) (Alban‐Metcalfe & Alimo‐

Metcalfe, 2000) there are behaviours which show a potential fit with and these behaviours are described to be “empathy with action” (Miller, 2009, p. 46). Miller insists that this ‘empathy in action’ is not an optional extra; and that we are commanded to be empathic, to bring transformation to the world.

Empathy has also been described as a common factor in recent styles of leadership such as: awakened, resonant and authentic (Marques, 2015), and compassionate leadership (Gilbert,

2017). The awakened leadership style (Marques, 2010; Marques, 2006) focuses on

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relationships (Marques, 2008). Awakened leaders are in balance with, and empathically connected to, the world around them, yet able to detach when necessary (Marques, 2010).

Resonant leaders (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005; McKee & Massimilian, 2006) build resonant relationships. Resonance can be achieved through empathy (Wetterauer & Ruhl, 2011), moreover empathy has been described to be “emotional resonance” (Lanzoni, 2018, p. 3).

Authentic leadership (Baron & Parent, 2015; George & Sims, 2007) requires a consistent consideration of one’s values and maintenance of a true voice. Authentic leaders also need to provide followers with genuine emotional support and consideration for their wellbeing, taking into consideration vulnerability and the potential for harm (Peter, 2000). It is claimed that to be effective, authentic leaders need to have empathy (Gentry, Weber & Sadri,

2007).

Similarly, compassionate leadership employs empathy so that the leader can understand, by feeling. As such, the leader comes to understand what helping behaviour is required (West, Eckert, Collins, & Chowla, 2017). Kohlrieser, Goldsworthy and Coombe

(2012) note that “empathy and compassion are the main ingredients of caring” (p. 58). Studies of compassion in leadership show that the more followers are moved by leader compassion or , the more loyalty their show to their leader (Haidt, 2004). Compassion goes further than empathy, in that it includes a prosocial response, usually a determination to do whatever is necessary to alleviate suffering (Gilbert, 2017; Gilbert & Choden, 2013; Goetz et al., 2010;

Poorkavoos, 2016). As leadership becomes more employee focused, and with a greater understanding of the importance of emotional well-being, there is a growing interest in compassionate leadership styles (Martin & Heineberg, 2018).

Research, including studies of styles identified, indicates that empathy has become “a leadership quintessential” (Natale et al., 2013, p. 94). Empathy has recently become an area

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of interest for leadership researchers; however, some past examples of empathic leadership have been neglected. Schilling and DeZolt (2010) note that famous leaders of the last century, often labelled as charismatic leaders, for example J.F. Kennedy, possessed high levels of empathy.

In summary, the literature suggests a trend towards greater awareness and consideration of empathy within contemporary approaches to leadership (Holt & Marques,

2012; Kock et al., 2019; Tzouramani, 2017). It is now accepted that in order to prosper,

“organisations need to develop leaders with high empathy skills” (Wan Abdul Rahman &

Castelli, 2013, p. 83). From being an integral component of other styles, the empathic approach to leadership has now been recognised as a singular style with unique attributes and is termed: empathic leadership (Marques, 2015).

2.5. The Empathic Leadership Style

An empathic leadership style is accepted to be one in which leaders manage an expressed understanding of others’ emotions and support the handling of those emotions, allowing followers to enjoy their situation and perform better as a consequence (Kock et al.,

2019). Empathic Leaders create emotional bonds that facilitate understanding, allowing needs to be addressed, talents and perspectives to be recognised and included in decision making

(Tzouramani, 2017).

Empathic leaders are likely to be more engaged with their role within an organisation

(Joireman, Daniels, George-Falvy & Kamdar, 2006), and create higher profits (Stein,

Papadogiannis, Yip & Sitarenios, 2009). Research supporting empathic leadership is consistent across national and cultural boundaries. An analysis of 6731 managers from 38 countries, conducted by the Centre for Creative Leadership (CCL), found that empathic leadership improved organisational performance (Gentry, Weber & Sadri, 2007). However,

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research to date has focused on business organisations and other domains need to be explored

(Kock et al., 2019).

Unlike LMX, empathic leadership does not focus on an exchange process between leader and follower (Kock et al., 2019). Kock and colleagues detail that where LMX insists on the follower putting in efforts above and beyond those required, the empathic leader is willing to understand a situation where this does not happen or is not possible, using the moment to show care and understanding and seeing it as an investment in the follower’s potential.

Unlike servant leadership, the empathic leader does not only focus on the needs of the follower, but the needs of all stakeholders, including their own, and the needs of colleagues within the organisation (Kock et al., 2019). This empathic understanding of needs brings detailed knowledge to each context, facilitates an appropriate response and enhances the emotional climate (Ashkanasy & Dorris, 2017).

Empathic leadership maintains that it is impossible to connect with or to motivate followers if you cannot envision life from their perspective (Buckingham, 2014). Despite the trend towards more empathic styles of leadership, a recent study of business school university students showed empathy ranked lowest in a list of important leadership attributes (Holt &

Marques, 2012). This may be due to business schools clinging onto antiquated views of leadership, where feelings and opinions of followers are typically of little or no concern. So called softer behaviours (Pink, 2005), like empathic concern, have traditionally had little value and have often been viewed as a weakness (Marques, 2015). Marques (2015) insists that empathy does not make leaders weak, but offers them strength through respect and appreciation and behaviours like listening enhance a leader’s prestige (Kluger, 2015).

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Furthermore, Skinner & Spurgeon (2005) found empathic concern inspired workers to go above and beyond their obligations, handing the leader greater power.

There are many reported cases of highly intelligent and capable professionals taking on positions of leadership and failing (Goleman, 1996). This is often due to a lack of ability in one or more areas of their leadership. It may be due to a lack of ability to empathise in order to understand others, or an inability to bring individuals together for a common cause.

Zaki and Cikara (2015) suggest that “empathic failures precipitate and worsen social conflict.

Accordingly, conflict-reduction interventions prioritize developing empathy in order to achieve harmony” (p. 471). As such, empathic leadership is particularly attentive to mediating between perspectives (Galinsky et al., 2008; Gilin et al., 2013; Senbel, 2005).

In other cases, a lack of empathy may be deliberate, with empathy deliberately held back. In the business world people often how it is possible to make tough decisions if they are considering the feelings of those who might be affected, and so they supress empathic feelings (Goleman, 1996). With some leaders seeing empathy as problem rather than solution, it may be no that some research has shown empathy to be ranked poorly compared with other attributes (Holt & Marques, 2012). Holt and Marques also discovered that the business student subjects were lacking in empathy themselves, which may explain a biased view of the value and potential of empathy in leadership.

Task and transformational focused leadership also present a challenge for empathy.

Workers may temporarily engage in tasks very successfully. However, without relationship focused leader behaviours (like empathy) workers begin to feel dehumanised, like cogs in a machine, merely appreciated for carrying out their duties, not for being themselves

(Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; Holt & Marques, 2012). This is likely to have a detrimental impact on the interactions with followers.

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Empathic leadership isn’t just helpful in the interaction with followers, and in the leader understanding their own experience, it also facilitates an understanding of others across the organisation (Kock et al., 2019). Most leaders are required to interact with a wide range of stakeholders to improve efficacy and empathy facilitates this (Holt & Marques,

2012). Understanding these individuals arms the leader with knowledge that enables a leader to react in a way that best serves the goals of the team or organisation (Tzouramani, 2017).

It is said that empathic leaders are skilled in this understanding of other people and able to communicate what is understood; they “recognise the pain in others by putting words to it” (Kohlrieser, Goldsworthy & Coombe, 2012, p. 96). The expressed nature of this is significant. A follower needs to be aware of the leader’s empathic approach towards them in order to experience an improved emotional state; ideally this expression should be more than just words.

Perception of leadership empathy has been shown to be higher when, rather than stop at verbally expressing an empathic approach, an empathiser also promises to act, and higher still when they follow through with that promise (Bachelor, 1988; Håkansson, 2003; Kock et al., 2019). Kock and colleagues give an example of this, where a follower is having problems sleeping due to having a new infant in the house: the empathic leader will listen, express understanding, and show support, in both words and actions. This might involve finding somewhere for the follower to take a nap during a break in work.

It may be possible for a leader to claim to be empathic, without expending the resources expected of an empathic leader, yet still enjoy some positive outcomes. However, this is unsustainable once followers discover the deception (Kock et al., 2019). It is likely that the discovery will negatively the follower and lead to poorer performance.

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Kock and colleagues suggest leaders can be classified into two groups: empathic

(those using high levels of empathic leadership) and callous (those who use low levels of empathic leadership). Whilst deceiving followers with claims of empathic leadership may be workable in an organisation where staff turnover is accepted to be very high, when the deceptive leader gets found out, followers will come to see and treat them as a callous leader

(Kock et al., 2019).

The authenticity of an empathic leader may not be revealed until a follower is in a particular scenario and requires leader empathy. This could be after a career setback or disappointing performance. A follower in this situation may approach a leader to discuss the issue. An empathic leader may be more proactive, initiating regular communications with followers about their experiences. The kind of support provided by the empathic leader will be listening; understanding; and a response that meets needs; actions that demonstrate to the follower that the leader cares about them (Kock et al., 2019). However, the leader needs to remain alert, there is always a danger that the follower will take advantage of this perceived care with selfish motives that may not serve the leader or the cause (Judge, Piccolo, &

Kosalka, 2009). Leaders can remain alert to such dangers by empathic listening, which is a major component of empathic communication (Parks, 2015).

2.6. Communication and Empathic Leadership

Williams (2006) states that the empathic communication style is characterized by compassionate, concerned, and considerate verbal behaviour where the opinions of others are valued. Further, Williams states that this leads to trust and openness rather negative behaviours like ‘backstabbing’ or scheming against the leader. Leaders may already have knowledge that helps with understanding how and when to communicate with followers.

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The understanding of an other’s situation is helped if the leader has experienced similar situations them self and so possibly hindered when dealing with those from other backgrounds, genders or cultures (Kock et al., 2019). Whether or not there are cultural or linguistic hurdles, the leader may focus more on non-verbal methods of communication.

Leadership communication involves listening to more than what is explicitly vocalised

(Johnson, 1951). Facial expressions can help a leader understand how best to react, by mirroring (including literal body shape/posture and semiautomatic actions like yawning) or consolation behaviours like comforting touch or embrace, and using reassuring words or sounds (Munro, Powis, & Bore, 2013). In professional arenas, these behaviours need to be carefully regulated in order to avoid going into inappropriate depths of intimacy (Munro et al., 2013).

An empathic leader is a resonant leader, capable of deciphering the emotions of a team by focusing on their own feelings as well as those of the group, enabling them to notice

“inner state changes” before directing them in a positive direction (Wetterauer & Ruhl, 2011, p. 1581). “Individuals who demonstrate a high degree of empathy are hyper-aware, constantly scanning their environment” (O’Neil, 2011, p. 330). Hogue (2006) notes that

“either seeing or hearing an event prompts the brain to imagine its own body performing an action” (p. 36).

Listening is often related to empathy. A good listener will treat another speaker without judgement, but with acceptance and empathy (Rogers, 1951). A true listener is someone who understands and begins to empathise (Bennett, 2001). Carkuff describes empathy to be a “facilitative communication skill” (Corcoran, 1982, p. 63). Empathy is considered a fundamental element of communication competence (Redmond, 1989).

Communication is possible without empathy, but a non-empathic communicator might not be

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as effective as they could be, and is less likely to be liked as a leader (Redmond, 1989). When a leader becomes aware of a follower in need of empathetic leadership, he or she can express this through communications (Kock et al., 2019).

Empathic leaders understand that how information will be received, and how to give feedback is of great importance (Goleman, 1996). Giving feedback is unlikely to be a rare event. As leaders and followers grow closer together, it is more likely to be part of an ongoing conversation. As previously discussed, empathy relies on this dynamic process with use of continual feedback from the person with whom one is empathising (Main, Walle et al.,

2017). This may be described as dynamic communication (Beattie & Ellis, 2017). The empathiser needs to retain and continue to communicate to gain deeper understanding (Halpern, 2001). This deepening of understanding continues to inform future communication and fuels a climate of safety within an organisation or team (Williams, 2006).

Dynamic communication also helps to limit the negative influence of power on communication and empathy (Main et al., 2017). Researchers who looked at leaders’ empathic accuracy, discovered it was lower for those with more structural power within the organization (Sherman et al., 2015). Moreover, the of power experienced by those moving into leadership positions has been shown to reduce empathy for the suffering of others (van Kleef et al., 2008). This negative relationship between power and empathy has been apparent to psychologists since the Zimbardo Stanford Prison Guard studies of the early

1970s (Zimbardo, 1971). Zimbardo’s studies demonstrate the potential for powerful leaders to completely dehumanise those they lead (Keltner, Gruenfeld & Anderson, 2003).

Empathic communication is not an instantaneous phenomenon, it has to endure

(Main, Walle et al., 2017). A dynamic attunement of emotions (Halpern, 2001) can be achieved through regular communication (Hollan & Throop, 2008; Kupetz, 2014). Empathy

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has to be a process, with feedback and adjustments (Kupetz, 2014). Empathic behaviours like this will help leaders to build relationships (Gilin et al., 2013). Relationship-orientated leaders are proficient at getting to know others through a focus on listening and understanding (Amabile et al., 2004; Kellett et al., 2002; Kellett, Humphrey & Sleeth, 2006), enabling cooperative relationships to develop (Mahsud et al., 2010).

2.7. Relationships, Empathy and Leadership

In leadership, empathy works via a greater focus on relationships (Humphrey, 2002).

This is particularly relevant because “today’s employees prefer a closer relationship with their leaders” (Marques, 2015, p. 1316). Studies show that those who score high for empathy naturally acquire more friends and broader social networks (Kardos et al., 2017). Empathic leadership focuses on deep participation and mutual receptivity with relational and shared perspectives (Tzouramani, 2017). Although empathic leadership may ask more of a leader, the effort seems worthwhile.

A more participative system or culture enables individuals to enjoy contributing, which leads to greater job satisfaction (Gilstrap & Collins, 2012; Reisel, Chia, Maloles, &

Slocum, 2007), wellbeing (Likert, 1961), and sense of safety and protection (Kohlrieser et al.,

2012). This feeling of safety reduces stress and increases creativity and performance

(Amabile et al., 2004). Further, when followers trust their leaders the leader becomes more popular (Tzouramani, 2017).

2.7.1. Trust When a follower notices a leader’s empathic approach there is a realisation that their interests are being considered and this develops trust (Axelrod, 2012; Hughes, Carver, &

MacKay, 1990; Morelli, Ong, Makati, Jackson, & Zaki, 2017). Trust is a major component of a high-quality relationship (Naudé & Buttle, 2000) and leaders who develop high-quality

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relationships with their followers are likely to be effective leaders (Mahsud et al., 2010).

Trust brings people together and the closer the relationship the more empathy develops

(Kohlrieser et al., 2012). It also helps a leader to share responsibility with others.

A consequence of popularity is influence, which helps a leader to maintain a effort, in an established direction, which is fundamental to success (Jacobs &

Jaques, 1991). The various personalities and traits of leaders and followers may influence this popularity. Empathy is an interpersonal skill that varies from one person to another, and this may limit the quality of relationships (Kellett et al., 2002). Another threat to relationships may be distance.

2.7.2. Distance A closer relationship between leader and follower allows the leader to understand the follower even more, enabling them to adapt management techniques to improve performance in any context (Kingsley Westerman, Reno, & Heuett, 2018). The feedback a leader offers can also be tailored, with respect for the situation and emotional state of a follower, reducing the ambiguity of instructions and encouraging certainty, confidence and self-efficacy in the individual (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). This shows that the empathic leader offers at least two kinds of support within the relationship: emotional and instructional (Kock et al., 2019).

Relational functions of empathy in interpersonal contexts have been overlooked by many researchers in favour of situational intrapersonal research, often involving pictures of the disembodied heads of strangers (Main et al., 2017). Studies that focus on estimating the emotions of unfamiliar individuals have been criticised for being over simplistic, with an increasing awareness that emotions are displayed uniquely by each individual (Barrett, 2017).

The closer we are to somebody, the easier it is to recognise their emotions and gain

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understanding of their experience. Leaders need to understand individual emotions, but also contexts and individual circumstances (Adhariani, Sciulli & Clift, 2017).

By recognising emotions in close relationships a leader may respond by demonstrating care, which makes them more appreciated (Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981;

Bowles & Gintis, 2011) and influential. Considerate behaviours suggest leadership potential, and people only become effective leaders once others perceive them to be a leader (Kellett,

Humphrey, & Sleeth, 2006). Studies of perceived leader support (Amabile et al., 2004) and perceived trustworthiness (Lester & Brower, 2003) have shown that leader effectiveness is usually based on the follower’s perceptions (Zampetakis & Moustakis, 2011); suggesting that explicit and conspicuous concern is useful. In support of this, it has been found that leaders who display genuine concern to others are perceived to be effective leaders (Miller, 2009).

However, emotional connections can sometimes influence a leader too much, leading to bias and poor decision making (Lorimer, 2013).

2.7.3. Balance and Burnout It appears important that leaders who use empathy in close relationships do so economically and rationally: “Leaders should not be too sensitive to and unduly influenced by the emotional states of others” (Antonakis, 2004, p. 177). This represents a warning about the potential consequences of empathic leadership. Secondary stress and burnout pose a threat to the leader personally (Badger, Royse & Craig, 2008; Figley, 2002). Awareness of this threat may lead to a motivated reduction in empathy (Batson, Ahmad & Stocks, 2004), which in turn inhibits true understanding of another’s situation (Sloman, Rosen, Rom & Shir,

2005). Therefore, maintaining an emotional balance is vital and leaders might achieve this by regulating their empathy (Zaki, 2014).

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As discussed, empathy is a way of understanding that may or may not lead to a pro- social response. A leader may have to act in ways that go against the of their followers and deal with issues that are contentious (Kisfalvi, 2013). A vicarious experience of emotions (Scott et al., 2010) may mean sharing the emotions of someone who is celebrating success (Gable, Reis, Impett & Asher, 2004) or someone suffering pain (Batson, Turk, Shaw

& Klein, 1995). There are cases where empathy can induce overwhelming feelings of distress within the empathiser, which may then inhibit their ability to feel or show concern for the other person (Batson et al., 1987).

Sharing negative feelings is likely to come at a price. Constant empathising has a cognitive cost to leaders; it can be hard work (Cameron et al., 2019), draining (Bloom, 2017) and impossible to sustain (Zaki, 2014). It is a process that “keeps the self from being the self”

(Breithaupt & Hamilton, 2019, p.45) and can lead to burnout (Tracy, 2017).

A now famous incident in Sweden, which led to the creation of the term Stockholm

Syndrome, also known as Hostage Identification Syndrome, showed how the perspectives of hostage takers may be taken on by hostages and even continue after the event (Breithaupt &

Hamilton, 2019). The four hostages even spoke up for the hostage taker, Jan-Erik Olsson, in the subsequent court case. Breithaupt and Hamilton explain that these hostages suffered from a loss of self, which was left behind when they stepped into the hostage taker’s shoes.

Self-awareness is an important monitoring mechanism that keeps track of the origins

(self vs. other) of the expected feelings. (Lamm, Batson & Decety, 2007, p. 42). This also relates to “costly altruism” (FeldmanHall, Dalgleish, Evans & Mobbs, 2015, p. 348), which tends to be exacerbated in leadership roles where responsibility for others is paramount

(Miller, Birkholt, Scott, & Stage, 1995), like medicine (Wilkinson, Whittington, Perry, &

Eames, 2017; Zenasni, Boujut, Woerner, & Sultan, 2012) and social work (Wagaman,

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Geiger, Shockley, & Segal, 2015). Responsibility for the wellbeing and performances of elite athletes appears comparable.

Rational analysis also provides an opportunity for self-protection against the draining impact of the constant vicarious feeling of emotions that might become stressful and lead to burnout (Zaki, 2014). It seems there maybe a way a leader can use empathy and remain protected from an overload of emotions. Emotions “can be your best friend or your worst enemy” (Peters, 2011, p. 38). Bloom’s (2016) recent book, Against Empathy, focuses on what he sees as empathy’s conflict with reason, warning against emotional reactions, which involve a “a reduction in our learned ability to employ rational reasoning; for although we have gut feelings, we also possess the ability to override them” (pp. 6-7). By understanding the impact of empathic experiences, a leader is in a better position to regulate their empathic processes economically (Engen & Singer, 2013). This highlights the importance of a leader’s self- knowledge and understanding of what empathy is doing to them (Wagstaff, Fletcher, &

Hanton, 2012).

The ability to override our gut feelings appears to provide a sensible solution for leaders looking to maintain balance. Rationalising may be easier to achieve with a cognitive rather than an affective approach (Bloom, 2016). Empathic responses can also be modulated by considering who is responsible for the other’s situation, which may remove the additional draining impact of (Leith & Baumeister, 1998).

2.7.4. Exploitation and Bias Guilt may be used as a tool for manipulation. It seems the empathic leader needs to remain vigilant concerning the authenticity of others’ situations. If a leader is perceived to be empathic, compassionate and/or caring, followers may exaggerate distress (Kleinlogel, 2013).

It is not always easy to accurately feel, judge or understand the experiences of others (Adams et al., 2010; Cuddy, Rock & Norton, 2007).

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The more a leader knows those they lead, the less open to exploitation they are likely to be. In order for empathic leadership to work well, a leader must spend time with followers to gain a true understanding of them (Kock et al., 2019). This may prove problematic in contemporary situations where workers work from home or on the road. In situations where followers work in teams away from their leader, empathy within the team might be a substitute for the leader’s absence. For example, a military unit out of contact with their leader, or a sports team who are fundamentally on their own whilst on the field of play, yet able to interact with one another to provide support and understanding.

If a leader grows too close to an individual or group, empathy becomes easier and more natural, potentially leaving outsiders less easy to empathise with (Kwon, 2017, p. 28).

In-group empathy is more easily achieved than empathising with members of another group

(Vanman, 2016). Empathy and favouritism have often been linked by authors who question empathy in leadership (Kleinlogel, 2013) and this may prove detrimental to decision making as well as threaten relationships. Empathy is not always the cure-all it is often purported to be. Kwon (2017) suggests that “while it can help promote cooperation and motivate prosocial behaviour, in some cases empathy can actually deepen divisions between groups and inspire aggression against others”(p. 28).

There is a tendency for a leader to favour the familiar (Vanman, 2016), which may mean never growing close to others, reducing the perceived benefits of an empathic leadership style within larger groups or across groups. Empathy is not just helpful to a leader wishing to build closer relationships with followers: it is helpful in building a network of contacts and alliances in organizational life (Gilin et al., 2013). In order to gain the benefits of an empathic leadership style, a leader needs to establish bonds across groups, which will

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help maintain an empathic environment that generates feelings of psychological safety

(Edmondson & Lei, 2014).

2.8. Psychological Safety

Psychological safety is defined as the context in which one can “show and employ one’s self without fear of negative consequences to self-image, status, or career” (Kahn,

1990, p. 708; Edmondson & Lei, 2014). The consequences of risks taken in psychologically safe environment are less daunting (Edmondson & Lei, 2014). This elicits feelings of emotional safety, respect and trust when interacting with another person (Tynan, 2005).

The importance of psychological safety is now becoming widely accepted, yet it appears to have been expressed by Rogers over half a century ago (Rogers & Roethlisberger,

1952). Rogers prescribed an atmosphere of safety, with inherent freedom of expression, fear, threat or judgment, and where listening and understanding promote safety. The atmosphere, or climate is vulnerable to change, dependent on current leadership styles and policies, whereas organisational culture is often held in place by tradition and is relatively stable over time (Rivera & De Rivera, 1992).

An organisational climate is created by the meanings people attach to interrelated experiences they have at work (Schneider, Ehrhart, & Macey, 2013). This may be applied to smaller groups. Empathy is considered particularly important today as a leadership component due to the increasing use of teams (Goleman, 1996). Empathic team leaders create emotional bonds with their followers. If leaders lack empathy it may lead to dissonance, which will negatively influence the climate (Tzouramani, 2017). A lack of leader empathy may be experienced through behaviours and attitudes, such as bullying and disengagement

(Holt & Marques, 2012). These conditions produce toxic climates, also known as climates of

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fear (Ashkanasy & Nicholson, 2003), which lack psychological safety (Kish-Gephart, Detert,

Treviño & Edmondson, 2009).

Organisational culture may be defined by the assumptions and values that guide life within an organisation (Schneider et al., 2013). This may be applied to sporting teams and is often referred to as team culture. A leader needs to create a culture that motivates and attracts talent if they desire success (Ruhl & Ennker, 2012). By maintaining a safe team climate, a leader is likely to make progress in improving team culture. To achieve this a leader is likely to focus on the management of emotions, an integral skill of the empathic leader (Wetterauer

& Ruhl, 2011).

2.8.1. Managing Emotions Since the turn of the century, organisational researchers have been focusing increasingly on managing emotions in the working environment (Walter, Cole & Humphrey,

2011). The emotional aspects of the workplace influence the achievements of teams and organisations (Weinberger, 2009) and so it would seem foolish for leaders to ignore emotions in the workplace (Ramesh, 2013).

When it comes to managing emotions, many researchers focus on EI (Goleman, 1996;

Goleman et al., 2002) and social intelligence (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008; Riggio &

Reichard, 2008; Singh, 2013). Empathy is common to both (Kisfalvi, 2013; Martos, Lopez-

Zafra, Pulido-Martos & Augusto, 2013). As empathy is the ability to understand another’s feelings, it is considered the central characteristic of EI (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

It is said that emotional management begins with empathy (Holt et al., 2017; Ashkanasy &

Dorris, 2017).

Empathy establishes an unspoken mental and emotional connection, which reveals the hidden meanings behind words (Ioannidou & Konstantikaki, 2008). The advantages are clear:

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by accepting and exploring the hidden undercurrents that affect human behaviour, it is possible to gain a better understanding of people, teams, organisations and all of their complexities (Northouse, 2015).

The emotional climate refers to the predominant collective emotions shaped by members of social groups in a particular setting (Rivera & Páez, 2007). The emotional climate of a whole organisation may be defined by “how a member of an organisation perceives the feelings of the majority of its members in the situation constructed by the organisation” (Yurtsever & de Rivera, 2010). The emotional climate of a team may, therefore, be different from that of an organisation as a whole and emotions can change and spread with haste.

Both positive and negative emotions are contagious, however, an empathic leader can use this to create supportive atmospheres (Gibb, 1961). This support is likely to spread too, since empathy is contagious (Humphrey, 2002; Simon, 2013). Emotional contagion has been labelled as primitive empathy, since it often acts as a precursor to an empathic experience

(Hatfield et al., 2013). Hatfield and colleagues describe emotional contagion as the catching of someone else’s . Sometimes this involves catching an emotion whilst being unaware of it being caught and seeing it as your own feeling (Cuff et al., 2016). An example is a room full of babies which becomes a very loud place shortly after one starts to cry (Pate & Shoblom,

2013). This finding has recently been challenged, however, as it has been considered that the could be a reaction to the noise rather than a caught emotion (Ruffman, Then, Cheng &

Imuta, 2019). By knowing others better, a leader seems more likely to avoid such misconceptions. Emotional sensitivity is thought to be positively correlated with higher quality relationships (Riggio & Reichard, 2008). Leaders who successfully manage emotions induce

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improvements in performance, which may be due to the positive influence on psychological wellbeing (Martin, 2018).

2.8.2. Psychological Wellbeing Worker wellbeing is more of a concern now than ever before and has been shown to influence performance, staff turnover and customer loyalty (Krekel, Ward & De Neve, 2019).

“In the new work dynamic, ‘job-centred’ leadership is being replaced by ‘worker-centred’ leadership, which has the potential to drastically alter the role of the effective leader”

(Boatwright & Forrest, 2000). Worker-centred leadership consists of behaviours that the leader employs to develop mutual trust, respect, and rapport with workers. This approach emphasises a deeper concern for the needs of workers and includes worker’s participation in decision making, with greater understanding gained by a focus on two-way communication.

When human beings feel felt and understood by others, they experience a form of emotional attunement with the attentive person, which enables higher levels of wellbeing (Berry &

Joannidès, 2013). Therefore, if wellbeing is a priority, empathy provides a convenient approach for leaders (Decety, 2015; Kohut, 1971)

It is not only the worker or follower who profits: empathy in the workplace generates positive emotional states in both followers (Gillet, 2010; Owens & Hekman, 2012) and leaders (Boyatzis, Smith & Blaize, 2006). An empathic leader is likely to have a greater awareness of their own wellbeing and that of their followers, and this awareness can inform their behaviour and decision making. This may involve a change in the empathiser’s emotional state that is felt before the other experiences something, producing feelings like “I know how they’re going to feel about this when they find out” (Redmond, 1989). This forecasting ability may allow a leader to protect individuals and themselves. Leader empathy

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not only helps reduce workplace stress, it actively generates positive affective states and this increases a follower’s job satisfaction (Kock et al., 2019).

A follower’s job satisfaction provides a good measure of their wellbeing (Wilkin,

2013) and has similarly become a priority as leadership has become more worker-centred.

Each employee will have their own preferences with regard to leadership qualities and behaviours, such as education level, expertise, gender, competency and problem solving skills (Boatwright & Forrest, 2000; Wolff et al., 2002). However, most people feel more satisfied at work if their leaders are understanding and caring individuals (Kellett et al.,

2002). A leader can express empathy to followers by showing understanding and then, if they choose to, by offering support (Cornelis et al., 2013). Job satisfaction is influenced by the way the worker sees their leader (Zampetakis & Moustakis, 2011) and when they see that the leader supports them, their satisfaction is enhanced (Amabile et al., 2004). There is often a significant gap between how followers want a leader to be and how they actually are

(Boatwright & Forrest, 2000). This gap provides an opportunity to increase satisfaction and subsequently performance (Amabile et al., 2004).

The slightest change in leadership behaviour has the potential to alter a follower’s perspective. Amabile et al. (2004) suggest that “leaders who wish to support high-level performance must pay careful attention to the detail of their own every day and seemingly mundane behaviour, towards subordinates” (p. 30).

Job satisfaction has also been shown to be indicative of organisational commitment

(Moorman, Niehoff, & Organ, 1993) and engagement (Gruman & Saks, 2011). The empathic leader pursues this skilfully (Wolff et al., 2002), whilst building trust (Kouzes and Posner,

2011), which also correlates with job satisfaction (Dong, 2006). Enhanced job satisfaction

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leads to more risk taking and an increased understanding of a worker’s capabilities and situation enables a leader to help guide suitable innovations (Kock et al., 2019).

2.8.3. Innovation Organisations are constantly looking for ways to nurture innovation (Brenton &

Levin, 2012). Greater innovation leads to improvement in performance (Lafley & Charan,

2008). Safety, wellbeing and job satisfaction also play a role (Amabile et al., 2004; Kock et al., 2019). In a team with high psychological safety, members feel confident that no one will embarrass or punish anyone else for admitting a mistake, asking a question, or offering a new idea.

2.9. Chapter Summary

This chapter has established what empathy is, how cognitive empathy and affective/emotional empathy differ, and how they can be developed. The way empathy may be utilised in leadership was then considered, with a look at empathy in other leadership styles. The trend towards a more empathic style of leadership, which has been reported in other industries, was also considered.

Societal expectations of leaders have evolved. Followers now expect a closer relationship with leaders, and for their wellbeing to be considered. Leaders appear to have a lot to gain from employing an empathic style. It is claimed that an empathic leadership style not only brings improvements to wellbeing, but also commitment, job satisfaction, innovation, trust, confidence, understanding, cohesion and performance.

Empathic leaders are skilled in predicting the behaviour and managing the emotions of others, and facilitating the maintenance of safe climates, which have positive consequences on wellbeing and innovation. Communication is also important in maintaining climate safety.

By employing empathic communication, leaders can build on closer relationships.

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Work has also shown that an empathic style of leadership brings both power and popularity to the leader. However, it is clear that adopting an empathic style of leadership may provide challenges. Being closer to followers can be problematic. A leader who is too close can be exploited by a follower. Close relationships can also lead to bias, which can lead to poor decision making in leadership. An empathic style may also encourage inter-group conflict, and the extra emotional investment required can lead to leader burnout.

The positive consequences of an empathic style of leadership outweigh the negative, which would account for its increasing application across industries. The research reviewed in this chapter emerged from domains other than sport.

The context of sport may represent a very different challenge for empathic leadership.

Chapter Three will, therefore, consider the context of sport and its suitability for an empathic style of leadership beginning with a focus on sport organisations.

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Chapter 3. The Context of Sport

This chapter addresses the importance of context, provides an overview of sport leadership, and uses the research collated in the previous chapter to consider the potential for an empathic leadership style in sport. The context of sport may include every sport related organisation at every level of participation. However, for the purpose of this research the context of sport refers to coach-athlete relationships, at international and the highest national level of competition, which will be described as elite sport. Further, this research focuses on team sports.

3.1. Sport Organisations

Reports suggest that empathic leadership styles are bringing success within organisations in other domains (Kock et al., 2019) and therefore should be applicable to the sport industry. However, sport is a unique context (Smith & Stewart, 2010) and sport organisations are complex and chaotic: often described as “emotional cauldrons” (Wagstaff,

2017, p. 34). In politics and business in particular, “empathy is perceived more and more as a professional ability” (Holt, Marques, Hu & Wood, 2017, p. 6). It may be valued in sport too, since the advantages of empathy in organisations may be even greater where the demands are higher, and the working environment is faster (Chalmers Mill, 2010).

When searching for comparisons to the tough and fast moving environments typical of elite sport some authors turn to the military (Wagstaff, 2017b). Empathy’s role in leadership is becoming valued in this domain, as John McDougall, a West Point graduate and veteran of conflicts in both Iraq and Afghanistan, explains:

Leadership is not easy. Each individual that we work with is a complex of

personality and experiences, , and . While every good leader tries to get to

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know his or her soldiers, only the truly exceptional ones go beyond the surface level.

They pay close attention to verbal and nonverbal cues, and ask tough questions to

better understand the experience, perspective, and feelings of individuals. In short,

they have honed and applied the skill of empathy, a critically important but often

misunderstood element of leadership. (McDougall, 2019)

Military environments rely on high-performance and may change at any moment.

Elite sport settings are comparable, as sport organisations tend to endure what Weinberger refers to as “a continuous environment of turmoil and change” (2009, p. 747). Vaill (1996) describes sport organisations as “a world of permanent white water” (p. 244). A key aspect to leadership in sport is managing in these white waters (Weinberger, 2009).

Emotions fluctuate within elite sport settings due to the effects of results, performances, the reactions of fans, and interpretations of the media (Wagstaff, 2017). The ex- footballer and manager Kevin Keegan once considered the situation for the top football clubs: “there are 70, 000 people coming into your business for two hours on a

Saturday afternoon and every week they publish a league table – businesses only have theirs published twice a year” (Hughes, 2018). This makes elite sport organisations unpredictable environments.

Unpredictable environments are known to exacerbate stress on individuals (Hou et al.,

2015) and organisational stressors have been described as a particular problem for sport performers (Arnold, Wagstaff, Steadman & Pratt, 2017). Sports psychologists often discuss the stress resulting from the interaction between the individual and an organisation

(Woodman & Hardy, 2001). Even when not working, there are pressures attached to role model status and choices. This stressful, unpredictable environment heightens

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concerns about selection and contracts, and creates the sense of a loss of personal autonomy

(Coakley, 1992). Athletes are also under constant pressure to perform and stay mentally and physically fit, injury free and at a certain weight (Larkin, Levy, Marchant & Martin, 2017).

There are other contextual challenges in elite sport. Although empathy is positively related to organisational commitment (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011), it may not be as simple as that in sport. Athlete commitment may be directed towards a coach, colleagues, a team, an organisation or even the sport as a whole (Wagstaff, 2017). The situation has been exacerbated in elite contemporary sport, due to employment patterns and more regular movement of talent. Consequently, commitment is increasingly directed towards the profession rather than the organisation (Lee, Carswell & Allen, 2000). This era also has athletes drawn to commercial commitments through sponsorship, marketing and media opportunities (Wagg, 2007), including concern for their own brand. Such changes have presented new challenges for sport leaders, which may be more easily met by an enhanced understanding of how the world looks through the eyes of others.

Sport governance adds to its uniqueness. Organisations are required to both collaborate with and compete with opponents (Chadwick, 2009). This creates a greater number of relationships to manage for leaders and elite sport coaches lead and work within a complex, ever changing environment, which imposes many pressures (Fletcher & Scott,

2010). The pressures to manage all of these relationships seems greater than ever before. It seems likely that sport leaders with good relationship skills will be in greater demand, suggesting empathic leadership may be a suitable style.

3.2. Leadership in Sport

Sport leadership research has been growing since it emerged in the 1970s (Peachey et al., 2015). A majority of work has focused on “the on-field leadership of sport teams (e.g.

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coaches and their teams)” (p. 576). The head coach of a team of athletes, sometimes referred to as the manager, is considered to be the appointed leader (Sage, 1973). Authors have noted differences between the labels of coach and manager with the latter including greater levels of administration (Burton, Kane, & Borland, 2020). In the UK in particular the head coach of an elite team of athletes is regularly referred to as a team manager. For the purposes of this research the position will be referred to as the ‘head coach’.

The majority of leadership research in sport management has been in parallel with work in business management and , with concepts, theories and being applied to the context of sport. This derivative model has helped to develop sport- focused theory (Chalip, 2006) and theories from other domains can be confirmed or disconfirmed in the context of sport (Peachey et al., 2015). In any context, a “‘team’ consists of the people with whom the leader works toward a common goal” (Marques, 2015, p. 1314).

Although leadership theories cannot always transfer seamlessly from one environment to another (Kihl et al., 2010) there seems to be a tendency for trends to cross industries.

Moreover, popular leadership styles reported in the sport literature appear to reflect those described in the previous chapter, which incorporate empathic abilities and behaviours. These include compassionate (Gano-Overway, 2013), resonant and EI (O’Neil, 2011), authentic

(Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2020), servant (Rieke, Hammermeister, & Chase, 2008), and transformational (Arthur, Bastardoz, & Eklund, 2017) leadership styles.

Destructive or toxic leadership styles still arise in sport (Lunsford, Padilla, & Padilla,

2015), however, similar to other industries leadership has generally moved away from a

“forceful, heavy-handed approach” (Walsh, Jamison, & Walsh, 2010, p. 112). Current leaders of teams in elite sport appear to work in close relationships with their followers (Tóth

& Reinhardt, 2019), which also falls in line with other industries (Marques, 2015;

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Tzouramani, 2017). Recent work concurs that sport leadership is primarily about relationships (O’Boyle, Murray, & Cummins, 2015) and that a key aspect of sport leadership is the empathic ability of the head coach (Tóth & Reinhardt, 2019). Researchers are only now starting to recognise this.

3.2.1. Empathic Practices It would no be wrong to assume that empathic leadership styles were absent from sport until now. When considering descriptions of styles of head coaches of the past empathy may have been labelled as something else and emotional abilities may have been undervalued or labelled as ‘soft skills’ and, therefore, less likely to be acknowledged

(Iyengar, 2014). It seems that the recognition of these ‘soft skills’ and reports of empathic practices of head coaches is becoming more common. Some coaches have become more explicit about their value of empathy.

A successful American football coach from the University of South Carolina (USC),

Pete Carroll, won seven NCAA championships in a row, and broke records for being ranked the number one College team for the longest time (Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2013). Carroll had decided on his leadership style after reading the psychological theories of Maslow (1962) in

Toward a Psychology of Being, and Gallwey’s (Gallwey & Kriegel, 1997) Inner Skilling. He believed this influenced him to become an empathic leader; a style which he says in previous eras would have been “laughed right out of the locker room” (Carroll, Roth & Garin, 2011, p.

20).

Carroll focused on building strong relationships and instilled an open door policy to athletes, which he helped to develop a positive mentality throughout the team

(Carroll, Roth & Garin, 2011). He explained that this also provided him with valuable information:

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It is through the strength of my relationships with my players that I gain insight into

how to guide and challenge them to their best. If you really care about helping people

maximise their potential, then you must try to uncover who they are and what they are

all about. (Carroll, Roth & Garin, 2011, p. 35)

Carroll also highlighted the need for empathy to stretch throughout the organisation

(Carroll, Roth & Garin, 2011) and focused on gathering knowledge to gain greater understanding of athletes: “By paying close attention to the actions mannerisms and traits of our players…we get mountains of information” (Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2013, p. 103).

Sports books like Carroll’s Win Forever (Carroll, Yogi & Garin, 2011), James Kerr’s

Legacy (2013), Damian Hughes’ The Barcelona Way (Hughes, 2018) and recent biographies of coaches at the top of their sports, like Pochettino (Balague, 2018), Guardiola (Balagué,

2013) and Klopp (Honigstein, 2017), include examples of empathic practices that mirror those reported in the academic literature of other fields (Holt & Marques, 2012; Kock et al.,

2019; Tzouramani, 2017; Wetterauer & Ruhl, 2011; Young, Richard, Moukarzel, Steelman,

& Gentry, 2017).

The impact of an empathic approach to relationships may be particularly helpful in sport. It has been claimed that in sport, empathy offers “the most direct route to building relationships” (Rollnick et al., 2019, p. 200). Successful head coaches understand and empower followers through these relationships (Kerr, 2013) and leader efficacy depends on understanding and responding (Côté & Gilbert, 2009). By understanding each other, leaders can effectively coordinate their efforts and work towards common goals (Galipeau & Trudel,

2006):

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Hence, the resourcefulness of a coach to develop effective dyadic relationships

(dyadic refers to the unit relationship the coach and the athlete establish) with his/her

athletes can be instrumental in influencing them to experience sport situations

positively. (Jowett, 2007, p. 81)

Without empathy coaches cannot develop and nurture strong relationships with their athletes and will be less effective in motivating and encouraging their performances (O’Neil,

2011). As such, empathy has become a crucial aspect of being a head coach in elite sport

(Hanold, 2011).

In close relationships the interaction includes an emotional connection and it is becoming accepted that “a high-performance coach cannot be effective without establishing an emotional connection with his/her players” (O’Neil, 2011, p. 330). Elite level sport provides a high-performance context for exploring the role of empathy in leadership at a time when an appreciation of emotional skills in the sport industry seems to be growing (Chan &

Mallett, 2011; O’Neil, 2011). EI is considered a current theme in sport leadership research

(Peachey et al., 2015), after being overlooked for far too long (Schneider, 2013). As

Schneider suggested a leader’s EI plays a vital role in how effectively they lead. Empathy has been described as a major component of EI (Goleman et al., 2002) as well as being “key to effective leadership” (Goleman, 2017, p. 1).

Empathic practices will help a head coach to understand interpersonal differences in emotions and also help to resolve issues that may arise due to any individual differences within a team (Marques, 2015). Understanding and managing emotions has become part of the head coach’s role in elite sport:

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If acknowledged and used intelligently, emotions can contribute to improved

decision-making, and also for understanding of how others might think and respond

when in a particular mood (i.e., empathy). Hence, the ability to use emotions to

facilitate thinking and associated behaviours is valuable within the high-performance

domain and for effective sports leadership. (Chan & Mallett, 2011, p. 322)

Emotions are adaptive responses to the demands of an environment and often responses to the behaviours and emotions of others (Ekman, 1993):

Emotions are contagious and an empathic leader is aware of this. The powerful

combination of empathy and positive emotional contagion provide effective

mechanisms for inspiring and motivating athletes. Head coaches who develop

relationships based on empathy and mutual trust, and employ positive boosts to

spread emotional contagion will likely find themselves at the helm of high-performing

teams and organisations. (O’Neil, 2011, p. 331)

EI is considered essential to a head coach’s leadership efficacy in sport (Laborde,

Dosseville, & Allen, 2016) and EI requires the development of an empathic

(Goleman, 1996). The success of head coaches has been shown to be dependent on their ability to provide support and to manage emotions (Schneider, 2013), which has positive consequences on team climate (Ashkanasy & Dorris, 2017). Emotions are seen by many as the lifeblood of a sports organisation, and how those emotions are managed is likely to influence success (A. Weinberg & Cooper, 2007). Individuals with higher degrees of empathy are hyper-sensitive to this ever-changing emotional environment, and able to

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understand the emotional pressures placed on others (Scott, Colquitt, Paddock & Judge,

2010). How empathy helps a coach to understand the pressures placed on athletes has not been investigated.

A close and emotional connection will help a leader gain understanding; however, being too close could be problematic. Like other industries, achieving the right distance in a professional relationship seems a difficult task. A coach may over empathise with one athlete, compared to others, inhibiting objectivity and losing out on information from the other athletes (Drewe, 2002). This can also make the prospect of dropping the favoured athlete more traumatic and, therefore, less likely (Lorimer, 2013). If a head coach gets too close to one athlete they may provide inappropriate levels of support (Solomon & Lobinger, 2011), which clouds judgement (Loy, 2019). Therefore, a level of detachment is required (Lorimer,

2013). A reflexive approach enables the coach to pursue a level of self-awareness that helps to prevent the consequences of relationships being too close (Lorimer, 2013), whilst enjoying the benefits of knowing an athlete well enough to be able to predict their feelings and behaviour.

3.2.2. Situational Leadership Empathic practices may be a constant component of the head coach’s leadership style or employed more specifically. Situational leadership theory (SLT) recognises that leaders need to adapt their styles to their workers (Lunsford et al., 2015). This seems particularly applicable to sport where personnel, environments and emotions frequently change. To some, elite sport may seem like an unusual industry in which to focus on empathy (Hanold, 2011).

However, a leader’s empathic skills open up different perspectives to each issue or situation, allowing a richer understanding of others (Kisfalvi, 2013), which elicits a broader knowledge to inform decision making (Simons, Pelled & Smith, 1999).

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Empathy’s role in sport leadership is now regularly discussed in written reports and interviews in the media (Murray, 2019; Roan, 2017b). It seems that a lack of empathy is now likely to make the headlines. There appears to be an acceptance that head coaches are leading with a more empathic style, with the understanding that “increasing your natural talent for empathy can make you a better coach, improve your life away from sports, and lead to better sporting outcomes” (Rollnick et al., 2019, p. 201). Sport, and more specifically elite sport, has remained relatively absent from research on empathic leadership (Peachey et al., 2015).

However, the trend towards a more empathic style of leadership in other industries appears to have created traction for research on empathic leadership in sport.

3.2.3. Experience and Self-Awareness The importance of the empathiser’s self-knowledge should not be underestimated, as it is fundamental to empathic ability (Rogers, 1975). “Blind spots and emotional rigidities can make them defensive, interfering with their testing and empathic capabilities”

(Kisfalvi, 2013, p. 75). Armed with self-knowledge the head coach can proceed to focus on relationships. Further, there is a relationship between increased self-awareness and prosocial behaviours (Pate & Shoblom, 2013). Empathy is about understanding both behaviours and emotions (Lanzoni, 2018). The emotions of a head coach or some of the athletes they are working with may be rooted in personal history and work-related experiences (Moore & Fine,

1990).

Attention is often paid to whether or not a head coach had been a professional athlete.

Whilst it is unknown whether sport participation is beneficial with regard to leadership and the process of leadership (Peachey et al., 2015), some say experience is important for empathy, and empathy can improve leader efficacy (Kock et al., 2019). Swanson and Kent

(2014) demonstrated that domain specific knowledge and experience in sport leadership

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improves leadership credibility. In part, this may be due to improved empathic abilities. The football coach, Pep Guardiola, feels that having once been an elite level player has helped him in leadership: “experience of the dressing room, of working under intense pressure, facing a big game. If you have dealt with that as a player, then you have a huge amount of experience” (Hughes, 2018, p. 79). The knowledge gained through experience helps in the understanding of athletes and their perspectives. Athletes seem to appreciate being understood. , a head coach who has playing experience at elite level, used this experience to achieve great success, a point highlighted by Cristiano Ronaldo:

He understands players – he was one once, so he has the experience. He knows how

to get the most out of the team to win games and trophies…Even when you maybe

feel that you haven’t got the strength to last the whole ninety minutes, or you feel that

you can’t run anymore, then you need to do it for the coach. I will do it for him,

because he deserves it as he has always taken care of me…players admire him and

will hurt for him. (Ancelotti, 2017, p. 54)

Whilst specific experiences seem relevant, age seems an important variable, as the older we are the more we have experienced. Affective empathy in particular increases with age (Sze, Gyurak, Goodkind & Levenson, 2012). If the experiences we have are seen as practice for associating with the feelings of others (Hall, Andrzejewski & Yopchick, 2009), empathising for someone older may be more difficult (Katz, 1963). This may present a problem for a young head coach, although being younger than athletes is rare.

There are examples of head coaches with limited playing experience, and this has been suggested as a reason for a lack of success. At the end of 2018, Jose Mourinho left his

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position of first team coach at Manchester United Football Club amid rumours of problems with his relationships with players. One of these players, the England International, Marcus

Rashford, believes that Mourinho not having been an elite player himself had something to do with this, and the fact that his replacement, Ole Gunnar Solskjaer, had played at the top level, made a difference:

I think he is very different, but it is expected because he’s played. Off the pitch he

understands the players a bit more. But for me I just think when a manager has

played, they’ve sort of lived the lifestyle we’ve lived and they might be a bit more

understanding. (Lineker, 2019)

If we rely on experience to develop empathy, those who have played the game appear to have a far greater chance of becoming an empathic leader in that sport and, therefore, be better at relating to and understanding players. This familiarity with the context increases

(together with an empathic approach) the likelihood of recognising and appreciating empathy in others. The Leeds United head coach, Marcelo Bielsa, recently chose Liam Cooper as his team captain: an on-the-field leader (Wagstaff, 2019). In doing so, Bielsa revealed how important empathy is to him and how aware he is of the influence of role models. Bielsa says of Cooper:

He is a good person. The values that he transmits are encapsulated by the fact that

he’s more concerned about the wellbeing of others than himself. He generously helps

other people and he is humble enough to accept help. These two things combined,

make him an example for us all. (Teamtalk, 2019)

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In another example, we can see how empathy helps a head coach to understand that taking a captaincy away from a player may be the best thing for them and the team. When the experienced Brazilian international, Thiago Silva, arrived at Saint-Germain, the head coach (Ancelotti) made him captain, replacing Mamadou Sakho:

I took the decision not because Sakho was not good in the role – he had a lot of

qualities – but because there was a lot of pressure on him. He was from Paris, bred

from the academy and very young, so by taking the responsibility away from him I

took away a little bit of pressure. (Ancelotti, 2017, pp. 155-156)

Experience and a comprehensive understanding of the context and individuals involved, allows a leader to make more informed decisions. Choosing a captain will have implications for the rest of the team. The right captain will not only lead, but do so with a greater understanding of how to do so. Getting decisions like this right will help the head coach to achieve success and remain in position.

Sport leadership is a tough career, arguably tougher than leadership in business. This is highlighted by the typical length of tenure. In England, the job with the highest turnover is chambermaid and the second is football head coach, and almost half of those coaches fail to get another position (Ancelotti et al., 2017).

Adapting to a team of athletes means understanding a new set of emotions. Head coaches who can accurately read the moods of their teams and positively channel those emotions and behaviours will be effective (O’Neil, 2011). More competent leaders may move less frequently, however, the ability to adapt is understood to be the most general and basic conceptualisation of competence (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Further, perceived competence

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and appreciation of an empathic style has been shown to enhance popularity (Hogan, 1969;

Redmond, 1989), which increases influence (Jacobs & Jaques, 1991). Empathy can help a head coach to devise an approach that best fits a new situation (O’Neil, 2011).

With increased squad sizes and teams of support staff, sport leaders have a growing group of individuals to relate to. This may become a real test since “in a band of fifty individuals, there are 1,225 one-on-one relationships, and countless more complex social combinations” (Harari, 2011, p. 26). Therefore, it must be challenging for head coaches who wish to maintain the familiarity associated with an empathic style.

Changing the head coach has huge implications for athletes, who may feel less secure; this is intensified if communication from the organisation and its leaders about this change is poor (Wagstaff, 2017). Head coaches of teams in elite sport today appear to have less time than ever to make an impact and are regularly replaced during seasons or campaigns. In a relatively short time, empathic leaders have the ability to build trust (Kouzes & Posner,

2012), create bonds (Tzouramani, 2017) and enhance organisational connectedness

(Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2012). Getting to know athletes may be challenging and this seems likely to be a continuous process as young talent comes through. Each element of the talent cycle has been shown to be facilitated by an empathic style: recruitment (Anders, 2013), wellbeing (Decety & Fotopoulou, 2015), commitment (Joireman et al., 2006), performance development (Kingsley Westerman et al., 2018), wage cuts, and ending contracts (Dietz &

Kleinlogel, 2014). In an empathic relationship, a coach is able to skilfully communicate their belief in an athlete’s potential (O’Neil, 2011), nurturing talent towards higher performance.

Head coaches need to consider all of the relationships they must procure in order to accurately hear the ideas and concerns of groups and individuals that are considered stakeholders. A stakeholder in sport is an individual, group or organization whose attitudes

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and actions influence the success of a sports team (Freeman, 1984), sports participant or an entire sport (Linton, 2019). As well as athletes, this includes fans, owners, governing bodies, other staff, media and the local community. The and high-identification often associated with sports organisations may mean that fans are more powerful stakeholder customers than in other industries (Peachey et al., 2015). The connection between an organisation and its customers will also influence its success and this can be further improved with empathy (Amato, Bodkin & Peters, 2010).

Sports fans will have expectations of their club that need to be understood and met

(Van Tonder & Berner, 2003). This is likely to include style of play and even player behaviour, which can impact the sport organisation’s reputation. An empathic leader’s advantages include a moral compass (Lennick & Kiel, 2011) that heightens sensitivity of both the needs of followers and customers (Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2013). There is a danger in some industries of the customer and the organization becoming disconnected (Peppard, 2000) and sport is unlikely to be immune to this danger. The distance between athletes and fans appears to have grown. Athletes lead increasingly separated lives; their wealth, social power and fame is likely to dilute their empathy for fans (Sherman et al., 2015). If this has led to a decrease in empathy it will have consequences for commitment to a team and organisation.

Demonstrating empathy and respect for other stakeholders is likely to be noticed and will enhance a leader’s reputation, increasing respect (Marques, 2015). The bigger the organisation the more closely a leader’s behaviour is observed. In summary, it appears an empathic head coach has a greater awareness of their environment and, therefore, a better chance of remaining in their role and enjoying positive and long-term relationships.

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3.2.4. Gender Gender issues in sport management and leadership have been studied by scholars since the 1980s, when a gap was observed between the number of men and women in sport leadership positions (Peachey et al., 2015). A recent review confirmed that women remain underrepresented (Burton & Leberman, 2017). Stereotypes continue to inhibit radical change, with women perceived to be better suited to life-skills coordinator roles and men to leadership roles (Burton, Barr, Fink & Bruening, 2009).

Leadership in sport tends to be dominated by white, able-bodied, heterosexual men

(Acosta & Carpenter, 2014; Fink, Pastore & Sport, 2001; Lapchick & Robinson, 2015).

When male head coaches lead teams of female athletes they tend to reproduce discourses about gender that dominated during their playing years rather than update their understanding

(De Haan & Knoppers, 2019). Whilst a good leader will endeavour to understand athletes individually and maintain dynamic communication to modify this understanding there is a concern that many fall back on gender stereotypes such as “male athletes are tougher than females” (Lorimer, 2013, p. 30).

Psychologists acknowledge the general that men are more likely to be deficient in empathy than women (Ickes, 2003). Research shows that women do score higher than men on self-reported empathy scales (Davis, 1983). However, western cultures in particular tend to code empathy as feminine and it has been suggested that women may be outperforming men on empathy tasks when they are motivated by what is considered to be their gender role (Briton & Hall, 1995).

Empathic displays have been shown to be different too. Women tend to employ the facial gestures and vocabulary that we associate with empathy more than men (Breithaupt &

Hamilton, 2019). This is consistent with the idea of stereotype lift, where group identity

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reminds individuals to up their performance in certain observed behaviours (Marx & Stapel,

2006; Walton & Cohen, 2003).

Women in elite sport may have an advantage when it comes to empathy. Females performed better than males on empathic accuracy research (Lorimer & Jowett, 2010).

Further, it is generally accepted that women are more empathic than men (Baron-Cohen,

2002; Ickes, 2003) and a study of athletes in team sports found empathy was higher in female athletes than male (Certel, 2013). This advantage may apply to considerations for leadership positions, should empathy be seen as a preferred leadership quality.

Suitability for leadership positions in elite sport may also depend on the gender of the team being led. As previously stated, experience can influence empathy, and so men are likely to find it easier to empathise with other men, and women with other women.

3.2.5. Culture A common challenge in contemporary sport leadership may exist in the culturally diverse nature of teams and the movement of elite head coaches and athletes between countries and cultures. As such, “understanding a social partner from a different culture than one’s own necessitates a deep understanding of that person’s unique cultural circumstances, rather than focusing on shared experiences, which may be few and far between” (Main, Walle et al., 2017, p. 363). Some cultures have created societies in which institutional racism prevails, which plays a role in the underrepresentation of minorities in leadership positions

(Bradbury & Williams, 2013). As far as leader empathy is concerned, personal experiences, gender and cultural differences may inhibit the use of empathy until a passage of time allows a head coach to build relationships with athletes.

It is also said that empathy has the potential to transcend demographic barriers

(Tzouramani, 2017). Whatever their gender, cultural differences or racial background,

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empathic head coaches have the ability to build relationships and promote across the diverse groups and a sport organisation that reflects high levels of happiness is one ready for success (Schneider, 2013). This suggests appointing head coaches according to their specific gender, cultural or racial backgrounds is unnecessary. However, efforts to know and understand athletes of different genders, cultures and race now seem inherent in the work a head coach.

3.2.6. Burnout The energy spent on both self-awareness and the understanding of athletes may come at a price. Of the reported drawbacks of empathic leadership, burnout is perhaps the one of most concern (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018; Zaki, 2014). The coach and athlete’s feelings, thoughts and behaviours mutually impact on each other, and may cause positive or negative outcomes for either individual (Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007). Self-regulation seems key.

When secondary stress through empathising becomes threatening to the wellbeing of the head coach, it is important that they are able to accept and manage the feelings that arise (Atkins,

2013; Vilardaga, Estévez, Levin & Hayes, 2012). A leader taking on the emotions of a team or squad of athletes, needs to be skilled in using empathy economically without suffering consequences, or to be able to cope with those consequences (Antonakis, 2004). It is important to engage in the continual monitoring of one’s own emotional state and actions, often referred to as reflexivity (More, 1996).

An increasingly common fear for head coaches is being unable to switch off from the continual difficulties in their work (Arnold, Connelly, Walsh & Martin Ginis, 2015). During a Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) conference, the French football coach,

Gerard Houllier, made this point by sharing his experiences of the time-consuming, myriad of tasks an elite-level coach needs to carry out, and the pressure he felt under that eventually led

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him to retire with heart problems (Hughes, 2018). Houllier died just days after a heart operation in December 2020.

A solution to end the suffering of this pressure is to take a break. Getting away from the leadership role is often considered necessary, as it helps to prevent burnout and also provides time for reflection (Ancelotti et al., 2017). The pressures of leadership are certainly high in the context of elite sport and these pressures can increase due to unforeseen circumstances.

A break may not be enough. The magnitude of empathising can become too much, forcing a coach to surrender their position. The Hillsborough stadium portrays an extreme example of a head coach suffering from the vicariously felt emotions of fans. Kenny

Dalglish was in charge of the first team at Liverpool Football Club when 96 fans died on the terraces. The impact of the events required regulation and being economical with empathy, in order to avoid burnout. This proved impossible for Dalglish, leaving him unable to continue, as the head coach of Liverpool FC, although he does not his behaviour:

I never dealt with myself, that would not be unusual. I don’t think that’s abnormal. I

was there to be of comfort or assistance or help or whatever we had to be and,

whatever way the families wanted us to be, we were there. If, sometimes, you put

someone else before yourself, I don’t know what’s wrong with that… As far as we

were concerned, we were fortunate our damage was not as permanent as it was for the

families. If we were damaged for a little bit, then fine. For the help that we gave to the

people who most needed it at that time, it’s a small price to pay. (Roper, 2019)

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Dalglish, recently described by a journalist and former player on Twitter as a

“wonderfully empathetic human being” (Lineker, 2018), was enjoying a successful time when his reign was cut short. If head coaches can avoid burnout, the empathic skills of head coaches seem likely to lead to success.

3.3. Empathic Accuracy

In the last decade, empathic accuracy has drawn attention from researchers of sport psychology (Lorimer, 2013; Lorimer & Jowett, 2009, 2010). Head coaches form initial impressions of athletes by collating snippets of information known as impression cues

(Lorimer, 2013). These include impressions of the athlete’s performance, appearance, attitude, and behaviour and maintains the leader’s empathic accuracy: “coaches then form an expectancy of those athletes based on these inferences. This expectancy then shapes the way in which coaches interact with their athletes” (2013, p. 27). A temporal unfolding of empathic skills takes place as the empathiser gets to know an individual, which can be used to manage conflict as well as performance (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). Lorimer offers the following example of training ground behaviour, being observed and understood by a coach:

You can see the athlete is fidgeting and no longer seems to be trying as hard. You

decide to switch the training routine and come back to that drill later. What you have

just done is take on the situational perspective of the athlete, you have “seen the world

through another’s eyes” and “walked in their shoes,” using this information to

evaluate their needs and respond appropriately to the situation. (p. 27)

Empathic accuracy is also considered helpful in the heat of action (Lorimer & Jowett,

2009). In elite sport, the athletes do their most important work on a court or field of play that

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the leader cannot enter, limiting ongoing communication. The head coach is left to make judgements based on body language and behaviour that can only be interpreted accurately with knowledge and deep understanding of the athlete.

Empathic accuracy relies on this deep understanding to perceive an another’s feelings to allow a coach to predict the athlete’s actions (Schneider, 2013). This has been shown to offer an advantage to leaders. In a review of social intelligence and the biology of leadership, empathic accuracy is highlighted as a strong predictor of leadership outcomes (Goleman &

Boyatzis, 2008).

In order to heighten the quality and accuracy of this knowledge of the athlete the head coach needs to keep it up to date through a dynamic process of communications that enable modifications (Kupetz, 2014); “it is not enough for a coach to simply attempt to work out what their athlete is thinking or feeling; they must be correct in these perceptions … knowing someone like facts in a book is not enough” (Lorimer, 2013, p. 28). Regular conversations provide essential knowledge that cannot be gained by merely observing an athlete in training and competition (Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). Lorimer stresses the importance of the specificity of knowledge:

This knowledge can be separated into three levels ranging from general to specific:

(a) knowledge of athletes or sport in general (e.g., “I know when athletes raise their

voice they are generally angry”), (b) knowledge about a particular type of athlete or

type of sport (e.g., “I know when athletes raise their voice in competition they are

generally excited”), and, (c) knowledge about a specific athlete or situation (e.g., “I

know when John raises his voice in training he is generally worried or upset”). (p. 29)

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Reflective listening will help too ( Lynch, 2001). The head coach should be regularly asking themselves what an athlete is feeling in any moment and trying to understand and empathise with their position. This will aid effective communication and decision making.

When empathic accuracy is applied it can assist with appropriate and efficient instruction delivery and delegation of tasks (Khosravi, Manafi, Hojabri, Farhadi,& Ghesmi,

2011). A head coach may also employ empathic accuracy to predict the actions of athletes representing the opposition (Lorimer & Jowett, 2009) providing an opportunity for advantages to be gained. As former England cricket captain, now psychoanalyst, Mike

Brearley confirms, leadership is about knowing how your people tick and knowing how the opposition tick (Brealey, 2013). Head coaches tend to modulate their attention away from targets in competing groups, however “competition requires individuals to pay close attention to outgroup targets, as reflected in the famous instruction (often attributed to Sun Tzu) to

‘keep your friends close and your enemies closer’” (Zaki, 2014, p. 1628). Such strategy provides the advantage of knowing the competitor well enough to be able to predict their behaviour with a high degree of empathic accuracy. The more you know a competitor the more advantage you can gain. Moreover, Gilin and colleagues (2013) suggest that “success in strategic social interactions often necessitates an understanding of the underlying motives, feelings, and likely behaviours of one’s opponent” (p. 3).

In order to avoid the draining aspects of empathy that can lead to burnout, a head coach may employ cognitive rather than affective empathy when trying to predict the actions of a whole team of athletes, and possibly other staff, stakeholders and opponents. Cognitive rather than affective empathy decreases the load (Blanke et al., 2016). Zaki (2014) suggests that “some competitive interactions might require observers to engage in mentalising but not experience sharing, thus understanding their competitors’ states without vicariously sharing

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them” (p. 1628). Focusing on cognitive empathic processes rather than emotional is therefore self-protective and empathic accuracy has been shown to be more reliant on cognitive rather than affective processes (Mackes et al., 2018).

3.4. Communication Between Head Coach and Athletes

Empathic communication (Williams, 2006) will influence leadership in any industry

(Czech & Forward, 2010). Empathic leaders are skilled communicators (MacDonald, 2015;

Socas, 2018) who employ a variety of communication methods. Elite sport presents unique scenarios for leaders such as communicating decisions on selection and communicating away from where the athletes are doing their most important work, on the field of play.

Communicating with athletes from this distance is likely to prove challenging, which highlights the importance of getting the approach right. This approach may not be the same for all athletes and so the head coach needs to know and understand each one.

Head coaches will increase their knowledge of athletes through communication and keep that knowledge up-to-date using physical, psychological and performance impression cues (Solomon & Lobinger, 2011). To begin, a head coach’s expressions of empathy may be short and superficial, like a raised eyebrow, but over time this evolves into verbal expressions or understanding (Kupetz, 2014; Main, Walle et al., 2017). Kupetz (2014) stresses that the sequence of behaviours requires empathic consideration and that if verbal validation is offered too early in a relationship, it may inhibit the development of that relationship.

Empathic head coaches will develop relationships with regular communication

(Lorimer, 2013). Expectations of athletes can be inflexible if coaches base them on assessments made at the beginning of a season and these assessments are not continually updated (Solomon et al., 1998). It has been shown that more experienced coaches often have

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the attitude that they ‘have seen it all’ and that this leads to incorrect assumptions

(Lorimer & Jowett, 2010a).

There are certain scenarios in the leading of elite sport teams where the style and approach of communicating are likely to have a significant impact. These include: delivery of feedback (Lorimer & Jowett, 2010a), delivery of instructions (Stanger et al., 2012) and notification of selection (Smoll & Smith, 1989). Accurate impressions set a foundation for appropriate communication and head coach behaviour in these situations (Solomon &

Lobinger, 2011).

Empathic leaders provide regular feedback so that their followers know how to improve their performance (London & Smither, 2002). The way this feedback is received depends on timing, and how much the feedback focuses on the task rather than the individual

(Ilgen, Fisher & Taylor, 1979; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Head coaches who feel uncomfortable giving negative feedback may avoid doing so in fear of unfavourable reactions

(Moss & Sanchez, 2004). Displays of empathic concern during feedback delivery have been shown to reduce negative affect (Young, Richard, Moukarzel, Steelman & Gentry, 2017).

Any display of empathy perceived by the follower will have a positive influence on their emotional reaction and encourage safe dialogue (O’Malley & Gregory, 2011).

Head coaches should encourage each athlete to ask questions and to answer questions from the coach sincerely and fearlessly (Kidman, Hadfield & Thorpe, 2005). Without such interaction a head coach may rely on stereotypes when evaluating athletes (Lorimer & Jowett,

2010a). The head coach also needs to be aware of their own perspective and that their own biases or stereotypes might block the intake of new information with unconscious inferences

(Lorimer, 2013). A personal reaction to a defeat may affect communication with athletes and potentially threaten relationships (Lynch, 2001). Self-awareness allows a head coach to

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disentangle the emotional state of self and others (Decety & Lamm, 2007). Achieving this awareness requires leaders to constantly question themselves, not just their athletes. Lynch

(2001) suggested reflective listening should play a part in this: reinforcing the need to “ask yourself, what is this athlete feeling right now? Try to understand and empathise with her position” (p. 35).

Feedback from the athlete allows a head coach to check their own understanding, that of the athlete, and how the athlete feels and behaves (Lorimer, 2013). Listening is an important part of empathic leadership (Bennett, 2001; Hogue, 2006) and is highly correlated with trust (Schnittker, 2004) and job satisfaction (Kluger, 2015). The legendary football head coach, Sir Alex Ferguson noted: “people who know how to listen properly take a lot in”

(cited in Ancelotti et al., 2017, p. 226). The knowledge available to a head coach doesn’t have to be just that inside their own mind. They are surrounded by colleagues with their own ideas which can be drawn on by the head coach.

Listening is also important when it comes to understanding the wellbeing of athletes.

This allows informed decisions to be made concerning selection and substitutions. A head coach who refuses to listen seems intent on ignorance. Listening increases knowledge, which enhances coach efficacy (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 2011). Listening also enables a head coach to know a player better, which facilitates behaviour prediction (Hodges, Lewis & Ickes, 2015).

A crucial part of listening is what a head coach says afterwards, which should ensure the athlete knows they have been listened to (Rollnick et al., 2019). Listening is often overshadowed by speaking in communication research, however, it is part of an athlete- centred approach and will have positive consequences for the culture and climate of an elite team (Parks, 2015).

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3.5. The Team Climate

Developmental psychologists maintain that human beings flourish in climates of safety rather than climates of fear (Ashkanasy & Nicholson, 2003). It might be suggested that some sports organisations ignore this advice. British Gymnastics being the most recent example (Ingle, 2020). Where the climate is one of fear, the climate is lacking empathy (Holt

& Marques, 2012). A culture of bullying was described by British Paralympic swimmers with one member of staff, who remained in a senior role at British Swimming, disciplined for a

"lack of empathy" towards athletes (Press Form, 2020). A climate of fear was also described in British Cycling in an independent report (Phelps, Kelly, Lancaster, Mehrzad & Panter,

2017), which refers to fears of retribution or losing employment for speaking out. This led to a change at the levels of head coach and the UK Cycling board. Similar climates that threaten the welfare of athletes have been reported in the UK at international level in canoeing, archery, rowing and bobsleigh (Rumsby, 2017). The UK is not alone in this, climates of fear can be found in high-performance sport all over the world (Andrade, Batalha Silva, &

Dominski, 2020; Gómez-López, Borrego, da Silva, Granero-Gallegos, & González-

Hernández, 2020). Although short term success may still be possible, such climates are unsustainable and eventually lead to underperformance as athletes grow more cynical and distrustful of leaders (Dasborough, Ashkanasy, Tee & Tse 2009).

Empathy may help in maintaining safe climates in sport since it is a connecting force

(Kisfalvi, 2013) not only between head coach and athlete, but between teammates (Stein,

Papadogiannis, Yip & Sitarenios, 2009). Empathy facilitates the understanding of the links between emotions and behaviours of other athletes (Polychroniou, 2009). This seems more important now than ever before as elite sports teams are comprised of athletes from a variety

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of backgrounds, and empathic interpersonal skills help with relating to a diverse group of people (Holt et al., 2017).

A climate of safety has more to offer a sport organisation (Ashkanasy & Humphrey,

2011). The feeling of safety will have a positive influence on psychological wellbeing (Berry

& Joannidès, 2013) and allows athletes to behave in a more open and honest manner (Hollan

& Throop, 2008; Main et al., 2017). This leads athletes to feel confident about speaking up, creating a more innovative environment that will improve performance (Kock et al., 2019).

Kidman, Hadfield, and Thorpe (2005) suggest that coaches should be encouraging athletes to question and honestly answer their coach. This also seems more likely to happen if the athletes feel they are working within the confines of a safe climate. This includes during training, classroom sessions, and in competition. The head coach of an elite team in sport is faced with unique challenges in terms of managing emotions and pursuing a safe climate, for example, leading from the distance of the courtside or touchline.

Whatever, the scenario, empathic head coaches may have the tools to manage climates. They will be adept at perceiving emotional undercurrents and managing them positively: for example, perceiving instances of conflict as opportunities for progression

(Wagstaff et al., 2012) and improving team cohesion (Friedkin, 2004; Tzouramani, 2017)

Empathy is a key factor in understanding and successfully managing conflict in relationships and helps leaders judge which approach fits a situation (O'Neil, 2011). Conflict resolution is an important part of a head coach’s role, and a leader’s ability to leverage diverse points of view is essential to effective communication within a group (Colfax, Rivera & Perez, 2010).

By employing cognitive empathy and empathic accuracy, empathic head coaches can stop potential issues at the first phase before anything has the chance to escalate into a grievance

(Kohlrieser et al., 2012). The example set by an empathic head coach may mean empathy

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spreads through a team and the resultant behaviours tend to be pro-social and altruistic

(Persson & Kajonius, 2016).

Fry and Gano-Overway (2010) showed that when young soccer players perceived a caring environment, they became more likely to express caring behaviours towards their teammates. It is clear that empathic environments encourage empathy in individuals (Gano-

Overway, 2013). If the environment in which a head coach operates is a caring one, it is likely to have been created by a caring head coach (Hellison, 2000; Newton et al., 2007).

A caring environment boosts the safety of the climate and makes toxic events, which have been regularly reported in elite sport (like bullying and ant-social behaviour) less likely

(Noddings, 2010). Caring sports teams develop a set of normal behaviours, and values based on the idea of understanding caring for others, and this may be enhanced with specific caring practices like the promotion of inclusion, acceptance and group decision making

(Gano-Overway, 2013). The head coach takes the lead in instilling a caring culture. The idea is not for athletes to be forced into conforming, but to see the value of the culture and so voluntarily decide to participate (Metz & Gaie, 2010). As a shared history takes shape, emotional connections grow, and familiar rituals and symbols become a part of the environment and the culture. The group will become closer still and everyone will enjoy a sense of community (McMillan & Chavis, 1986).

Once the sense of community exists, it becomes easier to create the solidarity, team cohesion and harmony required to achieve shared goals (Gano-Overway, 2013). Empathy brings people together by recognising how we connect with and depend on each other rather than merely being a collection of individuals (Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2012). By understanding and caring head coaches and athletes can influence team harmony and the experiences and perspectives of each other (Gano-Overway, 2013). Empathy seems to have a lot to offer the

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head coaches of teams in sport; however, further investigation is required to establish their views.

3.5.1. Athlete Wellbeing Due to the demands of elite sport, the psychological and physiological wellbeing of athletes may influence the success of a team even more than the wellbeing of workers in domains where an empathic approach has proved to be beneficial (Decety, 2015; Kohut,

1971). Elite athletes are often described as strong minded and considered to be resilient, confident, composed and focused individuals (Holland, Woodcock, Cumming & Duda,

2010). However, they appear no less susceptible to mental illness than the rest of us

(Gulliver, Griffiths & Christensen, 2012). Moreover, for the leader of a team of elite athletes, understanding the emotional needs of individuals seems to have become a priority (Chan &

Mallett, 2011).

There are frequently reported cases of elite sports performers suffering from , , eating disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders, addictions, substance misuse (Larkin et al., 2017), and burnout (Lemyre, Treasure & Roberts, 2006). A leader lacking empathy seems more likely to overlook the signs and may actively undermine an elite athlete’s through their behaviours, attitudes, and emotions (Chan & Mallett,

2011).

In the increasingly intimate world of leader-follower relationships, where there is a call to quickly identify evolving opportunities and problems, the case for an empathic approach could not be stronger (Holt et al., 2017). As Chan and Mallett (2011) suggest

“being highly attuned to others’ moods and emotions is a fundamental aspect of understanding what other people may be feeling or experiencing, and, in turn, conceptualising others’ needs” (p. 119).

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In recent years there has been a trend from coach-centred to athlete-centred coaching

(Milbrath, 2017). Athlete-centred coaching focuses on greater trust, inclusion, and compassion for the athlete while also providing opportunities for athlete empowerment and input (Kidman, Hadfield, & Thorpe, 2010). Rather than make assumptions, the head coach learns about the unique character of each athlete in what Kidman et al describe as a more humanistic approach, which allows athletes a greater role in their own development, leading to more informed decision-making during competition. Kidman and Lombardo (2005) recommend selecting empathic individuals as coaches in sport. However, there has been limited research focusing on the practical implementation of athlete-centred coaching

(Bowles & O’Dwyer, 2020). The quality of the relationship, however, would appear to be enhanced by this approach since to a large extent it relies on the coach’s understanding of the athlete (Rollnick et al., 2019). A head coach with greater understanding of athletes would, therefore, be better placed to offer better care (Noddings, 2010).

Noddings (1992, 2002, 2003, 2010) explored the idea of a caring relationship by dividing the relationship into the one-caring and the one cared-for. The one-caring attends to the other, empathically feeling into them. The one-caring (the head coach) attends to the expressed needs of the cared-for (the athlete) by empathising and responding to needs, however, these needs may or may not be sport related (Gano-Overway, 2013).

Aggressive leadership styles have been shown to threaten relationships and emotional welling (Waasdorp, Baker, Paskewich & Leff, 2013). Decreasing leader aggression reduces stress in followers (Stanger et al., 2012). An empathic leader is aware of the impact of their style and can modulate their aggression appropriately (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004; Miller &

Eisenberg, 1988). Athletes are also less satisfied and less motivated by an aggressive head coach (Bekiari & Syrmpas, 2015). An aggressive leader is likely to instil fear rather than

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respect and less likely to get trust and honesty in return (Rollnick, Fader, Breckon & Moyers,

2019).

When we feel the pain of others, through empathising, and reflect on our own part in the cause of that pain, we experience feelings of guilt (Hoffman, 2000). Leith and Baumeister

(1998) showed that individuals who report higher trait empathy are more prone to experience guilt in social situations, however, those who are prone to experiencing guilt in social situations also report less aggression (Tangney, Stuewig & Mashek, 2007).

Empathy allows guilt to be experienced anticipatorily and therefore acts as a motivation for avoiding aggressive behaviour (Kroll & Egan, 2004), and so plays a regulatory role in the reduction of aggression (Stanger et al., 2012). More specifically, anticipated guilt regulates moral conduct and reduces negative emotional consequences more generally

(Bandura, 1991). Anticipated emotions are important because they may actually be felt more intensely than emotions felt in response to an event and so forecast affective responses

(Wilson & Gilbert, 2005).

However, at some point, head coaches will have to make decisions that they know will have a negative impact on athletes and subsequent feelings of guilt are likely to become draining. Self-regulation, where empathic behaviours are monitored and controlled, can help to suppress this negative consequence of guilt (Cameron & Payne, 2011). Head coaches are likely to experience many unpleasant emotions that not only require monitoring, but also regulation, before appropriate emotions are displayed in response (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018).

Identifying ways to regulate and cope with these unpleasant emotions is fundamental to the sport leader’s wellbeing (Burch et al., 2016; Wagstaff et al., 2012). Mindfulness meditation has been found to be helpful in minimising this threat (Atkins, 2013) and in reducing stress

(Carmody & Baer, 2008).

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Stress can lead to both psychological and physiological problems (Cooper &

Marshall, 2013). During high stress moments, cortisol modifies our behaviour by sending a signal to indicate that a challenging situation needs to be resolved (Ashkanasy & Dorris,

2017). It is when a situation remains unresolved that cortisol levels begin to have a significant impact: increasing blood sugar, suppressing immunity, inhibiting bone growth, and even increasing injury healing time (Ebrecht et al., 2004; Ekstrand et al., 2018). In elite sport, this could relate to a poor run of form, an injury, a contract negotiation, or a difficult relationship.

Empathic head coaches offer a solution; they show understanding, which reduces stress, increasing oxytocin and reducing cortisol levels, whilst encouraging cooperation and bonding

(De Dreu, 2012). This suggests athlete-wellbeing is likely to be improved by an empathic style of leadership that is sympathetic to the athlete’s perspective.

It is important that the head coach is not overgenerous in ways that threaten the development of individual followers (Main et al., 2017). Understanding through empathising should help to achieve this balance as well as promote empathy in the environment. High- school American football (NFL) coach, Joe Ehrmann, shares a view held by many coaches and researchers (Hughes, 2018; Martinek, Schilling, & Hellison, 2006): namely that the role of the head coach is not only to develop sports skills, but also life skills, personal growth and empowerment (Gano-Overway, 2013). Coaching boys to become men of empathy and integrity who will lead responsibly, will not only benefit a team, it will help change the world

(Ehrmann, Ehrmann & Jordan, 2011). This development of athletes as people includes lessons on how to live compassionately and constructively within a community (Fraser-

Thomas, Côté & Deakin, 2005; Gould, Flett & Lauer, 2012), with a major component of this character development being empathy (Benson, 2006; Lerner, Fisher & Weinberg, 2000).

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3.1. Chapter Summary

This chapter identified that the context of elite sport is unique and provides fast moving and challenging settings to work in. Head coaches and athletes in elite sport work in high pressure settings and this can lead to high levels of stress, which can be detrimental to wellbeing and performance.

Adapting to new settings and colleagues is a common challenge for elite head coaches. This requires understanding a new setting and new people. Head coaches in elite sport have a high number of relationships to establish and maintain. With an investment into so many relationships, the dangers of burnout arise. A head coach needs to know when a break is required. Self-awareness and monitoring seem key.

Empathic practices of head coaches have been reported in elite sport and these reports build a bridge to the literature reviewed in Chapter Two. Empathic practices can be situational or a more constant part of a head coach’s style. Understanding athletes may be easier for head coaches who have shared experiences, for example, if they have been an elite athlete themselves. This may be more challenging if a team of athletes is of a different gender, race, or cultural background to the head coach. However, empathy can help transcend demographic barriers.

Head coaches increase their knowledge of athletes through regular communication.

Elite sport brings unique communication scenarios for leaders, for example, communicating decisions on selection, and giving instructions from the distance of the touchline during competition. Head coaches need to know and understand each athlete in order to optimise communication and to help them understand how an athlete may be feeling in the moment.

Sport research has focused on empathic accuracy of coaches. Empathic accuracy will help head coaches of elite teams to understand how each athlete is experiencing a situation.

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This knowledge helps to predict the behaviour of athletes. Empathic accuracy also helps in understanding opposing athletes. Knowledge of the opposition will help a head coach predict their reactions to events during competition.

By focusing on communication and relationships a head coach can demonstrate care for athletes. This forms part of an athlete-centred approach, which helps to create what athletes perceive to be a caring climate. A caring climate enhances athlete wellbeing and improves safety. This is important since climates of fear have been reported in elite sport.

Moreover, a safe climate enhances trust, honesty, innovation and leads to greater team cohesion.

This chapter has established a case for an empirical investigation to consider whether empathic leadership is an effective approach for elite sport. Chapter Four will present the research design and methodology for this investigation beginning with its ontological and epistemological foundations.

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Chapter 4. Research Design and Methodology

This chapter outlines the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research and argues that through an interpretivist perspective the researcher can gain a rich and dense understanding of empathic leadership, in the context of sport. A rationale for a narrative research design is presented aimed at garnering the stories or life experiences of participants in Phase One of the research.

Phase Two of the research uses seven vignettes inspired by the Phase One data. The vignettes presented examples of leadership. The chapter concludes by detailing the process of data analysis.

4.1. Ontological and Epistemological Foundations of the Research

This research is underpinned by ontological relativism, the belief that reality is a finite subjective experience (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) where meanings are established through the interactions of social actors (Bryman, 2006). Social researchers observe that reality is constructed by the beings within it (Schütz, 1962) and that knowledge is based on our

‘understanding’ which arises from reflection on events rather than only on lived experiences

(Bryman, 2006). Knowledge of human behaviour is context dependent, as the “self is deeply penetrated by the vocabularies of place and time” (Neimeyer, 2000, p. 209). Moreover,

Neimeyer suggests that context does not only refer to place and time, but is linked to the self through language and one’s social environment.

Social understandings are created by people and have influence over themselves and other people (Searle, 2018). Human agency, where individuals make decisions and enact them on the world, alter our social world and “the task of the social scientist is to enquire into the viewpoint of the people being studied, in order to discover what things mean to them and indeed how they make things meaningful” (Searle, 2018, p. 15).

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Polkinghorne (1988) warns us that explaining human behaviour by using general laws would be a mistake, since behaviour is motivated by “the meaning to be expressed” (p. 142).

Human beings recognise their world in two distinct ways (Bruner, 1990), defined as the

‘paradigmatic mode’ of thought and the ‘narrative mode’ of thought (Brown, 2017, p. 216).

The paradigmatic mode is typical of positivists, who determine cause-and-effect relationships and develop tightly reasoned analyses and empirical explanations. However, this mode fails to make sense of human desires, goals and social conduct (McAdams, 1993). McAdams advises that human events are often ambiguous and cannot be reduced to such tightly reasoned analysis, in the absence of contextual landscapes, as human stories describe experiences in words that often mean more than could be otherwise explained.

As this research seeks to understand empathic leadership in elite sport, it employs an interpretivist perspective, to provide a rich and thick description of what constitutes empathic leadership in the context. Denzin and Lincoln (200) state that from an interpretivist perspective “what distinguishes human (social) action from the movement of physical objects is that the former is inherently meaningful” (p. 191). Interpretivists take the view that objectivity can be achieved believing that “it is possible to understand the subjective meaning of action. The interpreter reproduces or reconstructs, the original meaning of the action”

(Denzin & Lincoln, 2003, p. 193). To achieve this level of objectivity, interpreters must employ methods that enable them to step outside of their own frames of reference and take a theoretical attitude as a neutral observer. This perspective sees reality as being created by people who assign their own meaning. However, patterns of behaviour ‘emerge’ due to social conventions. Interpretive research aims to explain and understand social life, using an inductive approach, and by presenting reality symbolically.

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The interpretivist stance requires the use of as these enable researchers to explore how people make sense of their lives (Miles & Huberman,

1994), their experiences and reactions to those experiences. This perspective will allow for an in-depth exploration of empathic leadership in elite sport, as perceived by the participants.

Interpretive approaches to research posit that research cannot be value-free. It is not possible to “suspend values in order to understand” (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994, p.12). As such, this research takes into consideration the elite sport context, where it is accepted that interpretations are influenced and shaped by the values and perceptions of the researcher and the participants (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 24). People are deliberate and creative in their actions, act intentionally and make meanings in and through their activity (Blumer, 1969).

Interpretivists study intersubjectivity, the interaction between ‘socially constructed’ (Berger

& Luckmann, 1966) leaders and followers (Fairhurst & Grant, 2010). In the context of this research those interactions take place within the relationships between the head coach and the elite athletes they lead.

4.2. Research Design

A narrative research design has been described as “an ontological condition of social life” (Smith & Sparkes, 2009, p. 3). The word narrative is from the Latin root, narros, which means ‘to know’ (Mcisaac Bruce, 2008). Narrative research captures detailed stories or life experiences (Creswell, 2014, p. 55). This is often achieved through interviews (Andrews,

Sclater, & Squire, 2000; Petty, Thomson, & Stew, 2012). These stories offer an insight into what is possible and understandable within a specific social context (Chase, 2005). Narratives don’t prove the cause of an effect (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000), but “illustrate systems in practice”. The study of narrative is the study of the ways humans experience the world

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(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000), with experience being the starting place for research (Mcisaac

Bruce, 2008, p. 326).

The narrative takes the form of “a spoken or written text giving an account of an event/action or series of events/actions, chronologically connected” (Czarniawska, 2004, p.

17). Narratives can also be musical, pictorial, dramatic, or otherwise performed. Whatever their form, these stories are often referred to as field texts (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).

Essentially, “narrative research is the interpretation of stories” (Smith & Sparkes,

2009, p. 10). Narrative methods have been recommended in recent years in both sport management (Shaw & Hoeber, 2016; Smith & Humphries, 2017; Stride, Fitzgerald, &

Allison, 2017) and sport psychology (McGannon & Smith, 2015) as ways of understanding the lived experience. A narrative approach to understanding the lived experiences of elite head coaches allows the researcher to connect theory with experience and to establish a relationship between their daily practice and empathic leadership.

How head coaches story themselves and their lived experiences of leadership is a powerful means by which to explore the phenomena of empathic leadership. Sinclair (2010) advocates that scholars of leadership should recognise how the lived experience shapes the role and personal histories of leaders and is helpful in the understanding of their “beliefs, practices, and assumptions” (p. 451). Narrative inquiry allows the researcher to understand how elite head coaches construct meaning from their self-identity, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideas (Etherington, 2013). It has been described as a liberating research design, which offers a research practice aligned with the values of researchers (Mcisaac Bruce, 2008).

Narrative inquiry, as a process, has much in common with the way in which we understand leaders. Schall et al. (2004) suggest “we view both leadership and narrative to be socially constructed” (pp. 17-18). Narrative inquiry is therefore often used where human

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relationships are a focus (Mcisaac Bruce, 2008). This research focuses on how elite head coaches interpret their leadership and what those interpretations tell us about an empathic style of leadership in an elite sport setting.

However, the narratives collected do not objectively mirror reality: they are

“constructed, creatively authored, rhetorical, replete with assumptions, and interpretative”

(Riessman, 1993, p. 5). It is important to keep in mind that “people’s stories of their behaviours are not responses to the events they describe, but are also responses to being asked for those stories (Presser, 2005; Scott & Lyman, 1968). Stories are created and performed in relation to the audience and people may generate “storied selves” (Smith &

Sparkes, 2009, p. 5). The researcher requires awareness of stories being representations of real life, not “life as lived” (Etherington, 2013). In the context of this research the researcher understood that the narratives offered by the elite head coaches were constructed and are therefore not depictions of reality.

Therefore, the validity of the stories told by elite head coaches may be questioned, for example, whether a story is memory reconstruction rather than a valid representation of the facts (Hunter, 2016). As McGannon and Smith, (2015) suggest:

From the outset narrative analysts consider the researcher and the participant as

jointly constructing the stories being told, and thus the researcher needs to be

reflexive about how they are shaped both by what is said and how things are

communicated. (p. 82)

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The researcher attempted to gather meaning from those stories, usually by restorying; the process of reorganising into a framework that makes sense, with consideration of the elite sport context (Creswell, 2015).

Narrative researchers are interested in a chain of experiences, which suits the study of empathy since empathy is a dynamic ongoing process (Halpern, 2001). Narrative inquiry allows sense making to occur from the inside out, by getting “inside peoples’ experiences”

(Schall et al., 2004, p. 18). In the context of this research, this focused on capturing complex, multi-layered and nuanced understandings (Etherington, 2013) of the experiences of head coaches in elite sport.

Narrative researchers theorise that “telling a story about oneself involves telling a story about choice and action” (Ezzy & Rice, 1999, p. 126); in the sense that stories presented in this research are reconstructions of the experiences of elite head coaches that help us to understand empathic leadership practices (Etherington, 2013). Stories have always been used by human beings as a route to understanding. Stories can be viewed as a window onto a knowable reality and analysed using concepts derived from theory (Etherington, 2013).

During the restorying process, the researcher considers past, present and future ideas of leadership and how they reflect current understandings of empathic leadership (Clandinin &

Connelly, 2000). This process presented the researcher with an opportunity to identify emerging themes common among the stories of head coaches in elite sport, which offered insight into empathic leadership (Creswell, 2015).

Narrative inquiry in this research viewed stories as the primary medium through which meanings about thoughts, emotions, and motivations, are communicated and fashioned in order to make sense of leadership experiences” (McGannon & Smith, 2015, p. 81). The aim of utilising narrative inquiry was not to obtain one generalisable truth about what

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constitutes empathic leadership practices, but to understand the many narratives that were used to characterise empathic leadership in elite sport (Byrne-Armstrong, 2001). This design was employed to address the following research questions.

4.2.1. Research Questions RQ1. Has leadership in elite sport become more empathic? If so, how?

Objective: To identify changes in leadership practices over time that demonstrate an

empathic leadership style.

RQ2. What are the key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style in

elite sport?

Objective: To identify why an empathic leadership style is employed.

RQ3. What situations in elite sport provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic

leadership style?

Objective: To identify common scenarios in an elite sport setting where an empathic

leadership style may be employed.

RQ4. What is understood to be an empathic leadership style in elite sport contexts?

Objective: To identify what is considered to be an empathic leadership style in elite

sport settings.

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4.3. Data Collection: A Mixed Methods Approach

A mixed methods sequential approach to data collection was employed (Creswell &

Clark, 2018): Phase One of this research was qualitative, and Phase Two employed mixed methods, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative processes. The sequential approach to data collection is illustrated in Figure 4.1. Phase One, the semi-structured interviews, took place between 1st January and 30th June 2019. Phase Two, the vignettes questionnaire, took place in the month of December 2019. The sample size (n) was 20 for Phase One, and 13 for

Phase Two. Further details concerning the demographics of the sample of head coach participants for each of these phases are detailed later in this chapter and illustrated by

Figures 4.2 to 4.5, and Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.1 The Sequential Approach

The sequential mixed methods design of this research allowed quantitative data to be collected and analysed second in the sequence to provide a deeper understanding of the research phenomena and validate the qualitative results obtained in the first phase. A sequential mixed methods approach strengthens and confirms the understanding of the phenomena (Creswell, 2015) by allowing comparison of results derived from more than one data collection technique (Searle, 2018).

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In the case of this research, the sequential approach allowed a deeper and fuller understanding of the empathic leadership perspectives of head coaches, who had the opportunity to convey their understanding of empathic leadership both qualitatively and quantitatively. With mixed methods research, one approach is often more dominant than the other (Plano Clark et al., 2013). In this research the qualitative approach was the dominant of the two. Qualitative approaches were used in both phases of the research and allowed elite head coaches to convey their perspectives on empathic leadership in Phase One, and in Phase

Two allowed the head coaches to expand and justify their understanding of empathic leadership, which was curtailed by the inherent parameters associated with the collection of the quantitaive data (Carr, 1994).

4.4. Phase One: A Qualitative Approach

Qualitative research is difficult to define (Smith & Caddick, 2012). It has been broadly described as a “fuzzy set” (Madill & Gough, 2008 p. 254) of research methods, and is based on an assumption that reality is constructed by individuals (Merriam, & Tisdell,

2015). Qualitative methods tend to involve getting closer to participants than occurs during quantitative methods. By interacting with participants, the researcher becomes part of the situation that is being researched. As a result, qualitative researchers are called on to reflect on their work and research takes the researchers interaction with the field as an explicit part of knowledge production and includes the subjectivities of the researcher and of those being studied (Flick 1998).

There has been a dominance of in the study of leadership

(Klenke, Martin, & Wallace, 2008). The majority of research in sport management to date employed questionnaires and scales and focuses on measuring (Kihl et al., 2010). In 1990,

Olafson noted that sport management studies were dominated by questionnaires (55%) and

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archival methods (20%). Fewer studies employed qualitative research methods, such as interviews (7%). Olafson criticised this narrow approach “given the wide range of data collection procedures available” and suggested that “sport management researchers must begin to explore other data gathering methods’’ (p. 116). This view has been reiterated more recently (Amis & Silk, 2005; Shaw & Hoeber, 2016) suggesting little has changed.

In the sport leadership domain Kihl et al. (2010) argue that it is also important that sport leadership researchers include the role of context. This is because leadership is viewed as a collaborative and relational experience (Kihl et al., 2010) and something that is socially constructed in particular contexts (Grint & Jackson, 2010). This also implies that rather than measuring, research should focus on understanding through a collection of individual perspectives (Kihl et al., 2010) as each leader is unique, with their own styles, practices, and motivations. Qualitative methodologies appear suitable if valuable insights into these items are to be revealed.

Qualitative methods seek to explore phenomena, using instruments with more flexibly, with an iterative style of eliciting and categorising responses to questions. Sparkes and Stewart (2016) argue that “the ability of qualitative research to get at the processes that lead to various outcomes is a major strength of this approach and is something that experimental and survey research is often poor at identifying” (p. 17).

Denzin and Lincoln (2000) note that:

Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world … At

this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the

world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings,

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attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings

people bring to the situation. (p. 3)

Whilst “qualitative research has great potential to help improve sport management”

(Shaw & Hoeber, 2016, p. 256), it has been criticised for being too subjective, exacerbating the potential for bias. The authors meet this challenge head on:

How do I forget what I already know when I collect and analyse the data? Do we

want to completely remove our emotions, hunches, , and experiences from

our research? Can I critically evaluate the data without acknowledging my own

expectations and knowledge? While we need to be careful with our biases as they can

lead us to unjustified conclusions, it is unrealistic to suggest that we can or want to

keep them in check. (Shaw & Hoeber, 2016, p. 256)

The adoption of qualitative research offers many advantages in relation to this research. As the purpose of this research was to explore an empathic leadership style in elite sport, qualitative research provides an opportunity to consider the everyday life experiences of elite head coaches in depth, with the collection of rich qualitative data. By the researcher engaging with elite head coaches, the research reached the depths of contextual familiarity required for producing a detailed and rigorous exploration of the empathic leadership phenomena in an elite sport setting. Employing a qualitative approach this research will expand our understanding and knowledge of sport leadership, specifically the leadership practices of head coaches in elite sport and the degree to which an empathic leadership style is employed.

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4.4.1. Participants and Sampling This research focused on the leadership of elite teams of athletes and was concerned with ‘key motivations’ for employing empathy in leadership. Obtaining the stories and views of leaders, defined in this research as head coaches, was essential.

The head coaches of elite teams of athletes were chosen as a population for sampling.

Team sport was chosen due to the interesting complexities of leading a team in an emotionally demanding environment such as sport (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018). The head coach of a team in elite sport has to understand, manage and motivate a range of personalities and not just one athlete, and also manage interpersonal relationships, team cohesion and the team climate.

Based on the power head coaches have within the group, head coaches of elite sports teams are considered to be leaders (Loughead & Hardy, 2005). Lee and Chelladurai (2018) suggest that “sport coaching is an emotion-laden context which evokes a variety of strong pleasant and unpleasant emotions and which requires individuals to regulate those felt emotions, and to display appropriate emotions in their endeavour to achieve organizational goals” (p. 394). It is also accepted that “athletic teams are organizations per se as they possess the organizational attributes of instrumentality, a program of activities, membership criteria, clear boundaries, division of labour, hierarchy of authority, and formal rules and procedures” (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018, p. 394).

The sample size for a qualitative narrative study is often small due to the rich and detailed data collection and time required (Searle, 2018). Sample size calculation is an important part of preparation and can only be informed by judgement and experience (Searle,

2018). The assumptions of qualitative scholars have made for what constitutes a generically adequate sample size remain inconclusive: Groenewald (2004) suggests a range of two to ten participants, Creswell (2015) recommends up to twenty-five. Beitin (2012) says that failed

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attempts to predetermine an adequate number of participants in earlier qualitative research have led to the popular approach of reaching “theoretical saturation” (p. 244). Searle (2018) describes theoretical saturation as “informational redundancy” (p. 172). Both Beitin (2012) and Searle describe it as the point at which the researcher is hearing nothing they have not heard before. There is always the possibility that more perseverance might reap great reward.

This concern can only be allayed by ensuring that enough data has been collected to show something new and original (Searle, 2018, p. 172). In this research, theoretical saturation was reached with twenty participants. This number of participants falls within the sample range of recent sport management research involving the theoretical saturation of interview data

(Paek, Martyn, Oja, Kim, & Larkins, 2020; Peng, Skinner, & Houlihan, 2019; Shilbury,

O’boyle, & Ferkins, 2020).

This research employed non-probability purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2015). This approach involves selecting participants who it was believed could best assist in gaining a deep understanding of the research phenomena. The criteria decided upon were all head coaches of elite teams competing in team sports (male or female) at international level

(national teams) or national league level. Potential participants also had to be English speaking for interview purposes. Initial contacts were made via emails which described what would be required; namely a one-hour interview and a follow-up online survey. After sending out 190 emails to potential participants, the target of 20 positive replies was achieved and the respondents were confirmed as participants.

Eight participants were head coaches of national teams and twelve were head coaches of teams competing at national league level. The demographics of the participants are further illustrated in the following Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4.

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Sports Represented 9

8

7

6

5

4 Total

3

2

1

0 Cricket Football Handball Hockey Ice Hockey Lacrosse Netball Rugby Volleyball Union

Figure 4.2 Sports Represented in the Sample

Non-probability purposeful sampling produced participants from nine different team sports, as shown in Figure 4.1. The majority (8) were leading teams in football, followed by rugby union, then handball and ice hockey, with one participant each from lacrosse, cricket, netball, hockey, and volleyball.

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Nationality 12

10

8

6 Total

4

2

0 Canada England Hungary Ireland N. Ireland New Norway Scotland Zealand

Figure 4.3 Nationality of Participants

The sample consisted of participants with eight different nationalities, as shown in

Figure 4.2. The majority (10) were from England, followed by Scotland, then Ireland and

Canada, and finally, an even distribution between Norway, Hungary, Wales and New

Zealand.

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Country of Work 9

8

7

6

5

4 Total

3

2

1

0 Australia Canada England Hungary Italy New Norway Scotland Sweden USA Wales Zealand

Figure 4.4 Country of Work

The sample consisted of participants working as head coaches in eleven different countries, as shown in Figure 4.3. The majority (8) were working in England, followed by

New Zealand, then an even distribution between Wales, Scotland, Canada, Hungary, Norway,

Sweden, Italy, Australia, and New Zealand.

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Gender of Coach and Team 14

12

10 Male coaching men 8 Female coaching women Male coaching women 6 Female coaching men 4

2

0

Figure 4.5 Gender of Coach and Team

The sample consisted of participants leading a team with the same gender as their own and other participants leading teams of a different gender, as shown in Figure 4.4. The majority (13) were male head coaches of men’s teams, followed by male head coaches of women’s teams, female head coaches of women’s teams and finally, a female head coach of a men’s team.

4.4.2. Data Collection: Semi-Structured Interviews Interviews have become one of the most widespread knowledge-producing practices in the social sciences (Brinkmann, 2014). The interview can take a variety of forms, from formal; (internet, telephone, face-to-face interaction) to more informal conversations.

Interviews can be structured. However, most qualitative interviews are semi-structured, requiring the researcher to provide structure based on key themes from the literature, leaving space and flexibility for the respondent’s spontaneous descriptions and stories (Brinkmann,

2014). The narrative researcher views the participant as a storyteller rather than a respondent

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(Hollway & Jefferson, 2000, p. 302). Compared with structured interviews the researcher has more flexibility to move from the interview schedule and probe beyond the answers received

(McLeod, 2014).

Ideally, interviews take place on site, close to the context of where the leader leads.

Interferences in the narratives given by subjects may include the researcher reminiscing about their own experiences. Sparkes (1995, p.175) refers to this as “narrative of self” and this can prove a useful tool and act as a precursor to reflection (Edwards & Skinner, 2009, p.364).

The researcher needs to be aware of other potential outcomes. For example, the process may prove therapeutic: something referred to as narrative therapy by White and

Epston (1990), in their book entitled Narrative Means to Therapeutic Ends. The interviews were guided by a list of questions inspired by themes from the literature and the research questions. However, wording was not fixed and questions did not comply to an order

(Minichiello, Aroni, & Hays, 2008). The researcher aimed to maintain a dynamic conversational style and probed in order to gain deeper understanding, whilst retaining flexibility and focusing on the interviewees subjective insight (Edwards & Skinner, 2009).

As the interviewer, the researcher needs to be aware of the potential for sub-conscious bias, which is difficult to mitigate against (Searle, 2018). Looking for confirmation of pre- conceived ideas may steer the direction of the interview (Creswell, 2014). In this research the semi-structured interview design helped to mitigate bias by allowing the researcher to restrict his own input, leaving space for the participant to speak freely and at length.

Each interview lasted around one hour and was audio recorded. When interviews were not possible in person, an online video calling technology such as Skype, Zoom or

FaceTime was employed. Ten of the interviews were conducted in this way, with the

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remainder being in person. Eight of these in person interviews took place at the leader’s place of work, and two at Loughborough University, London.

Interviews were audio recorded and the recordings were stored on a password protected computer belonging to the researcher and backed up on memory sticks, with each participant’s names being coded in both files. After each interview, the participant was thanked, assured of confidentiality, and asked if they would like a summary of the findings sent to them.

4.4.3. Pilot interviews Pilot interviews were carried out as part of the process of developing the interview protocol. Three pilot interviews were arranged with leaders from local organisations: a gymnastic club, a dance school and a netball team. All three leaders engaged with both adult and youth athletes or dancers. All three also engaged with male and female athletes/dancers.

The interview questions emerged from a review of the literature on empathic leadership and relatable examples in sport. These pilot interviews helped to fine tune the procedure and to ensure that it would collect rich data capable of answering the research questions. Listening to pilot interviews revealed that asking too many questions and being too eager to do so often suppressed respondents’ stories, an issue mentioned by Mishler (1986).

The experience of conducting pilot interviews encouraged the researcher to be a better listener and to probe the interviewee about the motives behind their actions. Piloting also provided an opportunity to remove questions that failed to work, to check how questions were interpreted, and helped the researcher to gain familiarity with both questions and process (Searle, 2018). The researcher also engaged in the transcribing of pilot interviews to practice and prepare for the transcribing of the research interviews. Interview questions were

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therefore established prior to these interviews and refined during the pilot process (see

Appendix C for details of the interview protocol).

4.5. Data Analysis: Phase One

Transcriptions of the interviews were made to facilitate thematic analysis (Ezzy,

2002; Hunter, 2016). Each interview was transcribed verbatim. In rare instances, where further clarification was required, follow up questions were asked via email. This systematic approach to the full set of transcripts helped to identify the sections of the text that were relevant to the research aims.

A thematic approach involves comparing accounts from a sample of participants with similar experiences, which in turn allows the researcher to explore commonalities (Earthy &

Cronin, 2008). This includes the coding of: significant sentences, paragraphs relating to themes, and narratives that relate to relevant incidents.

4.5.1. Templates and Coding Searle (2018) suggests choosing the approach to coding that works for you. In this research all data were prepared and coded by hand, employing the method of Template

Analysis (King, 1998, 2012, 2015; Gillian Symon & Cassell, 2017) to establish themes. King

(1998) suggests that “template analysis is not a complete and distinct methodology, but rather is a technique that may be used within a range of epistemological positions” (p. 427). In the case of this research this technique was used to determine the range of epistemological positions taken by elite head coaches in relation to empathic leadership practices.

Template Analysis has previously been employed in narrative approaches (King,

1998) and in studies of coaches in sport (Nash & Sproule, 2009). Studies that suit Template

Analysis usually have between 15-30 participants and begin with an initial template of a priori themes which evolve and are usually added to as the transcriptions are coded (King,

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1998). Codes may be hierarchical with subcodes emerging in each theme, which can often be grouped into categories (Searle, 2018). Template Analysis does not insist on a number of levels of hierarchy, maintaining the flexibility to develop themes that relate to the richest data

(King, 1998). King follows Miles and Huberman (1994) who suggested creating a provisional list of codes prior to fieldwork, from the , the research questions, and problem areas or other variables that the researcher brings to the study. This describes a deductive approach. Qualitative research is often inductive, however, sometimes a deductive approach is required in order to begin the process, while retaining the flexibility to add inductive codes that emerge from the data (Searle, 2018).

Therefore, template analysis began by listing five a priori overarching themes, based on the key themes identified in Chapter Three: the trend towards a more empathic leadership style, empathic communication, closer relationships, safe climates and empathic accuracy.

Themes can become codes, however, it is important that codes represent the language of participants as closely as possible (Vaismoradi, Jones, Turunen, & Snelgrove, 2016). It is also important to keep the code labels simple (Saldaña, 2016). The trend towards a more empathic leadership style was simplified to trend. Empathic communication became communication.

The labels closer relationships and safe climates were retained. Empathic accuracy was also retained in the absence of a satisfactory substitute term which could adequately describe it.

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Figure 4.6 Template of Provisional Codes

A template of the preliminary a priori codes was created (see Figure 4.5.) and applied to a sub-set of data (five randomly selected transcriptions), in order to establish the suitability of the template and to allow emerging thinking to influence modification (Gillian Symon &

Cassell, 2017). Sections of text that referred to each provisional code were colour highlighted by hand, with notes made in margins to distinguish sub-codes, which in turn were grouped into categories within each code. Further, some sections of text could be coded to more than one of the provisional codes. Second colours were used to mark the margins either side of the already coloured text. For example, ‘selection notification’ was coded to both Trend (yellow), as interviewees used it as an example as to how leadership had become more empathic, and

Communication (orange), since it involves the head coach communicating information to the athlete.

After coding the subset of data, two more overarching themes had emerged from the data: athlete-centred and developing empathy. These themes provided two emergent codes

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for the data which did not fit the a priori codes. There were signs of these themes within the literature reviewed, however, these themes were nascent in their development. The code names for these new themes represent language used by interviewees and referred to with regularity and consistency across the sample. When asked if head coaches have a more empathic approach now and if so how and why? Interviewees explained that the approach had become more athlete-centred and elaborated on what that meant. This data also led to alterations in the of sub-codes. For example, much of the data referring to athlete wellbeing, was considered more closely related to athlete-centred than its previous theme safe climate. Wellbeing still relates to both; however, the researcher made a decision according to its best fit, taking into consideration the context in which it was situated within the transcript.

The purpose of coding is to both describe and gain new understanding (Edwards &

Skinner, 2009). As such, coding provides the organisation of data required to answer research questions (Saldaña, 2016). The answers to the research questions in this work could be found within highlighted codes. For example, RQ1 focuses on the Trend data, which was coded yellow. A modification was made during the process. Notes were made in the margins that related to RQ2 and RQ3. These notes were simple acronyms. For example, MOT represented motivations, which relates to RQ2, and SIT represented situations, which relates to RQ3.

MOT and SIT notes were employed across all coded data. Chunks of text marked with these acronyms were also colour-coded according to which of the overarching, colour-coded themes they related to. For example, a situation marked SIT in the margin and would have been colour-coded green since it was related to empathic accuracy. Similarly, subcodes labels were made in the margins using abbreviations, for example, distance, a subcode of Closer

Relationships was abbreviated to dist. The subcodes were found within the overarching or

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higher order codes (King, 2015; Symon, Cassell, & King, 2017). Therefore, coding of the transcription data consisted of seven colour-coded themes, and these are the overarching themes of this research, with subcodes emerging within each, and two acronym coded themes, which exist across the overarching themes and refer to two research questions.

Transcriptions were also uploaded into the qualitative software NVivo for further review. Software, such as NVivo, may be utilised for data analysis and as a tool for analysis that supplements coding by hand (Maher, Hadfield, Hutchings, & de Eyto, 2018). NVivo allowed key words to be searched within transcriptions to assure data had not been missed by the researcher. For example, searching for the word and synonyms of predict (which relates to empathic accuracy) in NVivo found every instance, enabling the researcher to check that no mention of it had been missed (see Appendix D).

It is claimed that tools like NVivo improve rigour (Maher et al., 2018). However, this has been questioned and it is recognised that data analysis is performed by the researcher not the software (Petty et al., 2012). Words have different meanings in different contexts (Miller,

1999). Some authors have questioned whether to trust NVivo given its tendency to miss things due context or to the hidden meanings of words or phrases questions (Zamawe, 2015).

Basit (2003) notes that “the author looks at both the methods in the light of her own experience and concludes that the choice will be dependent on the size of the project, the funds and time available, and the inclination and expertise of the researcher” (p.143). Manual analysis and coding may be less appealing with ten or a hundred times the number of transcripts. With twenty transcripts to code, the researcher chose to proceed manually (see

Appendix D), employing NVivo software as a supplementary tool for searching words and terms.

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With the modifications made, a Template of Final Codes was created (see Figure

4.6.). The Template of Final Codes differs from the Template of Provisional Codes in that it includes the emergent overarching codes: Athlete-Centred and Developing Empathy, the acronym codes (relating to RQ3 and RQ4): MOT and SIT, and subcodes, all of which emerged from the data. The Template of Final Codes was applied to the remaining data set and then reapplied to the subset. This ensured all transcripts were coded using the Template of Final Codes.

Figure 4.7 Template of Final Codes

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In summary, the Template of Final Codes organised the data in a way that facilitated the answering of each research question. When informing RQ1: Has leadership in sport become more empathic? If so, how? data collated within the Trend code and it’s subcodes was drawn on. For example, the subcode timescale collated data referring to the time period over which participants believe any trend has taken place, and data concerning how it has become more empathic is to be found within the changes subcode. When answering RQ2: What are the key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style in sport? data collated within the

MOT code was drawn on. When answering RQ3 and RQ4: What situations in elite sport provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style? What is understood to be an empathic leadership style in elite sport contexts? data coded SIT was drawn on.

4.6. Phase Two: A Quantitative Approach

The quantitative data collected acted as a tool to verify the qualitative data collected.

This allowed the researcher to utilise two methods to validate the findings. Plano Clark et al

(2013) refer to this as an embedded approach, where the quantitative research phase is

“nested” within a predominantly qualitative approach (Merriam, & Tisdell, 2015, p. 48).

Further qualitative data was also collected during Phase Two. This allowed the head coaches to elaborate on their opinions relating to each vignette. This was achieved by asking an open- ended question after each vignette.

4.6.1. Sampling From the sample of 20 interview participants, five were selected at random. To achieve this, participants were numbered 1-20 and then an online random number generator

(Number Generator, 2019) was used to select the 5 participants asked to take part in a pilot phase of the vignettes study (see 4.4.1 Pilot Vignettes below). This pilot phase took place in

September 2019. The remaining fifteen participants were asked to participate in the main

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study which was completed in December 2019. Two participants failed to respond to the request to participate in the main study. Thirteen completed the survey, twelve male and one female, nine head coaches in elite men’s sport, the remaining four were head coaches in elite women’s sport, eight coached in Europe, four in Australasia, and one in North America. The sports these participants coached in are depicted in Figure 4.7.

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 Football Rugby Union Ice Hockey Netball Volleyball Handball Cricket

Figure 4.8 Sports Represented in Phase Two

Figure 4.7 shows the elite team sports that the participants coached in. The majority coached in football, then rugby union and ice hockey, with an even distribution between the remaining elite team sports: cricket, lacrosse, volley, netball, and hockey.

4.7. Vignettes Study

The meaning of stories can be verified with participants (Petty et al., 2012; Ulrich &

Ratcliffe, 2007). This was done through vignettes. Using vignettes is a flexible method as they can vary in length and style (Ulrich & Ratcliffe, 2007). Vignettes have been used in

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various research domains including the study of empathy (Nightingale, Yarnold, &

Greenberg, 1991). Developing vignettes from semi-structured interview data is a common technique (Berney et al., 2005). Vignettes have been described as “short stories about hypothetical characters in specific circumstances, to whose situation the participant is invited to respond” (Finch, 1987, p. 105) and they can be used as an adjunct to other data collection methods (Hughes & Huby, 2002). Vignettes can be presented in a variety of ways (Ulrich &

Ratcliffe, 2007) and offer “an approach that assesses individuals’ attitudes or values in a contextualised scenario or situation” (Ulrich & Ratcliffe, 2007, p. 163). In this research the vignettes were presented in the form of an online survey, with links being emailed to participants in December 2019.

Data collected from vignettes is more reliable when the vignettes are closer to real life situations (Rahman, 2008) and vignettes that do not meet this goal have limited applicability

(Hughes, 1998). The interview data provided an opportunity for head coaches to explain how they employed an empathic leadership style. These examples were used (Searle, 2018) to create real life vignettes.

The vignettes provided the opportunity for the participant to reflect on a real-life situation and the researcher the opportunity to verify the head coaches’ understanding of what constitutes an empathic leadership style. Congruence between what was said in the interviews and interpretations of the vignettes by head coaches helped to validate the data collected in

Phase One. The process was tuned by piloting the vignettes with the five randomly selected participants.

4.7.1. Pilot Vignettes Pre-survey testing is common practice (Ulrich & Ratcliffe, 2007). The vignettes were sent to five participants as a pilot study. This pilot phase enabled testing and feedback

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concerning completion time, clarity of wording, completion of instructions, user friendliness, and comprehension of the vignettes. No problems arose during this pilot phase and response times averaged ten minutes, which was deemed to be acceptable.

The literature suggests that the order of vignettes be randomised to avoid order effects

(Cheung, Lim, Goh, Thumboo, & Wee, 2005; Jensen, Watanabe, & Richters, 1999). In order to achieve this a change of survey software was required: from Online Survey to Survey

Gizmo.

A second pilot phase was conducted using the new software, with four university students agreeing to participate. The updated survey was emailed to these respondents with the vignettes appearing in a randomised order. No further alterations were deemed necessary and the survey was then sent out to the sample.

4.7.2. The Vignettes The results from one method may help develop or inform another method (Greene,

Caracelli, & Graham, 1989). As such, data collected from the interviews inspired the creation of hypothetical vignettes. The relevant data was coded as SIT, a label which describes situations that provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style. Each situation was also coded with the colour or colours of other applicable codes. In order to maintain a broad picture, the most popular example of a situation in each of the colour coded themes was identified and used to inspire one of seven vignettes. For example, the most popular example of a situation that provided an opportunity to demonstrate empathic leadership, and related to the code athlete-centred, was when an athlete comes to the head coach with a personal problem involving relationships.

Research that employs vignettes relies on the constant-variable vignette method

(CVVM), where the same scenarios are presented to all respondents, who then have a forced-

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choice to make, or a rating scale to complete (Wason, Polonsky, & Hyman, 2002). This is often in the form of a Likert scale (Christakis and Asch, 1995). Each vignette included the actions of a head coach, for the respondent to consider. A six-point Likert scale provided a quantitative method of acquiring responses to the statement that followed each vignette. An even number of options forces choice and prevents participants from choosing don’t know or undecided, which is often preferred as the socially acceptable choice (Pornel & Saldaña,

2013). The statement read:

This represents an empathic leadership style:

Respondents were able to choose from the following six responses on the scale: strongly agree, agree, agree somewhat, disagree somewhat, disagree, strongly disagree.

Researchers typically employ vignettes to explore meanings concerning particular issues, by asking respondents to comment on the situation in their own words (Martin, 2006;

Ulrich & Ratcliffe, 2007). Therefore, respondents were asked to:

Give reasons for your response and suggest how a leader could employ a more empathic style:

This vignette study elicited quantitative and qualitative responses, making it a powerful tool (Rahman, 2008). The scale data allowed validation of previous findings and the open ended responses deepened the researcher’s insight into a head coach’s understanding of empathic leadership (Ulrich & Ratcliffe, 2007).

4.7.3. Data Analysis: Phase Two Thirteen responses were sufficient to achieve theoretical saturation (Beitin, 2012;

Creswell, 2014; Searle, 2018). The quantitative data from the Likert scales of each vignette were compared between participants (data triangulation) to establish the extent of corroboration (Edwards & Skinner, 2009).

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This scale data was also analysed to discover if it validated the qualitative interview data from Phase One. This approach is known as between-method triangulation or methodological triangulation (Edwards & Skinner, 2009). In effect, this allowed the researcher to establish whether examples of empathic leadership style provided by the head coaches in Phase One validated their understanding of an empathic leadership style. Bryman

(2006) suggests that the differences between qualitative and quantitative methods should be the rationale for their combination in research. The vignettes were inspired by a similar yet limited number of examples of situations given by participants in Phase One of this research.

The quantitative aspect of Phase Two provided an opportunity for all head coaches to consider the examples from Phase One interview data. For example, out of 20 interviewees half suggested that an athlete coming to them with a relationship problem in their personal life represented an opportunity for them to demonstrate an empathic leadership style. Such subjective perspectives are difficult to measure quantitatively (Searle, 2018). However, once this situation had been acquired through qualitative methods, it could be tested across the sample quantitatively via the survey. Without the vignettes the research would not have gleaned the perspectives of each head coach on the situation depicted in each vignette.

The open-ended question at the end of the survey allowed head coaches to explain their responses. This provided the head coaches with the flexibility to explain the rationale behind their own decision rather than their response be limited by the Likert scale.

Qualitative data from the open-ended question were analysed and coded manually. This involved created open codes to organise the data (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2018).

4.7.4. Triangulation of Data Triangulation is the process of comparative data analysis using differing methodologies that should converge, resulting in answers that reinforce each other. Should

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results be different, there is an opportunity to analyse why they are different. Should two of three methodologies result in similar answers, the researcher will want to analyse why the two are similar and the third different.

Data triangulation was achieved by comparing stories of similar common situations to see if participants agreed (Barcik, 2018). The perspectives of head coaches were compared to establish area of congruence across findings and therefore validate the findings. This comparison of data sources is referred to specifically as data triangulation (Denzin & Lincoln,

2000).

By adding a quantitative phase to this research (Phase Two), ‘between-method’ triangulation was realised, which seeks to maximise the validity of the data (Denzin &

Lincoln, 1998). Allowing participants to consider and comment on common vignettes provided data that could reveal the consistency of opinion across the sample as to what constitutes an empathic leadership style in common situations, in an elite sport setting.

Triangulation can also assist with reducing the problem of researcher bias (Searle,

2018). Preconceived notions need to be set aside in the interests of objectivity (Bailey, 1992).

In this research, the researcher’s interest in empathy and his own beliefs concerning the values and styles of leadership may have formed bias in the interpretation of the data. To help to mitigate this, the data was not only interpreted by the researcher, but also by his two supervisors, with agreements reached on the conclusions drawn.

4.7.5. Confidentiality Throughout both phases of the research the research participants were assured that the information they contributed would be treated as confidential (see Appendix A) and that no information that could be used to identify them would be present in the reporting of the research. Anonymising data is a safeguard to maintain confidentiality (Searle, 2018). In this

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research no names were used in the storing or treatment of data, with only the interviewer aware of the code that represented each participant in the saved data. Participants confirmed their informed (see Appendix B). All data were processed in accordance with data protection legislation.

The participants were made aware that the information provided would be presented in publications, reports and webpages and that they may be quoted anonymously in these outputs. This research procedure addressed the practical requirements of research; to record each interview, and the ethical requirements; and to seek agreement with participants concerning confidentiality.

4.7.6. Ethics This research gained approval from Loughborough University Ethics Committee in accordance with University research procedure. Before each interview the participants were sent a Participant Information sheet and an form that explained that all personal information would be processed in accordance with data protection legislation.

Informed consent allows participants to decide for themselves what is in their best interests and what risks they are taking, if any (Searle, 2018). Signed copies of these forms were collected by the researcher on or before the day of the interview.

4.8. Chapter Summary

This chapter outlined the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research.

It has argued from an interpretivist perspective that the researcher would gain a rich and dense understanding of empathic leadership in the context of sport. Through narrative inquiry the researcher created detailed stories, or life experiences, via semi-structured interviews.

Transcripts were made from the interview data, which were analysed through a process of template analysis (Symon et al., 2017). This began with a priori themes forming a provisional

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template of codes, which was modified during the manual analysis of a subset of data.

Modifications included adding the two emergent themes to the template of final codes, which was then employed in the manual coding of all transcripts.

Seven vignettes were created from semi-structured interview data and presented to head coaches. These vignettes represented head coach examples of an empathic leadership style and were subsequently ranked by head coaches on a Likert scale as to how much the leadership depicted in the vignette represented an empathic style. Head coaches were asked to offer reasons for their responses to the vignettes and suggest how a leader could employ a more empathic leadership style in each situation. This design initiated open-ended, qualitative responses to add to the quantitative Likert scale survey data.

Chapter Five will present and discuss the findings of Phase One of the research, which employed semi-structured interviews. The findings are presented and discussed using the four research questions as a structure.

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Chapter 5. Results and Discussion: Phase One

In this chapter the results from Phase One are presented and discussed. The research questions provide the structure to this chapter, with findings presented in relation to relevant codes from the Template of Final Codes applied in the data analysis.

The findings are interpreted with reference to the reviewed literature, including what is known about empathic leadership styles in other industries and the context of elite sport.

The chapter concludes with a summary of Phase One of the research and provides a link to the results and discussion of the Phase Two data presented in Chapter Six.

5.1. Interview Data

The presentation of findings includes raw quotes from interviews to support the discussion. Participants have been coded as P1-20. The researcher’s initials (PS) are used where the researcher is quoted. Names of people, teams or places have been removed to protect anonymity and replaced with athlete’s name, team name, city name, name of sport and so forth. Where there was no perceived threat to anonymity the name of the competition or location has been left in the text. Pauses are indicated by … and where there was emphasis on a particular word, italics have been applied. All interview data were coded using the

Template of Final Codes, with findings presented in relation to each overarching code, maintaining the order they appear within the template.

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5.2. RQ1. A Trend: Leadership Has Become More Empathic

This section addresses RQ1. Has leadership in elite sport become more empathic? If so, how?

The interview data suggests that leadership in sport has become more empathic. The

Trend code captured data within the subcode timescale, highlighting over what period the trend towards an empathic leadership style in elite sport evolved. The subcode Changes captured data that details this trend. Participants described changes in leadership behaviours which reflect the empathic leadership style described in the literature (Holt et al., 2017; Kock et al., 2019; Marques, 2015; Tzouramani, 2017). This includes descriptions of behavioural changes in leadership, specifically: a focus on safe climates, closer relationships, empathic communication, and empathic accuracy. Additional changes in behaviours distinct to the context of elite sport were also captured, including: a more athlete-centred approach, and a focus on developing empathy in elite teams. The two subcodes of the Trend code, Timescale and Changes will now be explored.

5.2.1. Timescale The leadership literature that explores other industries, including business and the military suggests that leadership has become more empathic (Kock et al., 2019; Marques,

2015; Natale et al., 2013; Tzouramani, 2017; Rahman & Castelli, 2013). These claims suggest that a trend towards an empathic leadership style has occurred over the last two decades. Head coaches claimed that this trend is also reflected in sport leadership: “it seems to have evolved now. The style of coaching is far more empathic in football” (P1). This view was consistent across the sports represented and across participants.

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Empathy has clearly become valued by head coaches in elite sport. The following words of one participant captured this consensus: “the current trend is to believe that you will definitely get more out of your players if you are empathic” (P13).

The participants displayed a good understanding of the definition of empathy, often breaking from narratives in order to demonstrate this, for example: “I’d say empathy is the way you know and understand players perceptions and feelings about different situations”

(P16). This definition reflects the definitions of empathy provided by Ickes (2003) and Singer and Klimecki (2014). Another participant showed a depth of understanding, illustrating that empathy does not insist on nor include a compassionate response (Cuff et al., 2016):

Sometimes what a player needs is a kick up the back side, for want of a better

expression, but you understand the person well enough to know that that is the best

approach at that time. It’s important not to confuse the idea of empathy being an arm

round the shoulder all the time. (P6)

Leaders are often tasked with recognising leaders (Dinh et al., 2014). If the values of an empathic leader run true, empathy is likely to be valued in those considered for leadership roles. In team sport the head coach is often tasked with recruiting captains and creating leadership groups (Light Shields, Gardner, Light Bredemeier, & Bostro, 1997). Participants explained their motives for selecting an empathic captain was often to encourage empathy to spread through the group:

My captain is an extension of me, so you need trust, accountability, someone who

holds others to a standard but also someone who players are comfortable going to talk

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to if there’s an issue. Er… Because a lot of the time issues don’t get to the head coach,

so you need somebody who understand that and the assistant coach can look after

sometimes, and they can deal with it. It’s important the captain is empathetic towards

the players and me, and also set an example. (P7)

Discussing the choice of captains, and other leaders within teams, provided the researcher with insight as to the values that participants associated with their leadership.

The context of sport is unique in that the head coach cannot actively lead the team during competition, other than from the distance of pitch, rink or court-side. When choosing a leader within the team, all participants reported taking empathic qualities into consideration; frequently using the word empathy to describe the quality sought, sometimes describing “an understanding of others” (P9). Once again, it seems that things were not always this way.

This participant described his past experience as an athlete:

I was a very good cross-country skier. I won a lot of races from ten to fifteen years

old. That made me obsessed with winning because I was used to it. But in a football

team I couldn’t feel it, the team got in the way. I wanted to compete as an individual

and give everything then I’d win. So, I wasn’t easy to coach and they left me to do my

own thing. Although they often made me captain back then because they knew I’d set

a good example, but I don’t think they relied on me to push the right buttons. (P10)

Head coaches spoke of their responsibility of choosing team captains. ‘On-the-field’ leaders chosen by participants due to their ability to understand the other athletes, and the whole environment. Authenticity and likeability are also factors:

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I identified name of athlete who is an outstanding character: He’s as close to selfless

as you can get in professional sport… He’s work ethic, he’s got to be the best

version of himself, he’s thinking outside of the box is off the charts. He understands

what the club is trying to do and his language reflects that. So, it’s never I, it’s always

we. He is a brilliant performer, and he’s incredibly likable. Earlier in his career he

grew frustrated because people saw him as a jester and a real character in the dressing

room from a point of view. As he started to play for England and did more, he

wanted to become this serious character. I said no, you need to be true to yourself, it’s

not sustainable, keep your work ethic and be name of athlete. Be the guy that people

love. He is the kind of guy that no one says a bad word about. (P17)

By insisting on empathy as a quality in those they recruit to leadership positions, participants validated their claims of believing that an empathic style of leadership is right for this era in the context of elite sport. The data suggests that an empathic leadership style is valued both during and outside of competition. A value is likely to influence the team climate.

Confirmation of the trend towards an empathic leadership style was identified through the comparisons head coaches made with how things were in the past, often when they were athletes themselves. The motivation to be an empathic leader, in the majority of cases, was drawn from the head coaches not wanting to be like their own coach:

I had very bad experiences and I try to take a very different approach because of that.

I was quite a difficult child, quite temperamental and I worked with a coach with a

one rule fits all attitude. He was hard on me and it was a very negative experience,

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and when I went into coaching, I thought, right I’m going to be the complete opposite

to the coach I had. So, the way I deal with things as a coach has made me more

empathic in life, and I learned from a bad example; a bully really. (P11)

There was recognition that the methods of the coaches they were exposed to would create tensions between the athlete and coach and restrict athlete development:

I probably had a lot of coaches who I didn’t like that much. I appreciated how good

they were. I was able to understand their strengths. I think I also saw their man-

management was appalling. Their knowledge of the game was good, but how they

treated players was probably not how I thought it should have been done. I don’t

know if that impacted me wanting to be a coach, but I thought if I did, that’s not the

way to do it. I think some people from back then would struggle these days and

wouldn’t want to change. For me it’s always been about the people and it’s always

evolved to be the way you understand and engage. Sport’s psychology and team

dynamics and the tools you have now has changed things... For me it has always been

about the people and I suppose that is the real driver. (P19)

The change in leadership style reportedly is reflected in the relationship’s coaches have with players as well as the tasks that a head coach has to complete. For example, a common case involved team-sheets, which were traditionally hung on a wall before a head coach went home after the last training session before competition: “When I played in

England, the Friday after training; bang, the manager stuck the starting team up on the wall and disappeared” (P9). Now athletes’ perspectives and reactions have become a focus:

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“Ultimately, there’s no good way to hear they’re dropped, but why not do it in the way they prefer?” (P9). Comparisons that participants made with their ‘playing’ days, offer insight into the period over which the trend towards a more empathic style of leadership has evolved.

The data shows that this trend towards a more empathic style of leadership in elite sport has occurred over the last twenty-years, a similar time period to other industries. One head coach noted:

Empathy’s definitely part of relationships and understanding emotion of players. It’s a

way of showing emotion, of showing you care. Players need that in this day and age,

you didn’t see it ten or twenty years ago, but now it’s part of management, it’s what

you need to do to get the best out of a player because it’s what they need. (P7)

One head coach explained that the styles of leadership prevalent just a decade ago are now considered unacceptable: “What a coach could say and how a coach could say ten years ago, you wouldn’t last two minutes these days” (P2). This is reflected in the literature, which suggested that an empathic leadership style would have been “laughed right out of the locker room” (Carroll, Roth & Garin, 2011, p. 20) in previous eras. Another head coach noted:

Back when I was playing, I don’t recall much warmth. I don’t know if it was the

specific coaches or just the way you coached back then. Actually, empathy probably

sums it up, it wasn’t there. It was more about the mechanics of coaching not the

emotions. (P19)

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One head coach described how the empathic leadership trend evolved throughout his coaching career, highlighting his need to understand the athlete:

I’m 55, I’ve coached entry level professionals, senior professionals, right up to and

including the national team. Over the years, different styles evolved and I’ve found

I’ve been drawn to an appreciation of exactly what the player is thinking and going

through. I grew up in the black and white days, we might like to call it, and I… as a

budding professional, my existence was based in fear of the gaffer. If I didn’t make

him happy, I’m shit out of luck, you know what I mean? So, in those terms, I’ve had

an evolution of becoming closer, not necessarily as an acquaintance, but a closer

understanding of that individual or player. I need to know what they are feeling, both

positively and to a large extent the stresses and potential negativity and the failure and

response mechanisms. (P12)

When talking of understanding the athlete’s perspective, head coaches referred to previous times when the athlete would fear the head coach who they viewed to be autocratic or dictatorial and suggested these styles failed to appreciate that empathy makes leaders more influential (Shootman, 2018): “Players no longer fear you; they respect you.” (P8). “I’ve been coaching at a national squad level since 1996, so what’s that now twenty-two years, so twenty years certainly, I’ve seen a change in style away from autocratic” (P6). Further support came from other head coaches:

When I was in a youth team, it was go out there, this is what you have to do! Not

much feedback, few two-way conversations, quite dictatorial, and it was the , I

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guess, so nobody questioned it much. I was one of the quiet ones anyway, unless a big

character fronted the coaches about something it was never any different. (P8)

Compared with their experiences as athletes, head coaches suggested a more empathic style is prevalent today as it suited to a wider range of athletes. In the past, only certain athlete personalities tolerated a coach who lacked empathy, meaning talent was lost:

I think the environments I experienced as a player were far more tell. You either

learned on your feet or… and they were far harsher, and there are some strengths in

that. You could identify the right people that that would really work for. Whereas

now, I think, the more scientific coaching has got, the more research people have

done into human behaviour, there’s a real strength in working with them as human

beings; making sure that they understand you care for them as people, you tend to get

more in return. (P17)

This data suggests this shift to an empathic leadership style benefits the individual athlete. Head coaches recognised the potential damage that could be caused by outdated leadership and coaching methods. Moreover, the data suggests that understanding an athlete’s perspective reaps rewards, including behavioural changes filtering throughout the group, as one coach noted:

A player was introduced to a youth national team and had lots of bravado and thought

he should have been there before. No issues between him and me in that regard and

put him into his first match, he quickly realised he was in deep and the level of

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competition he had entered. He quickly deteriorated and I saw him feign an injury to

get off the pitch. We took him off and em… we had him looked at and scanned and

the things you’d normally do. Told him we’ll look after him and do what’s best. Three

days later he came to me and basically gave himself up. He said look, I need to be up

front with you. We all knew, but I told the staff to say nothing, just be there for him.

He said look I wasn’t that injured. I was out of my depth and I’ve never been here,

now I appreciate all the things you said I should do to prepare and I didn’t do those. I

said oh ok. Well, are you good to go now? And he said: yeah, but I thought I should

tell you. I said that’s fine. I played him in the next game and he was fine. That’s an

example of where I could have killed that guy, his whole career on the spot, he’d

never have come back. It would have embarrassed and destroyed him. He was scared

and the injury was his way out and I knew I had to wait. (P12)

The researcher probed further by asking: What might have happened 20yrs ago?

Oh , they’d have sent him home, absolutely. Guys I worked under would have

called him out and potentially in front of everybody and you see the players knew, the

players know more than most people give them credit for. The players knew, but they

also liked him, right, so they wanted to support him and you could see that in the

group too. (P12)

The researcher probed further by asking if there was empathy and understanding across the group?

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Yeah, now I’m not necessarily claiming responsibility for the group having that, but

there is a bang on effect of them having that empathy towards him. They see me

showing understanding and they think: maybe I should. (P12)

The researcher then asked if leaders have become more approachable, having once been feared?

When I was a young player, I had a pretty good relationship with the coaches I

worked under, but I never felt I could reach out to them about other aspects, but it’s

definitely the case today. I still maintain a bit of distance, but I certainly have

conversations with them that are not football related. Which I never had as a player

myself and I don’t think any of the players I played with did either. (P12)

Further Trend data relating to how leadership in elite sport has become more empathic was collated in the subcode changes. The presentation and discussion of this data is organised according to other codes attached to this data.

5.2.2. Changes The interview data captured Changes in leadership behaviour that relate to: the pursuit of a safe climate, close relationships, empathic communication, empathic accuracy, an athlete-centred approach, and the development of empathy. The trend towards a more empathic leadership style has also presented head coaches with new challenges associated with empathic practices, including bias (Vanman, 2016), burnout (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018) and perceived weakness (Marques, 2015). These Changes and new challenges will now be explored.

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5.2.2.1. Safe Climate. An empathic leadership style leads to the creation and value of safe climates (Decety, 2015; Holt & Marques, 2012). The head coaches in this research agreed that empathic leaders in sport were also responsible for creating safe climates. The advantages of psychological safety suggests that individuals flourish in climates of safety rather than climates of fear (Ashkanasy & Nicholson, 2003). Without psychological safety, followers feel threatened (Kish-Gephart, Detert, Treviño & Edmondson, 2009), which inhibits their contribution to the organisation and subsequently restricts innovation (Duhigg,

2016).

Much has been reported on climates of fear in sport in recent years (Ingle, 2020;

Roan, 2017), which arguably points to a lack of empathic leadership. Head coaches in this research expressed an awareness of the pitfalls and were determined to maintain safe climates: “safety is a huge thing for us” (P18). Although, balancing the strive for safety with the drive to be successful was reported to be difficult:

I think a safe climate is really important. If you look at it, for me, you never know

what happens behind the scenes, but some of the coaches might just not understand

the individual athlete, it goes back to empathy. It might be there’s nothing wrong with

what they are they doing other than a failure to recognise that x and y need to be

approached in a slightly different manner to get the results. And then you might get

one saying there’s bullying and another saying he drove us to a gold medal. (P19)

Participants agreed that: “safety has become a target for elite coaches” (P14), reporting substantial differences in the climates they aim to cultivate and the ones they experienced in their days as athletes: “my existence was based in fear of the gaffer” (P12).

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Empathic head coaches are likely to spread empathy (Dasborough et al., 2009;

O’Neil, 2011). Empathy is caught from a leader (Humphrey, 2002; Lynoe et al., 2008;

Simon, 2013) and soon transfers to other individuals (Gano-Overway, 2013). Head coaches recognised that an environment where everyone feels safe and cared for creates conditions for improved athletic performance, showing awareness of their own influence: “its hugely important and that’s something I’ve worked on” (P12).

Empathy can be employed to manage emotions (Holt et al., 2017). However, head coaches recognised that it is not just the leader who manages the emotions of the team: the emotions of one player can be just as infectious: “If someone’s having a bad day, it impacts others” (P15):

You have eighteen players who need to understand you and your selection and style

of play and if they are putting their needs first it really impacts the team and if they

become negative about the team it can snowball, we can all do that and it spreads to

team-mates and before you know it the environment is negative. (P3)

Understanding how emotions affect individuals and teams can therefore help to create the conditions in which athletes can excel (Chan & Mallett, 2011).

Not only did head coaches recognise the importance of a safe climate, they noted the need to understand what a safe climate entails and its potential: “You want an environment where everyone feels comfortable and safe. That creates a climate of performance” (P9). This ability to understand the safe climate was absent from the head coaches that the participants had experienced as athletes: “Climate wasn’t really mentioned in those days, atmosphere maybe, but there wasn’t much focus on it, as far as I could tell” (P3).

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In order to manage a safe climate, participants seemed aware of their responsibility to understand environments, which in sport are open to regular change and so require change management (Chadwick, 2009):

As any sport changes, the manager has to feel that change and deal with the new

problems it brings. So now in the women’s game, whereas they were once happy to

get paid, now they are negotiating contracts and saying hey, she’s getting this so I

want that. So, as the women’s game is getting more professional, perhaps the team

dynamic will edge towards the individual thought process like the men. I don’t know

if that makes sense? (P9).

This seems particularly relevant in the context of sport where turnover of athletes and coaches can be fast (Ancelotti et al., 2017). Sport leaders are expected to adapt fast and demonstrate and maintain positive emotions (Schneider, 2013).

Managing emotions has become accepted as an empathic leadership task in other industries (Kilduff et al., 2010; Polychroniou, 2009; Tzouramani, 2017). Head coaches described an awareness of how their own emotions can impact the team climate in their stories about ‘touchline behaviour,’ which: “can spread fear instead of creativity and confidence” (P9). Touchline behaviour is something unique to sport. A leader has to lead from a distance rather than be actively involved. Participants also revealed efforts they have made to get this right, usually involving third party observations: “It’s hugely important and that’s something I’ve worked on, I’ve asked people in to watch my sessions because people are frightened of me and I don’t want that” (P3). Such efforts demonstrate the head coaches’

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awareness of the importance of understanding how they and their behaviours are experienced by others:

I’ve been miked up for training sessions in order to reflect and chat to other coaches

about it. It’s something I’m very conscious of and I definitely don’t get it right all the

time. You want to display your values as much as you can. It’s the same when I’m on

the side-line, not showing the girls that I’m frustrated and your body language alone

can show that. If someone doesn’t give the right pass, you reacting how you react.

The bench sees you do that and they are thinking the next time I’m on the pitch in that

situation that’s how he will react. They won’t want to disappoint you or get stuff

wrong, then they don’t try things. They might not try what they should have tried, and

it’s because of you. You’ve given a subliminal message. (P19)

This practice, is unique to elite sport and allows a head coach to modify their actions:

I was expressing my emotions too much. My body language on the side-line was

shocking. I got someone I know to come and watch me and write a report on my

behaviour and that helped. He took some video footage too and went through that

with me and it was amazing to see, to be fair. I’ve toned it down a lot as a result of

that. The athletes need someone who seems to be in control and not too emotional in

either direction. (P4)

Having learned from third party observation, one head coach found that they were sometimes holding too many emotions in: “I spend so much time trying to keep quiet and not

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exhibiting negative body language, I do find that when I’m triggered, I really go off on one.

That hasn’t happened for a few years” (P6). The motives behind curtailing emotions were described by other participants. When things are going badly in a game the players look to their coach for a response. Several head coaches said that what they should see is control, stability, and someone who looks like they could have the answers:

I took an exercise two seasons back where a coach mentor of mine came in and

observed, firstly training and then a whole match day and one of the things he noticed

was the way you act or show yourself on the side-line can be a reflection on the

players and when times are tough and they see arms up on the bench it just makes

them more frustrated, so if we are frustrated, they will be. If they look over and see a

cool head and someone communicating clearly. Look at the end of the day, we are

human and there’s always going to be someone with some emotions happening, but in

the main they get a lot of positives from seeing someone in control and clear in their

thinking. (P8)

Managing emotions is fundamental to maintaining safety in the climate and has become a valued ability in sport coaches (Chan & Mallett, 2011). The data from this research suggests that head coaches recognise the importance of managing emotions and have changed their leadership practices accordingly. Moreover, Edmondson & Lei (2014) suggest that managing emotions positively requires head coach coaches to build close relationships with their athletes; a practice all head coaches suggested they attempt. This practice will now be discussed.

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5.2.2.2. Close Relationships. The empathic leadership literature suggests that the leader creates emotional bonds and enjoys closer relationships with those they lead than was typical of previous eras (Humphrey, 2002; Tzouramani, 2017). This trend towards creating emotional bonds and building close relationships with athletes was described by head coaches to be mirrored in the leadership of elite teams in sport. The head coach was described as a distant figure when this head coach was an athlete:

When I started as a player, we had a coach who facilitated some stuff in the morning,

some catching or something and that was it. He picked a team, there was no

communication about how you are going to approach it. At lunch when the players

came off, they’d get together as a group and discuss right we need to do this better;

the coach might be having lunch or whatever, ha! It was so different. (P17)

Another head coach confirmed that their role was now about relationships whereas previously they believed it was about passing on knowledge:

That’s a change I’ve seen on my coaching journey. My feeling is that as a younger

less experienced coach that coaching was about imparting knowledge, about being the

sage on the stage, it was to be the person who told the athlete what to do and then they

went out there and did the best they could. Or someone who told the team what they

were to do and they go and attempt to do that at a team level. (P6)

Empathy, however, is not just about understanding, it is a connecting force (Kisfalvi,

2013). Business leaders who enjoy high-quality relationships with their followers are thought

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to be more likely to be effective leaders (Mahsud et al., 2010); and this is also the case in elite sport (O’Neil, 2011), where empathy is seen as key to building relationships (Rollnick et al.,

2019, p. 200). The value of empathy in building close relationships was illustrated by the stories told by the head coaches: “Empathy is a vital tool, skill, behaviour that I can exhibit to build those relationships, which in turn builds that environment, which then in turn, hopefully, maximises performance” (P6) and: “In my experience, empathy and emotional intelligence are the biggest factors in building relationships” (P6).

All head coaches suggested that close relationships bring the kind of understanding that can make words unnecessary: “We create that environment where the players will know without me saying anything. From my body language or something maybe” (P8). Head coaches recognised the importance of being close to athletes:

I think it’s crucial. For me, I’m a relatively young coach and what I’ve learned so far

is the importance of man-management and the personal connection with players. As

well as the footballing expectations, having an understanding of the players

personalities and emotions is key. I’ve had players turn up for training and are not

performing well and I know that there are things going on in the background and

being aware of them helps. (P8)

The head coaches revealed how pro-active they are in maintaining close relationships with their athletes: “My thing is that I’m really active on the phone, so I will contact most players just to check on them each week or every couple of days, something like that” (P1).

Another head coach commented:

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I put things in place like coaches’ cafés, where we get players to come and have a

chat, one-to-one. If I haven’t seen the players for a while, I’ll schedule a five-minute

meeting each just to talk about stuff other than rugby, more than five-minutes if I can

tell they need it. The more doses of these chats you have the quicker you get to know

your players. (P2)

Some head coaches mentioned the use of psychological profiling, as a kind of short- cut to getting to know players. However, Lorimer (2013) suggests that “knowing someone like facts in a book is not enough” ( p. 28). The head coaches demonstrated an understanding of Lorimer’s view, with not one head coach suggesting that profiling is preferable to time spent with athletes:

Then we have the psychology side of things where you are trying to understand the

dynamics of the individuals and teams from their psychological profiles. The more

time the more you get to know them, it’s a simple as that really. Sometimes it’s taken

me two years to really understand a player. (P2)

As well as patience, the head coaches believed building close relationships with their athletes requires them to find the time to do it:

I arrive first at training every day. And I’m last to leave too. This is easier right now

because I’m in another country and have no family or social life here, I’m here to

work. I don’t need to go home. I try to be available to players for all the informal

chats you have, I think that’s the best way to get to know them and show I care. (P10)

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Empathic skills help with relating to people from a diverse range of backgrounds

(Holt et al., 2017) and diversity is a growing feature in elite sports teams (Schneider et al.,

2013). If head coaches have embraced the trend towards a more empathic style of leadership they are more likely to be better equipped to build close relationships with athletes from different cultural backgrounds (Tzouramani, 2017). Moreover, it is generally accepted that women are more empathic than men (Baron-Cohen, 2002; Certel, 2013; Ickes, 2003), which suggests female coaches could be more likely to display empathic leadership practices, and that female athletes are more likely to respond positively to an empathic leadership style

(Boatwright & Forrest, 2000). This point was echoed by head coaches who have experienced coaching both male and female elite athletes: “Women are more empathetic, in general” (P1).

Another head coach elaborated:

Female athletes have tighter bonds. I’d say they are more empathetic. They

understand each other better. The men can become a team for the game, then hate

each other when they come off the court, and it doesn’t seem to matter. Ideally, I want

them all to get on, of course. (P4)

However, one male head coach disagreed: “I don’t think there’s much difference with empathy” (P2), although the head coach claimed there were differences in the way female athletes process their empathy:

With the women, there’s more carry over. So, they’re empathetic and then it affects

their own performance and stays with them. With men, it’s like: mate, I’m with you, I

feel for you, but I got picked so I’m going to play now. And that’s it. (P2)

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An understanding of these cultural and gender perspectives is indicative of an empathic leadership approach, which another head coach claimed was unlikely two decades before: “Whereas a coach twenty years ago wouldn’t change their style, now you have to understand that managing women’s football is very different” (P5). Another male head coach, explained more fully and considered the experience of coaching a team of a different gender to his own, which altered his practices:

Well, I try to have a close relationship with both, but there’s obviously a few things

different about coaching women. I might go out for a drink with a group of men, but I

wouldn’t go out with a group of women, or one or two women, it just looks wrong,

someone might get the wrong idea or start a rumour and it’s just not worth the risk.

Guys are much more direct with each other. They don’t have that concern, there’s no

hard feelings or grudges. Girls are different, they are direct on each other, but a girl

can stay mad for a while. I have to understand that women have a different culture to

men. (P20)

Thirteen of the twenty head coaches had experienced leading male and female teams and agreed that there are differences that need to be understood. To some extent, empathy relies on experience (Hall et al., 2009), empathising with another gender may be seen to be problematic. It is claimed that empathy has the potential to transcend behavioural, circumstantial and cultural differences (Tzouramani, 2017). However, it seems there may be cultural variations in empathic behaviours and in acceptance of an empathic leadership approach.

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The potential for cultural variations in empathy was noted in the review of literature

(Chopik et al., 2017) and this was viewed by head coaches to be a barrier to building close relationships. Whilst head coaches talked about coaching players from various cultural backgrounds, some had strong opinions about cultural challenges with an empathic leadership style whilst working in a different cultural environment; moving from Western Europe to

China, being one example: “It would have taken a long time to get on the same page, and we didn’t get that time” (P3). Whilst remaining distant from athletes conflicts with an empathic style of leadership, becoming too close can also cause problems and getting the distance right is further complicated by cultural differences and also gender (Hall et al., 2009).

Closer relationships facilitate empathy and therefore create a pathway to better understanding of athletes (Kingsley Westerman et al., 2018). A strong emotional connection is sought by elite coaches (O’Neil, 2011) and in some cases physical touch may seem a suitable behaviour for elite coaches with empathic aspirations (Munro et al., 2013). This trend towards a more physical relationship has been observed in elite sport in recent years where elite coaches are now regularly seen hugging their players, as a head coach explained: “Hugs might be given after someone doing something well, or, you know, so it goes both ways.

Other times it’s an arm around the shoulder because things haven’t gone well. It definitely shows empathy” (P19). The head coaches expressed the need for this to be authentic and comfortable for both parties:

I’m someone who will greet a player when they come off, maybe a tap on the back.

Some will come for a hug. I never try to hug them; it has to be them leaning to me. I

don’t know the environments of those you mentioned, but it has to be authentic, not

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falsified. Sometimes coaches do it to give the appearance of a happy family but you

can see the player’s reaction isn’t as authentic as it should be. (P19)

Another head coach said:

I think I’m one to always be somewhat tactile, I’d say I was a hugger. I like to connect

physically with a player as he comes off, in some manner. Some are not comfortable

with a hug, but it can be a hand slap. (P12)

The authenticity clearly relies on a consideration of the individual athlete’s perspective and the stage of the relationship they have with their coach. Head coaches suggested it requires deep consideration:

Some players within the group I’ve worked with for five years and I’ll genuinely give

them a hug when we meet up. Others I might just say hello to. I think I should

probably think more about this. I had a conversation with a member of staff, not so

long ago, who I always greet with a hug. She was talking about some other members

of staff who do the same thing and she didn’t want them to. I asked how do you want

them to greet you, and she said a handshake. I’d feel strange shaking her hand, but not

hugging her. Don’t get me wrong, I am still a believer there has to be a distance

between a coach and the players and I think probably the higher up the chain, like the

Head Coach as opposed to the assistant coach, I was an assistant coach and that’s a

very different role. You get a lot closer to the players because you are not making

decisions about selection and contracts. From the Head Coach’s point of view, I like

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staying close to the players and I try to keep as close with the international players as

I was at club level as an assistant. I still keep a healthy distance and it doesn’t stop me

being empathetic with them. (P2)

This issue of gender differences arose in many stories about touch and hugging: “I think it’s harder for men if they are coaching women” (P3). “I’d be more careful with women, younger ones in particular” (P19). Experience seems key and many of the head coaches claimed to have had learned from time spent working with younger athletes in particular:

I’m quite a big man and might be seen as intimidating, I mean you know me, I’m not

like that, but just from my size I’m aware. I think that understanding of the person is

the major thing, and I’ve always erred massively on the side of caution. I worked in

the female under 16 game for a long time and I was always protecting myself as well

as anything else its important. This day and age we make sure any meetings we have

there’s another female member of staff present. We have a female physio, she’s

massively important to us, a huge link. I think if we didn’t have a female staff

member it would be a huge issue for us. So, I’d always encourage that. I wouldn’t

want me to be the only male, I think a mixture is important. There are players that I’d

hug. There are times and moments when it depends on the person and the moment.

We lost two one to (name of team) last weekend in the 93rd minute, from an offside

goal and my players had given everything and they were in , like they’d lost a

cup final. I’ve known some of these players for a few years and I know their families

and there is a young player crying in front of me, it’s natural. I’m a father you know, I

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do feel like a bit of a dad to some of these players and you just give them a hug. It just

has to be natural. (P5)

A female head coach who coaches a team of men believed her unique situation offered advantages:

Before our team plays, they all hug me individually. It might sound weird, and it’s not

happened so much with women. Because the men being coached by a woman, it

reduces the testosterone and they kind of view me as a mum and they are more

respectful. They are an aggressive team, but I’d hate to see what they’d be like if they

were led by an aggressive male. They’d go too far. I can bring them back down

quickly. (P11)

A number of head coaches pointed out that some older coaches have failed to keep up with the empathic trend:

It highlights different styles of management now. You don’t get

cuddling players, but you do see Pep Guardiola, Jurgen Klopp, Pochettino, the

younger generation, you could say, with a bit more touching and cuddling, hugs at the

end of games. Whereas Hodgson will still give a handshake or a look. Now, Hodgson

is still a very good coach, very respected and had a lot of success. But it shows how

coaching is different now. (P7)

Another head coach talked about the intricacies of the closer relationships between a head coach and an athlete. Specifically, when asked if he ever hugs his players after games,

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like the younger head coaches mentioned (P7). Despite not being a hugger, his reply would be considered typical of an empathic leader as he demonstrates an appreciation of the athletes’ perspective whilst retaining his own authenticity:

No, I am a dinosaur! I am too late to change to be like this. These people you mention

they are 10 years younger than me, for me it’s not me. I them in a way, but it’s

not me. You can’t go around hugging people if they don’t put their arms up to be

hugged. They wouldn’t expect it from me, it’s not natural to me. Never did a coach

hug me when I played. I study Klopp, Pep Guardiola; who also hug players from the

opposition team! But for me I won’t do it. (P10)

Even without physical contact, being too close can certainly be problematic

(Antonakis, 2004; Badger et al., 2008; Zaki, 2014). This was recognised by all head coaches:

“there still has to be a barrier, a line in the sand” (P9). However, each head coach had their own opinion about how big the gap should be: “I think that distance is pretty short. I think others think that distance should be really big” (P14). Drewe (2002) asks how close is too close? and ways of determining this were suggested:

In the name of nationality language, we talk differently to older people than to

younger people, you use different endings to the words. You don’t do that in English.

But many coaches say they don’t let them use that closer language. These formal

things they think are important, I don’t agree. I don’t mind players calling me by my

nickname once in a while. (P14)

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Maintaining an optimum distance does not appear to be easy as the following two examples illustrate:

I don’t go out with the players, I’m double their age, but we won the league last

Saturday and I did go out with them on the Sunday because all the coaches and staff

went. But there came a point in the evening when I left, when I knew it was going to

go somewhere else. It was important for them to see me there to celebrate and I had

some great conversations with people there throughout the evening. So, I’m never

going to go out on a Saturday night with the players, of course not, but it’s important

the players know you care… I think if you are too distant it’s a problem because the

players think you don’t care and that you are only interested in how they’ve done

rather than who they are. And that’s a mistake, I think. (P18)

Another head coach noted:

We went on a run a couple of years ago where we didn’t lose for thirteen games and

got into a final, we won it and then what happened was players became my best

friends and it was party time we were out a lot together and as that period ended and

we were setting ourselves up for the new season, a couple of the players were

contacting me directly and asking me to go out for a drink and stuff like that. I had to

really pull back from that and remind them that there is that line between the coach

and the players and it’s knowing when to overstep it. I have a network of close

friends; I don’t need the players as friends like that. I could also be seen out with

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certain players and then other players have an issue with it. Questions will be asked,

and it has an effect on the whole environment. (P13)

Closeness, however, can invoke bias (Vanman, 2016), as was reported by one head coach:

I’m kind of learning as I go, but that gap needs to exist, I think we are all very close.

I’m close to my players. We might go for a coffee together if we need to talk about

something. We wouldn’t go for a beer though, or anything like that. The emotional

connections can affect your selection decisions, that has happened to me. I thought,

Jesus, I knew I shouldn’t have started him, or I knew I shouldn’t have, but you have to

learn those lessons. (P8)

Lorimer, (2013) suggests that without a gap between the head coach and athletes, decisions will prove more difficult to get right, a point supported by a head coach:

Potentially there are dangers of getting too close and having your vision clouded for

decisions. I’ve probably, in the past, had a player around because I’ve felt strongly

about him, I’ve liked him, when there’s been another player with potentially more

talent. But I didn’t get the same emotional connection, so I chose the first player. Was

that right or wrong? Maybe the one I didn’t have an emotional connection with feels

the same and that makes it more likely that I made the right decision. But definitely

the other was a better player. It’s not a regular problem but it’s definitely happened.

(P12)

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Head coaches described how difficult it becomes to pass on bad news: “The balance you have as a coach, you don’t like to be too close because often you have to give them bad news. The tricky bit is knowing that boundary” (P9). The personal circumstances of athletes were also reported to hold influence:

Dropping players, especially when they are experienced players who are coming

towards the end of their careers. It can affect your relationships; it’s definitely

affected my relationships with some players who thought that right at the end they

didn’t get what they deserved. And I said to them, that the only factor in any of these

decisions is what’s in the best interest of the team. (P18)

Elite sport has found a way manage this gap between the head coach and athletes.

Nearly all of the head coaches described their use of leadership groups, which act as a buffer between the head coach and the athletes in order to maintain a close relationship without becoming too close. Whether members of these leadership groups are chosen by the head coaches themselves or by players, the empathic abilities of members are considered:

We also have a playing leadership group, comprised of a couple of the senior players

and a couple of younger players. I let the players decide who is in that group based on

that. So, then they have their own separate meeting… They look for players that they

have respect for but also who have respect for them, that if they have a question, they

won’t be judged for it and they’ll be supported. Overall, I think the one who is most

empathetic will always get chosen for that leadership group because they don’t just

want an idiot shouting at them. (P13)

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The following example portrays an athlete with a similar empathic approach to her coach and is valued as someone who understands the perspectives of others. The head coach explained:

I thought that she was very caring and group focused. Unselfish. For example, we had

triallists in last week and obviously they’d travelled a long way, they are living in a

house where they don’t know anybody. They’d been in a day and I called her in. I

asked her what she was doing tomorrow night, she said nothing and so I asked her to

take the two triallists out for a meal and she said: Oh, we are doing that tonight. I told

her she was a legend and then she came back with feedback and that was great. I gave

myself a pat on my back, I’d chosen the right person. I trust her a lot with regards to

her feedback on other players. I’ve had players offered to me and I’ll go to her if she

knows them and other people too, but she knows if they will sit within my values as a

person. She understands me. She’s a very nice person, but if you get any negativity

from her around something you know this must be an issue, for her to bring

something up, you know, it’s not natural for her to be negative about someone. I think

that’s quite a good trait. (P5)

One head coach described their value of empathy and their skill of recognising it in others:

I’ve selected four senior players for that. It was the empathy that those four have for

others in the group, that’s why I chose them. The last of those four came late and after

three training sessions I knew she was someone who understands other players and

someone the others trusted and they’d go to her with things, straight away. One is

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more direct and another leads by example. I don’t want the same type of people, you

want the variety, each giving you something else, but you want them all to understand

others. (P1)

The narratives focusing on these nuances in the relationships head coaches have with athletes dominated the interviews. Head coaches also described employing empathy in other relationships required in the roles.

The head coaches indicated that they have many more people to understand and build relationships within elite sport today than head coaches have ever had before. It is acknowledged that empathy brings people closer together (Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2012), and the head coaches agreed that this is the case. They noted that empathy is helpful in all their working relationships:

There are staff within head office, finance, logistics, media, marketing, promotions. I

have to have relationships with all of these people. I guess, sponsors, commercial

partners, parents, WAGs, family, friends of athletes. You try and have a relationship

with all of these, and all have different objectives and want different outcomes and

trying to understand them and be empathetic is always beneficial. (P5)

Another head coach noted:

There’s been an establishment of some really important relationships… and

connections from player to player, player to staff, staff to staff and we’ve had an

unbelievable amount of stability and continuity over the ten-year period. We would

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say, at the heart of everything at the club has been the strength of relationships that

exist in the club. (P18)

However, maintaining these additional relationships created additional stress for the head coaches, as noted:

There are far more moving parts to it now, the events day people, media, marketing

people, the ones above you. As coaches we underestimate the number of people you

come into contact with and need to understand. You need to manage all of these

people, in some respect, in order to do your job successfully. We go into the game

thinking it’s about managing players, but it doesn’t end there. The reality is it’s about

a lot of things and if you don’t manage each group of people well, any one of them

can give you just as much of a problem as the players. Add supporters to that too!

(P9)

As this head coach explained, this has a significant impact on the coach: “I would say it can be incredibly challenging, it can be exhausting (P5)”. The number of individuals a head coach needs to understand and communicate with is clearly challenging, but head coaches acknowledge the importance of doing this and this reflects in their empathic approach:

So far, I’ve found the sporting director is very emotionally led, which worries me, to

be honest. One day I came in and he was patting my back, just because someone told

him training was going well, and he’s in seventh heaven. A week later I saw him and

he didn’t even look up at me, so that’s what can happen and its worrying. (P10)

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Of all the different relationships the head coaches mentioned, it was the relationships with those above them that were reported to pose the greatest problems. In many cases this was put down to a lack of empathy for them as leaders of an elite team, with some head coaches suggesting this might be because:

The people above me, the governing body etc. They can be an issue. They are not

always people who have played or coached at all, or sometimes people who have

played or coached other sports and that limits their understanding of my situation.

How can they empathise well if they’ve never been in a situation anything like the

one, I’m in? In other countries, where the sport is bigger, it’s more often people from

our sport, which is favourable. (P4)

One head coach expressed a belief that those above can be jealous of the close relationship between the head coach and athletes:

The NGB (National Governing Body) saw my close relationship with the players as

an erosion of power and control. They want to control the sport. As a coach I had a

fantastic relationship with the players and they saw that as a threat… They’ve done a

good job of bringing in people from outside who give a veneer of credibility to

process and systems, but they’ve never seen a training session, met a player or me.

Externally it looks great, but to us at the operational sharp end it’s a nonsense; we

never see them, we don’t have a relationship with them at all. Maybe it’s forgivable,

but the talent manager, who in theory oversees my working world came to one

training session and that was to talk about a kit deal. She never came to watch and

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observe, be a critical friend, ask, why are you doing this or that? What made it worse

from the players’ perspective was the managers coming on all the tours. So, while

you’re flogging your guts out they’re nowhere to be seen. When you’re at an event

with a bit of profile, you know, more glitz or glamour or sunshine, they’re all over

it… our talent manager will almost invariably bolt a holiday on with family members.

I try to view things through other people’s eyes, but I thought why would she do that,

what are the reasons for that approach? From the players perspective it’s just a piss-

take. The real difficulty that I have is that leads to an issue for the talent manager

because she sees the players don’t have a relationship with her and then she asks me

why… Then it looks like it’s a failure of my culture, they don’t see that it’s their

behaviour. There’s no alignment of culture outside of the player group, if there’s one

failure that I made, it’s not being effective at managing upwards. (P6)

Another important relationship that the head coaches described was with the fans of an elite team. As discussed in chapters two and three, research notes the importance of empathy in relationships with customers across industries including sport (Amato et al., 2010;

Costa & Glinia, 2003; Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2013; Peppard, 2000). In elite sport the fans are considered powerful stakeholder customers, more than customers in other industries (Peachey et al., 2015). Head coaches recognised their responsibility to understand fan perspectives:

“This is elite sport, it’s . Without people to entertain we have no industry. So we must consider their perspective. The sports that succeed have a quality experience for the fans and so we need to understand what they want” (P4). Having a relationship with the fans has become an accepted responsibility of head coaches, together with an awareness of the consequences of ignoring it:

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There’s a need to have a relationship with the fans, there’s a need to understand their

perspective. You need to understand they’re entitled to have an opinion and their own

view. You don’t necessarily agree with their view, but you give the fans what they

need. That’s a massive relationship because that’s a relationship that keeps you in a

job or gets you the sack. (P7)

As this head coach explained, an empathic understanding of the perspective of the team’s fans is a matter of respect:

Small things for the fans mean a lot and I try to imagine how they see me and what I

do. It has to be truthful as it can be, but some things can’t be shared. It has to be

respectful and at the end of the day you have to appreciate what their are. I’m

lucky enough to do what I do. I’m not digging a ditch and there are some very good

people digging ditches, but it’s not the greatest job in the world so they live

vicariously through their team or national team. (P12)

One head coach showed particular understanding of what the fans of his particular team prioritise:

If we put out eleven home grown players and lost every game, they wouldn’t give a

shit. When I’m communicating with the wider public, I try to explain what our long-

term goal is. We are trying to create a team with ten home grown players and a world

class overseas. We’re not far away. We have eight in there. Then the fans see it’s

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authentic…That bigger picture is vital and it buys you time. If we are doing badly,

people are more patient and empathetic. (P17)

Patience and empathy tend to run both ways in any healthy relationship (Bazalgette,

2017). Seven of the head coaches expressed their with situations where they know the fans don’t fully understand their situation: “Supporters are more aware and have a better understanding, but not of implementing these things and they don’t have patience. If you are trying to implement a certain playing style, you need sixty training sessions” (P3).

Head coaches mentioned that new media technology helps with transparency and helps fans gain understanding and have more empathy for head coaches and players:

We have a really good engagement with social media platforms, and they have a good

connection with the club. The fans get a good insight with the day-to-day stuff going

on and I think that brings a good understanding both ways. (P8)

Social media offers a new avenue for communication. Whatever the mode and whoever it is directed at, the empathic leader will attempt to employ empathic communication (Williams,

2006).

5.2.2.3. Empathic Communication. Communication is vital to a leader (Czech &

Forward, 2010) and empathic leaders communicate skilfully (McDonald, 2008a; Socas,

2018). There are certain scenarios in the leading of elite sport teams where the type and style of communicating are likely to have a significant impact (Lorimer & Jowett, 2010; Smoll &

Smith, 1989; Stanger et al., 2012). These include communicating feedback, communicating instructions, and selection notification.

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An empathic communicator is said to communicate using choices instead of demands and to communicate in a direct, honest manner (Williams, 2006). This is evident in elite sport where the values of offering choices and maintaining clarity in communication are now recognised (Rollnick et al., 2019). Head coaches emphasised the importance of avoiding uncertainty and misunderstood messages. This determines their preferred mode of communication, with face-to-face being : “I like face-to-face as much as possible” (P12).

However, to accommodate individual perspectives, communication methods are commonly redesigned by athletes. Individuality is recognised wherever possible. At times the norms of the group differ. For example, head coaches agree that the way female athletes prefer to communicate is usually very different from male.

Head coaches agreed that communication has become more regular and dynamic

(Beattie & Ellis, 2017; Main et al., 2017) using every opportunity: “Sometimes I’ll chat with younger players while they’re out on a training pitch juggling the ball, as I know they feel more comfortable that way” (P8). The process appears to be ongoing in order to improve communication and so get it right when it really matters. Close relationships are helpful since they enable accurate impressions which can set a foundation for appropriate communication and coach behaviour (Solomon & Lobinger, 2011). Once again, this was described by the head coaches as something that has evolved in recent years:

I started coaching when I was eighteen, coaching youngsters and then player-coaching

as well. Certainly, ten or fifteen years ago it was a lot more direct, a lot less guided

discovery type stuff going on. It was, you know, you do it this way or you go… Any

coach that uses the approach of that old very dictatorial type way is probably not

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going to get particularly far. Although, there is still a time and a place for being direct,

but I just think athletes don’t respond anymore to that in general. (P19)

Head coaches have become more flexible in their communication, and this extends to when they are offering feedback.

Empathic leaders provide regular feedback (London & Smither, 2002). The way their feedback is given changed if it focuses on the task rather than the individual (Ilgen, Fisher &

Taylor, 1979; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Empathic head coaches may feel uncomfortable offering negative feedback due to knowledge of how this will impact the athlete (Moss &

Sanchez, 2004). The literature suggests that displays of empathic concern do reduce the negative affect (Young, Richard, Moukarzel, Steelman & Gentry, 2017). All head coaches recognised the importance of listening to the athletes to gain more detail about their perspective, in order to improve feedback communication. Several head coaches explained that their feedback process is moulded by the players:

If we don’t listen, we won’t find ways forward. They need to inform decision making,

that makes for a better environment. We spoke with them yesterday about how they

like feedback and they all decided in small groups it was better. So that was player

led. (P3)

Head coaches also spoke of feedback sessions that were dominated by the same people, leaving out some perspectives: “So, we asked them to give us feedback on this. This works sometimes, but it’s usually the same dominant people feeding back. You lose the voice of the less confident” (P3). This can be overcome by “having feedback in small groups or

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individually, if it’s not, you know, working in a larger group, that’s what we did last season, after a bad spell” (P13).

However, knowing the players well led one participant to deliberately listen more intently to one or two individuals:

When I was at one club, I had a player who was my barometer. If he came to me and

said he was tired. I’d say: Oh shit! We must be over training them, because this guy

will train until body fails. But if another player came to me and said I’m tired and he

was someone I knew just didn’t like training; I’d say get on with it. There were a

group of four or five I’d sense check to see if we need to go harder or pull back. I

think that’s important. (P15)

Another consistent strategy revealed in data was reflection before reaction:

I often reflect before I react and try and buy myself some time. A player said he’s

going to leave at the end of the season. I said: well, hang on a minute, tell me why and

then let me give it some thought. And I thought about it overnight, slept on it, if you

like, and then had a better conversation with him the following day. Again, it’s about

not having that emotional reaction in the moment and rationalising your response.

(P4)

One head coach pointed out that this this doesn’t need to be at the expense of honesty and there is also an awareness that the players themselves need time to reflect:

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I have said in a debrief – that was shit, this was the reason. But do I have a go and rip

the shit out of them? If there’s a player who needs telling off, they will be told off. It

maybe one on one, or in front of the group if you think that’s needed. But I don’t rip

into them after the game, they need time to reflect and so do I. Then you can make a

rational reaction. (P1)

Situations where there is little time to reflect may be more problematic, this includes communicating instructions during competition.

The empathic leader will tailor communication like the delivery of instructions to each individual (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). In pursuit of this, head coaches explained that delivering instructions depends on knowing the person you are speaking to: “I know there are certain players that need certain deliveries, of a message depending on what sort of person they are” (P12). Again, such awareness seems to be new to sport leadership: “Back when I was playing, delivery of instructions was carried out in a one size fits all way” (P2).

Head coaches admit to employing psychological profiling in order to help tailor communication individually and have brought in experts who focus on helping to get communication right between athletes:

We also brought in a mental skills coach, more specifically to develop clarity of

communication on the pitch. For example, we’ve started practicing this: when the

players enter the changing rooms at half time, they have a few minutes for breathing

exercises and to calm down before we deliver the messages, and we also do

mindfulness at training. It’s helped bind the group together this season. I encourage

open communication and honesty between players and try to make them aware of the

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importance of considering the tone and emotion behind a communication. Our

emotions can get the better of us and we need to realise nobody wants to make

mistakes. (P8)

The importance of clear and uniquely conveyed information was evident in all twenty interviews. However, none of the head coaches mentioned the kind of language used. As well as cultural differences, there may be varied levels of educational background within an elite team. A head coach may have been educated to a higher level than some of their young athletes. This may mean they use words or language that the athlete does not recognise. This might include the language used on coaching course, that young athletes could be unfamiliar with. There is a paucity of research on the use of appropriate language for communicating while coaching, however, information that needs to be given to an athlete needs to be given in a way in which it is best understood.

Head coaches claimed that the information is sought by modern athletes and that it’s just a matter of getting the delivery right: “Players today are hungry for information, it’s not like it was when I played” (P5). The following head coach reiterated that instructions to competing athletes need to be clear and understood:

Uncertainty is a derailleur for a lot of them and they need to know what’s going on

and once you find out who they are, you can give them a heads up and it helps them

massively. They like clarity, as well as being understood. (P2)

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Head coaches also reported as important that they understand that the athletes are watching them all of the time, for what the athletes see has an impact. It may not always be obvious to the head coach what they are communicating:

I consider this a lot, my body language, my temperament. I think a lot of coaches

should consider this. I have always been aware of it, it doesn’t mean I get it right all

of the time, by the way, but especially now coming to a new country this winter and

having to coach in English. I have a new squad and I have to consider how things look

to them and when we play games, getting across my instructions for how I want them

to play. I shout a lot and talk to the other coaches a lot and I forget there are players

on the bench too and they are listening, so I have to take care of my choice of words

and my body language, and I look forward to things being more settled, when we all

know each other better. (P10)

Before competition, the head coach has another difficult communication task to negotiate, telling the athletes who is in or out of the team. The methods to communicate this have evolved as part of the trend towards a more empathic style of leading.

Team selection offers an interesting focal point on the change in leadership styles as this participant explains:

The women’s team, back when I was at the name of federation fifteen, twenty years

ago, when they picked a team, their players would have a time to phone the front

office. Just a time slot, you know, and the receptionist women would say, you’re in or

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you’re out! And then if you’re out, you could decide if you want a follow up call with

the coach. (P9)

It seems that the way athletes received news about selection was not something considered until recent years: “It was as if the player’s reaction didn’t matter” (P5). Head coaches once again compared the situation with how things were when they were competing as athletes. This participant reveals some of the reasons for the change:

When I played in England, the Friday after training, bang: the manager stuck the

starting team up on the wall and disappeared. I’m sure that still happens in some

places. The crazy one for me is the manager naming a team an hour before kick-off. I

mean, that would be bizarre to me. Sorry, I’m ranting on about a different subject…

The researcher asked the participant to continue:

Two things for me, how does a player prepare? Secondly, if you name it before a

game and one or two who are left out get really upset, you don’t get any time, and that

can impact the whole dressing room, an hour before kick-off instead of a day before,

when it can be all done and dusted. I’ve never understood it. (P9)

This narrative only refers to the short-term damage that can be done. However, the long-term relationship between player and coach is also at risk and so participants are motivated into getting this right, often offering methods of notification to athletes: email, text, phone call, in

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person etc.: “I give players a choice of how they want to be notified about selection. Maybe that wouldn’t have been the case twenty years ago” (P16).

Respecting the athlete’s perspective is only possible with knowledge of each individual. This allows the head coach to predict rather than estimate responses. Closer relationships, typical of an empathic leadership style (Tzouramani, 2017) lead to further knowledge, which participants claim to be utilising to predict behaviour. This involves using empathy in efforts to accurately predict the behaviour and emotions of others, and is described as empathic accuracy (Ickes, 1997).

5.2.2.4. Empathic Accuracy: Empathic accuracy has previously been observed in the context of sport (Lorimer & Jowett, 2009) and participants of this research described several examples. In the following, a head coach explained how knowledge of athletes allows understanding of how they are feeling:

Our under fifteens won the cup and I came with my lawyer friend and we sat in the

directors’ box. She has a good base knowledge of the sport, but when I was sitting

next to her, I was watching everything. I would say to her, do you think he’s tired or

does it look like he doesn’t care? She said, no I think he looks unfit. That gave me a

good insight, while she was watching the game, but I was watching what’s underneath

that, what name of coach was doing, how players were reacting to criticism and that’s

the fascinating thing… it’s not about tactic or technique it’s about everything beneath

that. I know some really good technical coaches, but they might as well talk to a log.

(P3)

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Leaders capable of reading the moods of their teams can constructively channel those emotions into more effective behaviour (O’Neil, 2011). Head coaches were asked about predicting and modifying behaviour and explained that their work requires them to consider how an individual or team will behave in a given situation and what can be done to improve that behaviour. Knowing how a player is likely to react in a given situation was described by one participant as “invaluable knowledge” (P4) and players can be uniquely developed once understanding is gained:

You look at some sports now they still say we don’t need sports psychologists there’s

nothing wrong with you. Where, for me, understanding who you are as a person and

having an understanding of how you operate under pressure etc, gives you a much

better chance of performing. That’s why it’s incredibly valuable to have a sports

psychologist involved. And it’s not a matter of what’s wrong with you, it’s a matter of

how can this help me perform better. (P17)

Variables like team atmosphere impact on behaviours. This head coach offered an example:

The fans here can be really horrible at times and at first it used to really bother me. I

wanted to ask, if they had a daughter would they want someone to treat them like

that? A club this size, you need to understand where these people are coming from,

but it’s very difficult. It’s brutal here. It can be 90 minutes of spewing . They

support the team, but… how can you prepare players for that environment? You can’t

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replicate that in training, where they might be performing well. Fifty-thousand fans

might be telling them they’re shite after one bad touch. (P3)

Such considerations will impact a head coach’s selection decisions:

You consider which players will handle certain scenarios, certain atmospheres and

which players are going to struggle. It’s also part of your preparation in the week

leading up to the game. Depending on the stadium, the atmosphere you’re going to

play in, that becomes part of your preparation, part of your tactics almost. (P7)

Another head coach explained what he considers when he prepares the team:

Going into name of city going into their den, a city that’s the murder capital of the

world, it’s a world unto itself. The home team are beasts when they are there in front

of and with their people, when they play away, they don’t have the same thing going

on, they are more uncomfortable. And our players going into that atmosphere, you can

tell the ones that have an appetite for it and the ones that don’t want to be there. The

ones who just don’t deal with it. In the build-up you can see a week out them getting

nervous of the atmosphere or the heat. You can try to explain that we’ve done

everything we can to prepare. (P12)

Once a situation that a team has to play in is understood, the head coach has to consider which players will suit that situation, using an understanding, which has been fostered through the closer relationship and the process of dynamic communication:

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The more you understand someone, the better perspective you have on how they will

react in certain scenarios. Are they going to stay with their man on a set piece, little

details like that? Are they going to track their runner from midfield? Are they going to

accept responsibility when they’ve made a mistake? The more you understand and

know someone the better chance you have of getting the best out of them. (P7)

Particular situations during competitions provide specific opportunities for a head coach to employ skills of empathic accuracy: In football, one high-pressure situation for a player is taking a penalty kick:

I had a big player of ours last year telling me she wanted to take one, I went with that

and she missed. But I would choose her again if she wanted one. It just didn’t go right

for her in that moment. I loved taking penalties as a player, I always felt I’d score. I

was always positive. Other players I know, go, this ain’t for me…We had one at the

weekend: one of the players had to take a pen against her ex-keeper. She’d played

with her for two years and they’ll know what to expect from each other, so there’s a

greater emotion to the situation. There’s more understanding there. More pressure on

the taker, maybe because she knows how good the keeper is. But I know what she

knows and she scored a great penalty. It was a different type of penalty to one I’ve

seen her take before because she was aware of the keeper’s perspective. And it

worked so, you know, I think it’s really key to understand the players. (P5)

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Predicting how a player will react to selection decisions was also something described by head coaches:

I had a player I dropped to change a team shape and she was very professional and I

knew her well, but I didn’t know how she’d react and I wondered you know, because

until you’ve seen someone in that situation, no matter how well you know them, you

never know how they’ll react. Thankfully she was fine. And she came on and did

well. It could have easily gone the other way. I’ve had that surprise, where I’ve

thought, I didn’t see that coming, you know. That’s the same with male and female.

Players want to play. If they are not playing, they want to know why. And they want

to know how they can get back into the team. That’s a constant, whether it’s youth,

women, men. Obviously how you tell them is important. (P5)

Although knowing the athlete well is the goal, head coaches are also likely to use their own experiences to inform their predictions. However, one head coach described a situation he had no previous experience of:

There have been games when I’ve found out half-way through that they are playing

against their ex-girlfriend! I couldn’t imagine playing against my ex-girlfriends… so

that emotional state is something you’ve got to think about because how is that going

to go, you know. (P5)

Arguably the head coach was lacking knowledge of the athlete in the situation described. All head coaches were aware of never being able to know everything about an athlete, claiming to be eager to learn as much about their athletes’ backgrounds as possible:

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If you put yourself in the position of the player and get to know his background a little

bit and that’s more difficult now that you get players from all around the world. This

is something for anyone coming into a new culture not just in sport. When I first

became a coach, I had some experiences with African players and to be honest I

didn’t even reflect on it. But then after a while in the job I started to scout players in

Africa and meet people in the Middle East and you get a better perspective and know

more about different players and then it makes it easier to understand people from

those places and how they might act in different situations. (P10)

Knowledge gained through experience can also be applied to predict the behaviour of opponents. Head coaches can employ empathic accuracy to understand the perspectives and intentions of other athletes and coaches. The data revealed that head coaches were doing this, however, they hadn’t previously linked what they were doing with empathic leadership. This was summed up during a story told about taking the opponent’s perspective, when the head coach of an elite hockey team was asked if doing so was empathetic, he hesitated and then responded paradoxically: “I wouldn’t describe it as empathetic. You definitely try and look at it from their perspective” (P19). The researcher’s probing led to a deeper conversation about this nuance and an eventual agreement that ‘perspective taking’ described empathetic behaviour. All head coaches described empathising with opponents, often pausing for thought about whether or not what they were doing was empathising:

You do look at the last performance and put yourself in the opposition manager’s

shoes and think how he will be thinking. That’s absolutely something we do. We

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always have a proportion of focus on what the opposition are thinking, and we do put

ourselves in their shoes… so in that respect we are using empathy. (P2)

The issue of whether or not empathy includes a pro-social or compassionate response, arose in several interviews, often leading to head coaches pausing for thought. The consensus is that a pro-social response should be described as empathic concern (Batson, 1991; Batson

& Ahmad, 2009) or compassion (Gilbert, 2017).

All head coaches admitted to putting themselves in the shoes of an opponent

(empathising) at some point, if not regularly:

I often put myself in their position in order to gain an understanding of their intentions

and then I react to that knowledge by playing my players a certain way or selecting

certain players in certain positions. I also observe the way the other team is in the

warm-up, if maybe I see something there, an injury or something, then I imagine what

would make that situation worse for them and try and get my players to do that.

Sometimes I see them using dark arts. Whether that’s time wasting, breaking up a

rhythm of a game. I can gauge that by seeing it from their point of view. I can tell

why they are doing that. (P4)

In order to help the team to understand the opposition’s approach, head coaches often use certain training practices: “We set up scenarios where we get players in training to act like the opposition, and there are always players we can get to do that” (P1). This helps athletes to understand the opposition: “We do get our younger teams to play like the opposition and that kind of thing” (P18). These practices supply players with greater

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understanding, allowing them to predict how their opponents will play and react in certain game situations.

It was clear that head coaches viewed empathising with the opposition to be advantageous. They described gathering all kinds of knowledge to aid this process:

I look at the body language of other teams, how they react to goals and things and

what we feel we can do. If we score early how they react to that and what they do.

(P5)

One head coach told a story of a former colleague who used to focus on what he imagined would make the opposition coaches feel uncomfortable:

When I coached in name of country with name of coach, who’s a great operator, does

motivational speaking etc. … and when we played in the world cup and we had a

white board at the side of the pitch and we had a photograph of the opposition’s

starting eleven and pinned this on our whiteboard so that the opposition bench could

see it. That seemed to them. (P9)

Knowledge about the opposition can also come from a head coach’s own career experiences: “If you coach against your ex-players, you know what makes them tick, whether you can use that or not depends on the quality of your own players” (P15). Understanding what makes the opposition tick, seems an important part of being an empathic leader in elite sport (Brealey, 2013). It also helps to empower the team and individual athlete with

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knowledge that can make a difference. Ultimately, the head coach is relying on the performance of the athlete.

5.2.2.5. Athlete-Centred. Head coaches often referred to an athlete-centred approach when asked how leadership has become more empathic: “It’s become far more athlete- centred now, than ever before” (P18). Athlete-centred coaching is a humanistic approach, where coaches look to understand, care for and empower athletes (Kidman & Lombardo,

2005). As proponents of athlete-centred coaching, Kidman and Lombardo (2005) recommended choosing empathic individuals as coaches in sport, however, there has been limited research focus on the practical implementation of athlete-centred coaching since

(Bowles & O’Dwyer, 2020).

Athlete-centred coaching can enhance job satisfaction (Jowett & Poczwardowski,

2007), which in turn boosts performance (Amabile et al., 2004). Satisfaction also correlates with wellbeing (Cooper & Marshall, 2013) and trust (Dong, 2006). These variables were reported to be appreciated and sought. Elite athletes can afford to seek out and maintain positions with coaches they trust and who make them feel understood. The capacity of the coach to understand their athlete is viewed as a vital factor for achieving an appropriate working partnership. A fundamental part of this relationship is two-way communication.

Head coaches claimed that leadership in the context of sport has become more athlete- centred, with a focus on the person before the athlete:

So yes, I have seen a change, you are seeing messages coming out of the highest

profile sports, like football. Some of the language used by Gareth Southgate, and in

and around the England football team, compared to how that was 20 years ago. And

then also rugby union, a coach like Eddie Jones, who would have seen himself as a

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coach at the more autocratic end of the spectrum, is now recognising and being public

about that having an understanding of the person, and more empathy in your coaching

practices is probably a more effective way of getting the best out of people. (P6)

Head coaches insisted that this is not at the expense of the team:

I try to put the person before the athlete, before the team even. That’s not easy to

understand, so let me explain. The team is the most important thing. To get the best

team, my job is to make sure each component, each person within it is performing to

their best ability. To do that, I have to make sure they are okay on a human level. If

everything in their life is going well and they feel supported and cared for, if they feel

I understand them, and their perspective, then they are more likely to give their best

for the team and so I’m doing my job for the team by doing my job for the individual.

Hope that makes sense? (P4)

Gaining a true understanding of athletes and their perspectives allows their needs to be better served (Chan & Mallett, 2011). Head coaches explained that showing the athletes they can be themselves is helpful. Treating athletes like individuals, understanding they have unique needs came up in several narratives, including this one, conveyed by an elite ice hockey coach:

Back in the days it was almost obligatory to have a pre-game skate in the morning of

an evening game, but studies showed it doesn’t give you anything physically, you are

actually wasting energy. And so, I still felt that the guys, many of them were used to it

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and needed it, so many times we decided to make it optional, if you want to skate do

so, if not don’t. Then we had a lot of criticism saying we were being too soft on them.

I got the guys together and said think about it, if I make you skate and you’re not

ready for the game, then it’s down to me. Now it’s on you, you know what gets you

ready for the game, if you skate fine, if you don’t, I don’t care. But you have to be

ready at 7pm so whatever is easier for you. (P14)

All participants recognised the importance of allowing athletes to be themselves, and that if they have to put on an act or “play a role” (P17) it is draining and therefore likely to be detrimental to wellbeing and performance. Several stories were told about practices devised to get to know individuals, and for team mates to get to know each other, which in turn enhances connection and cohesion (Friedkin, 2004). This usually involves events away from the sport:

Actually, spending time with them, out of this environment is important to me. We

had one young player, who, in the dressing room was basically a mute. He didn’t offer

anything. But he had this swagger about him, there was something. I thought there’s

more to this guy. Then one day the lads came in and said, oh you should’ve seen this

guy last night, he was amazing. It was like two different people. And it turned out he

was a massive dancer, like proper dancer, moves, real show pony. I caught him in the

gym, dancing just in his pants. I said what do you think you’re doing? He looked at

me. I said, look, I love this. This is who you are. And so, this is who you need to be

when you’re here. Interestingly, a lot of the others had assumed he was aloof,

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arrogant, whatever. He went twelfth man to a first team game and behaved true to

himself and by the end of the trip the lads loved him, they absolutely loved him. (P17)

All head coaches recognised that by better understanding the person the athlete can be better understood:

For me empathy is having an understanding, two things, I can go off on tangents from

time to time, so I apologise in advance. It’s understanding, firstly the athlete’s

perspective and being able to connect with that. Whether you agree or disagree with

that you have an understanding of it. It’s for me the job’s more than about coaching,

it’s about having a connection with the players and your other coaches. Rather than

just a simplistic approach that you’re a footballer and you do this: X, Y, Z. For me it’s

having a real understanding of where they might be coming from. (P9)

By understanding athletes, the head coach can prepare appropriately. The athlete’s perspective of match days was often employed to illustrate the athlete-centred approach; a common scenario being what happens when a team plays away. The head coaches all claimed to work to ensure that the dressing room becomes a familiar place that makes the athletes feel comfortable. This typically involves putting up posters of the players in action, team colours, on the walls, music players and any other items that can be logistically brought into the away dressing room to make it feel like home:

“We make it ours” (P1)

“Do you find the players appreciate that?” (PS)

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“Yeah, they do” (P1)

It also requires head coaches to supply information to the athletes in order to avoid surprises that may negatively influence performance:

With the national team, we have people go in early and put their shirts out and make

them feel at home a bit. It’s like we’ve made an effort. We make the players aware of

what a ground is like, if you’re right up against the crowd, if it’s likely to be hostile.

Making them aware in that sense is key. (P9)

The data suggests an awareness throughout elite sport that leadership has become more athlete-centred. Two head coaches recognised that coaches are now starting to be trained in line with the trend of a more athlete-centred approach: “Certainly, I’ve seen a change in coach education, which I’ve also been involved in. And just the phraseology used, you know the people talking about athlete-centred coaching” (P6).

There is also an awareness that events away from coaching need to be considered.

“Life events are now accepted by head coaches to be bigger than the sport” (P12). Although this too is understood to serve performance, there seems to be a recognition that what is best for the person is best for the athlete:

It also means looking out for them in their wider lives, preparing them for life after

rugby, it means helping them with their education, working experience. It also means

looking out for their families as well. We run a creche, that’s very popular, its

massively used. We have coffee mornings each week for the wives as none are from

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this area, so it’s important they have a meeting place. The wives also have two gym

sessions a week, that’s run by the interns, it’s good for the wives and the interns. All

sorts of things are put in place to make the families comfortable. That doesn’t mean to

say you know about everything that’s going on, so what we do with the staff is em…

as a coaching group we allocate players to coaches who we think has the best chance

of understanding that player, who has a rapport with that player. (P18)

Head coaches expressed the importance of understanding the whole human being and that events at home influence athlete performance and attitude. It seems clear from the data that the head coaches recognise the need to empathise with the athletes’ perspectives (C. D.

Batson, 1991) and demonstrate this by displaying empathic concern:

Sometimes they come to me about personal stuff that’s bigger than the sport. I’ve

been through a serious illness and a divorce and so I have a fair bit of life experience,

which can prove invaluable. Just by sharing those things with a player, they feel you

trust them with that and so they should trust you with stuff and they open up. I

sometimes have to remind them it’s just a game, you know. Life is not just about

volleyball. You need to show you care for them. It’s a dangerous situation for a coach,

if a player thinks they have no empathy. (P4)

Such behaviour illustrates both concern and care for an athlete’s wellbeing that is typical of an empathic approach (Decety, 2015; Kohut, 1971). Krekel, Ward & De Neve (2019) suggest that wellbeing can positively influence variables like performance, staff turnover and loyalty.

If this transfers to the context of elite sport, head coaches can profit if they can maintain or

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enhance athlete wellbeing (Hasenfeld & English, 1974). The focus on athlete wellbeing requires the head coach to accept that success in competition is not the only requirement of being a successful head coach.

Life events were recognised by head coaches as far bigger than the sport and this wasn’t always the case in the past: “If a player has had a bereavement, for example, and that’s impacting their performance. You’d have to empathise with them and understand the difficulties they are facing, using your own experience” (P3). There was a realisation amongst head coaches that what is best for the person is best for the athlete and therefore performance. An empathic leadership approach informs the head coach of what the response should be:

I had two brothers in the national team that I was coaching in the last (name of

competition) and one of those brothers passed away tragically at the age of 26. And to

deal with that at a coaching level is to my mind entirely missing the point. There is

nothing more personal or human than bereavement. When it’s a sibling who shares

your passion for the same sport and is at the same level as you, there are so many

more things going into that, that simply transcends just coaching. Being respectful of

that player’s needs and being respectful and understanding of how that would impact

him as an athlete. His best friend asked for time away from the sport. One response

would be: this is elite level sport, it’s a competitive environment, there’ll be someone

ready to take your place. Time away from the sport was sure to have an impact.

Myself and the rest of the staff decided that wasn’t the way to go, either at a human

level, a coach level and a more empathic approach was to tell him to take time away

and the ball’s in your court as to when you return to the group. He did that, came back

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and captained the team really effectively, but on reflection it’s easy to see how

another approach could have been justified, but we thought that a more empathetic

approach would prove beneficial. (P6)

Head coaches also described situations related to mental health and athlete wellbeing.

Mental health issues have become more common and athletes are more likely to admit to having them if they perceive their leader to be empathic (O’Malley & Gregory, 2011).

Head coaches responses focused on psychological wellbeing, claiming that mental health issues have become more common: “If they feel anxious, I try to understand the severity of that. In the younger players in particular it’s a fairly common occurrence now” (P3). Anxiety was just one of many issues mentioned in the narratives of head coaches.

Over half of those interviewed said that they had had to respond to an athlete suffering with addiction of some form and that in such circumstances confidentiality and trust are paramount to the ongoing relationship. Further, trust is associated with an empathic leadership style (Schnittker, 2004):

I think trust is vital. You need to be clear these issues will stay between us, maybe

another staff member until they are comfortable to release it. Always, what you are

telling me stays here and I will support you. For example, I think we had a situation

where there was a substance issue. He felt he didn’t have a problem, but that

others felt he had a problem. We both knew that if it continued to be reported it would

be a problem whether he had a problem or not. We got him to the point that he

admitted maybe he did have a problem, we said you’ve obviously done something for

these people to think this, so we need you to go away and think about it. We are here

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to support you, but we need you to go and think about this and think about what steps

are necessary going forward. He came back and said that maybe he needed to have

someone look at him to decide if he has a problem. (P12)

Another head coach talked about an athlete being unaware of an issue took a very different form:

We had a strong player, very successful, but it had been determined by ourselves and

our medical staff that he might have a learning disability, that had been undetected

through his youth and came out in a screening scenario. No guarantees and we had to

make sure that when we sat down to talk to him that he understood that the medical

staff was there to help him and support him. We had to imagine how critical and

devastating it could be for him to find something out like this. He might immediately

think, oh my god, my career is over. It wasn’t that serious but if we didn’t get him to

start working on it, it could be a problem. The advice was that we will get you a

deeper medical inspection so that we can get the best advice for you. You can imagine

that became less about football and more about him and himself. And it was very

challenging. (P12)

These examples represent very delicate situations that require careful responses from the head coach.

Head coaches suggested that the response should demonstrate a high level of understanding:

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I had a player, a young player of sixteen and the players contacted me and said she

was self-harming. She was a very talented player and important to the squad. But I

had to strip things back and see things from her point of view and the effect it was

having on her as an athlete and her as a person too. I decided to deal with it like she

was coming back from an injury and integrate her back into the squad slowly and

make sure she knew there were no pressures on her returning to play until she was

ready. Hopefully I helped her realise that I understood. To do that I told her about

issues I’d had, both when I was younger and more recently. She could understand that

I’d been through those issues too. (P11)

This head coach agreed that the response represents a different approach to how a head coach would have responded twenty years ago: “It may have been seen as weakness” (P11). This would have encouraged athletes to hide the truth. The data suggests that head coaches now listen when athletes come to them and listening makes athletes appreciate their leader

(Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981; Bowles & Gintis, 2011).

Part of the athlete-centred approach is the athlete feeling understood and appreciating that their perspective is being considered. This is described as ‘perceived empathy’ (Woodall

& Hill, 1982), which makes a leader more appreciated (Schumann, Zaki & Dweck, 2014).

Perceived leader empathy produces an important bond with followers that positively influences job satisfaction and subsequently performance (Amabile et al., 2004; Holt &

Marques, 2012; Mahsud et al., 2010). Head coaches described situations where they had demonstrated their empathy and understanding of an athlete:

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I sat down in a meeting with two of my younger players once and said to one of them

I know you don’t want to be here. He said no, no I don’t. I said, I know you don’t,

you’re an entertainer. The last place you want to be is in here, you want to be out on

the pitch. I understand that…yeah, I know you hate this meeting environment, but I

know you love being out on that pitch. We’ll give you that, but you have to engage

with us here. I understand what floats your boat. (P15)

Head coaches showed understanding that the athletes are watching them all of the time and judging their reactions when they go to them with issues:

It’s not just the athlete with the issue, but the rest of the squad will be judging too…

If you can have players telling other players look go see the coach, he’s alright, he’ll

listen to you. That’s something I keep working on, breaking down the barrier really,

so that they don’t worry about coming to me. (P2)

The data also showed evidence of an empowering approach, which is inherent in the athlete- centred coaching philosophy (Kidman & Lombardo, 2005): “We involve athletes in decisions that impact on them. We want to know what they think. And that helps them to become decision-makers on the pitch.” (P18).

The data highlighted the relationship between athlete-centred coaching and empathic leadership. Whilst athlete-centred coaching is only one part of an empathic leadership style, what is apparent in the data is that athlete-centred coaching relies on an empathic approach

(Kidman & Lombardo, 2005).

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5.2.2.6. Developing Empathy. Developing empathy is certainly possible (Decety,

2012; Heyes, 2018; Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2013). To develop empathy in groups, setting examples seems to be the best method (Tzouramani, 2017; Zaki, 2014). Developing empathy in individuals gives them the ability to understand others and the emotions within a team environment, and how to respond compassionately to others’ needs (Gano-Overway, 2013).

Head coaches described working on developing their own empathic ability, agreeing that this was not something coaches did in previous eras:

In the past I have been accused of not having any empathy. But I have, maybe

because of that, worked on that for the last few years and I’ve realised the positive

effect you can have on people if you understand them. In the past, I had a negative

impact on players early on and I hated that, it was like I was the coach that I’d had,

and I knew I needed to put that right. It made me feel awful. I’ve gone away and

thought about it. (P11)

Most head coaches spoke of the importance of empathy within the whole environment and seemed to understand that empathy can be caught from a head coach’s example: “I think how empathetic I am as a coach, translates to the players. I think, you know, my persona, my empathy, if I’m being empathetic, that rubs off on the players” (P7). This contagious nature of empathy (Gano-Overway, 2013; Humphrey, 2002; Lynoe et al., 2008; Simon, 2013) was noted by all the head coaches.

One participant claimed that a motive for taking part in this research was to help him develop his understanding and use of empathy, saying that he was always glad to help researchers for this reason: “I find it good for my own development” (P12). However,

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development of empathy seemed to rely on a head coach taking the initiative. Not one head coach described instances of their organisations initiating empathy development programmes, which is at odds with other industries.

Organizations across industries are investing in the development of empathy

(Tzouramani, 2017). Training programmes designed to develop empathy have been shown to be effective (van Berkhout & Malouff, 2016), and it is appreciated that increasing empathy improves team spirit and job satisfaction (Costa & Glinia, 2003). As previously noted, business schools are also starting to train their students in empathy (Baker, 2017), as such it was surprising to hear from the head coaches that this is not happening in elite sport.

Without specific training, there are other ways of developing empathy. Mindfulness and meditation are associated with enhancing empathy (Atkins, 2013; Thomas & Otis, 2010;

Tipsord, 2009). Mindfulness has also been shown to be effective in developing empathic accuracy (Lesh, 1970). None of the head coaches mentioned using mindfulness to develop empathy. Other techniques not explicitly mentioned by the head coaches, include: regular reading of fiction (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013), attending the theatre (Kinney-Petrucha, 2017), or cinema (Vezzali, Stathi, Giovannini, Capozza & Trifiletti, 2015), watching television dramas

(Hammond, 2019), writing or acting (Korbey, 2016). Another way that empathy develops in people is through life experience (Kock et al., 2019).

Some of the stories shared during the interviews described how head coaches use their own life experiences to gain understanding of the athlete’s perspective, often sharing this with the athletes, to demonstrate their empathy:

I wasn’t much good as a player and I had a lot of injuries. I had moments where I

showed glimpses of ability and talent, but I had quite a long career without being

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hugely successful, and I had lots of setbacks. I understand quite a myriad of

experiences within the game, so I’ve had some success, but not consistent success like

a lot of people. I’ve experienced second team cricket, I’ve experienced first team

cricket, I’ve experienced being dropped, poor coaches, good coaches, so incredibly

valuable experiences and you don’t realise their value at the time. (P17)

Head coaches recognised that experience breeds empathy (Hall et al., 2009; Sze et al.,

2012). One head coach showed awareness of the importance of experience when it comes to empathy: “I’ve often asked myself if I lack empathy due to my lack of experience” (P3).

However, care should be taken since hubris in an experienced leader may lead to incorrect assumptions (Lorimer & Jowett, 2010a). Further, a head coach may have an empathic leadership style without having had the experience of being an elite athlete:

I’ve played under some great coaches who haven’t played so much; I think there’s

always going to be players who think, yeah, but you haven’t really done it, have you?

As unfair as that may be, it’s always there. You can have empathy for people. We

played in Norway recently and we were getting beaten heavily and I can say, look

I’ve been here a of a lot more times than you have and I’m still here. The

scoreboard might not look great, but it’s okay. These are the things that you need to

consider, these are the things that will happen, and this is what you need to do. This

comes from a position of understanding. They see I’m not criticising them for it, that

I’ve experienced it a bunch of times and that I know what they have to do. (P16)

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A lack of experience made one head coach doubt themselves in respect to their empathic ability:

I hadn’t played international name of sport, I’d played first class name of sport, but if

I were to be an international coach, can I be empathetic to people in that environment,

and that was the question we were talking about last night. Which made me think.

(P17)

Feeling hampered by a lack of experience, a head coach could develop their empathy through mentalising, or perspective taking (Gilin et al., 2013; Schumann et al., 2014). Practices that head coaches devised to develop empathy included encouraging the sharing of personal narratives within the team in order to gain greater understanding of each other, which in turn encourages a listening culture. This not only elicits knowledge of each other; the act of listening to stories helps to practice empathy (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Fourteen of the twenty head coaches spoke about encouraging the sharing of personal narratives within the group in order to gain greater understanding of each other.

Stories require the listener to take the perspective of the protagonist and listening to narratives can enhance empathy (Zaki, 2014). Any habitual engagement with the minds of others, even fictional ones, improves the psychological processes of empathy (Bal &

Veltkamp, 2013; Kidd & Castano, 2017). Domain specific narratives are likely to be more useful, and so reading biographies of former elite head coaches and athletes may prove to be suitable empathy training. This was not mentioned by head coaches. However, sharing stories may achieve a similar effect, whilst enhancing understanding of individual teammates. Head coaches described such practices: “We do swap stories when we are away, and I think that’s a

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good idea” (P8). The head coaches stressed the importance of setting an example in this activity:

We shared lots of experiences in a session earlier in the season and it brought up some

experiences that shaped us in our lives. I’m often one to keep things to myself, but I

had a powerful story to tell that exposed me to the players and to show that I will talk

openly to them and show it’s a psychologically safe space – you have to walk the

walk. That may feel uncomfortable, but you must do it yourself and then you get a

reaction from a couple of players, which happened and then we did it again and others

opened up and it carries on. (P2)

An empathic leader is likely to be practicing perspective taking through their work. However, head coaches reported the sharing of stories is a popular practice and helps to develop empathy within the whole team. Other team activities to develop empathy were reported to take place during team training.

Training ground activities like role-rotation have been employed by participants.

Role-rotation is considered part of an athlete-centred approach that helps athletes to understand each other (Kidman & Lombardo, 2005). However, head coaches also described off the field training activities to help to develop empathy between athletes. The majority of head coaches use dilemma type games and social events in external contexts to discover and share more about athletes’ individuality. These are games that ask athletes to consider their reactions in certain scenarios and also encourage a listening and empathic culture:

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We maximise that time; we have conversation cubes, that six-year-olds use. We

develop our own conversation cubes and they’ll sit in groups of six or seven and roll

the dice and wherever it lands they start to discover more about each other. Like

what’s your biggest fear? All we insist is that people listen, they don’t have to tell

their own stories, but they have to listen to what others say. There are all sorts of

small things you can do to get to know your team mates better. (P18)

Each situation in the context of elite sport provides an opportunity to increase interpersonal understanding within a squad of athletes and therefore develop empathy:

I’d like to think we also do it a bit more implicitly as well, where we might

manipulate rooming lists where we put particular people together. We might

manipulate who feeds back on game play after a training session… At the last world

championships, we let the players come up with a list of one, two, three, who they’d

want to room with. On previous tours we always said no, we are telling you who you

are going with. At that stage we were manipulating by putting an experienced player

with a less experienced player, maybe it’s matching up sleep pattern or whatever else.

But for the actual world championships, we said look, we want you to reflect on all of

those experiences and reflect on that and decide who you want to room with, but

move away from the Jo’s my mate so I want to room with Jo. It’s okay, I’ve got a

better understanding of who I’m compatible with, who has the same sleep patterns,

who throws their socks on the floor where I like to be tidy. Getting them to just

understand more about each other as people and take for read that that means they

know more about each other as players. So, it’s both explicit and implicit too. (P6)

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Improving understanding between athletes, will have a positive impact on communication and the climate (Tzouramani, 2017). Participants claimed that empathy and understanding can also be developed through other events and ones that include family members. Events away from the usual environment were commonly reported by participants. These seem to be opportunities to get to know the person behind the athlete, which can enhance empathy and understanding across the team:

I had a player who, after a music festival we attended, we discovered he was an

amazing musician, and nobody knew! We realised because of that we knew he had a

different cerebral capacity and potential and all the other players appreciated that

about him….it also allows me a back door to get into when I want to communicate

with him, if that makes sense. (P12)

Head coaches also spoke of family events, that allow athletes and staff to see each other within their family groups and that this helped head coaches gain a better understanding of athlete perspectives and understand them as individuals:

Family too is huge, to get an understanding of their family dynamic. We have group

socials where families meet each other, and it helps understand one another a bit

better. (P12)

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One head coach focused on getting families in the environment as much as possible, claiming that: “By knowing each other well we understand each other better and become a more cohesive group and team…We run a creche, that’s very popular. It’s massively used” (P18).

Head coaches also described encouraging family members to attend competition and spend time with families of other elite athletes. This practice of facilitating closer relationships within a team is reflective of an empathic leadership style (Humphrey, 2002).

5.2.2.7. Challenges. Challenges associated with an empathic leadership style include issues with bias (Vanman, 2016) burnout (Lee & Chelladurai, 2018) and the style being viewed as weak (Marques, 2015).

Whilst all head coaches claimed to be aware of the potential problems of bias towards particular athletes, they did not consider it to be problematic. However, the majority of head coaches acknowledged the challenges surrounding the selection process and how difficult it can be when it involves dropping an athlete the head coach knows well. This is illustrated by the following story:

I won the national championship four years ago. The toughest thing wasn’t the games

it was the two players that didn’t play. Everyone wants to play and telling them was

by far the toughest thing to do. Then last year I was assistant national coach in the

Olympics and one of my former players, that I’d coached, was the last to be cut.

She’d actually asked that I talk to her afterwards. She’d worked for four years towards

that Olympics and so that is the toughest thing for a coach. If you don’t feel bad about

it, then you shouldn’t be coaching. I don’t think that anybody who coaches at those

levels should do that easily. These players have put in as much time as the others.

They train as much and put in as much. (P20)

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The data suggested that bias is something that head coaches are conscious of and although this awareness may mitigate against athlete bias it presents a challenge for head coaches. It also places additional demands on head coaches’ emotional well-being and how they cope with (Fletcher & Scott, 2010). The consequences of the emotional demands on the head coach was something that head coaches described as experiencing themselves and in observing in others:

I was an assistant coach to a head coach who was under a bit of pressure and he came

in one day and was running, screaming and shouting things that didn’t make sense,

the emotional pressure had got to him. The players were like, what’s going on? And

they lost all respect for him and it became a bit of a joke and that meant results went

down-hill from that point. The belief had gone, the respect had gone, everything had

gone. That was just based on how he behaved on the side-line in that game. (P7)

Head coaches, however, did not associate burnout with an empathic leadership approach. Eleven of the head coaches claimed that burnout was more likely to be due to workload and lack of down time, rather than due to empathy: “I suffered burnout. I was working seventy hours a week and there was no balance in my life, but I’m not sure it was to do with how much empathy I have” (P4). This can be intensified by the unique circumstances in elite sport, like long periods away from home, which can also impact on the head coach’s family, leading to additional stress:

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If you take the recent competition, I was completely broken, because for some

competitions we have two months in a hotel with one another. It’s too much. I send

them back to their clubs. It’s constant. An illness goes through everyone. If someone’s

having a bad day, it impacts others. There’s also a brilliant side, but you do get

emotionally drained. Although I’ve always been able to compartmentalise, the media

for example, that impacts my family more than me. It’s very rare that someone comes

to you with loads of positives, it’s always problems, problem with the physio, the

eggs at breakfast…get a life! It’s constant, but I wouldn’t swap it for the world. It’s

constant, but I know I reached in six years at … a point that it was right to go. Not

that I was burned-out, but in that particular environment I’d given everything I could

possibly give. (P15)

Far from seeing it as problematic, the majority of head coaches suggested that their empathy for athletes has a positive impact on their own wellbeing, since it means sharing in positive experiences, which they insisted tend to out-number the negative: “On the positive side, most of the squad are not going through bad stuff, but are going through good stuff”

(P17). Sharing these positive experiences was described as a rewarding experience:

I think it’s one of the more fulfilling parts of coaching. If you’re getting to know and

understand them and you’re helping them to achieve what they want to achieve, on or

off the court; maybe they achieve things off the court it can be equally rewarding. The

tough ones are injuries and things. You’re not directly responsible, but you had them

in the game at that point and you feel, you know. But on the whole its more fulfilling

than it is draining. It’s rewarding. (P16)

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One head coach pointed out that if an empathic leadership style leads to making fewer mistakes, it can only have a positive impact on their mental health:

I think it’s a positive way of working, but I can understand why people might think

it’s draining. But in the long term it’s going to make some decisions easier. You are

going to get better decisions and more right answers, that’s what I believe. I know if I

am going to a drop a player, how that is going to impact her as a person, how it can

impact people around her. And then get a game plan to try and combat that so that it

doesn’t impact as negatively as it maybe could if I didn’t understand the players. (P5)

The literature insists that displaying empathy is hard work (Cameron et al., 2019) and will lead to burnout if left unchecked (Badger et al., 2008; Figley, 2002; Lee & Chelladurai,

2018). The sharing of stories about the challenge or threat of burnout stimulated head coaches to describe ways in which they counter it: “Exercise, is my way of disconnecting. I have tried this year to be more structured, so I read twice a day, thirty minutes, non-fiction in the mornings, fiction in the evenings” (P3). Spending time with family is another way to disconnect:

Oh yeah, it’s not easy. It is draining, it takes up every minute of every hour of every

day. I have points where I have to completely switch off. I have my phone switched

off and I’m with my wife and daughter, I spend the hours I need to just do something

normal, go to the park, for a walk, the cinema, a meal with my wife, something

normal where you can chill out and switch off, you know. Completely disconnect. It

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keeps your mind fresh, and you have family and they are important, and they play an

important part of you being successful. (P7)

An empathic leadership style involves a greater emotional investment from head coaches (Larner et al., 2017), which will also present challenges for the family of the head coach:

It’s extremely difficult. You have to have a very understanding wife. I guess for Pep

at his level the money must make it easier. And he’s taken a hiatus when he’s been

burned out. It does become your life. My little girl wants nothing to do with football,

she won’t touch a ball because she sees it as the thing that takes Daddy away. That’s

why it’s extremely important for me to have the couple of hours spent here and there

with her, my wife, for her and my wife and myself. It’s extremely important. (P7)

Two head coaches described seeking empathy in order to counter the potential for burnout. Rather than add strain to family members this tends to involve friends or mentors:

I need someone to be empathetic with me. A critical friend, who can be empathetic

and make you reflect when you need to. You need someone to vent to and someone

who is honest and will disagree when you need it. Someone to lean on. I’m fortunate

that I’ve got very good friends who are football people around me. I have my own

mentors. I don’t just have one, I have a few that I lean on and it will be someone

whose skill set suits the issue at hand. I think a lot of work place practices have

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someone to go to and that’s great, there is value to it, but if you have your own friend

who does that it goes a long way, believe me. (P13)

Another head coach added:

I think for me, as well I have a couple of mentors who are really good people and

they’ll say to me look, you need to calm down, or confirm that I’m doing the right

thing or ask if I’ve thought about it another way. It relieves some of the burden. A lot

of the time, as Pep put it, you may not always know what the right thing to do is, but

you need to make the players think you do. That’s a difficult place to go to

sometimes, if you are going on gut instinct and it’s your sole responsibility. (P3)

Despite head coaches claiming that it is not empathising that increases the likelihood of burnout, they admit to making themselves always available to their athletes, and the introduction of new technologies has made disconnecting even harder:

Disconnection is tough, I need to work on it. The grey hairs are coming, and I need to

look after myself. My wife helps remind me of that. Disconnecting from my athletes

and technology is key, because that can go on when you’re meant to be home from

work. (P8)

The majority of head coaches recognised that getting the work-life balance right isn’t always possible in a high-performance role and accept this as part of the job:

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My wife played high-level sport, so she has some empathy for it, you know, I’m

lucky. I’ve spoken to other guys and their other halves lack the understanding and a

lot of coaches I know are divorced. There’s a coach I know, who is one of the best

coaches in the world and he’s getting divorced. I look at his situation and it’s not

surprising, I often thought how are you balancing that? (P19)

Breithaupt & Hamilton (2019) suggested that empathy “keeps the self from being the self” (p.45), which leads to burnout (Tracy, 2017). Therefore, maintaining a work-life balance is vital, head coaches will not be empathic if they are burnt out, and so need to regulate their empathy (Zaki, 2014). This requires self-awareness (Rogers, 1975). However, self-awareness may lead to a reduction in empathy (Batson, Ahmad & Stocks, 2004), reducing the understanding of athletes’ situations (Sloman, Rosen, Rom & Shir, 2005).

Regulating empathy is a difficult task:

It’s difficult, it is with you all the time. I’m in today, but it’s my day off. My wife, we

have a young child and another one on the way, she talks to me about getting things in

perspective. Do I need to be emailing people at 9pm or can it wait? (P8)

Head coaches explained that this self-awareness involves constant reflection on what effects the leadership role is having. However, one head coach revealed that they refused to reduce their input, if doing so could threaten their chosen style of leadership:

I’ve done three (name of competitions) as an assistant but being the head coach at a

(name of competition) is very different. It’s draining to a level I never appreciated.

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Almost until the final whistle, when I almost shutdown and sleep for hours, weeks

possibly. It’s all consuming. Then it’s a reminder of understanding yourself, you

know, I was riding that wave and I knew I was meant to be riding that wave, I knew it

would be a come down and I’m actually good with switching off, I can sleep, read,

but even so, it’s a challenging process. I guess so, it’s not something I see as a

negative, it’s just a necessary biproduct. I wouldn’t want to see myself coaching in

any other way. It’s not as if I consider the downsides of the style and, it’s just

inevitable to doing it. (P6)

Head coaches believed that they have the personality to cope with demands of their role, even without time to disconnect:

It depends what you’re like as a person, if you are comfortable chatting with and

around people it doesn’t take much toll, it doesn’t on me. I’m comfortable chatting to

people and it’s not exhausting for me. No, I don’t find it draining. The things I find

draining are getting your team ready, selecting it, naming it. Speaking to players

you’ve left out, that’s the most draining things. The rest is just part of the job. You’re

on the job twenty-four-seven. (P9)

Being ever present for athletes, and being viewed as an empathic leader presents another challenge. An empathic leadership style could be seen as a weak leadership style

(Marques, 2015). One head coach confirmed that being taken advantage of can be a consequence of over-empathising:

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Having that style of leadership, you walk the line of players taking advantage of you.

It happened to me once where someone overstepped the line and thought they could

talk to me in a certain way and I had to deal with it swiftly. I’m the sort of person who

wants to ensure everyone is ok and then think about myself, my dad had similar traits

and passed that down and it’s open to abuse potentially. There’s a risk. (P15)

Five more head coaches acknowledged the dangers of being too empathic: “The danger of an over empathic squad is that it lacks competitiveness and it can lack a hard-edge, a ruthless streak” (P2). Another head coach expressed their concern:

So, I’d always like to think that I’d treat people properly, that doesn’t mean you do it

the whole time, but I think it’s a natural thing for me, I’m a people person, I love

people. I love dealing with people. I love seeing people get better. But I would never

do it at the…the cost of my own principles. I think that’s inherent in me and not

something I need to work on a huge amount. My bigger worry is being over

empathetic. (P15)

The researcher probed: What do you think the dangers of that are?

Too soft. Don’t listen too much, there comes a time when you have listened to all the

feedback and you say: okay, but this is what we’re doing. (P15)

One head coach suggested that too much leader empathy had led to a drop in performance and may have cost medals:

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I’ve probably been over empathetic with situations; the concept of empathy

sometimes clouds my thinking… We would go to all different grounds and

everywhere we went we talked about being adaptable… Will we adapt to a situation?

It’s a big thing! We went to all these different environments and adjusted, so we

thought! But we’d taken our environment with us rather than adapting to where we

were. Would we have been better leaving all that stuff behind us, leaving all those

flags and things and making it our environment with what we have together? Did we

adapt to the environment rather than adapt to the environment ourselves?

The players were a little too comfortable… All except one said it was a great

experience. No one talked about not winning a medal. I came away thinking that it

was a pretty horrific experience in many ways. Reflecting on it, it was a very unique

experience and one to learn from and I’d love to do it again… But I would, I’d do

things differently. We went there with the intention of enjoying the Olympics rather

than winning medals. I’m applying what I learned at this point in time. As we head

towards the next world cup. (P2)

However, another head coach claimed that an empathic leadership approach, is unlikely to be seen as weak as long as it is performed with authenticity and empathy is used wisely so that each athlete is treated appropriately:

Empathy can be seen as weak leadership, indecisive leadership, challenges with

acceptance with those used to a very different style, it can be difficult for those to get

their heads around it. It can also be challenging for newer less experienced players

who are still not sure of their own place in the great scheme of things and are

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suddenly being asked about their views compared with others who have been to four

world championships. The other thing is the contrast, it’s a hard leadership style for

some people to live, it has to be authentic, there are some people it doesn’t suit. I’m

fairly sure you can learn empathy like most things, but I think it can be quite jarring

for some people. The other thing is understanding that everyone is different and not

everyone responds in the same way. You need to understand yourself and the players

enough to know what each wants and needs. (P6)

Empathy brings understanding of others (Goleman et al., 2017; Redmond, 1989). This understanding can inform leadership practices, making an empathic leader a powerful leader

(Skinner & Spurgeon, 2005). The head coaches explained that this power can be achieved without them being perceived as a disciplinarian:

One of the things I get criticised for is my lack of rules around the team. So, if you

have empathy you tend to think about individuals. Some perceive things as being

professional if you have all of these rules in place about times to turn up to eat, dress

code etc. So, if I’m more empathic does that sometimes make me look less in control

or like discipline is an issue… I get criticised for this. It’s something that drives me

mental, when I left the (nickname of team) they brought in a (nationality) woman. She

asked the team what were the rules and regulations for the team and the players said:

well, there weren’t any. Well, she said, we need rules, and so she came out in the

press and said we are going to professionalise this team. And her view of

professionalise was more rules. They had to eat breakfast at 8am and eat lunch in a

yellow t-shirt and the green t-shirt for another meal and the perception was the team

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would be more professional, but it was just more rules. So, the more empathy you

have the more you consider the individual and so you don’t want too many rules, and

you deal with individual problems as they crop up… Some think if there are no

players getting disciplined there’s something wrong…So, I think it’s a misconception

about empathy that if it’s part of your management style it’s sometimes perceived as

not professional and not disciplined. … And the players voted to get rid of her, they

said we don’t want to play for you anymore. So, it’s really interesting and it’s

interesting that they are the coaches that shy away from sitting chatting with players,

they are the coaches that just stick the team up on the board and walk away from it.

(P9)

The data suggested that an empathic leadership in elite sport brings challenges, some of which are due to the high demands and nuances of the context (Wagstaff, 2019).

5.3. Summary of Findings: RQ1

In answering RQ1: Has leadership in elite sport become more empathic? If so How?

The data demonstrates that leadership in sport has become more empathic over the last two decades. The data revealed the changes that have taken place, such as a greater focus on a safe climate, closer relationships, empathic communication, and employing empathic accuracy. The data also highlights that head coaches understand and manage emotions and that they are aware of their touchline behaviour impacting the emotions of competing athletes. Managing emotions helps to maintain the safety of the team climate, which head coaches believe has an influence on team performance in competition.

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Physical contact in close relationships is unique in the context of elite sport, for example, hugging athletes. However, it was noted that the head coach has to understand the athlete as an individual to determine if and when physical contact is appropriate.

Empathic communication provides different challenges in elite sport. For example, head coaches expressed concerns over the way they communicate team selection. Head coaches also have to consider how instructions will be heard during competition and empathic ways of delivering feedback on performance.

This uniqueness of elite sport influences empathic accuracy too, which is more difficult when the coach is working at a distance and cannot approach an athlete during competition. However, the data shows that head coaches manage this by using their understanding of the athletes, developed by building close relationships, thus allowing them to predict athlete behaviour and performance.

It was found that the trend towards a more empathic leadership style in elite sport has also involved embracing a more athlete-centred approach, which helps to build trust and improve performance, and a focusing on practices devised to develop empathy within teams, which helps build understanding and team cohesion.

The data suggests that the context of sport presents different challenges for an empathic leadership style that are reported in the empathic leadership literature. One of the challenges associated with an empathic leadership style in other industries is leader burnout

(Lee & Chelladurai, 2018). In the context of elite sport, burnout is more likely to be due to the work-load demands placed on leaders rather than to an empathic leadership style.

In summary, this section has shown that leadership in elite sport has become more empathic, and has presented data that has demonstrated how leadership in elite sport has become more empathic.

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5.4. RQ2. Key Motivations for Employing an Empathic Leadership Style

This section addresses RQ2. What are the key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style in elite sport?

Key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style were collated in the

MOT coded data. This data emerged from asking head coaches why they would choose an empathic leadership approach and from examples of empathic leadership offered by the head coaches. The researcher analysed the data to determine the six most common motivations

(key motivations). The six key motivations found are presented in Figure 5.1. The data of each key motivation is presented and discussed.

Figure 5.1 Six Key Motivations

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5.4.1. Achieve a Safe Climate Achieving a safe climate was reported to be a motivation for employing an empathic leadership style. One head coach summed up the consensus of the head coaches: “We are really trying to achieve a safe climate” (P2). The head coach rereferred to reports that describe unsafe climates, which they aim to avoid: “there were ‘toxic climates’ or ‘climates of fear’ if you like; in cycling, swimming… and we definitely want to stay away from that”

(P3). This motive seems sensible considering that human beings flourish in climates of safety rather than climates of fear (Ashkanasy & Nicholson, 2003). The wrong team climate is certainly seen as a threat:

I could lose 100 games and probably, if it was in the right environment, I could

probably sleep at night, but if I ever thought there was a hint of toxic behaviour, or

what I believe to be toxic behaviour in my group, I would feel like I’d failed. So, yes,

a key driver for us to ensure that that environment would never be allowed to flourish.

(P6)

Empathy helps to maintain a healthy and safe emotional climate (Decety, 2015). To achieve a safe climate, was often referred to when head coaches were probed about the management of emotions. The example of touchline behaviour was widely discussed, with head coaches highlighting their awareness of emotions being contagious (Andreychik &

Migliaccio, 2015; Morelli et al., 2015) and understanding that their own touchline behaviour offers both risk and opportunity to create a safe climate:

I think when they look to the bench, they don’t need me to be crazy, they don’t need

me to be emotional about them, the game, the referee, the score or whatever. They

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need to know that I can help them. When they’re frustrated and very emotional, they

know that I will help them find a way… I want them to see me as a source for

solutions. (P14)

However, it is not just the head coach who influences the team climate. Head coaches explained that the behaviour of others has to be managed. The following narrative illustrates how a head coach manages situations in pursuit of a climate of safety:

I can think of one instance, playing against an opposition the young lad was bowling

and he was getting smacked and they nicknamed him ‘boards’, because they kept

hitting the boards. Now you think, that’s funny; however, he is carrying that

emotional baggage now… you don’t know what damage it’s doing. You see when

someone throws in to the wicket keeper, it’s not great and the keeper gives him some

stick, the next one, they’re tentative. If they make a mistake, we’ll practise throwing

and do some work on it, I want the honesty, but not the piss-taking sense. Although it

still happens. But I’m constantly on at the guys about the way they communicate

because you’ve got no idea what’s going on inside someone else’s head… I could

take the piss and it be funny, but a young guy could go home and say to himself,

fucking hell, did the head coach mean that? That makes his job harder. (P17)

A harsh team climate increases the stress on the athlete. A feeling of safety will have a positive influence on athlete wellbeing (Berry & Joannidès, 2013), as explained by this head coach, “the team is encouraged to respect the individuality of other members, allowing athletes to feel safe enough to be themselves” (P18). Moreover, it was noted:

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One of the things we talk to the team about all of the time is, well, tolerance is a

terrible word, you shouldn’t feel like you have to tolerate someone. So, what we talk

about is that everybody brings something different to the table and we demand that

those differences are respected, that we focus on what people bring, not what they

can’t bring, but what they can do, not what they can’t do and it’s kind of all those

ingredients combined which make the squad and the group operate healthily. It’s easy

to say, but different to put into practice over a ten-year period, but that tolerance for

want of a better word, of each individual and allowing them to be themselves is

critical. (P18)

This also allows athletes to feel safe enough to make a contribution to the development of the team, creating a more innovative and creative environment that will improve performance

(Kock et al., 2019). The following quote illsutrates how important the head coach is in this process:

The psychology program over the past six years hasn’t delivered. But now we have

the right person in charge and he’s performance focused. If you get it wrong, you

don’t get creativity and people prepared to speak out. (P2)

Head coaches displayed an understanding that creating a safe climate facilitates the expression of honest opinions and encourages people to speak up:

So, we had a game at Cardiff, and we won a tight game. We were pissing it, and then

it got tight. I’m a big believer in learning when we win. If we lose, okay, let’s park-it

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and come back to it when we do an analysis. So, I went quite hard on them after the

win. One of the senior players said, you know what, I fucked up today. It was so

powerful because it’s a guy everyone respects. We had a new coach operating with us,

he’s worked in International cricket, one of the biggest counties in the country, three

other counties, you know, vastly experienced. He said, I’ve never seen that. That’s

unbelievably powerful. And to me it’s started to become the norm. It’s really exciting

that people are comfortable to do that because we make mistakes, you’re going to. If

you are the best in the world 50% of the time you’re not performing. So, you make

mistakes. I’ll always talk honestly. (P17)

Safe climates have become a focus in elite sport (Andrade et al., 2020; Gómez-López et al., 2020). In part, this may be a response to the recently reported ‘climates of fear’ in some elite sports. However, the data suggests there is also an understanding that athlete well-being, honesty and creativity can be improved if athletes are to feel safe.

5.4.2. Gain an Understanding of Athletes Head coaches explained that gaining an understanding of athletes was a motive for employing an empathic leadership style. Empathic leaders are said to be competent in understanding others (Czech & Forward, 2010; Tzouramani, 2017). Understanding the needs of each athlete reportedly allows head coaches to modify their leadership practices in order to maximise performance:

It’s understanding the individual, and some need a kick up the arse and know that’s

what they need, they want a kick up the arse. So, you can’t be too fluffy with them

and so you need to be empathic to understand what you need to do. You need to cater

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to their needs. There’s been times where I’ve given a rocket at half-time, but you

can’t do it every week, it will lose its effect. (P13)

Head coaches described the importance of understanding the needs of individuals and of the team. However, what the team needs may not always be clear to team members:

One day last year, we were first in the league, but I could sense there was over

confidence and getting a bit lackadaisical. We started doing some technical stuff at the

start of training and balls were going all over the place, under people’s feet. People

weren’t connecting with ten-yard passes. I decided to stop the session and send them

home. I just said go home, clear your heads. If your heads are not clear tomorrow you

won’t train, and you need to consider being a professional footballer. The next day the

training session was great. We ended up winning 5-1 at the weekend. I don’t know if

that was the reason, but I think understanding your players enables you to act in a

certain way. (P7)

The researcher probed further, asking: You felt what they needed as a group was to reset?

Yeah, I felt that in the moment, it wasn’t planned. My staff looked at me and said

what you doing? I’d asked my sports science coach how the warm-up had gone and

he said they’re not engaged, and when we started the technical activity I saw they

weren’t engaged again and so I felt it needed to happen. (P7)

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Further probing by the researcher asked the head coach to: Say more about that engagement?

Body language, you can spot things as soon as they walk out on the training field, you

can see straight away where their head’s at. Some are different, they are laughing and

joking and in a good place. Some take a while to get into it. I always tell them what

we are going to do and why we are doing it at the start of training, and I can read what

they think of that. (P7)

Understanding of the nuances of body language, unique to each individual (Barrett, 2017), is facilitated by building closer relationships (Lanzoni, 2018). However, head coaches admitted to trying short-cuts. P2 described psychological profiling to gain a better understanding of each athlete although insisted getting to know the athlete in person is preferable:

By spending time with each other, with other coaches too, you get to understand

them, and it shapes how you address them because you know you will get different

responses from different people if you go at it in the same way. If you are dealing

with an empathic type person and you are very direct, like me, I have to think about

not putting her in a spin. I need to sit down and discuss it with her and understand her.

Delivering messages in the right way ensures they stay engaged. (P2)

This view about psychological tools not being as useful in efforts to gain understanding had support amongst head coaches:

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There’s lots of psychological tools, but a closer relationship helps you understand

people better, you get to find out about family issues, and you get to learn how they

deal with stress etc. Sometimes a player might act very calm and cool and yet I know

behind the scenes it’s a shitshow at home. (P12)

Moreover, it was suggested:

A closer relationship gives you an insight into who they are and what makes them

tick, the outcomes for us, our coaches and staff and leaders, it’s to be able to maybe

adjust the message to the person, whatever that would be, in the heat of battle on the

field and you want to get the best out of someone, because that’s the job of leaders to

try and get the best out of people… if you know the person you are talking to, on that

deeper level that we just talked about, you have the opportunity to deliver the message

in a way that will get the best out of him and not put him into his shadow. (P18)

Head coaches placed a very high value on finding the best way to communicate with players. In this example, the potential individuality of each athlete is highlighted:

A player was scouted, had obvious talents, moving quickly through the ranks, but at

the same time was immature in a lot of ways, specifically psychologically for his age.

He was being discussed and assessed and moving through the system like an adult,

with a child’s brain. So, when we sat down with him, we needed to understand from

him what his competence level was for taking information in and what were the

realities of that. We had to dumb it down, for want of a better term. We decided I had

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to deliver a message in a way that would have been suitable for a Grade 12 child,

rather than a seasoned professional who has other stuff in his life like family and

finance, this was basically a raw kid who was just playing a game and all the other

things going on his brain just wasn’t ready for, so we had to really bring it down and

explain to him carefully what we wanted from him. (P12)

Head coaches and athletes have to understand each other well in order to communicate efficiently. Empathic understanding facilitates an efficient delivery of instructions (Khosravi,

Manafi, Hojabri, Farhadi,& Ghesmi, 2011). Therefore, the communication practices of a new coach, who hasn’t had the time to gain an understanding of their athletes, could be misunderstood:

A group of female athletes that I coach, came to me and say, look, we don’t like the

way you shout at us all of the time. And firstly, it’s good because they obviously felt

comfortable in coming to talk to me. It kind of caught me off guard. I looked at my

assistant coach in disbelief and he was smiling. Then the girls saw him, and they

looked as confused as I did. I asked him what was funny, and he explained that having

known me for years, he knew that I never shouted at them, but he also explained that

he knew why they thought I was shouting. It was my accent and the way I talk. I’m

from Glasgow and we can sound a bit aggressive in natural conversation if you don’t

know us. Ha, ha. I have to have more self-awareness, understand who I am. I’m a dry

humoured Glaswegian, can’t be anyone else. Once we got that out of the way, the

girls were less apprehensive about me. Sometimes when I gave instructions, they

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smiled and I realised this meant that I was sounding like I was shouting or being too

aggressive, so we both learned. (P4)

Experiencing such events, which P4 said he and the athletes now laugh about, may speed up the process of gaining mutual understanding.

By understanding groups of athletes, a head coach can also set appropriate rules and levels of empowerment that satisfy the needs of their group. One head coach provided a good example of empowering rather than ruling athletes, having gained understanding:

Here’s another example of empathy: a problem with drinking, going back a number of

years, you know a bit like boys on tour, get smashed, get up and play a game… We

were mindful of that. In 2010, we told the players they had a two-beer limit. They

went out, had their two beers and they wanted more beers and because they’d been

told, it becomes I can’t have therefore I want. There was climbing out of dorm

windows and crawling under windows to go out for more beers. In 2014 we started

moving away from that and there was some better behaviour, but still probably stuff

going on that us coaches didn’t know about. In 2018 and it’s like the elephant in the

room, what’s the coach going to? My assistant coaches have been through this world,

they said just tell them they can’t drink. But I said, you know what, I think that will

create more problems. We are then out in Israel for the world championships when

England, the football team, get through to the world-cup semi-final… and we are

going out together to watch the game. I told my assistants the decision I was going to

make, and they’d all bought into it and we’d had discussions about it. I got the

captains down and said, look we are going out to a bar, it was the easiest place to

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watch the game together…I think this is where empathy came in. I said, right we are

going to drink if we want to drink, it’s not going to be a two drinks rule, it’s you know

how hard the world championships is going to be… You make the decision; you

discuss it as a group and decide what you want to do. So, we go down to this bar there

was a cultural shift in the group, and the benefits of this process of watching the game

together, was the players were drinking water one or two maybe had another beer, but

nobody had more than two beers. I’m pretty sure that if we had given them a two-pint

limit people would have had more than two pints. The fact that we told them nobody

is going to be looking over their shoulder with a tally chart of beers drunk, none of

that, a very different approach. (P6)

This level of understanding makes athletes feel closer and more aligned to their head coach.

A head coach can make further progress by understanding what each athlete needs as a motivation. Eighteen of the twenty participants described the importance of understanding exactly what motivates each athlete:

Understanding their motivations, their triggers, their challenges, what works for them

inside the sport and what’s going on for them outside of the sport. Those are the sort

of things, in what I like to think of as an athlete centred approach that I take these

days, empathy becomes a vital component of trying to understand them as people and

as athletes. (P6)

Head coaches explained that this has been complicated in recent years, with some athletes focusing on themselves and their own brand rather than the team:

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We had one guy who scored a hat-trick and was all over social media and the rest of

the players were thinking, yeah, but we lost. The boys came to me and said: have you

seen this? That showed a real lack of empathy and was unacceptable. So, I called him

up and said: look, can you see how this looks? (P19)

Understanding the motives of a social media generation was reported as a significant challenge:

You have lots of players who gear everything towards their profile on social media,

very much feels like all the 90 minutes was about how people will see them from the

outside world. The person they are projecting, is seen by ten thousand people say, and

there were only a thousand at the game. They can get ten thousand approvals. (P5)

Head coaches claimed that by gaining understanding they could accurately predict which athletes were most likely to prioritise their social media accounts after competition. An understanding of the emotions, motivations and behaviours of each athlete also helps a head coach to predict the potential of that athlete:

In our club this winter we needed centre backs and contacted two experienced centre

backs in nationality football and they weren’t able to come yet, and then not ready to

play games, so we put a nineteen-year-old in who might not have thought he’d get

game time. It’s been a rollercoaster too, very good, and people are forgetting his age

and lack of experience during the ups and downs and if you don’t see things from his

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point of view, you’d determine him to not be good enough. I’ve been working closely

with the boy and giving him a lot of feedback from game to game and it’s interesting

to see how much better he became in five games, with such a jump in level. (P10)

Recognising the potential of athletes can be a major factor in determining the success of a coach, particularly if the athlete becomes their best performer:

My best player last year was a boy called name of athlete he played for name of team.

He’d had some problems, some issues, all the talent in the world, but he never seemed

to show all his talent in a game in training, you could never get the best out of him.

So, he became a kind of project for me. Eventually we struck up a really close

relationship. In the two years he played with me, he scored the most goals he’d ever

scored, got the most assists and was the best player in the league. I think that was due

to me taking time to understand him, to get to know him, to understand about his

childhood. You know, he told me about his problems and his issues, and we ended up

having an open dialogue. And when he wasn’t performing, I could come down on him

and be truthful with him and you know, I could be hard on him, but also give him a

pat on the back when he needed it. Me understanding him gave me an opportunity to

be able to do that… and it’s funny, when I left the club, the staff called me and said

how did you handle name of athlete? We can’t deal with him. They always used to

say to me, god, why do you spend so much time with name of athlete? It was because

as a coach I had to recognise when someone was going to be pivotal to my team and

he still calls me now. He’s just signed a contract in name of country and he called me

yesterday and asked for advice and asked how I was doing. (P7)

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Despite an athlete having talent, a head coach may come to understand that other factors restrict their potential:

We had a player. Unbelievable talent, but he was an absolute shit bloke. And he

played for us, did really well, got picked for England. We were like, this will be

interesting. Then England are on the phone, saying this bloke’s great we want him

back in and in the test team. I was like, what? They said yeah, in the test team by the

summer. I put the phone down and thought are we talking about the same fucking

person? Six months later, the head coach of England calls and says this bloke will

never play for England again. He couldn’t sustain his behaviours. He’d gone in,

played a role, brilliant team man and all that, but he couldn’t sustain it, when he was

under pressure, his true colours came out and then they get rid of him. (P17)

All head coaches claimed that they use their understanding of the personal attributes of athletes to predict how they will perform in a certain role and what their limitations are:

If we know someone who isn’t right for a role and hasn’t the personality, I’ve got

another player in. A more suitable personality. So, if name of athlete is an outstanding

talent and a leader on the pitch, but not off, he hates being in meetings. He’ll train

hard and play hard, but getting him in to a meeting is only ticking a box, it won’t

achieve anything, so I don’t ask him unless I have to. That’s just knowing your

players, it’s not that his personality is wrong it’s just how he is driven. Would I go to

war with him? Yes, but I wouldn’t go to a meeting with him. (P15)

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Head coaches also agreed that certain players are better in certain situations, like high- pressure scenarios:

I have a very technically gifted player who cannot cope under pressure. So, if a match

is tight, I might bring him off, and bring on someone with less technical ability, who’s

less exciting to watch but more reliable in that situation. That’s about learning and

understanding the character of the player. You have to try and have the right players

on court for the moment. It’s about knowing who wants and can handle the

responsibility required of the moment. (P11)

Another head coach explained:

If you go into a cup final, you need to know how each of them will emotionally cope

and perform. Sometimes you need to balance that out. The best player was

emotionally driven and wont cope, but, I thought, if they are the best player how do I

manage that? Do you play them or are they a risk, they might get sent-off. It’s going

to be really competitive. What’s best for the team? (P5)

One head coach described that by gaining an understanding of how a player was likely to behave he was able to improve their performance:

In this group I have a guy who is never resting, he is like on fire all the time, he is like

wind that blows in. We were playing a diamond formation and he is a full-back. This

means he has to decide when to go to intercept the ball played to winger or when to

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back off. So, the main thing is to be calm and make good decisions. I knew this guy

will go all the time, every time. This causes problems. He did this in a game, my

prediction was right. We had a mental coach speak to him about this and I explained

to him and we continue to work on him and with him. (P10)

The data demonstrates that head coaches are more able to serve athlete’s needs, predict behaviour and tailor communication, like the delivery of instructions, if they understand the emotions, motivations and behaviours of the individual athlete.

5.4.3. Enhance Athlete Commitment Head coaches illustrated their desire for athlete commitment when discussing stories about the relationships they have with athletes and identified this to be a motive for employing an empathic leadership style. Empathy is known to enhance commitment .

(Joireman et al., 2006). However, the closeness of relationships reportedly brings vital information about exactly how to enhance commitment: “I need to find ways of keeping them interested and motivated and feeling important; and when you do that, they’ll do whatever for you” (P14). Athlete commitment can be to the organisation, team, or to the leader (Wagstaff,

2017). Head coaches positioned themselves as empathic leaders by speaking about commitment being linked to the relationships they have with their athletes:

Empathy brings you closer, closer means more empathy, and that means more

commitment: I think the biggest thing is it creates a willingness for players to play for

you as a coach. Although I don’t necessarily like that expression, but I think they feel

more connected to you as a member of the team rather than an authority figure. (P19)

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A close connection with a leader who demonstrates understanding increases the athlete’s perceived leader empathy, and facilitates commitment (Ashkanasy & Humphrey,

2011; Schumann et al., 2014). Head coaches often referred to athlete commitment as: “buy- in” (P19); “you have to be adaptable and you really have to understand the experiences of your players to get their buy in” (P8). Head coaches explained that by showing empathy:

“You get more from the player in return” (P17). Other head coaches supported this: “the players perceiving empathy in me - that’s a powerful thing! An athlete who feels that, will give you more. More in performance, commitment to the club, the team, everything” (P4).

Expressions of empathy from the head coach can be particularly powerful when an athlete needs it the most.

The following example of sharing a personal experience is an expression of empathic concern. The head coach recognised that this concern was noticed by the athlete, and their team mates:

My father died before Christmas. And one of the players, his father was passing away

just before the name of competition and I was able to very much empathise with what

he was going through in a very unique and personal way. So, we developed a very

close bond over that particular incident because I knew what he needed to do. It’s

very easy to look at the book of bereavement, that’s what you do, but when it’s

something that you know well and you know what he’s going through. When he came

to me and said I don’t know if I should leave early, I said just go now, forget rugby

because if you’re not there at the right time, you’ll never forgive yourself. That’s an

automatic thing that I felt at the time. (P15)

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The researcher probed: Do you think that changed the way he looked at you?

Don’t know, hopefully. Only he can answer that, but I think when you treat people

properly, they give it back to you in spades… The particular example I gave, I said I

didn’t know how it affected the player, but maybe the rest of the group saw how I

behaved and thought: oh, maybe we can approach him about things. I don’t know. I

didn’t do that with that in mind, I did it because I knew what he was going through

and what he needed as a bloke. If he hadn’t been there to say good bye, he’d never

have forgiven himself. That’s more important than a game of rugby. (P15)

Head coaches told stories about athletes being distracted by events at home and the importance of an empathic response to ensure commitment over the longer term:

It was at a point when it’s not right and I had to say, look maybe you need to take a

day or two to go and spend time with your family and boom, right away, they say, Oh

really? Absolutely, because if your family isn’t right, you’re not right and then you’re

no good to me, so go sort it out. (P12)

Probing further, the researcher asked: When they get back, what do you get from them?

Generally speaking, an increased appreciation, increased attention, and understanding.

It’s thanks, you were looking out for me and by the way, I’ll be looking out for you

now. I’m going to be working harder and do what you want me to do. Every now and

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then you get one who just thinks great I got a day off, but generally it’s far more than

that. Maybe it’s when I don’t select that player and his reaction then is less

aggressive. He’s thinking, wait a minute, this guy supported me and cares about me…

They need to know that you appreciate them for who they are rather than just what

they are. (P12)

The data from this research suggests that the quality and closeness of relationships between head coach and athlete is indicative of athlete commitment levels.

Commitment from other staff who work around the team was noted by head coaches:

One of the joys for me is we’ve got an elite team and a second team of younger

players on a Monday they play at name of city or name of city and there’s a bit of

travel involved and we have physios and other staff who don’t need to watch those

games, but they’ll go anyway, they go because they care about their players and want

to see how they do. For me it’s unreal that that can happen. We want people to really

care about the club that they work for, care about the group and have it in their skin a

little bit. (P18)

This head coach went on to explain that this level of commitment had not always been there:

“Ten years ago that didn’t exist at all and we think it does now” (P18). For this head coach, commitment appeared to have increased during a period in which leadership styles have become more empathic. The data discussed in this section has shown that displays of empathy enhance commitment (Joireman et al., 2006).

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5.4.4. Increase Team Cohesion A desire for team cohesion was considered a motivation for employing an empathic leadership style. Empathy in a group is known to increase cohesion (Friedkin, 2004;

Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2012; Tzouramani, 2017; Zaki, 2014). Empathy can increase in a team by contagion from the head coach’s example, or targeted empathy training:

I had to get her to see that it’s a team game. People are trying, I’ve said to her. You’ve

got to see their perspective… She needs to know that she’s not the only one on the

court. I also added that if she doesn’t have empathy for her team-mates and what

they’re trying to help her with then she will not be on the court. (P1)

If empathy does spread through a team the resultant behaviours will tend to be pro-social and altruistic (Persson & Kajonius, 2016). By encouraging empathy, the head coaches argued that they can bring athletes together, even if that means spending more time apart:

We have one player, currently a consistent performer, as soon as the day’s finished,

he’s gone. The others are like, he doesn’t stay for a drink, he’s miserable. I’m like, no,

no, you need to understand. He has family, two young kids, he’s this kind of

personality, he needs time away. If he spends all his time with you guys, he’s fucked.

He needs to get his energy back. So you have to create that understanding. The

players are very judgemental. It’s a lack of awareness, so that’s what we do. We’re

constantly trying to get people to gain a wider understanding of themselves and the

other players in the environment. If someone wants to go for a few beers, that’s ok

too, you know. This is not school. But it’s what you need to do, and without being

judgemental of others. And not to drag people with you, ‘cos it won’t work. (P17)

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Empathy is not about judging by putting yourself in someone else’s situation, in involves becoming them in that moment (Lanzoni, 2018). Gaining the true perspective of another can be practised.

Half of the sample of head coaches spoke about work away from the training pitch, where athletes share stories, which enhance understanding of each other across the team:

I got them all to do a five-minute presentation. To get them to talk on themselves,

what’s import to them in their lives, and it can be very moving at times. Maybe a big

event has happened in someone’s past that you weren’t aware of. Again, if we are

talking about empathy, you know they approach a situation in a certain way or their

lens or perspective on certain things. It enables me… that understanding of why

someone is behaving the way they are. I can have more empathy when I have

discussions with them, which hopefully means the outcomes are going to be more

positive, whether that’s on them personally or on them as a player. Yeah, definitely,

things like that are for me, it’s formal, but more informal. We are not directly talking

about sport. I’d probably argue that the other stuff is more important to gain a more in

depth understanding of a person. And knowing how they might tend to react when I

talk to them during a game is important. (P19)

Research has shown that activities like this boost empathy (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013) and the head coaches who use this method insist it helps with cohesion. As one head coach put it:

“stories create connections” (P5).

Here is a typical example of the kind of activity reported by the head coaches:

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We called it Heroes, Hardships and Highlights. So, their heroes in the game,

hardships they’ve been through and their highlights and I gave the first one, to show

them the way and we did a few. They could present a PowerPoint and they could

speak about what they want too. That was it. Some of them just put up a picture of

David Beckham, ‘cos I like his free-kicks, he was a hero of mine’. Hardships was an

injury I had last year. My highlight was when I won the title when I was an Under

fifteen. But some of them spoke about losing parents in front of a whole new group

and I’m choking, I feel it, you see that people have decided to lay it out and some

actually put up a picture of a parent they lost. And that was what I wanted to do, to try

to create a culture of everyone understanding each other. And what that person has

been through, others may have. (P5)

This head coach’s narrative is relevant to elite sport, as it brings people together from all over the world.

Head coaches claimed that they have seen that these story telling activities and other social activities can break down cultural barriers. This helps with building cohesion between athletes and with the head coach:

When you get teams made up of people from different cultures and countries it’s a

great thing to get them to tell each other about where they come from and swap

stories, it’s a really great thing to do. I like to put them in situations away from sport

to help them understand what their skills are, you know, what they do with their free-

time, other interests. It’s the same, the more I know about a player the better I can

connect with them and the more they know about each other the better they connect

with each other as well. (P16)

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The researcher probed further, asking: Is there anything that you’ve been surprised to find out about your players through this?

Oh, loads of things, yeah. Lots of musicians, impressionists, actors or things like that.

It’s fascinating, they have all these different skills and you’d never guess. One was a

film critic and you know, he reviewed films, so there’s a personal bond helped there.

We go away to games we have a lot of time on the bus it’s something to chat to them

about and you can strike up a conversation and share things in common and you feel

more human to them. That gives them the chance to come to you more readily with

sport related, performance related issues. (P16)

Head coaches admitted to encouraging social engagement between athletes in other ways to enhance empathy, and build cohesion:

We have a creche and things like that and some of the players have built closer

relationships between their families, as a consequence, and that brings the group

tighter together. There’s a greater understanding of each other as a result. The closer

they get the easier they can predict how other players are feeling or thinking, so

ultimately, we are encouraging empathy. (P18)

As this quote demonstrates, head coaches identify the need for building team cohesion, which they claim has knock-on effects. For example, head coaches explained that the cohesion sought by head coaches also brings resilience:

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I think that’s important on the field of play, which I guess is what we are working

towards, that we had a resilience as a team because what you’ve done by building

those bonds by a more emotional intelligence approach, a more empathic approach

between the players you have trust and respect and when the proverbial hits the fan,

Dave’s got my back, Ian’s going to come through. (P6)

As well as resilience, two head coaches (P5, P17) advised that closer relationships aid team cohesion: “We are a tight group. Everyone is on the same page” (P17). This can be influenced by length of time people have worked together. Working in context of elite sport can mean dealing with regular changes of personnel: “If there are changes you have to try to retain that team cohesion” (P5). Knowing athletes over longer period was described to be advantageous:

This sounds really wrong, or arrogant, but I’m the perfect fit for this club right now.

Most of the guys I had in the academy, I identified, and I brought them into the team.

I have a nucleus of players who have absolutely and trust in me. My captain, for

example, I’ve known for a long time, our philosophies are aligned. If the club went to

him today and said right, we are getting rid of the head coach, he’d say no, no way, if

you do, I’m going. That’s how strongly he feels about the relationship. And that’s

putting words in his mouth, but… it’s how I think it is and I am the right fit for right

now. (P17)

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Head coaches and athletes become able to see and feel other perspectives through time spent together in close relationships. By understanding each other, athletes can effectively work towards common goals (Galipeau & Trudel, 2006); making the team more cohesive (Friedkin, 2004). The data shows that head coaches actively seek increased team cohesion and believe it enhances two other variables: team resilience and team alignment. A head coach’s pursuit of team cohesion seems understandable as cohesion is valuable to any team seeking success (Salas et al., 2015).

5.4.5. Encourage Athlete Wellbeing Athlete wellbeing was reported as a motivation for employing an empathic leadership style. Empathy is known to aid healing and maintain health (Kohut, 1971). Head coaches recognised the importance of encouraging athlete wellbeing and its effect on performance.

Empathy was recognised as having a major influence on this, sometimes the realisation had come too late:

They can seem right as rain and we’ve had name of athlete as a bloody good example,

it’s obviously been well-documented, he’s mental health issues. As a young player,

everybody took the piss out of him. We had name of athlete. They had a brilliant

relationship, but it was relentless, name of athlete is a really funny guy, but I

wondered is that why he ended up where he did, we don’t know. (P17)

This quote illustrates the head coach’s frustration about an athlete’s decline, possibly due to a lack of focus on their wellbeing.

Although empathy is also known to positively impact injury healing time (Ebrecht et al., 2004), mental health dominated head coaches’ narratives concerning athlete wellbeing.

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Mental health problems are on the increase across society and athletes are no exception

(Gulliver, Griffiths & Christensen, 2012). Even without mental health issues in an athlete’s private life, the pressures associated with performing in sport at elite level can be enough to induce anxiety:

If they feel anxious, I try to understand the severity of that. In the younger players in

particular it’s a fairly common occurrence now. Sometimes, it’s a matter of telling

them that how they are feeling is normal. Other times it’s about something like

depression or self-harm. (P3)

These deeper issues were commonly expressed in the stories captured: “It’s so important you understand what people go through. It’s their lives and their livelihood. What you can say to one player, can have a massive impact on them mentally” (P15). The relationship between mental health and performance is something head coaches were aware of.

Head coaches claimed to be approachable and prepared to respond compassionately with a view that “what is best for the person is best for the athlete” (P18). The data showed that head coaches can find it difficult to get a true picture of their athletes’ mental wellbeing.

Several head coaches claimed that ensuring athletes were honest about their wellbeing could be frustrating and that they have to be both pro-active and reassuring:

I’m constantly on at the guys about being honest. I want them to come to me and go

you know, I’m feeling shit, I’m struggling, and this could be a day before a game. I’ll

say okay, but they won’t do it, they’ll think you’ll leave them out. I’ll say, it’s my job

to make sure you are ready for this game, so we now have twelve hours to get you

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ready. I’m not dropping you. I may drop you in two weeks’ time if we are in the same

position, but my job is to help you. But if I don’t know something and you’re going

I’m fine, and I know in my gut you’re not going to perform and the cricket tells us

that. (P17)

A close relationship was held to be the best way of achieving this:

There’s lots of psychological tools, but a closer relationship helps you understand

people better, you get to find out about family issues and you get to learn how they

deal stress etc. Sometimes a player might act very calm and cool and yet I know

behind the scenes it’s a shitshow at home. (P12)

Head coaches explained that: “every detail of an athlete helps” (P3) obtain an accurate picture of their wellbeing. The picture the head coach has will influence interaction with the athlete.

The difficulty of knowing how to communicate with an athlete with a mental health issue was explained by this head coach:

It’s important not to react. That reaction could set up how that player perceives you,

moving forward. If someone misplaces a pass in their first session and you scream

and shout at them then automatically, you’re putting pressure on them and, if

someone is self-harming, you can’t act emotionally, you need to say okay, we will sit

down and talk about this. If players do tell you something, I’ll say I’ll talk to you

tomorrow about this, especially if they’ve messaged you. It allows distance and

emotional regulation, so you are in a place to help them. (P3)

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The motive to encourage athlete wellbeing did not focus entirely on getting the athlete’s performance.

Head coaches acknowledged their responsibility for the athlete:

Not everyone needs the same thing…Some work environments, ours is different, it’s a

game, we are meant to be having fun and enjoying every moment and I think we do. I

think empathy is one of the big skills... Would I be doing it, if I were working in

scaffolding or something where health and safety was more of a concern. If someone

hasn’t worn a hard hat because, if I let them get away with it, and someone sees that.

In other walks of life, its different. (P12)

One head coach admitted that they need help to fulfil that responsibility:

Leaders don’t know everything, they have a broad perspective on a lot of areas, but if

you’re in sport. I aint the physio, I aint the doctor, I aint the bio-mechanic, I aint the

psychologist. There’s a lot I don’t know. I can have some knowledge, but I’m not an

expert so I have to rely on an expert to give me the knowledge I need to apply to the

team. You have to be very comfortable in your own skin to say, actually I don’t know.

(P15)

Whether driven by the implications for performance or responsibility, elite sports organisations appear to be taking greater care of athlete wellbeing, as this head coach explained:

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The simple contract we have with our players, outside of their playing contract is we

said that the club is going to treat you unbelievably well, it means lots of things, the

best expertise, the best support we can give them from a performance point of view. It

also means looking out for them in their wider lives. (P18)

However, one head coach in this research warned that there are dangers of just focusing on the individual wellbeing of athletes to the detriment of the goals of the team:

I’m really open about mental health and wellbeing and I think some players let that

creep into their performance. And this year I’ve been clear that on the pitch they have

to put it in and be different, and sometimes they use football as an escape, but they

still carry it. This year we said no, we are here, and we will help you, but don’t bring

it onto the pitch and hurt the team. (P3)

Whilst there has to be a balance between individual athlete wellbeing and the needs of the team, the data suggests that athlete wellbeing is a priority for head coaches in elite sport settings.

5.4.6. Satisfy Expectations Head coaches reported being motivated by the expectations placed on them to employ an empathic leadership style. This is consistent with claims that there are societal

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expectations on leaders to be empathic (Marques, 2015). This expectation will influence the expectations of athletes. The data showed that:

The culture has changed. The millennials coming through need this empathic

leadership style more, they expect it from me. And the managers who have been able

to move with that change have been able to embrace it and get more out of players.

(P5)

Head coaches were certain that athletes now expect empathy from them: “The expectation comes from the players, responsibility comes from the coaches, without a shadow of a doubt” (P2). Head coaches suggested that this may be due to different experiences in upbringing:

I think it comes from society. It’s not the same generation that is playing sports today.

I think when I was coming through, probably when yourself was coming through,

there was different mentalities. We were raised differently. When I was a kid, I was

always out kicking a ball around. I was always out on my own and I knew how to

look after myself and I created my own environment. Whereas now days the kids

constantly need something, whether it’s a computer, company, their mum and dad,

they constant need direction and without it they struggle. (P7)

Head coaches also compared the situation with when they themselves were elite athletes, clarifying what they believe is different:

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People often say players are softer now. I think players were really tough back in the

day and they’re really tough now. You can’t say they are not tough today, that’s a

ridiculous thing to say, but the softness players had before they hid, and they

disguised because it wasn’t the done thing to be seen to be sensitive, and so those

things were never teased out. I’m sure there were coaches that felt the same way, and

could have tapped into those people, but it just wasn’t the way back then. Players are

tough now, people don’t realise they are tough, but that they are more authentic and

can show their vulnerability much more than maybe in the past and I think that’s a

good thing. (P18)

The expectations of athletes are that the head coaches are accommodating and that they explain their actions:

I want you to play this way because it will improve you as a player, the team will

function better, you’ll be able to shine more. I think any coach is somewhat set in

their ways in terms of playing style and so it’s the conversation that’s important, the

explanation so that the players understand. It’s not right just to say what they have to

do and end the conversation there. (P8)

However, it was noted by one head coach:

There’s a higher level of expectation from the younger generation as to how coaches

act towards them, but also with that comes a lack of understanding from them as to

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what they are looking for. Sometimes you’re meeting the needs of a player and they

still think you are not. (P3)

This lack of understanding may lead to an athlete leaving. The data indicated that head coaches need to be honest and clear with their athletes, in order to ensure they are perceived to be understanding leaders.

The data suggests that athletes are less likely to endure a coach who makes no effort to understand them than they may have been in the past. If the head coach refuses to satisfy these new expectations, they risk losing a talented athlete:

I’ve played for managers like that and I’ve taken it okay and found it hard obviously,

because how I take something from someone is not going to be how someone else is

gonna take it. I played for a manager for a few years, a very strong character. I

thought the world of him. He always played me. He was very strong with how he

came across. Now the turnover of players he had was huge. I knew that he wasn’t for

everyone. It worked for me, I could say come on why have you taken that personally,

you must know he doesn’t mean it. It’s also about understanding that as much as I

thought that those players should have been able to tolerate or understand that, they

didn’t and so you have to understand that different people understand things

differently and learn at different rates and may realise when they get more

experienced that they should have dealt with it in a different way… Now, the onus is

on the manger to deal with what you have. The players won’t conform to the way you

do things, they’ll go. (P5)

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At the end of this head coach’s interview, something else was revealed about their former coach:

It’s interesting because that manager that I mentioned working with, that I found

okay, but had a high turnover, he came up to me a few years ago and I asked him if he

was going to manage again and he said he couldn’t do it now because he understood

that the way he did things wouldn’t work and he’d just get himself a job and lose it

because he’s too old to change and too set in his own ways. But it was interesting that

he understood that change. (P5)

Head coaches made it clear that many past practices would not be tolerated and explained that empathy has to be an ever-present part of leadership and be part of who they are as individuals. Head coaches suggested this expectation also came from themselves: “I think it does come from players, society, and myself.” (P8). Empathy was recognised as a personality trait:

I class myself as a very empathetic person. I think if you asked my group and my

players, they’d say I’m a hard-edged person, which I don’t think I am, in most

circumstances. I’m always considering how my behaviour impacts the players. (P2)

The data suggested it is a trait that permeates into their work, rather than a strategy, as suggested by another head coach:

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I’d like to think it’s embedded in my coaching practice. It’s not about one or two

examples, its more pervasive than that, it’s more of a mindset, a philosophy, its

embedded in everything you do, being authentic is key. You can’t just use empathy

when you think an empathic approach is relevant, is kind of missing the point. It’s just

you either are or you aren’t. (P6)

The data characterises the different kinds of people in leadership roles in contemporary elite sport, compared with two decades ago. The wide-ranging expectation of a head coach seems now to be that they will be an empathic leader:

I definitely think it’s more challenging now, but because I wasn’t a coach 20 years

ago, I can’t really compare. It’s difficult, and probably was back then. But now the

close relationships and understanding the players mentally and emotionally is a huge

aspect. (P7)

The researcher probed further and asked: And is it something you enjoy, that aspect?

I love it, yeah. I love it. It’s something I enjoy communicating, understanding people,

caring for people. So, it’s a part of my coaching that I guess comes naturally because

that’s who I am as a person. (P7)

The researcher probed further and asked: Do you think certain types of people are suited to an empathic leadership style, are the elite coaches embracing the style?

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Definitely, there’s a lot more coaches in that way now. It would be interesting to

compare with coaches of 20 years ago… Years ago, it was if Tommy doesn’t toe the

line then Tommy is out and needs to find another club. Whereas now it’s not that way

so much, the player has a lot more power. Because of society and relationships. (P7)

Head coaches insisted that the role of head coach has changed. Some head coaches confessed that the role as it was twenty years ago, wouldn’t have suited them at all:

I’m lucky to be a coach at this time. I’m not the sort of person who could have

coached people the way they were expected to be coached 30 years ago. But I can be

the right guy now days. I’m not sure how much the needs changed me, or how much I

am the right fit for this need. But I’m glad to be in this business now. (P14)

Many of the participants associated empathy with their own identity. The researcher asked: Do you use empathy in your role? And one head coach replied: “Massively, I think that is one of my super strengths as a coach” (P17).

Whether elite sport organisations are seeking more empathic coaches due to societal expectations, athlete expectations, or a belief that empathic coaches are more successful remains unclear. What is clear from the data is that head coaches of teams in elite sport are different people now: “Generally what it’s opening up is for a different type of person to become a coach in the game” (P15). Another head coach elaborated on this point: “Some people are suitable to an empathic style and what I’ve found in management is you have to be

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who you are… At the end of the day, I’m a people person” (P9). Elite sport organisations, head coaches and athletes are now recognising the need for an empathic leadership style.

5.5. Summary of Findings: RQ2

Six key motivations for employing a more empathic leadership style in elite sport were discovered. These were to: achieve a safe climate, gain an understanding of athletes, enhance athlete commitment, increase team cohesion, encourage athlete wellbeing, and to satisfy expectations. Head coaches explained that: a safe climate encourages honesty, creativity, and wellbeing; by gaining an understanding of athletes they are more able to serve their needs, predict their behaviour and tailor communication; by enhancing athlete commitment head coaches can improve team performance and chances of success; by increasing team cohesion they can improve resilience; by encouraging athlete wellbeing they can improve performance and fulfil their responsibilities; and by becoming more empathic in their leadership style they satisfy the expectations of athletes.

The aim of RQ3 was to determine the situations in elite sport that provide an opportunity to employ an empathic leadership style. This will be discussed in the following section.

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5.6. RQ3, RQ4. Opportunities to Demonstrate an Empathic Leadership Style

This section addresses RQ3. What situations in elite sport provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style? and RQ4.What is understood to be an empathic leadership style in elite sport contexts?

A ‘situation’ in this research, is described as a scenario where the head coach must make decisions about how to proceed and in doing so demonstrate an empathic leadership style. Head coaches often explicitly described using empathy, or an empathic approach. In other instances, head coaches described leadership behaviour consistent with empathic leadership (Tzouramani, 2017). During data analysis, examples of these situations were coded with the acronym SIT. Each example was also coded to one of the seven colour-coded themes established in the Template of Final Codes, namely: Trend, Safe Climate, Closer

Relationships, Communication, Empathic Accuracy, Athlete-Centred, Developing Empathy.

Analysis of the interview data revealed situations which provide an opportunity for head coaches to demonstrate an empathic leadership style. These situations involved athlete’s behaviours in relation to the sport and humanistic situations that emerged within a sport setting. For example, a situation where an athlete approaches a head coach with a personal problem.

The head coaches’ examples of the situations they suggest demonstrate an empathic leadership style are presented within the structure of the seven colour-coded themes. The most commonly reported example in each of these themes is identified in bold text and is then described in greater detail.

5.6.1. Trend Situations The data revealed that head coaches had an awareness of the athlete’s perspective.

Head coaches explained that they know athletes are watching their every move, in every

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situation. This includes observing the head coach’s interactions with opponents; the opposition’s head coach, for example. Head coaches showed awareness of there being opportunities to demonstrate an empathic leadership style:

I had a temperamental relationship with a coach from another team and we had and

still have a great rivalry. We have a young squad. We always hit each other at

loggerheads, if you like, but… I think we’ve got to know each other better and I’ve

tried to make our engagements more pleasurable and I’ve got that back from them and

we’ve seen the teams have more respect for each other as a result. We had a surprise

victory against them in the cup this year and they were very gracious in defeat and I’d

never seen that from them before.

The researcher probed by asking: You’ve gained more respect for each other as coaches?

Yes. And I think if your players see that animosity there between coaches, they will

act in the same way. Then they are not focussing on what you want them to do

technically or tactically. (P11)

The example set has the potential to spread empathy through the team (Persson & Kajonius,

2016). It also protects the team from the distractions of head coach disagreements and conflicts that often play out in the media (Hughes, 2018).

Interactions with opposition head coaches may have once seemed threatening and were consequently met with aggression. However, head coaches described these encounters as an opportunity to show empathy and have come to expect it from others: “I always say

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they should have more empathy than that, they know what we’re going through. I like meeting with the other coaches, away from everything, we know what we put ourselves through. There’s an understanding, it’s a brotherhood” (P15). Not only does this demonstrate a head coach’s value of empathy in the situation, it sets an example to observers and reinforces the coach’s reputation for being empathic.

The most common example of a situation to demonstrate an empathic leadership style that was identified in this code was the announcing of the team. As the results of

RQ1 show this event was regularly reported as an example to illustrate the trend towards a more empathic style of leadership. An awareness was expressed as to how the head coach’s approach to this event to mitigate the impact on those athletes not named in the team.

Head coaches explained that the head coach has the opportunity to set an empathic tone with the way they approach this; one that was not apparent in previous eras: “When I played in England, the Friday after training, bang, the manager stuck the starting team up on the wall and disappeared. I’m sure that still happens in some places” (P9). This example suggests the coach wanted to avoid interactions with athletes after picking the team. The attitude was further described by head coaches: “Back when I played, it was the coach’s way or the highway” (P5). Neither does it consider how athletes may prefer to be notified.

In the contemporary elite sport setting the methods available to inform athletes on team selection have multiplied: “Social media isn’t easy to understand for older coaches, for example. I give players a choice of how they want to be notified about selection. Maybe that wouldn’t have been the case twenty years ago” (P16). There is a realisation that athletes should be treated as individuals and that a coach has this opportunity to demonstrate this using empathy: “I recently had a player who expected more of my time upon selection communiques. My time and patience. She just needed to be understood” (P5). Head coaches

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claimed that ensuring athletes feel they are understood has become a priority as perceived empathy has a strong influence on commitment and performance (Amabile et al., 2004; Holt

& Marques, 2012; Mahsud et al., 2010).

Head coaches described the lengths they go to to empathise with the athlete.

Identifying the preferred notification methods for everyone is not an easy task:

Even last night, the older players with their individual feedback, asked for it to be

emailed and so they could email their thoughts back. I think the science says that 25-

35-year-olds want email. Over 35 it’s phone. Under 25 is social media messaging. So,

I’m like, well it might work for you, but not for others. (P3)

This participant was not alone. Others described consulting athletes about their preferences:

They often want to hear via email or something else and that’s one of the things I

have discussed with my team about how they want to hear. Ultimately, there’s no

good way to hear they’re dropped, but why not do it in the way they prefer? (P9)

Further, head coaches expressed concern over maintaining the close relationships they have with their athletes and saw these situations as an opportunity to do this:

The last couple of times that we’ve gone to major events, when we’ve gone recently

with the guys, we asked them all prior to the games, in feedback meetings, how they

would like to be informed of selection. Then each was told how they wanted to be

told, whether that’s, email, phone, text, face-to-face. So that was exactly that, to do it

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however they felt comfortable. We are showing awareness of the different

personalities, so that was the men. Sometimes I’d wish they’d choose email and not

face-to-face because I know they really won’t be happy. And we’ve had that

conversation about their reactions, you know, if you explode, it might be detrimental

to our relationship going forward. (P19)

The consequences of getting this wrong not only threatens the coach/athlete relationship, it may also impact team performance.

Getting team selection notification wrong can threaten performance. The ‘delivery of the message’ of announcing the team was reported by head coaches to be paramount:

If you imagine you are making calls on selection, you have to get the delivering of the

message right. It’s not about justifying it’s about the delivery. If you can explain the

rationale of the process and why you have selected in a certain way and then delivery

it right, that goes a long way to helping the group. I’ve had squads in the past where

selection has derailed things where a player who has been in the side for a long time is

dropped and there’s shock. (P2)

Another consideration is timing. Head coaches claimed that they can show athletes they are empathic leaders by understanding that they may wish to have time to prepare. For one participant, the more notice athletes have, the better:

I coached in for two years and they announced the team the day before the

match and I couldn’t get to grips with it. I used to say to the French that we are

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compromising our prep by leaving things up in the air, but that was their way. I think,

the French did it to stop the other players drinking midweek. For me, I’d rather have a

better prepared team than solve that problem. (P18)

Whether it helps with preparation, relationships, or any other performance related variables, the data suggested that team selection notification provides an opportunity for a head coach to demonstrate an empathic leadership style and that considering the athlete perspective is understood to be part of an empathic leadership style.

5.6.2. Safe Climate Situations The results from RQ2 showed that leaders are motivated to achieve safe climates.

Head coaches described various situations relating to team climate safety that provided an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style.

Head coaches highlighted the importance of managing emotions in post-match situations. The emotions felt after competition may be volatile. Head coaches mentioned the importance of reflecting before reacting in order to limit the potential negative impact that may be inflicted upon the team climate. By understanding that athletes may display negative reactions a head coach is demonstrating empathy. Head coaches explained that emotional reactions straight after a game are avoided entirely where possible. This period may even last for twenty-four hours:

We have a rule, we play on Sundays. Mondays we don’t see each other. I tell players

that I don’t want to hear from them after the game on the Sunday or all-day Monday.

If it’s something really important, then of course, no problems at all. But if it’s

something about the game, come to me on Tuesday and we can talk about it. It gives

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them reflection time for them. You know what it’s like immediately after a game, but

by Tuesday they have probably spoken to someone else, got another perspective,

calmed down and it gives us the opportunity to talk face-to-face. (P5)

While post-match situations clearly require consideration the most common example of a situation that provides an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style, within the Safe Climate code, focused on the behaviour of the head coach during competition, referred to as touchline behaviour.

Athletes need to be able to be their authentic selves without fear of negative consequences for their self-image, status, or career (Kahn, 1990; Edmondson & Lei, 2014).

Taking risks is less daunting if athletes feel they are competing in a climate of safety, and they are able to express themselves more freely.

Leaders can improve climate safety (Rivera & De Rivera, 1992), and the data suggests that the head coaches are constantly influencing the team climate. Head coaches suggested there is opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style via ‘touchline behaviour’ (P3). To demonstrate an empathic style, the head coach needs to be aware of the perspectives of athletes and behave in a way that aids their performance. Head coaches suggested that this has to be learned:

I’ve learned over time, that as a leader my reactions are not viewed the same as a

player’s and I still had a player’s mentality when I started coaching, but now there are

times when my reaction, not vocal, but a , there are times when I

consciously ignore things. If you react bad all the time it puts more unease in the

players. (P20)

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This led one head coach to take a seat in the stands: “you are less emotional in the stands, it’s easy to be a bit more controlled” (P19). ‘Unease’ is unlikely to be helpful to performance. Emotions play a huge part: “The biggest thing is to be aware of what is going on emotionally” (P5). Although this may not always mean sitting calmly on the bench. There are other ways and motives for managing emotions:

There are times when I think we’re too flat emotionally, then maybe I start screaming

at the referee. It’s something that I do consciously, most of the times. I think it helps

when we need something to get going. (P14)

Head coaches explained that events during a game will alter athletes’ emotional state and that this requires constant monitoring. The understanding of the athlete’s perspective has to be ongoing:

We’ve had moments where goals are scored in quick succession. I’ve done some stuff

around emotions, through the LMA, and they talked about emotions staying in your

brain for two minutes and the actual physical processes are ongoing for those two

minutes and until you get that out of your mind you can’t go again. That’s why you

are dangerous when you’ve just scored. I’ve spoken to my players about this and said

that after we score, the next two minutes are really important. Or if something goes

wrong. You need to regulate yourself, get that or whatever, out of your system

and, and get yourself focused again. (P5)

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This level of understanding will help to modify a head coach’s touchline behaviour.

However, participants have gone further in their efforts, with head coaches employing third parties to observe them. In some instances, this was motivated by self-awareness: “I’ve asked people in to watch my sessions because people are frightened of me and I don’t want that”

(P3). This may a third party: “I’ve them come in and watch me on the touchline” or “a critical friend, to ask why are you doing this or that” (P6), or a mentor:

I took an exercise two seasons back where a coach mentor of mine came in and

observed, firstly training and then a whole match day and one of the things he noticed

was the way you act or show yourself on the side-line can be a reflection on the

players and when times are tough and they see arms up on the bench it just makes

them more frustrated, so if we are frustrated, they will be. If they look over and see a

cool head and someone communicating clearly… Look at the end of the day, we are

human and there’s always going to be someone with some emotions happening, but in

the main they get a lot of positives from seeing someone in control and clear in their

thinking. (P8)

Head coaches understood that reflecting on how athletes experience their touchline behaviour demonstrates an empathic leadership style. The data highlighted the belief that how a head coach behaves on the touchline impacts on athletes and will influence their performance.

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5.6.3. Closer Relationships Situations Head coaches referred to situations where they demonstrate an empathic leadership style in a variety of ways when it comes to relationships. Gaining insight is described as key to empathic leadership (Carroll, Roth, & Garin, 2011). Head coaches conveyed stories about one-to-one conversations, with a coach showing interest in discovering more about an athlete.

On journeys, for example:

We go away to games we have a lot of time on the bus it’s something to chat to them

about and you can strike up a conversation and share things in common and you feel

more human to them. That gives them the chance to come to you more readily with

sport related, performance related issues. (P16)

In situations like this, there is a risk of head coaches becoming too close with an individual

(Solomon & Lobinger, 2011), which can bias decision making due to over empathising (S.

Drewe, 2002). This can be to the expense of the team and may be a particular danger when an athlete is in trouble.

There were also stories about developing relationships by helping athletes when they approach the head coach with a problem. Head coaches explained that the way a head coach responds will impact the likelihood of the athlete coming to speak to them about something in the future. Again, head coaches suggested an empathic leadership approach, where they attempt to see the situation from the athlete’s perspective: “I can only imagine in those situations that if you don’t feel comfortable talking to someone you won’t, then the rest breaks down. So, it’s hugely important they feel able to come and speak.” (P16).

Head coaches also referred to situations where empathy is displayed through physical contact. As the reviewed literature advises, physical touch suits a leader with empathic

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aspirations (Munro et al., 2013). As discussed in the results of RQ1, head coaches are now regularly seen hugging their players: “Hugs might be given after someone doing something well… Other times it’s an arm around the shoulder because things haven’t gone well. It definitely shows empathy” (P19).

Head coaches cautioned that this needs to be authentic and comfortable for both parties:

Some will come for a hug. I never try to hug them; it has to be them leaning to me. I

don’t know the environments of those you mentioned, but it has to be authentic, not

falsified. Sometimes coaches do it to give the appearance of a happy family, but you

can see the player’s reaction isn’t as authentic as it should be. (P19)

The specific situation mentioned most frequently by head coaches is one that seems to have become symbolic of elite sport settings and associated with an empathic leadership style: the post-match hug.

The most common example of a situation to demonstrate an empathic leadership style, within the Closer Relationships code, focused on physical contact with athletes, specifically hugging. Head coaches readily referred to successful and famous coaches hugging their players at the end of matches, as seen on television: “you do see Pep Guardiola,

Jurgen Klopp, Pochettino, the younger generation you could say, with a bit more touching and cuddling, hugs at the end of games” (P7). Some of these examples were noted to take things further still: “I study Klopp, Pep Guardiola; who also hug players from the opposition team!” (P10). This seems likely to enhance the importance of employing an empathic leadership style.

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The end of the game certainly seems to be a hugging moment in sport today. Once again, head coaches warned that this has to be tailored for each individual context:

There are players that I’d hug. There are times and moments when it depends on the

person and the moment. We lost two one to name of team last weekend in the 93rd

minute, from an offside goal, and my players had given everything, and they were in

tears, like they’d lost a cup final. I’ve known some of these players for a few years

and I know their families and there is a young player crying in front of me, it’s

natural. I’m a father you know, I do feel like a bit of a dad to some of these players

and you just give them a hug. It just has to be natural. (P5)

As for each individual athlete: “Some are not comfortable with a hug, but it can be a hand slap” (P12). This is further complicated by gender differences. Gender can influence the leadership preferences of followers (Boatwright & Forrest, 2000) and care needs to be taken to avoid inappropriate depths of intimacy (Munro et al., 2013): “I think it’s harder for men if they are coaching women” (P3) and by individual performances: “You know, he’s not playing as well as he normally does. Do I blame him? Do I get on his back? Do I bitch and moan? No, you know. I love him unequivocally” (P6). It seems as if a hug from a head coach reassures the athlete, that no matter what happens their relationship with them is safe. A hug after a loss or poor performance can convey a message of reassurance (Munro et al., 2013).

Authenticity is vital to this behaviour. Like all empathic behaviour head coaches insisted that “it cannot be from a textbook, it has to be from within” (P6). Hugging has to be part of who the head coach is and who the athlete is: “knowing the athlete well is key” (P10).

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Head coaches understood that in professional arenas, care needs to be taken with these tactile behaviours in order to avoid going into inappropriate depths of intimacy (Munro et al.,

2013). For a head coach wishing to demonstrate an empathic leadership style, the end of a game provides an opportunity to do so with a hug. Although this expression of empathy needs to be carefully considered.

5.6.4. Communication Situations Empathic communication is part of empathic leadership (Williams, 2006). Many of the situations concerning communicative opportunities to demonstrate an empathic leadership style focused on communications with the team as a whole group. Such examples included pre-match and half-time team talks, and more general communications throughout the working week.

Listening is paramount to empathic communication and ‘listening’ does solely focus on sounds (Johnson, 1951). It is crucial that head coaches fully understand a situation before they speak to a group (Bennett, 2001). In the following example involving a pre-talk discussion with other staff the head coaches described a level of self-awareness and a process of reflection that were both necessary in order to understand the needs of the team:

We had an important game we had a practice before that game. We go to the coaches’

room and agree we are just not happy with what we’ve seen or felt out there. ‘Oh, we

look so nervous.’ When I feel that, you need to consider, are you sure it’s really the

players and it’s not you? (P14)

The head coach touched on one of the skills required of an empathic leader. Empathic understanding insists on the head coach distinguishing the emotions of the athlete with those

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of their own (Lanzoni, 2018). By reacting to his own emotions in this situation without reflecting on them, this coach could have given an entirely inappropriate pre-match talk and threatened performance.

As well as pre-match team talks, head coaches also presented narratives concerning half-time talks. Once again, the focus was described to be on understanding before speaking and the expectations of athletes are part of this. As discussed in answering RQ1, these expectations have changed, which not only has implications on understanding, but also the delivery of the half-time talk, particularly when things are not going well:

The coaches I had gave the hair-dryer treatment and were autocratic dictators, now

society insists we show more understanding that a lot of people don’t have the same

resilience. A lot of these young people don’t yet understand themselves. I really view

my job as a coach is to help them understand themselves, in order to maximise their

performance. (P3)

This example demonstrates the coach’s assumed responsibility to improve self- awareness in athletes. This is likely to spread empathy through the team as there is a relationship between increased self-awareness and prosocial behaviours like empathy (Pate &

Shoblom, 2013).

The most common example of a situation used to demonstrate an empathic leadership style, within the Communication code focuses on choosing a method of communication. Some head coaches claimed to work to strict rules concerning which mode of communication to use for what, with text being acceptable for:

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only logistics: time, kits to wear. Everything else is face-to-face. If I phone, I use

facetime. I don’t want to be… I’ll send a well-done via text, but anything we need to

talk about it will be facetime or in person. (P17)

The desire for face-to-face communication wherever possible was expressed by all head coaches, the reasoning being it is the best way of attaining clarity:

I prefer face-to-face. Sometimes over the phone. Sometimes they’ll text me about

something important and I respond saying I will not talk about this with you via text.

Because the problem is how do they perceive me to have written something. If I write

something, my tone and my voice and how I present it depends more on how you feel

at the time rather than how I mean it. Emojis arguably could help express emotions,

but for me it has to be face-to-face conversation. (P5)

Avoiding misunderstandings is mentioned in the literature as being a motive for empathic communication (Gilin et al., 2013; Mahsud et al., 2010) and this was mentioned in some of the stories told by head coaches:

I made a mistake, early on, when I coached a university team. I told my players I only

care about what they do at training and matches and what goes on in-between I don’t

want to know about. It was reported back to me that what I wanted to say had been

entirely misunderstood. I meant that if they want to go out socialising or whatever,

they should do so. Uni is a one-off life experience and I didn’t want them to miss out

or to ruin it for them. They took it as I didn’t care about them and their personal lives

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and that they shouldn’t come to me if they have problems. That’s a huge difference.

And that was face-to-face! The chances of miscommunicating via email or text are

even greater, so I learned a lesson there. (P4)

This narrative ends by alluding to the mode of communication, which other head coaches agreed can influence clarity. This has become more complicated by the advent of social media and communication apps:

I used to use the upside-down smiley face quite a bit and one of the players got me

after training one day and said you realise that means sarcasm? I just thought it was a

smiley face upside-down! That’s a big thing, in terms of football, a lot of players you

want face-to-face interaction. Or a phone. But they won’t do that, they don’t like face-

to-face interaction. Some, who come from a really good family will be okay with it,

but a lot of young players now communicate only via WhatsApp. You try a phone call

and it’s like pulling teeth, you keep having to ask if they are still there. You can tell it

makes them so uncomfortable. (P3)

This head coach highlighted the importance of head coaches understanding the generation they are working with and how that impacts communication:

Yes, you can have misunderstandings, but young people prefer communicating like

that now days and so you have to use it to some extent. You just have to make sure

delicate stuff is in person and be careful of your tone in messages and how you might

be heard or read. (P11)

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Generational differences were not the only ones described by head coaches. They also highlighted differences in preferences of the modes of communication between male and female athletes: “The women I coach told me they prefer everything by email” (P2). Other head coaches supported this: “Women like a record of what you’ve said, blokes don’t care so much about that stuff” (P3). Electronic methods of communication certainly do provide a record or proof of the communication, which head coaches explained leaves athletes without excuses for missing meetings. “I text or send them a video. See if they’ve read it. If they’ve read it or come back to me, I’m fine” (P1). Participants explained that text messaging can save their time and so encourage athletes to do so: “So they will text me when they’re not feeling great” (P1). Further, if an athlete cannot attend a training session that is in preparation, a phone call may be too much of a distraction from the needs of the group:

“Now, it’s a case that if someone can’t get to practise, they will text me and that’s fine as it’s often late night or early morning and I need to plan” (P20).

The individual athlete may not prefer this method and prefer to have a discussion with the head coach about their reason for not attending training. Care needs to be taken by the head coach to ensure that the needs of the group are met, without the individual athlete feeling ignored or unvalued.

Head coaches understood that an empathic leader should be an empathic communicator. Clarity in communication is essential. Head coaches need to be mindful about the modes of communication they employ. By choosing communication methods that acknowledge the athlete’s needs, the head coach demonstrates an empathic leadership style.

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5.6.5. Empathic Accuracy Situations Empathic accuracy has been a focus of research in elite sport in recent years (Lorimer

& Jowett, 2009). Empathic leaders are expected to have more information about each athlete, due to a closer relationship with them. “So, for me it’s each individual is different in how they react to certain situations and so obviously you have to get to know them on a personal level” (P20). Head coaches explained that by gaining this level of understanding of an athlete’s inner thoughts and feelings they can predict how they will react in certain situations:

I think it’s really important that if you are caring about an individual player then you

have that understanding of where they are at, at this time. I couldn’t do that 2 months

ago, as I didn’t really know them, but 2 months on I can see, in the time that I have

had them, where I know they could potentially get to. (P1)

Head coaches explained that they use the information gained to predict potential, which helps inform decisions about retaining talent. Predictions are not always positive. Head coaches explained that knowledge of an athlete helps to predict their potential in the sport:

One of the most talented athletes we ever had was constantly distracted by things in

his personal life. We tried to help him, but just couldn’t get anywhere. He didn’t want

things to change… so we moved him on and despite his talent, he’s never done

anything in the game, which is sad, but as far as this club goes, we got that right.

(P16)

This story further illustrates the importance of time spent with an athlete. Lorimer

(2013) describes the development of empathic accuracy as a collecting of impression cues

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that allow a leader to infer how an athlete will behave. Time and close relationships help to reveal the real person and this information provides the coach with an opportunity to employ their empathy in order to predict reactions (Schneider, 2013):

I have a better understanding of the players’ perspectives, by putting in the time to get

to know them on different levels and that takes away the draining aspect because I’m

more likely to do things right. I’m not left wondering how they are going to react

when I see them next. (P20)

Therefore, armed with information, a head coach can make more informed decisions.

This may help to resolve a dilemma over selection:

I want to look at the players and what each can bring to the team. That will get the

best out of each of them. If you need a guy to be the only defensive midfielder who

wins a lot of balls but sometimes gives it away… I have another guy who never loses

the ball but who wins it back a lot, so… I have to choose and live with one and then

look at who can help compensate for the negatives. (P10)

As well as helping in selection situations, head coaches explained that it helps the coach to understand what other action may be required: “We had one guy, he could handle big games. I could see it in him days beforehand. We got him to work with our psychologist and now he’s a different bloke” (P18)

However, head coaches explained that this does not always mean the coach has all of the necessary information to make an accurate prediction. Head coaches described situations

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where they had learned new things that armed them for the future. This can lead to a change in the way things are done. One head coach described a situation where young athletes who were practising suddenly started taking fewer risks. The head coach noticed that this coincided with their parents entering the viewing gallery: “And that’s when I banned all the parents. Because their behaviour changes. You want them to have fun like kids in a park just playing and that’s one of the barriers” (P17). This head coach understood that athlete behaviour could be predicted by considering a change in the context, specifically, who was watching them.

Another head coach explained that you never really know how an athlete will respond until you have seen them in the same situation:

Until you see players in these situations, you don’t really know them. I had a player I

dropped to change a team shape and she was very professional and I knew her well,

but I didn’t know how she’d react and I wondered you know, because until you’ve

seen someone in that situation, no matter how well you know them, you never know

how they’ll react. Thankfully she was fine. And she came on and did well. It could

have easily gone the other way. I’ve had that surprise, where I’ve thought, I didn’t see

that coming. (P5)

The most common example of a situation to demonstrate an empathic leadership style, within the Empathic Accuracy code, focused on telling an athlete they have been dropped from the team. This example covers any situation where a head coach can use what they know about the inner thoughts and feelings of an athlete to predict their reaction to events like being dropped. Head coaches explained their concern about the reactions of one

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athlete having negative repercussions for the whole team. Participants explained that they could predict how different athletes would react, but that their procedures should be consistent. The timing of informing an athlete they have been dropped is vital: “The crazy one for me is the manager naming a team an hour before kick-off. I mean, that would be bizarre to me, finding out you’ve been dropped in that moment” (P9). A narrative from another head coaches supported this point and explained wider concerns about negative reactions:

I do it the day before a game. If you tell them the day of the game, their reaction could

impact the rest of the players. If it’s the day before, their impact won’t affect the

players on game day. And I don’t think the individual player needs to prepare the

night before the game and emotionally and physically, to be told just before that they

are not playing. That will make their reaction worse too. (P20)

Empathic accuracy skills can be employed to avoid such damaging reactions

(Khosravi, Manafi, Hojabri, Farhadi,& Ghesmi, 2011), and have been found to be an indicator of leadership success (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008).

Dropping an athlete can never be easy and can be made more difficult if the athlete is an established star. The head coach may fear doing so but can plan their action using what they know (Lorimer, 2013). Timing and communication seem paramount. An understanding of the individual will help to predict their reaction and plan leadership behaviour in a way that limits unwanted reactions. Therefore, this situation provides an opportunity for a head coach to demonstrate an empathic leadership style by employing empathic accuracy.

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5.6.6. Athlete-Centred Situations The data from RQ1 shows that as part of a trend towards a more empathic leadership style, leadership in sport has become more athlete-centred. Athlete-centred describes a humanistic, caring and empowering approach to coaching (Kidman & Lombardo, 2005).

Head coaches illustrated this by describing situations in which they claimed their actions demonstrated empathic leadership by focusing on caring for individual athletes. In the following example, a head coach describes a situation where two athletes were arriving to work in a place they had never visited:

We got two foreign athletes that have lived in two different countries, so you know,

trying to get them to understand what it’s like here was our first focus and what is

important about name of team. So, it was about giving people info about the place and

the psyche behind team. (P1)

This example shows that the head coach imagined the perspectives of these two new recruits rather than ignoring their experience of the situation and focusing entirely on the team. A less empathic approach may have meant the head coach giving the new recruits nothing more than basic logistical information, telling the athletes where to be and at what time.

The head coaches warned that not all head coaches may understand what an athlete centred approach entails:

I’ve been coaching at a national squad level since 1996, so what’s that now, 22yrs, so

in 20 years certainly I’ve seen a change in style away from autocratic. Certainly, I’ve

seen a change in coach education, which I’ve also been involved in. Just the

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phraseology used, you know the people talking about athlete-centred coaching. I think

there are plenty of people out there who just don’t have a true understanding of what

that means or maybe don’t even have a clear idea of what their own coaching

philosophy is, or they do but their actual behaviour doesn’t always match that

philosophy. (P6)

Head coaches demonstrated a deeply ingrained athlete-centred approach in situations even where athletes they no longer coached came to them for help:

The greatest joy I get from leading the team isn’t when we’ve won a championship or

other things it’s when a former player calls you if they need help with projects like the

one you are doing, I had a former player who is at University and she called and asked

me to participate in her work because she knew how I am as a person and that’s more

rewarding than on-ice success. When you’re empathetic to the players and they know

you care for them, it’s going to mean more in life than for what sports do for you.

(P20)

A level of concern for the person behind the athlete is also portrayed in the following narrative:

I find the biggest achievements of my coaching career came at the beginning when I

coached kids: a fifteen-year-old kid, was 100KG and a lost , he couldn’t socialise

and he was just a big guy who couldn’t find his way. And we managed to make him

become an athlete, a better guy who is more… who has a better relationship with

himself. He made his body into the one he wanted. I saw him having a girlfriend. He

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quit hockey, he was a terrible hockey player, but I saw him living the life he wanted

to live. (P14)

The athlete-centred approach requires the coach to be there when the athlete needs them and involves the athlete in decision making (Kidman et al., 2005). However, one head coach explained that athletes sometimes come to the coach about too many problems, despite remaining committed: “problem with the physio, the eggs at breakfast…get a life! It’s constant, but I wouldn’t swap it for the world” (P15). Head coaches seemed aware that they might be judged by the individual athlete and other observers if they dismiss calls for help, however menial they may seem:

So, when they go through things in their life and they contact you to say this and that

has happened, you know. We had one this morning where a staff member is not in

today because her car has been broken into over-night. My first thought is how must

she be feeling. There’s obviously issues to deal with football wise. But for me, first

thing is how is she feeling, don’t worry about us. Get yourself sorted and I’ll catch up

with you later. You need to make sure she’s ok. If she’s not, she’s not going to do her

job well. As a manger I can focus on her as a person and let other people worry about

covering. Hopefully you get the returns for caring about people. (P5)

A common situation reported was where staff or athletes came to head coaches with reasons for not attending training. One head coach pondered about whether he had been seen to be too accommodating:

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I report to a performance director and to people higher up the food chain and players

missing training is a red rag to a bull to them, they see it in very black and white

terms, you know. You’re either in or you’re out. And I was under a lot of pressure to

make different decisions, and I’m no longer the national coach and I’d stood up for

the players on a number of occasions and some of those decisions have probably

ultimately cost me my job as the national coach.

I’m not saying what I did was right, I think that’s too reductive, but it was appropriate

given the situation and the information available to me at the time. To have that clear

, you’ve dealt with people how you want to, and that goes along with

empathy and emotional intelligence, I guess. (P6)

The data suggested that getting reactions right is helped by experience. Head coaches explained how much their own personal experiences can be drawn on in situations where athletes approach them about matters in their personal lives: “I’ve shared stuff about my own life, and I can tell they appreciate it” (P2).

Similarly, head coaches described situations where athletes had come to them with tragic news, like the one described by P6 in the section of this chapter entitled Wellbeing.

Once again, experience was to be of help: “I’ve lost people, I know how they’re feeling. I mean not exactly, but I share my experience with them, and they believe I care, you know”

(P6).

This is further evidence that the role of the head coach does not focus only on sport but includes offering life advice and fostering the personal growth of athletes (Gano-

Overway, 2013).

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Expressing empathy and maintaining an athlete-centred approach in a situation is more challenging when the head coach does not have the life experiences to draw on. Head coaches described situations where they had no experience, which required more effort and imagination:

I had a player, a young player of 16 and… she was self-harming, so I had to… she

was a very talented player and important to the squad… I had to strip things back and

see things from her point of view and the effect it was having on her as an athlete and

her as a person too. (P11)

Where experience is lacking, the imaginative skill of mentalising becomes a necessary tool for the empathic leader (Gilin et al., 2013).

The most common example of a situation to demonstrate an empathic leadership style, within the Athlete-Centred code, focused on athletes approaching their coach about an athlete life event: “I’ve had men athletes approach me who’ve split up with their girlfriends” (P5). It seems that the older the athlete is, the more complicated it may be:

It’s difficult. If there are kids involved and it’s a divorce, it’s a hard one to deal with.

Maybe fortunately for us, that usually happens when athletes are finished playing and

start getting on their partner’s nerves! I wouldn’t wish it on anyone, obviously. I’ve

only had two divorces with athletes of ours over a twenty-year period. I that’s it.

Sometimes you just don’t know what to say to them if I’m honest. All I can do is

listen and see if I can help. (P10)

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This situation provides an opportunity for the head coach to express empathy for the athlete’s personal situation. Head coaches understood this to be part of an empathic leadership style and that perceived empathy improves wellbeing (Burch et al., 2016), trust

(Morelli et al., 2017) relationships (Naudé & Buttle, 2000) and commitment (Joireman et al.,

2006).

5.6.7. Developing Empathy Situations Head coaches described situations in which they employ role rotation of athletes to increase understanding between teammates: “sometimes we rotate roles on the pitch, so that the players get an idea of what it’s like for someone else” (P18).

There were also examples based in classroom or other settings away from the training field or court. Encouraging knowledge of one and other seems fundamental and head coaches gave examples of the ways this can be achieved. The following example focuses on understanding on how other athletes are likely to react in different situations. This could be labelled as ‘empathic predict training’ as the head coaches claim it helps athletes to understand each other’s perspectives and behaviours:

I got a game over Christmas called Sussed and I’ll play that with players. It’s who in

your group would you most like to have on your side in a zombie apocalypse? Who in

the team would eat the last doughnut? It’s having those… doing it in a fun and safe

environment, where they are sharing thoughts and ideas and understanding each other

as people is fine. (P6)

Empathic accuracy relies on deep knowledge of others (Hodges et al., 2015) and head coaches claimed to work on this by getting the group together in different social contexts:

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“we might see a movie, or take them to the theatre, just to see how each of them react to whatever it is. And for them to see others react” (P17). Such engagements with the arts are known to induce empathy (Argo et al., 2008).

The most common example of a situation to demonstrate and empathic leadership style, within the Developing Empathy code, focused on group work. Group work refers to activities communicative activities where athletes get to know more about one another, like athletes exchanging personal views or biographical stories. Head coaches explained that sometimes athletes require cues to initiate this:

I asked the whole squad to meet me after lunch in our meeting room and to bring a

story of a moment in which they first realised this was going to be their profession. I

was worried nobody would say anything, but wow, did we listen to some great stories

that day. (P14)

Exercises like this require athletes to engage in the task of perspective taking.

(Stanger et al., 2012). This develops understanding of the other, for the head coach as well as the other athletes.

The understanding that is developed between athletes includes an appreciation of the limits of their emotions, which have been created by life experiences. The following example was described by a head coach who managed to get athletes to tell their stories to the group:

It was great to see people open-up and talk about things and it also helped me when

I’m saying things and how I say them. You know, and banter and stuff in

football is a real tough subject. It is rife and it’s something you do in the workplace,

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but if you don’t know the person that you’re saying a joke to, or what they’ve been

through, then offence can be taken even if it’s not meant to be given. Until I know a

person, I don’t know what they’ve been through. Understanding them was really key.

(P5).

Emotional responses to a situation can be consciously or unconsciously connected to an athlete’s history (Boyatzis et al., 2012) and knowledge of this is likely to be dependent on the length of time a coach has known an athlete and the kind of relationship they have. The more that group members know of this history the more appropriate care they can take.

If the environment in which a head coach operates is a caring one, it is likely to have been created by a caring coach (Hellison, 2000; Newton et al., 2007). A caring environment also enhances the safety of the climate (, 2010).

The contemporary context of elite level team sports is one of cultural mix, which means fewer shared experiences of growing up. Head coaches claimed that this made these team exercises, that allow athletes to learn about one another, even more crucial:

The group I have in Norway, a lot of them went to school together and that helps.

When you get teams made up of people from different cultures and countries it’s a

great thing to get them to tell each other about where they come from and swap

stories, it’s a really great thing to do. (P16)

Head coaches understood that these practices in group work reflect an empathic leadership style. While the literature reviewed highlighted other ways of developing empathy

(Bal & Veltkamp, 2013) these were not mentioned by head coaches.

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5.7. Summary of Findings: RQ3 and RQ4

Seven common situations in which head coaches can demonstrate an empathic leadership style in elite sport were identified, along with what is understood to be an empathic leadership style in these situations. These were described as: (1) team selection notification, with head coaches suggesting that methods need to be explored with athletes and that delivery and timing are important; (2) touchline behaviour, head coaches identified the importance of the athlete’s perspective of them during competition and suggested they should be seen to be calm, in control, and to be actively managing emotions; (3) post-match hugging, head coaches referred to successful head coaches who have become synonymous with the practice and claimed that it has to be an authentic action and that it can be complicated by gender differences; (4) choosing a communication method, head coaches held that understanding and clarity were sought, and that face-to-face communication is preferable; (5) telling an athlete they have been dropped, head coaches suggested that their knowledge of the athlete can tailor their decisions about how and when to inform them and that close relationships with athletes can make this process difficult; (6) athlete life event, head coaches reiterated their focus on the individual as a person not just an athlete; (7) group work, head coaches described specific activities that enhance empathy and understanding, including the sharing of biographical stories.

5.8. Chapter Summary

The data from Phase One of this research has addressed the research questions. These findings highlight that leadership in elite sport has become more empathic. A shift to an empathic leadership style has been identified in other industries (Holt et al., 2017; Kock et al., 2019; Tzouramani, 2017). This trend is reflected and evidenced in this research by: a greater focus on a safe climate, closer relationships, empathic communication, and employing

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empathic accuracy. However, this research also provided evidence of behaviours included in the trend, which reflect the uniqueness of the context of elite sport: a more athlete-centred approach, and a focus on leadership practices devised to develop empathy within teams.

The key motivations for the trend towards a more empathic leadership style were found to be to: achieve a safe climate, gain an understanding of athletes, enhance athlete commitment, increase team cohesion, encourage athlete wellbeing, and to satisfy the expectations of the athlete.

The data also revealed situations in which head coaches have demonstrated an empathic leadership style. Seven common examples were identified. These are described as: team selection notification, touchline behaviour, post-match hugging, choosing a communication method, telling an athlete they have been dropped, athlete life event, and group work. These situations provided the foundations for the Phase Two of this research, the results and discussion of which will now be presented and discussed one vignette at a time in

Chapter Six.

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Chapter 6. Results and Discussion of Phase Two

This chapter presents the results and discussion of Phase Two of this research. This phase employed another method to provide head coaches with an opportunity to validate and expand on the data related to RQ4. What is understood to be an empathic leadership style in elite sport contexts? Phase Two involved thirteen participants completing an online survey, which included seven vignettes that had been created from examples of empathic leadership collected during Phase One. The results are presented and discussed one vignette at a time.

The chapter closes with a summary of the results and discussion of this phase.

6.1. The Vignettes Data

Leadership takes place in situations (Billsberry, 2009; Grint & Jackson, 2010). The vignettes were inspired by interview data from Phase One, which sought to understand situations that demonstrated an empathic leadership style. Each vignette is labelled A to G and represented one of the overarching themes, which were colour-coded in the data analysis of Phase One. The vignettes were created from situations identified in Phase One that provided an opportunity for head coaches to demonstrate an empathic leadership style (see

Figure 6.1). The vignettes described a situation and the actions of a head coach, which respondents were required to rate on a scale the extent to which the head coach’s actions represented an empathic leadership style. Phase Two allowed all head coaches to consider the situations and leadership behaviours described in the vignettes.

Head coaches were then asked to provide reasons for their response and suggest ways the head coach might demonstrate a more empathic leadership style. The vignettes were presented to head coaches in a randomised order so as to guard against order effects.

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Figure 6.1 Themes to Vignettes

The results and discussion of each vignette are presented below. Each begins with a description of the vignette, the question posed to the head coaches and the results of the quantitative data. Reasons given for the responses and the suggestions made as to how a head coach could employ a more empathic leadership style are then presented:

6.1.1. Vignette A: Team selection notification Each Friday, after training, a Head Coach of a men’s football team puts up a team sheet outside the changing room. He then turns off his mobile, gets in his car and drives home with the intention of not speaking to any of the players until they arrive for the game the following day.

This represents an empathic leadership style?

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Figure 6.2 Results: Vignette A

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All thirteen head coaches disagreed that this coach’s approach represents an empathic leadership style and believe that empathic leaders should communicate information with empathy and consideration for others (Williams, 2006). The qualitative comments of head coaches also confirmed what was found in the data from Phase One, namely that this type of leadership behaviour represents the leadership behaviour that was typical twenty years ago.

Moreover, the head coaches claimed that this leadership behaviour does not occur now:

“Being available to explain selection decisions is crucial. Players need clarity. This leadership would be controversial now” (P17).

Head coaches claimed they accept the perspectives of their athletes are to be taken into consideration, as noted by one head coach:

This shows a total disregard for the feelings and emotions of the players. If the coach

wants to name the team in this manner, they must have a system in place whereby

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players can communicate with them and given opportunity to discuss why they may

or may not be in the team. (P8)

Effective leadership in elite sport has to include engaging with athletes about practices rather than dictating to them (Rollnick et al., 2019). The data from Phase One showed that the head coaches believed that an empathic leadership approach would be to discuss team notification methods with their athletes. One coach noted that an empathic leader should:

“discuss with the players how they would like to receive the news about team selection.

Follow the players wants and needs.” (P6). Another head coach added that selection notification must involve a “consistent policy” (P9). This aligns with the ‘desire for clarity’ expressed by head coaches in Phase One and considered vital to leaders in contemporary elite sport (Rollnick et al., 2019). One of the head coaches who chose disagree somewhat noted:

As long as the players are aware that this is a consistent policy then I think it’s okay.

It doesn’t impact on the selected players. However, it is important for the coach to be

available to communicate with non-selected players. Perhaps after the first training

session post-game. (P18)

This comment demonstrates how the policy might impact those athletes selected and those not selected. The head coach is taking the perspectives of the athlete into consideration. The negative impact on the athlete not selected may damage the relationship with the coach and have negative consequences for the team over the longer term. Moreover, findings from

Phase One suggest that athletes observe and evaluate head coach behaviour, and the coach’s behaviour in this vignette may be perceived by all athletes to be lacking empathy, which can have negative consequences for a team (Chan & Mallett, 2011)

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The actions of the coach outlined in the vignette were not considered to represent an empathic leadership style. Head coaches considered the behaviour as being from a previous era. These findings validate the credibility of the data presented in Phase One that highlighted that head coaches have employed an empathic leadership style (reported in other industries) and moved away from an autocratic style (McGregor, 1960) that lacks concern for others the perspectives of others (Marques, 2015). The responses from the head coaches suggest that a leadership style can make the working environment more humane considerate and less stressful, all characteristics of empathic leadership (Costa & Glinia, 2003). One head coach commented that the leader in the vignette “Shows a disregard by the coach for the players’ concerns” (P2).

The views of head coaches on team selection notification methods can be characterised as insisting on clear and consistent policies, that consider the perspectives and concerns of athletes gained through open, clear and dynamic communication. This approach aligns with an athlete-centred approach to leadership, which is humanistic, caring, empowering, and reflects empathy (Kidman & Lombardo, 2005).

6.1.2. Vignette B: Touchline behaviour After a colleague described her touch-line behaviour as very emotional, a women's football Head Coach asks a third party for analysis and feedback of her behaviour and body language during training sessions and matches.

This represents an empathic leadership style?

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Figure 6.3 Results: Vignette B

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The majority of head coaches either strongly agreed or agreed that obtaining an analysis of touchline behaviour represented an empathic leadership style: “it is important for a coach to be aware of their behaviour” (P9). Contagious positive and negative displays of emotion (Andreychik & Migliaccio, 2015; Morelli et al., 2015) projected through the head coach’s touchline behaviour can influence the safety of the climate. The data from Phase One suggested that an ‘angry coach’ jumping up and down on the touchline may instil a climate of fear.

The data from Phase One indicated that head coaches need to understand how the athletes perceive the head coach whilst they are on the field or court competing. Athletes may consider touchline behaviour that is calm, and where the head coach looks in control, to reflect empathic leadership behaviour, as it considers the athlete perspective. Head coaches recognised that perceived empathy can have positive consequences for athlete commitment

(Joireman et al., 2006)

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Head coaches recognised that their observed behaviour may be evaluated as behaviour that may help or hinder performance, particularly if athletes fear their coach’s reactions. A lack of safety can be detrimental to performance (Yurtsever & de Rivera, 2010) and inhibit creativity (Andreychik & Migliaccio, 2015; Morelli et al., 2015).

Another head coach reiterated the importance of self-awareness and the empathic nature of touchline behaviour: “I believe this shows a huge amount of empathy from the coach. Before knowing others, I believe one should know oneself first” (P8). ‘Knowing oneself’ is an important part of being empathic (Rogers, 1975). As another head coach explained: “the empathic style is expressed by a willingness to understand self and the impact on others” (P6).

Head coaches were impressed with the desire of the head coach depicted in the vignette to reflect. One head coach pointed out that it is positive that the coach is demonstrating “openness to independent feedback” (P15). Despite reflection not being in the literature on empathic leadership, this head coach understood this to be empathic leadership behaviour: “Reflective practice helps build a better picture of how actions influence the behaviour of the athletes” (P4). However, as another head coach pointed out, this action may be viewed positive, but it does not necessarily mean it is an empathic approach: “it shows a willingness to self-reflect and analyse, which is different to empathising” (P18).

Three head coaches held that the coach in vignette was not demonstrating an empathic leadership style. One said: “I don’t believe you can rely on second-hand information” (P17).

This is an important point as the third-party is not one of the athletes, therefore they may have a very different perspective to that of the athlete. Their feedback will describe how the coach is perceived by an assessor, but not by an athlete. The third-party may seek out empathy,

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mentalising or perspective taking, to embrace the athlete’s perspective, however, their empathic ability will impact efficacy. Capturing the views of athletes may help.

The value of third-party analysis of touchline behaviour was acknowledged by 9 of the 13 head coaches as indicative of an empathic leadership style. However, the head coaches suggested some caution is necessary concerning the accuracy of the information gained through third-party analysis of touchline behaviour.

6.1.3. Vignette C: Post-match hugging The new coach of a women's football team has seen successful coaches hugging players on the pitch after games. As he waits on the touchline, he decides that when the final whistle blows, he will try this.

This represents an empathic leadership style?

Figure 6.4 Results: Vignette C

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Head coaches were divided about whether this scenario demonstrated an empathic leadership style. The head coaches’ comments reflected this division, explaining that care needs to be taken with this approach. This supports the data from Phase One, which illustrates that head coaches need to be authentic with their athletes and not just copy other coaches’ behaviours:

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“If it’s not reflective of the natural personality of the coach, the athlete’s will likely be thinking: what the hell’s going on here” (P2). Authenticity, like empathy, begins with an understanding of one’s self (Rogers, 1957). As another head coach explained: “A non-tactile coach being overly physical with no warning could make the players very uncomfortable”

(P6). The temptation for ambitious coaches to make such mistakes is enhanced by observations made in the Phase One data that many of the most successful coaches in elite sport are seen on television hugging their athletes.

In Phase One, the data highlighted that head coaches insisted on the importance of having an understanding of individual perspectives. This is supported by the comments on this vignette:

Whilst it is true that this kind of approach from coaches/staff can show empathy and

connection between the team members, the coach should ensure they understand their

players first. Is this something they want/need/like? A new coach needs to understand

the person/people first before the athlete. (P8)

The importance of the relationship that the head coach has with each athlete was mentioned by head coaches in Phase One and reiterated here: “It can be dependent on the coach’s relationship with players and also how comfortable they are to do this. Coaches don't need to hug players to show they care for them” (P9). This last point suggests a head coach should not rely on one hug having a significant impact. The hug should be a natural consequence of the nature of the relationship the head coach has with the athlete, as a closer relationship is part of an empathic leadership style (Tzouramani, 2017). The data from Phase

One noted that physical touch would be expected of a leader with an empathic approach

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(Munro et al., 2013). However, the qualitative data from this vignette suggested care should be taken about relationships becoming too close (Solomon & Lobinger, 2011).

Knowledge of the athlete’s feelings was seen as paramount: “hugging should only take place if the leader knows the players are happy with it” (P14).

None of the head coaches who strongly agreed or agreed with the leader in the vignette did so without adding words of caution in the comments section, for example: “But this shouldn’t be something done out of a whim” (P17). Gender differences seems to make the situation even more precarious.

All head coaches focused on the issue of hugging players generally, with only two mentioning that the vignette depicted a male coach, thinking of hugging female players. As one head coach explained: “As he is a male, coaching female athletes, he should not take the initiative” (P10). This is supported by concerns expressed in Phase One, that gender differences can further complicate such situations. Gender influences the leadership perceptions of followers (Boatwright & Forrest, 2000) and care needs to be taken with such behaviour to avoid inappropriate depths of intimacy (Munro et al., 2013).

All head coaches were aware that hugging can be a leader’s expression of empathy

(Haans & IJsselsteijn, 2006). Touch is part of human social bonding and facilitates resonance

(Chatel-Goldman, Congedo, Jutten & Schwartz, 2014) and behavioural synchrony

(Goldstein, Weissman-Fogel & Shamay-Tsoory, 2017). However, head coaches also confirmed that hugging can only represent an empathic leadership style if the leader is authentic, takes into consideration the perspective of the athlete, and the nature and closeness of their relationship.

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6.1.4. Vignette D: Choosing a communication method An Ice Hockey coach tells his players that whilst logistical information may be sent out via text or email, all other communication between him and the players should take place face-to-face whenever possible.

This represents an empathic leadership style?

Figure 6.5 Results: Vignette D

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Head coaches who strongly agreed, agreed, or agreed somewhat, that this coach was demonstrating an empathic leadership style was supported by the Phase One data. The Phase

One data showed that head coaches believed an empathic leader will care, with a preference for face-to-face interactions where possible: “Human interaction is so important, it allows the coach to seek clarity in the message” (P17). Empathic leadership is inhibited by distance

(Kock et al., 2019), a view supported by the literature on empathic communication, which is considered a component of empathic leaders (Williams, 2005). Those head coaches who agreed at some level highlighted the importance of avoiding misunderstandings, with regards

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to building relationships (Gilin et al., 2013; Mahsud et al., 2010). Empathic leadership involves close relationships (Tzouramani, 2017). As one head coach noted: “face-to-face helps build the coach athlete relationship” (P4). Another said: “It is important to communicate directly with players when possible. This helps develop more honest and tighter relationships with players” (P9). In addition to avoiding misunderstandings and enriching relationships, head coaches suggested other advantages of face-to-face communications.

Face-to-face communications allow the head coach to collect extra information: “It also provides an opportunity to “assess body language” (P6). Such cues are important for empathic accuracy in elite sport (Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). Another head coach noted:

“there’s an opportunity when talking to gauge an individual feelings and emotions unlike an email which shows no emotion” (P1). Face-to-face communications allow empathic leaders to increase their knowledge of those they lead, and keep that knowledge up-to-date using physical, psychological and performance impression cues (Solomon & Lobinger, 2011).

Face-to-face meetings also provide an opportunity for the head coaches to show empathy: “Face-to-face shows not only empathy but also trust and support if communicated well” (P13). A head coach may express empathy with no more than a raised eyebrow

(Kupetz, 2014; Main, Walle et al., 2017). Further, any display of empathy perceived by the athlete will have a positive influence on them (O’Malley & Gregory, 2011).

Head coaches who disagreed expressed concern that the head coach was being “too dictatorial” (P4) by insisting on these rules for communication, and that they should

“consider the preferences of players in all communications” (P2). These head coaches believe athletes should have choices available to them and be engaged in decision making (Rollnick et al., 2019). This position supports the data from Phase One, which shows that head coaches

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believe empathic leaders should be engaged in dynamic communication with their athletes about preferred modes of communication.

Phase One of this research revealed instances where head coaches claimed they had been misunderstood and noted their desires to ensure such misunderstandings are limited.

Head coaches aimed to reduce these misunderstandings by focusing on face-to-face communication where possible. However, the Phase Two data has shown that communication practices can become complicated given the communication preferences of the athlete. The head coach in the vignette may or may not be satisfying all their athletes with the chosen modes of communication. Individual athletes may not enjoy face-to-face conversations, which can lead to negotiations between head coach and athletes on communication strategies.

Empathic leaders are considered skilled communicators, capable of a variety of communication methods (MacDonald, 2015; Socas, 2018). Embracing different modes of communication to meet the needs of athletes reflects an empathic leadership style

(Tzouramani, 2017).

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6.1.5. Vignette E: Telling an athlete, they have been dropped A football squad assemble in the changing room, an hour before the semi-final of the

World Cup. The Head Coach enters and tells a big-name player, who is renowned for his volatile temperament, that he is being dropped from the team.

This represents an empathic leadership style?

Figure 6.6 Results: Vignette E

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Strongly Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Strongly Somewhat Somewhat Disagree

Head coaches who strongly disagreed or disagreed that this coach was demonstrating empathic leadership align with the data from Phase One. The Phase One data suggested that head coaches believed they can predict an athlete’s behaviour and reactions, given their close relationships and levels of empathic accuracy. This is supported by research on empathic accuracy (Ickes, 1997; Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). Empathic leaders understand how information will be received because they understand the inner world of the receiver

(Goleman, 1996). Knowledge of a ‘volatile temperament’ would indicate that this vignette does not represent an empathic leadership style.

All head coaches except one recognised this scenario as an opportunity to show empathy and understanding. The comments of head coaches reveal that their approach is to

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see the situation from the athlete’s perspective and that the approach in the vignette: “shows a lack of concern for how that player may feel or look in front of their peers” (P2). Empathic leaders work to achieve goals without compromising others (Williams, 2006). The coach in the vignette fails to do this:

No empathy shown at all. Player needs to know well in advance, a more private

setting where there can be a rationale outlined and a discussion without the rest of the

team being privy or involved in potential emotive language. Totally undermines the

whole team ethos by outing a player in public. (P4)

This comment also demonstrates an awareness of the wider implications of the potential reaction of the athlete. Empathic accuracy can be utilised to avoid the damage of reactions

(Khosravi, Manafi, Hojabri, Farhadi,& Ghesmi, 2011), and is considered an indicator of leadership success (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008). The timing of informing the athlete that they have been dropped does not mitigate against the potential volatile reactions. As another head coach noted: “Last minute decisions like this will massively unsettle the team” (P15).

The one head coach who suggested that the example demonstrated an empathic leadership style supported their claim by suggesting that the action: “Could send a strong positive message to the rest of the group about the team being above the individual” (P6).

While the argument may have credence, by putting the team above the individual it contradicts the leadership practices that an empathic leader would employ.

The data on this vignette suggests the head coaches did not agree that the head coach was demonstrating an empathic leadership style. Rather than embarrass an athlete in front of

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the squad and risk a negative reaction that has wider consequences for the climate (Ehrhart &

Schneider, 2016) the head coach could have demonstrated an empathic leadership style by informing the athlete that they have been dropped on a one-to-one basis, well ahead of competition.

6.1.6. Vignette F: Athlete life-event A netball player tells her coach that she is going through a tough divorce. The coach tells her she only cares about her training and performances on the court and that everything else is irrelevant.

This response represents an empathic leadership style?

Figure 6.7 Results: Vignette F

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This was the vignette which drew the greatest consensus of opinion amongst the head coaches. All head coaches disagreed that the coach in this vignette was demonstrating an empathic leadership style. This supports the data from Phase One that characterised head coaches as athlete-focused, in that they were unlikely to ignore an athlete’s personal (Kidman et al., 2010) or sport related problems (Gano-Overway, 2013). Leader concern expressed towards athlete who are suffering from personal problems aligns with the worker-centred

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approach described by Boatwright and Forest (2000) and the athlete-centred coaching approach described by Kidman and colleagues (2005).

Head coaches also demonstrated the level of understanding expressed in the Phase

One data, of the potential implications of life events on performance: “If the coach had any degree of empathy and what the athlete to compete well they would be concerned about the mental health and welfare of their athlete and want to offer support and understanding” (P4).

Head coaches also showed the level of understanding expressed in the Phase One data, of the implications of life events on performance: “what is going on in people’s lives is massive”

(P15): “Personal issues such as the above can affect the emotional/mentality heavily and will therefore effect performance” (P9). This indicates that the personal problems and life events of athletes can influence the success of a team and therefore a leader.

As the data from Phase One confirmed, contemporary elite athletes not only approach their head coaches with a relationship issue or other life events, but also with mental health problems (Larkin et al., 2017; Lemyre et al., 2006). Head coaches in both phases of this research accept responsibility and understand the value of supporting athletes in such situations. It is recognised that a leader lacking empathy risks undermining athletes’ mental health through their behaviours, attitudes, and emotions (Chan & Mallett, 2011).

The head coaches were clear that the head coach in this vignette did not demonstrate an empathic leadership style. The data on this vignette highlighted that when an athlete approaches their coach about a problem in their personal life, a head coach with an empathic leadership style would express concern, understanding and support.

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6.1.7. Vignette G: Group work A Head Coach of a Rugby team gets the players together one afternoon and asks them to share stories of their childhood or to describe where they grew up.

This represents an empathic leadership style?

Figure 6.8 Results: Vignette G

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All the head coaches strongly agreed, agreed or agreed somewhat that the coach in this vignette demonstrated an empathic leadership style. This confirms what was found in the interview data in Phase One, which describes the similar practices employed by head coaches to develop empathy and understanding between athletes.

Encouraging empathy in others is recognised to be part of an empathic leadership style and encourages altruism in the group (Persson & Kajonius, 2016). In other industries, like business, active measures are being taken by organisations to develop empathy in all employees (Baker, 2017). However, in elite sport this is left to the discretion of the head coach. Successful empathy training requires individuals to take the perspective of others

(Coulehan, Platt,& Egener, 2001). The data from Phase One of this research suggested that

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head coaches believe that leaders who develop empathy in their teams are demonstrating an empathic style (Tzouramani, 2017).

Two head coaches explained that: “Understanding each other on a deeper level is fundamental to building trust and togetherness” (P15), which seems likely to a have a positive impact on relationships. Closer relationships enable a gathering of information that is necessary for athletes to predict the actions of their teammates (Hodges et al., 2015). One head coach noted that by listening to athlete’s stories he was “showing an interest in the player’s journey, gaining a deeper understanding of the individuals” (P17). This is particularly important in elite sport where understanding others from different countries and cultural backgrounds is difficult due to a lack of shared experiences among athletes (Main,

Walle et al., 2017).

Head coaches described a focus on understanding: “understanding of motivations, background” (P6) and “building closer relationships” (P15). As another head coach explained: “This can be an effective tool to bring a group of people/team closer together”

(P8). The Phase One data highlighted that one of the motivations for an empathic leadership style was team cohesion, as cohesion is associated with empathy (Friedkin, 2004). The data from this vignette identified that increasing empathy in teams improves team spirit, and fosters athlete connections (Costa & Glinia, 2003).

Developing empathy within an elite team allows athletes to become psychologically in tune with others. This was summed up by another head coach, who stated: “Sharing stories and experiences often helps foster team harmony” (P2).

The head coaches who ‘agreed somewhat’, indicated some doubt about whether the vignette demonstrated an empathic leadership style. The qualitative data described reasons for this. There was a warning that “the coach must ensure this is not just a sudden move and

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sprung on the players - a framework must be in place to build on this type of personal/emotional development” (P8) and a danger too in that it “could be very uncomfortable and open up potentially damaging conversations” (P6). It would be paradoxical for an empathic leader to place athletes in a situation where they feel threatened, and this will be counter-productive to creating team cohesion.

Sharing biographical narratives is considered to be an appropriate way of improving understanding and building team cohesion, since stories enhance empathy (Argo et al., 2008;

Thomas & Otis, 2010; Tipsord, 2009).

6.2. Summary of Findings: Phase Two

The vignettes were created from the data collected in Phase One and presented to head coaches for them to judge to what extent these actions represented an empathic leadership style. Head coaches were also asked to give reasons for their response and suggest how the leader in the vignette could have demonstrated a more empathic leadership style.

This allowed the researcher to triangulate qualitative and quantitative data, providing confidence that the findings are true and accurate representations of the head coaches’ understanding of empathic leadership.

Third-party analysis of a coach’s touchline behaviour was widely accepted as part of an empathic leadership style. However, head coaches cautioned that reflective practice was not necessarily a display of empathy.

Post-match hugging was accepted to be part of an empathic leadership style, as long as the coach is authentic in such expressions of empathy, considers the perspective of the athlete, and their relationship.

Head coaches claimed that empathic leaders prefer face-to-face communication where possible in order to avoid misunderstandings and to build closer relationships with their

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athletes. The head coaches recognised that some athletes may not enjoy face-to-face conversations and that this needs to be taken into consideration when employing an athlete- centred approach.

Head coaches believed that in order to demonstrate an empathic leadership style the head coach should react with concern, understanding and support when an athlete approaches them with a personal issue. Again, an athlete-centred or humanistic approach was recommended.

Head coaches also recognised that group work, such as encouraging athletes to share biographical narratives, was representative of an empathic leadership style, as it develops empathy and team cohesion.

However, the findings also revealed what is not considered to be an empathic leadership style within the context of elite sport. Head coaches suggested the example of team selection notification did not represent an empathic style. Similarly, the dropping of an athlete in front of teammates just before a competition was not considered to represent an empathic leadership style. Head coaches held that informing the dropped athlete on a one-to- one basis, well ahead of the match, would demonstrate a more empathic leadership style.

6.3. Chapter Summary

This chapter presented and discussed the findings of Phase Two of this research. The data from Phase Two has addressed research question four. All research questions have been addressed. Chapter Seven summarises the research and presents its conclusions beginning with a reminder of the research questions and objectives of the research.

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Chapter 7. Conclusion

This chapter summarises the findings as they relate to the research questions. The theoretical contributions and practical implications of the research are presented, and the limitations of the study are noted. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research and recommendations for the application of an empathic leadership style in elite team sport.

7.1. Research Questions

Studies of other industries have shown that leaders who display empathy are more effective leaders than those who do not (Ashkanasy et al., 2002; Holian & Prysby, 2014;

Kock et al., 2019; McDougall, 2019; Sadri et al., 2011; Skinner & Spurgeon, 2005). Empathy has come to be viewed as the key ingredient of leadership (Natale et al., 2013; Socas, 2018), and as a consequence empathic leadership is emerging in elite sport. However, the emotionally challenging environment of elite sport (Schneider, 2013) presents a unique context for considering an empathic leadership style.

The aim of this research was to discover if head coaches, as sport leaders, are becoming more empathic and to understand how, when, and why an empathic leadership style is deployed in the leadership of teams in elite sport. Four research questions were designed to achieve this aim:

RQ1. Has leadership in elite sport become more empathic? If so, how?

Objective: To identify changes in leadership practices over time that demonstrate an

empathic leadership style.

RQ2. What are the key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style in

elite sport?

Objective: To identify why an empathic leadership style is employed.

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RQ3. What situations in elite sport provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic

leadership style?

Objective: To identify common scenarios in an elite sport setting where an empathic

leadership style may be employed.

RQ4. What is understood to be an empathic leadership style in elite sport contexts?

Objective: To identify what is considered to be an empathic leadership style in elite

sport settings.

When addressing these questions, the data provided the following outcomes:

RQ1. Has leadership in elite sport become more empathic? If so How? The data suggests that leadership in sport has become more empathic over the last twenty-years. This is consistent with what has been reported of leadership in other industries (Marques, 2015; Tzouramani,

2017). However, together with components of empathic leadership recognised in these other industries, the data showed nuances in the unique context of elite sport. A picture of empathic leadership in elite sport has emerged with six components.

Head coaches have incorporated greater displays of empathy in their leadership practice by focusing on managing emotions (Holt et al., 2017) in order to maintain (1) safe climates (Gano-Overway, 2013), which can impact on team performance. For example, head coaches understood the significance their touchline behaviour may have to the emotions of competing athletes. Head coaches described incorporating empathy in their efforts to create emotional bonds and (2) close relationships with those they lead (Tzouramani, 2017). The boundaries of physical contact may be different in sport and head coaches noted that the athlete’s perspective needs to be considered and that behaviour needs to be authentic. Head coaches described employing (3) empathic communication (Williams, 2006). In elite sport, communication includes delivering instructions to athletes from the touchline during

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competition and notifying athletes of team selections. Head coaches also described employing (4) empathic accuracy (Lorimer & Jowett, 2009). In the context of elite sport, head coaches use empathic accuracy to help predict athlete performance and potential.

The emergent themes indicated that head coaches incorporate empathy in focusing on a more (5) athlete-centred approach with a focus on athlete wellbeing, which can influence performance (Krekel et al., 2019), and on (6) developing empathy within teams, which helps in building team cohesion (Kidman et al., 2010) (See Figure 7.1).

RQ2. What are the key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style in elite sport? Six key motivations for employing a more empathic leadership style in the leadership of elite teams in sport were discovered. Empathy can play a role in each of the six motivating factor, which are to: (1) achieve a safe climate (Gano-Overway, 2013; Holt & Marques,

2012); (2) understand of athletes (Kidman & Lombardo, 2005; Lorimer & Jowett, 2010);

(3) enhance commitment (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011; Schumann et al., 2014); (4) increase team cohesion (Friedkin, 2004; Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2012); (5) encourage athlete wellbeing (Gano-Overway, 2013; Kidman & Lombardo, 2005) and to (6) satisfy societal expectations (Tzouramani, 2017; Zaki, 2014).

As well as these six key motivations, the data identified three other motivations, to: enhance creativity and innovation (Amabile et al., 2004; Kock et al., 2019), build trust

(Schnittker, 2004), and to improve performance (Gentry et al., 2007; Hanold, 2011;

Humphrey, 2013; Sadri et al., 2011).

The data provided the following outcomes for RQs 3 and 4:

RQ3. What situations in elite sport provide an opportunity to demonstrate an

empathic leadership style?

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RQ4. What is understood to be an empathic leadership style in elite sport contexts?

Seven different situations were identified in the data analysis for Phase One, which were used to create corresponding vignettes for Phase Two. The vignettes were provided to allow head coaches to demonstrate and validate their understanding of an empathic leadership style. The vignettes presented the following situations: (1) team selection notification, which focused on how and when a head coach announces the team to his athletes; (2) touchline behaviour, which focused on awareness of how leader behaviour can influence the athletes during competition; (3) post-match hugging, which focused on the benefits and potential pitfalls of such physical contact between a head coach and athlete; (4) choosing a method of communication, which focused on the reasons for choosing modes of communicating; (5) telling an athlete they have been dropped from the team, which focused on how and when to convey such information to the athlete; (6) athlete life event, which focused on the leader’s reaction when an athlete comes to them with a personal issue; and (7) group work, which focused on practices employed by the leader to develop empathy in a team.

The data identified what the head coaches understood to be an empathic leadership style in seven situations. The findings showed that that the selection notification methods that represent an empathic leadership style are based on clear and consistent policies, that consider the perspectives and concerns of athletes gained through dynamic communication

(Beattie & Ellis, 2017; Main et al., 2017). The timing of notifications was also considered to be important.

A third-party analysis of a coach’s touchline behaviour was understood to be part of an empathic leadership style. Head coaches appreciated how touchline behaviour can be experienced by athletes and the impact it may have on the team climate, safety, creativity,

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and performance. Head coaches suggested that empathic leaders in elite sport are more likely to be calm, in control and to be actively managing emotions (Holt et al., 2017).

Post-match hugging was accepted to be part of an empathic leadership style providing head coach is authentic, considers the perspective of the athlete, and their relationship. Head coaches referred to successful head coaches who have become synonymous with the practice or post-match hugging. Closer physical contact was recognised to be part of the closer relationships head coaches have with their athletes in contemporary elite sport. Head coaches cautioned that the situation can be complicated by gender differences (Boatwright & Forrest,

2000) and that inappropriate depths of intimacy need to be avoided (Munro et al., 2013).

Head coaches argued that an empathic leadership style should focus on face-to-face communication to avoid misunderstandings and to build a closer relationship with the athlete.

However, it was also noted that some athletes may not enjoy face-to-face conversations, and that this needs to be taken into consideration. Head coaches noted the importance of understanding the communication preferences of the athlete before communicating with them, which is consistent with the style of empathic communication described by Williams

(2006).

Dropping an athlete in front of teammates just before a competition was not considered to represent an empathic leadership style. Head coaches believed that informing the dropped athlete on a one-to-one basis, well ahead of the match, would demonstrate an empathic leadership style.

Head coaches suggested that in order to demonstrate an empathic leadership style the coach should react with concern, understanding and support, when an athlete approaches them with a personal issue like a traumatic life event. The importance of caring for the person and not just the athlete should be prioritised. This leadership behaviour is consistent with the

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worker-centred approach described by Boatwright and Forest (2000) and the athlete-centred coaching approach described by Kidman and colleagues (2005). It assists the head coach in understanding of the athlete, which was considered a key motivation for employing an empathic leadership style. This expressed empathy is likely to be perceived and valued by the athlete with the personal issue and other athletes within the team. The perception of empathy leads to increased team commitment (Joireman et al., 2006).

Head coaches recognised that asking athletes to share biographical narratives in group work represented an empathic leadership style. Such practices were revealed in the Phase

One data as ways of developing understanding and enhancing team cohesion. The Phase Two data demonstrated that head coaches believed sharing narratives helps develop empathy

(Argo et al., 2008).

Overall, the data from this research suggests that as leaders, head coaches are becoming more empathic and understand how, when, and why an empathic leadership style is deployed in the leadership of teams in elite sport.

7.2. Theoretical Contributions

Leadership theory and research are constantly evolving (Ferkins et al., 2018).

Empathic leadership remains a nascent theory, however, this research contributes to our theoretical understanding of the style. Building on findings from other industries, this research contributes knowledge of empathic leadership by gaining an understanding of the style in the context of elite sport. Firstly, this research highlights six motivations that head coaches in elite sport have for employing an empathic leadership style, identifying why an empathic leadership style might be useful. Secondly, this research identifies six components of empathic leadership in elite sport, facilitating the overall understanding of the style.

Thirdly, this research identifies seven situations common across elite sport, which provide an

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opportunity to demonstrate empathic leadership behaviour. Lastly, this research contributes to the methodological approaches to investigating the style of empathic leadership.

7.2.1. Motivations for Empathic Leadership The six key motivations for employing an empathic leadership style in elite sport were found to be: to achieve a safe climate, to understand athletes, to enhance commitment, to increase team cohesion, to encourage athlete wellbeing, and to satisfy societal expectations of leadership.

The findings demonstrate that head coaches understand that an empathic leadership style will help to maintain a safe climate in elite sport and are aware of the inherent benefits of climate safety, which include enhanced: creativity and innovation (Amabile et al., 2004;

Kock et al., 2019), trust (Schnittker, 2004), wellbeing (Berry & Joannides, 2013), and performance (Gentry et al., 2007; Hanold, 2011; Humphrey, 2013; Sadri et al., 2011). The findings also highlight that individuals are more able to be authentic within safe climates and that this helps head coaches to gain an understanding of athletes.

Head coaches expressed their desire to understand the athletes they lead and are aware of the role empathy can play in this (Czech & Forward, 2010). By understanding athletes, head coaches can adapt their leadership practices to enhance the performance of each one.

Such leadership practices relate to communication, selection, evaluating potential, and recognising emotional states. For example, a greater understanding of athletes provides head coaches with enhanced abilities to recognise nuanced body language. Further, it was found that efforts to understand athletes through empathy and closer relationships are preferred to efforts to understand athletes through psychometric testing.

Head coaches also understand the role empathy can play in the commitment levels of their athletes (Joireman et al, 2006). By understanding the perspectives of athletes, the head

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coach can modify leadership practices so that they are appreciated by each athlete. Where athletes feel their perspectives are understood, through an empathic leadership approach, athlete commitment is enhanced. Contemporary sport offers new challenges regarding commitment, with athletes tempted to put their energy into their brand or online presence at the expense of the team. This may depend on relationships with other athletes and team cohesion.

This research suggests that team cohesion in elite sport is improved through an empathic leadership style. Empathy brings knowledge of the other and this knowledge creates connections (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). Empathy spreads from a leader and throughout groups and empathy is known to enhance cohesion (Pavlovich & Krahnke, 2012). In addition, close connections are recognised to have a positive influence on wellbeing (Lanzoni, 2018).

Athlete wellbeing is sort by head coaches of elite teams in sport due to its link with performance, and empathy is recognised to be supportive to health (Kohut, 1971). This has motivated head coaches to take a more empathic approach. However, the danger of prioritising the needs of one athlete over the team are noted in the findings. There is also the possibility of athletes expecting more empathy than they receive.

There are claims across domains that empathy has become more expected of leaders

(Tzouramani, 2017), and this influence has been found in elite sport too. One of the reported dangers of not providing the empathy that is expected is the loss of talent. Past practices, which lacked empathy, are unlikely to be tolerated by contemporary athletes if options are available for them to move on. The findings show an awareness within the context of elite sport that the reputations of head coaches can attract or repel potential recruits.

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7.2.2. Components of Empathic Leadership The findings of this research reflect previous research of empathic leadership which identified the following components: empathic communication (Williams, 2006), close relationships (Tzouramani, 2017), safe climates (Holt & Marques, 2012), and empathic accuracy (Ickes, 1997). However, the findings provide additional insights into empathic leadership practices in the unique context of elite sport. These insights expand understanding of the afore mentioned components and go further by providing two more: an athlete centred approach and developing empathy in teams. All six components of an empathic leadership style in the context of elite sport are depicted in Figure 7.1, with the two components emerging from this research coloured green.

Figure 7.1 Six Components of Empathic Leadership in Elite Sport

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The findings reveal specific empathic communication practices relevant to sport settings. For example, a head coach may wish to communicate with athletes during competition. Delivering instructions or receiving feedback in such situations provides a further challenge for the application of an empathic approach, where the delivery of instructions is tailored to each athlete. Head coaches utilise their knowledge of individual athletes, gained through close relationships, to communicate empathically.

Closer relationships were reported to have become a feature of the elite sport context with head coaches keen to develop emotional bonds as well as high levels of understanding and trust. The dangers of a head coach becoming too close to an athlete feature in the sport leadership literature (Drewe, 2002). This research also highlights problems associated with distance, in that closer relationships with athletes can lead to biased decision making. For example, dropping an athlete is more difficult for the head coach if they have a close bond with that athlete. Such decisions can pose a threat to both these relationships and the safety of the climate.

Creating a safe climate is achievable through managing emotions (Decety & Cowell,

2014). However, this research shows that in sport this often has to be done from the distance of the touchline, with the climate being of importance both during and away from competition. Further, sport provides regular and unpredictable changes in emotions, providing greater challenges for empathic leaders wishing to understand and manage the emotional states of others.

Empathic accuracy allows leaders to understand athletes’ emotions and to predict the performance and potential of athletes and teams. Findings highlight the head coaches’ value of close relationships to empathic accuracy. The more the head coach knows about the athlete

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the easier it is for them to recognise their emotional state at a particular time in a particular context.

Each leadership context has its own challenges for empathic leadership and these challenges reveal more about the style. Therefore, these insights to the context of elite sport add to the contextual development of the theory of empathic leadership.

Further, as well as the four components discussed, two additional components emerged as being essential to the empathic leadership style in elite sport: an athlete-centred approach and developing empathy in teams. Although there has been limited research focused on the practical implementation of athlete-centred coaching (Bowles & O’Dwyer,

2020), advocates have suggested that empathic individuals should be chosen as coaches

(Kidman & Lombardo, 2005). This research contributes new knowledge about how empathic leadership practices in elite sport include an athlete-centred approach, which is aimed at enhancing athlete wellbeing and inclusive decision making.

Moreover, the active development of empathy within elite teams of athletes is believed to improve team cohesion and understanding between athletes. This can influence teams during competition when communication between athletes can be tailored individually to maximise effect. The efficiency of empathic communication in the context of elite sport is understood to offer a competitive advantage, as is team cohesion.

In summary, this research contributes to the theory of empathic leadership by defining six components of empathic leadership in elite sport, which are depicted in Figure 7.1. The two components emerging from this research coloured green.

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7.2.3. Situations for Empathic leadership For the first time, situations unique to the context of elite sport have been considered in relation to an empathic leadership style. The vignette data shows that leadership takes place in situations and in doing so adds to the work of Billsberry (2009) and Grint & Jackson

(2010). This research also builds on the work of Fielder (1967) by highlighting that different situations call for different leadership approaches. It also supports the research of Zaki and

Ochsner (2012) by establishing that empathic processes are dependent on contextual factors.

The findings highlight seven situations common across elite sport, which provide an opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style. Further, this research identifies what is understood to be empathic leadership behaviour in these situations.

The findings indicate that team selection notification is approached by an empathic leader in a way aimed to minimise negative affect on athletes. This approach mitigates the impact on those athletes not named in the selection and represents a distinct change to the leadership behaviours of head coaches in previous eras. The situation offers a head coach an opportunity to set an empathic tone, which satisfies athletes’ expectations of how an empathic leader should behave.

This behaviour is also expected during competition situations when a head coach’s touchline behaviour needs to be conducted with an awareness of its influence on the athletes competing. To get this right, empathic head coaches may invite third party analysts to observe their behaviour and gain understanding of its impact. The findings also identified that while head coach touchline behaviour is preferably controlled and calm, it can also be aimed at inciting the emotions of athletes should that be deemed necessary. The emotions of athletes require constant monitoring so that the head coach can tailor their touchline behaviour effectively.

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After competition, the head coach has an opportunity to embrace individual athletes.

As the leader, the head coach is required to understand the perspective of each athlete so that physical contact is not perceived negatively. This includes understanding gender and cultural differences, the personality of the individual athlete, and the nature of the relationship each athlete has with the head coach. Further, the importance of a head coach’s physical contact being perceived as authentic behaviour is considered essential. The findings show that post- match hugging should only be conducted authentically, with consideration of the individual and the mutual relationship. Getting this wrong can have negative consequences for the ongoing relationship between the head coach and athlete.

Relationships rely on communication and the head coach is often in a position where they have to choose a method of communication. In this situation, it was found that choices should be made with respect to athlete preferences and that where possible face to face communication is preferred by empathic leaders. Face to face conversations offer the head coach a better opportunity to observe and react to the body language and facial expressions of athletes. This arms the head coach with information that will help them gauge an athlete’s thoughts and emotional states in future situations.

The understanding of athletes gained by head coaches enables them to predict how an athlete will react to negative news, like being dropped from the team. The reaction of an athlete in such a situation may have consequences for the whole climate and, therefore, impact on the team performance.

Situations also arise where an athlete approaches the head coach with news of an external life event. Once again, the head coach has to consider the needs of the athlete and those of the team. The findings identified that empathic head coaches will prioritise athlete wellbeing, with the view that expressed empathy for a personal situation will improve trust

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between the head coach and athlete, and also enhance athlete commitment over the longer term. Further, the way a head coach behaves towards an athlete in such a situation will be observed by other athletes and this will influence their opinion of the head coach.

The opportunity to demonstrate an empathic leadership style also arises when the head coach has a squad of athletes together in a room for what is described as group work.

The findings identified group activities conducted by head coaches that were designed to develop empathy within the group. Such activities include the sharing of biographical narratives. This work is carried out with the belief that it will help to improve team cohesion through mutual understanding and connection.

7.2.4. Methodological Contributions Finally, this research has made a significant methodological contribution to investigating empathic leadership. Previous research of empathic leadership has employed methods such as studying the empathic quality of the language used by leaders (Kock et al.,

2019) and empathy being ranked and compared with other leadership attributes (Holt &

Marques, 2012). However, this research is the first to employ a sequential, mixed methods design to validate the data collected across two phases of research. From a methodological perspective the use of vignettes is an innovative way to validate data collected in a previous phase of the research. This research has shown that such an approach can be used with confidence to demonstrate authentic understandings of an empathic leadership style in the context of elite sport.

7.3. Practical Implications and Recommendations

A number of practical implications for coaches in elite team sport have emerged from the findings of this research. First, the leadership of teams in elite sport revolves around the coach-athlete relationship. Empathy helps to create close bonds and high-quality

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relationships. The empathic leadership style in elite sport engenders mutual understanding of the inner world of the other. To maintain this the head coach should focus on dynamic communication, face-to-face where possible, as long as the athlete is comfortable with this, and provide the explanations and feedback in a way preferred by the athlete. These behaviours need tailoring to individual athletes.

Second, athletes have expectancies of leadership including the presence of empathy.

By not demonstrating empathy in their leadership style, a leader may be seen as out of touch by their athletes. Whereas head coaches who express empathy will be more appreciated and respected. This encourages athlete commitment and builds trust.

A significant threat to the success of the head coach in contemporary elite sport is the presence of a toxic climate. In order to avoid this, and create and manage a safe climate, the head coach should seek to understand the team and manage emotions within it. Empathic leadership abilities, such as empathic communication, building closer relationships, and developing empathy within teams will improve the team climate. A favourable team climate has additional benefits for the head coach in that it helps to retain and attract talent.

Greater knowledge of athletes will allow a head coach to improve their understanding of their athlete’s intentions and potential. It will also reveal areas of weakness that require improvement. Social events may be used to gain deeper knowledge and understanding. A head coach can use social events as a mechanism to reveal unknown interests and talents in the team. When an athlete feels known, accepted and understood, they will feel less vulnerable, which has positive implications for their wellbeing.

Knowledge of athletes and closer relationships should help a coach to understand the appropriateness of physical contact. Successful contemporary coaches are often seen hugging athletes, particularly after matches. The coach should make sure such gestures are authentic

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expressions of emotion, well received, and do not make the athlete feel uncomfortable in anyway.

A coach should endeavour to take a humanistic approach and to appreciate the athlete primarily as a person, and help them to develop as a human being, not just an athlete. This will have positive repercussions for the potential of the athlete and the team climate.

To maintain an empathic leadership style, the head coach needs to commit to developing empathy in themselves and expressing it in all situations in order to be viewed as authentic. Empathic leadership should not be viewed as a style that can be immediately adopted from a textbook. Empathic skills need to be developed and this takes time. This will involve mentalising, practising listening, refining communication skills, and engaging in other practices known to develop empathy, like reading fiction or engaging with other narrative art.

Reflective practices may also help a coach to understand the perspectives of their athletes. An example of this is third-party evaluation of touch-line or training ground behaviour. The coach needs to remain aware of the contagious nature of their emotions and the potentially detrimental impact of their reactions. A message is sent to the player who has just made a mistake and looks to his coach. The message should be one of encouragement rather than , which will place the athlete under greater pressure. However, some athletes may respond well to additional pressure and the coach will only determine such details by knowing athletes better.

These findings can inform the recruitment practices of elite sport organisations seeking to employ empathic leaders. Empathic leaders should be considered assets to sport organisations because they are able to maintain close relationships, safe climates, commitment, job satisfaction, wellbeing, team cohesion, and attract talent.

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Sport organisations should also look to develop empathic leadership practices in young coaches. Coach programmes should, therefore, include empathy development. The athlete-centred approach to coaching should be a focus due to the wellbeing of an athlete influencing performance. Coaches should be encouraged to include athletes in decision making and the relational aspects of coaching should become a focus of coach development and training programmes since the successful leadership of teams in elite sport is dependent on the coach-athlete relationship.

7.4. Limitations

Generalisations cannot be made from the findings of this research due to the research design, sample size, and the aim of seeking a rich and dense understanding of what head coaches believe constitutes an empathic leadership style in elite sport. Future research could employ an entirely quantitative approach with a greater sample size. Such an approach might also reduce the impact of researcher subjectivity, although this could be at the expense of the depth and understanding of findings (Searle, 2018).

7.5. Future Research

This research provides several other directions for future research. Future research should explore gender or cultural differences in views of empathic leadership. There is research showing that empathy is experienced and expressed differently across genders and due to cultural contexts and values (Main et al., 2017). Cultural differences in the expression and experience of empathy have been noted in the literature (Chopik et al., 2017) and were mentioned in the findings of this research by a head coach who worked in China after spending most of his career in Europe. Future research could focus on this area of cultural differences concerning empathy in sport or across industries.

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Research to date has been limited to adult, elite sport, leaving space for future research on recreational and youth sport. Moreover, current empathic leadership research has focused on the environment of athletes and coaches and future research should investigate the value of employing an empathic leadership style within the sport organisation; the complexities of which have been a focus for researchers in the domain (Swanson & Kent,

2014).

The opinion of athletes on empathic leadership should be investigated. Future research could compare the findings of this research with the opinions of athletes from elite teams. This would provide a significant contribution to what is known about empathic leadership in elite sport, as it would broaden our understanding of how an empathic leadership style is valued. Research may also consider the views of other stakeholders, for example: fans, sponsors, CEOs/employers, NGBs, and volunteers.

Worker wellbeing is a focus for empathetic leaders (Krekel, Ward & De Neve, 2019).

The recent Covid-19 pandemic appears to have increased the focus on worker wellbeing.

Future research could look into the impact of the pandemic on empathic approaches to leadership and concern for worker wellbeing. Such work could compare the findings of this research with post-pandemic findings.

In other industries, including business, programs have been designed to help develop empathy in leaders (Baker, 2017). The findings of this research did not reveal why the participants had not been exposed to such programs. Future work could approach the heads of sport organisations to gather views on empathy training and development.

Finally, the development of an empathic leadership scale that could be used to compare findings across sports, genders, geographies, and cultures would provide a significant platform for future research. A scale would enable comparisons between different

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sports and therefore identify sports which sports should consider it or identify reasons as to why they have not.

7.6. Concluding Summary

The findings presented here indicate that the leadership of teams in elite sport has become more empathic. The nature of the empathic leadership style in the context of elite sport has been identified. The findings revealed the key motivations of head coaches for employing an empathic leadership style in the context of elite sport. A model of the six components of empathic leadership in elite sport has been presented (Figure 7.1). In addition, situations have been identified in which empathic leadership practices are deployed, and these practices have been described. These findings make a theoretical contribution to the developing theory of empathic leadership, provide a platform for future sport leadership research, and have practical implications for the sport industry. To conclude, the style of empathic leadership in elite sport has been identified, described, and understood.

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Appendix A

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Empathic Leadership in Sport: Adult Participant Information Sheet

Investigators Details: Peter Sear, Dr Steve Swanson & Professor James Skinner, Institute for Sport Business, Loughborough University, London, 3 Lesney Avenue, The Broadcast Centre, Here East Queen Elizabeth Park, London E15 2GZ. Tel: 0203 818 0777.

We would like to invite you to take part in our study. Before you decide, we would like you to understand why the research is being done and what it would involve for you. One of our team will go through the information sheet with you and answer any questions you have. Talk to others about the study before making a decision if you wish.

What is the purpose of the study?

The purpose of this study is to explore the use of empathy in leadership in team sport. Empathy has become a more valued aspect of leadership in other industries. However, there is a lack of research of the value of empathy in sport leadership.

Who is doing this research and why?

This work will be carried out by Peter Sear, who is working towards a PhD, under the supervision of Professor Skinner.

What will I be asked to do?

Participants will take part in one interview and/or complete an online survey. Interviews will be conducted by Peter Sear and last 60 minutes. The online survey will take no longer than 30 minutes. Both events can be arranged at your convenience, within January or February 2019.

Once I take part, can I change my mind?

Yes. After you’ve read this information and asked any questions you may have, if you are happy to participate, we will ask you to complete an Informed Consent Form, however, if at any time, before, during or after the sessions you wish to withdraw from the study please contact Peter Sear to let him know. You can withdraw at any time, for any reason and you will not be asked to explain your reasons for withdrawing. However, once the results of the study are collated, it will not be possible to withdraw your individual data from the research.

Will I be required to attend any sessions and where will these be?

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Interviews will take place at the participant’s place of work. If this is not possible an alternative venue maybe found at Loughborough University, or somewhere that is convenient for the participant.

How long will it take?

Interviews will take 60 minutes. Online surveys should take around 30 minutes to complete.

What personal information will be required from me?

Participants will be asked to discuss their own experiences of leadership, their own leadership practices, and thoughts, motivations and approaches to leadership behaviours in given situations, and to leadership in general.

Are there any disadvantages or risks in participating?

There are no foreseen risks in participating in this research.

Will my taking part in this study be kept confidential?

Interviews will be audially recorded to enable transcription after which the audio will be deleted. Participants will be coded and not quoted by name.

I have some more questions; who should I contact?

Peter Sear: [email protected] Loughborough University London 0203 818 0777

What will happen to the results of the study?

The results of the study will be published within articles to be submitted to academic journals, discussed and reported on other platforms, and form part of a PhD thesis. A summary of these results will be given to each participant in the study.

What if I am not happy with how the research was conducted?

If you are not happy with how the research was conducted, please contact the Secretary of the Ethics Approvals (Human Participants) Sub-Committee, Research Office, Hazlerigg Building, Loughborough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, LE11 3TU. Tel: 01509 222423. Email: [email protected]

The University also has policies relating to Research Misconduct and Whistle Blowing which are available online at http://www.lboro.ac.uk/committees/ethics- approvals-human-participants/additionalinformation/codesofpractice/ .

What are the possible benefits of participating?

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Participants may find the reflective aspect helpful to their work. All participants will be provided with a summary of the findings of this research.

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Appendix B

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Empathic Leadership in Sport:

Informed Consent Form (to be completed after Participant Information Sheet has been read)

Please Taking Part initial to confirm agreement

The purpose and details of this study have been explained to me. I understand that this study is designed to further scientific knowledge and that all procedures have been approved by the Loughborough University Ethics Approvals (Human Participants) Sub-Committee. ------

I understand that taking part in the project will involve being interviewed and/or completing an online survey. ------

I understand that I am under no obligation to take part in the study, have the right to withdraw from this study at any phase for any reason, and will not be required to explain my reasons for withdrawing. ------

Use of Information

I understand that all the personal information I provide will be processed in accordance with data protection legislation on the public task basis and will be treated in strict confidence unless (under the statutory obligations of the agencies which the researchers are working with), it is judged that confidentiality will have to be breached for the safety of the participant or others or for audit by regulatory authorities. ------

I understand that information I provide will be used for research outputs, publications, reports, web pages, etc. ------

I understand that personal information collected about me that can identify me, such as my name, will not be shared beyond the study team. ------

I agree that information I provide can be quoted anonymously in research outputs. ------

Consent to Participate: I voluntarily agree to take part in this study

______Name of participant [printed] Signature Date Peter Sear ______Researcher [printed] Signature Date

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Appendix C

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Semi-Structured Interview Questions:

1. Have you used empathy in your leadership? How? What does it offer?

2. Do head coaches have a more or less of an empathic approach now? How/why?

3. Do you believe an empathic approach is helpful? Why would you choose one?

4. Give an example of a leader being empathic towards you? Or one lacking empathy?

5. Give an example of you being empathic to an athlete? Or lacking empathy?

6. How distant do you like to be from athletes? Have you found it easy to form closer

relationships with athletes? What does that offer? What challenges are there? Gender?

7. Has empathy had negative consequences in your leadership?

8. Is it important that your athletes are empathic towards each other?

9. How important is a safe climate? What does a safe climate offer and how do you

maintain it?

10. How do you communicate with athletes: examples? Do you tailor communication?

11. Do you predict the behaviour, feelings or emotions of athletes? How?

12. If you were in my shoes, what would you ask?

• Thank individuals for their cooperation and participation in this interview.

• Assure them of the confidentiality of the responses.

• Ask if they would like a summary of the project’s findings.

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Appendix D

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Screenshot example of NVivo word search

Examples of manually coded transcripts (obscured to maintain confidentiality)

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