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Understanding Empathic Leadership in Sport

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Understanding Empathic Leadership in Sport Understanding Empathic Leadership in Sport by Peter Sear (B631507) A Doctoral Thesis Due date: 14th July 2021 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University Supervisors: Professor James Skinner & Dr Steve Swanson Word Count 86457 © Peter Sear 2021 UNDERSTANDING EMPATHIC LEADERSHIP IN SPORT List of Contents LIST OF CONTENTS II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VI ABSTRACT VII PRESENTATIONS & PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM THIS THESIS: XI GLOSSARY OF TERMS XII CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background 1 1.2. Context 4 1.3. Objective 5 1.4. Research Questions 5 1.5. Thesis Overview 6 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1. Leadership 7 2.2. Empathy 8 2.2.1. Affective/Emotional Empathy 11 2.2.2. Cognitive Empathy 14 2.2.3. Developing Empathy 17 2.3. Empathy and Leadership 21 2.4. The Trend Towards Empathic Leadership 24 2.5. The Empathic Leadership Style 30 2.6. Communication and Empathic Leadership 34 2.7. Relationships, Empathy and Leadership 37 2.7.1. Trust 37 2.7.2. Distance 38 2.7.3. Balance and Burnout 39 2.7.4. Exploitation and Bias 41 2.8. Psychological Safety 43 2.8.1. Managing Emotions 44 2.8.2. Psychological Wellbeing 46 2.8.3. Innovation 48 2.9. Chapter Summary 48 CHAPTER 3. THE CONTEXT OF SPORT 50 3.1. Sport Organisations 50 3.2. Leadership in Sport 52 3.2.1. Empathic Practices 54 3.2.2. Situational Leadership 58 3.2.3. Experience and Self-Awareness 59 ii UNDERSTANDING EMPATHIC LEADERSHIP IN SPORT 3.2.4. Gender 65 3.2.5. Culture 66 3.2.6. Burnout 67 3.3. Empathic Accuracy 69 3.4. Communication Between Head Coach and Athletes 72 3.5. The Team Climate 75 3.5.1. Athlete Wellbeing 78 3.1. Chapter Summary 82 CHAPTER 4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 84 4.1. Ontological and Epistemological Foundations of the Research 84 4.2. Research Design 86 4.2.1. Research Questions 90 4.3. Data Collection: A Mixed Methods Approach 91 4.4. Phase One: A Qualitative Approach 92 4.4.1. Participants and Sampling 95 4.4.2. Data Collection: Semi-Structured Interviews 100 4.4.3. Pilot interviews 102 4.5. Data Analysis: Phase One 103 4.5.1. Templates and Coding 103 4.6. Phase Two: A Quantitative Approach 109 4.6.1. Sampling 109 4.7. Vignettes Study 110 4.7.1. Pilot Vignettes 111 4.7.2. The Vignettes 112 4.7.3. Data Analysis: Phase Two 113 4.7.4. Triangulation of Data 114 4.7.5. Confidentiality 115 4.7.6. Ethics 116 4.8. Chapter Summary 116 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: PHASE ONE 118 5.1. Interview Data 118 5.2. RQ1. A Trend: Leadership Has Become More Empathic 119 5.2.1. Timescale 119 5.2.2. Changes 128 5.2.2.1. Safe Climate 129 5.2.2.2. Close Relationships 134 5.2.2.3. Empathic Communication 153 5.2.2.4. Empathic Accuracy 161 5.2.2.5. Athlete-Centred 169 5.2.2.6. Develop Empathy 180 5.2.2.7 Challenges 187 5.3. Summary of Findings: RQ1 198 5.4. RQ2. Key Motivations for Employing an Empathic Leadership Style 200 5.4.1. Achieve a Safe Climate 201 5.4.2. Gain an Understanding of Athletes 204 iii UNDERSTANDING EMPATHIC LEADERSHIP IN SPORT 5.4.3. Enhance Athlete Commitment 215 5.4.4. Increase Team Cohesion 219 5.4.5. Encourage Athlete Wellbeing 224 5.4.6. Satisfy Expectations 228 5.5. Summary of Findings: RQ2 235 5.6. RQ3, RQ4. Opportunities to Demonstrate an Empathic Leadership Style 236 5.6.1. Trend Situations 236 5.6.2. Safe Climate Situations 241 5.6.3. Closer Relationships Situations 245 5.6.4. Communication Situations 248 5.6.5. Empathic Accuracy Situations 253 5.6.6. Athlete-Centred Situations 257 5.6.7. Developing Empathy Situations 262 5.7. Summary of Findings: RQ3 and RQ4 265 5.8. Chapter Summary 265 CHAPTER 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF PHASE TWO 267 6.1. The Vignettes Data 267 6.1.1. Vignette A: Team selection notification 268 6.1.2. Vignette B: Touchline behaviour 271 6.1.3. Vignette C: Post-match hugging 274 6.1.4. Vignette D: Choosing a communication method 277 6.1.5. Vignette E: Telling an athlete, they have been dropped 280 6.1.6. Vignette F: Athlete life-event 282 6.1.7. Vignette G: Group work 284 6.2. Summary of Findings: Phase Two 286 6.3. Chapter Summary 287 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION 288 7.1. Research Questions 288 7.2. Theoretical Contributions 293 7.2.1. Motivations for Empathic Leadership 294 7.2.2. Components of Empathic Leadership 296 7.2.3. Situations for Empathic leadership 299 7.2.4. Methodological Contributions 301 7.3. Practical Implications and Recommendations 301 7.4. Limitations 304 7.5. Future Research 304 7.6. Concluding Summary 306 REFERENCES: 307 APPENDIX A 355 APPENDIX B 359 APPENDIX C 361 APPENDIX D 363 iv UNDERSTANDING EMPATHIC LEADERSHIP IN SPORT List of Figures Figure 4.1 The Sequential Approach ........................................................................... 91 Figure 4.2 Sports Represented in the Sample .............................................................. 97 Figure 4.3 Nationality of Participants ......................................................................... 98 Figure 4.4 Country of Work ......................................................................................... 99 Figure 4.5 Gender of Coach and Team ...................................................................... 100 Figure 4.6 Template of Provisional Codes ................................................................ 105 Figure 4.7 Template of Final Codes .......................................................................... 108 Figure 4.8 Sports Represented in Phase Two ............................................................ 110 Figure 5.1 Six Key Motivations .................................................................................. 200 Figure 6.1 Themes to Vignettes .................................................................................. 268 Figure 6.2 Results: Vignette A ................................................................................... 269 Figure 6.3 Results: Vignette B ................................................................................... 272 Figure 6.4 Results: Vignette C ................................................................................... 274 Figure 6.5 Results: Vignette D ................................................................................... 277 Figure 6.6 Results: Vignette E ................................................................................... 280 Figure 6.7 Results: Vignette F ................................................................................... 282 Figure 6.8 Results: Vignette G ................................................................................... 284 Figure 7.1 Six Components of Empathic Leadership in Elite Sport .......................... 296 v UNDERSTANDING EMPATHIC LEADERSHIP IN SPORT Acknowledgements This work relied on the generosity of twenty head coaches. Despite the demands of leading in elite sport these individuals found the time to share their stories, inner-thoughts, feelings, and emotions. It was an honour and a pleasure to spend time with these people and I can never thank them enough for supporting this research. I would like to thank Professor James Skinner and Dr Steve Swanson, for their supervision, Dr Allan Edwards, Dr Holly Collinson and Dr Emily Heyday for their insight, Professor Tony Ghaye for exchanging ideas, Joel Warburton from Liquid Lab for advice on data, Mary Lorimer for advice on vignette data, and Angie Applegate for being an empathic librarian. Thank you to Stel Stylianou for introducing me to some interesting people. I’m grateful to Sir Peter Bazalgette for taking the time to talk to me about his work on empathy, Nick Duffell for passing on his knowledge of empathy leaders and Michael Brearley OBE for his advice on empathy in leadership in sport. Thank you to Michael Whan for helping me to make progress. Emma-Jane, Tina and JP, thank you for being kind enough to support my research. I’m grateful for the support and understanding of my whole family and feel fortunate to have you all. A special thank you to Jennifer, Heidi and Isabel for putting up with the path I chose, and for making every day of my life so wonderful. I’d like to dedicate this work to the memory of my uncle, Keith Brewer (1945-2018), who showed me that learning is a life-long commitment, that giving up isn’t an option and that if you stare at something for long enough you will eventually understand what it is. vi UNDERSTANDING EMPATHIC LEADERSHIP IN SPORT Abstract Studies have shown that leaders who display empathy are more effective than those who do not (Ashkanasy et al., 2002; Holian & Prysby, 2014; Kock et al., 2019; McDougall, 2019; Sadri et al., 2011; Skinner & Spurgeon, 2005). Empathy is now viewed as the key ingredient of better leadership (Natale, Libertella, & Doran, 2013; Socas, 2018). The empathic leadership style focuses on an understanding of the feelings and perspectives of others, creating emotional bonds, addressing a team’s and/or customer’s needs, and appreciating and drawing on people’s abilities, and including them in decision-making (Tzouramani, 2017). Today’s employees prefer a closer relationship with their leaders, which fuels demand for an empathic leadership style (Marques, 2015). Despite some attention in other disciplines there has been a lack of research concerning empathic leadership in the sports industry (Peachey, Zhou, Damon & Burton, 2015). The current study attends to this by discovering: (1) if leadership in sport has moved towards a more empathic style; (2) what motivations there may be for employing an empathic leadership style; (3) what scenarios provide an opportunity to
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