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Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (75Th, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August 5-8, 1992)

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Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (75Th, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August 5-8, 1992) DOCUMENT RESUME ED 349 623 CS 507 970 TITLE Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (75th, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August 5-8, 1992). Part XVI: Miscellaneous Studies. INSTITUTION Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. PUB DATE Aug 92 NOTE 500p.; For other sections of these proceedings, see CS 507 955-969. For 1991 Proceedings, see ED 340 045. PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021) EDRS PRICE MF02/PC20 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome; American Indians; *Animation; Birth Order; Classification; Databases; *Ethics; Film Industry; Foreign Countries; Interpersonal Communication; Marketing; *Mass Media Role; Media Research; *Models; Newspapers; Novels; Photojournalism; Psychological Patterns; *Public Relations; Q Methodology; Sexual Harassment IDENTIFIERS Journalists ABSTRACT The Miscellaneous Studies section of the proceedings contains the following 16 papers: "Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny: Iconography of Two Corporate Stars" (William A. Mikulak); "We Know Who You Are: A Niche Communications Explication and Model" (Jana Frederick-Collins); "The Ways They Get Their Stories: Is Utilitarianism the Best Moral Theory for Journalists?" (Wing-Tai Simon Wong); "A Typology of Organizational Relationships between Public Relations and Marketing" (Kirk Hallahan); "The Paradigms of Public Relations: Treading beyond the Four-Step Process" (Kirk Hallahan); "Bypassed by the Revolution? Photojournalists in a Decade of Change" (James H. Bissland and David Kielmeyer); "Interpersonal Communication in News Diffusion: A Study of 'Magic' Johnson's Announcement" (Michael D. Basil and others); "Radical Rules: I. F. Stone's Ethical Perspective" (Jack Lule); "Psychological Type and Public Relations: Theory, Research, and Applications" (Ronald D. Smith); "Perceptions of Journalists and Public Relations Practitioners toward Their Own and Each Other's Roles: Coorientation and Q Analyses" (Daradirek Ekachai); "Design of the Native Press: A Cultural Perspective" (Lucy A. Ganje); "Sexual Harassment in Television Newsrooms" (Sonya Forte Duhe and Vernon A. Stone); "How Effective Are Codes of Ethics? A Look at Three Newsrooms" (David E. Boeyink); "Theoretical Rationale for the Use of Novels as Historical Evidence" (Bonnie Brennen); "Birth Order and News Reporting Orientation" (John F. Dillon and Jenna L. Newton); and "Media Watchers: Their Concerns, Their Tactics and Their Accomplishments" (John S. Detweiler). A "Media Watcher Directory," compiled in August 1992, is included with this series of papers. (RS) PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR EDUCATION IN JOURNALISMAND MASS COMMUNICATION (75th, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August5-8, 1992). Part XVI: Miscellaneous Studies. "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE MATERIAL THIS HAS BEENGRANTED U.S. DEPARTMENT BY Office c4 Educational OF EDUCATION Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL Q.'au.pok RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER(ERIC) riseceived document from has teen reproducedas the Denton or orgaruzation originating it C Minor changes have TO THE EDUCATIONAL reproduction Qualitybeen mad* to Improve INFORMATION RESOURCES CENTER (ERIC)." Points of view or ment do not necessarily°cantons stated .n thisdocu- represent official OERI position or policy BEST COPYAuIlABLE2 MICKEY MOUSE AND BUGS BUNNY: ICONOGRAPHY OF TWO CORPORATE STARS by William A. Hikulak Ph.D. Candidate Annenberg School for Communication University of Pennsylvania 3620 Walnut Street Philadelphia, PA 19104-6220 (215) 898-7041 Submitted for the 1992 Montreal Convention of The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Visual Communication Division In 1990 Time-Warner celebrated the fiftieth birthday of the cartoon character Bugs Bunny. Two years earlier the Disney company promoted Mickey Mouse's sixtieth year in grand style. Yet, they are remarkably free of wrinkles, paunches, hair loss, or other signs of advancing age. Instead, they succumbed to the pressures of the Hollywood entertainment industry as they became the top stars of their respective cartoon studios. Each began his career as a rambunctious instigator only to be refined into a respectable corporate icon. In the process, each was re-designed several times to look younger, cuter, and more anthropomorphic than his initial incarnation. This absolute control over iconography is an extreme form of the star system that reigned from the 1920s to the 1950s, in which Hollywood studios carefully constructed images for their contracted actors as one means to differentiate their films in a competitive market. Stars were a form of capital investment, promising a degree of theatrical box office success In'proOortion to their popularity with movie audiences (Dyer, 1979.:11). Studios promoted the visual appeal of their actors by whatever means available: cosmetic make-overs, changes in hair color and style, fashionable wardrobes, and regimens of diet and exercise. In addition, public relations people developed recognizable personae for actors by giving them biographies that matched the limited range of roles in which they were typecast (ibid, 68-9). The commodification of actors lent some predictability to 1 4 the very unpredictable movie business, but was limited by the ability of studio executives to control their stars' behavior and appearance. Cartoon studios had an advantage over live-action studios in handling stars: no matter how often cartoon characters defied the laws of physics, they submitted completely to the decisions of their creators. Nor did they require a phalanx of beauticians, plastic surgeons, or exercise coaches to alter their looks. In the words of Alfred Hitchcock, "Disney, of course, has the best casting. If he doesn't like an actor, he just tears him up" (Bogdanovich, 1973:204). However, the ease of transformation afforded cartoon characters was limited by a host of factors endemic to the Hollywood entertainment industry in general and the cartoon industry in particular. Because these constraints changed over time it is best to begin with the silent era, when Mickey first appeared. At the time of Mickey's debut in 1928, cartoons were no longer occasional novelties but a regular feature of movie house programs. The animation business reflected the chaotic expansion of the movie industry as a whole, with its share of bankruptcies, mergers, buy-outs, talent-raids, and lawsuits over patent-and copyright-infringement (Solomon, 1989:21-41). In the 1920s, most animation studios were small independent entities entering into limited arrangements with distributors for periods of one or two years at most. Distributors contracted animation studios to provide cartoons on a set schedule at a given price per cartoon. While the studios negotiated with the distributors for copyright 2 tj ownership of characters and series titles, the films themselves were only expected to receive limited releases and then be forgotten. Thus, commercial animation operated in what Pierre Bourdieu calls a short production cycle, making low-risk investments in products that cater to a pre-existing demand. The industry used ostentatious promotion to circulate their cultural products as rapidly and widely as possible. This strategy yielded immediate profits on products that had a built-in obsolescence based on the continual audience demand for new entertainment. In contrast, the highbrow culture market makes high -risk investments in products that require a long time to accrue value (Bourdieu, 1986:150). The film industry's short production cycle and rapid growth increased the demand for cartoons, putting a premium on speed and efficiency of production. Studios cut their costs by using Frederick W. Taylor's "scientific management" to hierarchically divide labor, which was aided by the cel animation technique (Crafton, 1982:162-8). Cel animation employs clear plastic celluloid sheets (cels) to overlay characters and moving objects onto a separate background, thus requiring new drawings only for the portion of the scene that changes from frame to frame. Because animators use pencil and paper, their drawings must be traced onto cels and painted in so the background does not show through. This affords a division of labor between the creative task of animation and the technical tasks of inking and painting. 3 Other technical Jobs include photographing cels matched to backgrounds and washing the cels for re-use. The creative teams consisted of animators who collaborated to create characters and generate story ideas, usually under the guidance of a head animator or director. A story was then divided into segments, each of which was assigned to an animator, who added gags as he drew the sequence. (Virtually all animators were male at the time.) This system required animators to develop interchangeable drawing styles to ensure that every cartoon had a uniform look from beginning to end. One tool animators used for this purpose was the model sheet, which showed characters in key poses, often accompanied by verbal instructions about specific design features. Figure 1 shows a model sheet of Disney's character Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, who preceded Mickey. The creative staff saved time and money with every piece of artwork they re-used, whether backgrounds or character animation. They employed sequences of drawings called motion cycles that began and ended with the character in the same position, so the series could be photographed repeatedly to produce a longer chain of action. These
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