Synthesis and implications

This ecological perspective of the fresh and brackish (inland) waters of the subcontinent has provided an introduction to the limnological literature of southern Africa. It has drawn together some of the research results which, while appearing disparate, form the warp and weft of a limnological pattern for the subcontinent, without which the response of the subcontinent's water resources to the diversity of changes of anthropogenic origin cannot be adequately assessed, and proper management decisions taken. In so doing it has emphasized those studies and investigations which, because of the extent of limnological knowledge and understanding of warm water systems, either rivers or lakes, they have generated, should be incorporated rapidly into management policies. The hydrological effects of the ever increasing demand for water by the growing population and industrialization of southern Africa have to be viewed against the climatic variability of the subcontinent. Preston-Whyte & Tyson (1988) report that between 9000 and 4000 BP wetter conditions prevailed over southern Africa than exist at present. Thereafter wet cool and dry warmer conditions reflected, in general, the major climatological epochs throughout the world, for example the neoglacial advance between 2000 and 3000 BP, and the medieval warm epoch of 1000 AD. Attention has already been drawn to the quasi-periodic rainfall oscillations for the summer rainfall regions from 1910/11 until the present day. Preston• Whyte & Tyson (1988) have established that the dry spells are "more persistently dry than the wet spells wet". It is during such dry periods that the land is at its most fragile, and because of our collective ignorance the hazard of desertification in the subcontinent has increased materially. The advance of Karroid conditions has been estimated by Acocks (1953) as some 1.6 km per year. This advance is checked during periods of good rains if, and only if, the damaged terrestrial ecosystems are allowed to recover. This does not often happen in southern Africa and the desertification potential of the subcontinent is inexorably realized. Thus without a real understanding of the periodicity of long-term climatological cycles against which to judge the short-term hydro• logical management solutions imposed by Man, southern Africa faces an uncertain hydrological future! The limnological character of the subcontinent has been defined. With the exception of the winter rainfall Region 4, principally of the southwestern 388

Cape, South Africa, the rainfall of the continent occurs predominantly in the summer months. While the application of time series analysis has demon• strated a dominant twenty year cycle of above average and below average rainfall, within this cycle the variation in intensity and frequency of summer rainfall is large. The wildness of the rivers of the subcontinent is well recorded, stemming not only from the strong seasonality of rainfall, but also from its variability. These facts, coupled with the low average rainfall, and the lowest mean annual runoff (MAR), 8.6%, of all the countries studied (Alexander 1985; this volume Fig. 5.2), have forced the construction of an array of major and minor dams on the continental rivers and the planning, design and construction of a variety of inter-basin transfer systems. Five limnological regions have been proposed, defined by their geomorpho• logical, geochemical and climatic features. The rivers and their associated wetlands are the primary limnological feature of the subcontinent. During the past 150 years of urban and industrial development the hydrological proper• ties of the rivers have changed materially: the majority are now regulated to a lesser or greater degree so that the limnologicallandscape is now constructed out of reservoirs and their connecting streams. The impact of this perturbation upon the original riverine environment has been largely ignored until the work of Davies (1979) and O'Keeffe (l986a) drew attention to the ecological issues at stake, and in particular the downstream effect of flow regulation by dams upon the physical and chemical changes in the river flow and ecology of the complex riverine communities it supports. Contrary to what was expected there are instances of reservoirs materially improving the quality of the river flow, for example within the Buffalo River system near East London. The reservoirs act as settling and biological oxidation systems and by these metabolic processes effectively reset the energy phase by the addition of allochthonous carbon simulating the primary energy resources of the headwa• ters. Current research programmes in South Africa, in particular, may well lead to a modification of the serial discontinuity concept of Ward & Stanford (1983). Because the river environment is so sensitive to man-induced changes, stress has been laid upon the development of a composite classification so as to provide guidelines with which to assess the impact of development on river sections of similar physiographic structure. A first approach was one in which a hierarchial system based on ecoregions, regulation types, river zones and water chemistry have been used to assess the expert status of river sectors for the major river catchments of South Africa. This has been further developed and refined by the development of a specifically designed conservation system, the River Conservation System (O'Keeffe et al 1987), which provides a consistent yet flexible way of assessing rivers, simplifying the diffuse intuitions and value judgements of conservationists and making them comprehensible to engineers and catchment managers. The consequences of river regulation to the main stem river have been 389 critically examined by Ward et at (1984), and stressed for the subcontinent in Chapter 9. Of particular note is that the impoundment policy of the 1960's, which included the Orange River Project, did not have the effect of overcom• ing regional water shortages as was expected. This is largely as a result of reservoirs being constructed in areas of low human density. As a corollary this has been of benefit to the maintenance of water quality, removed as they are from major urban centres. Their value lies more directly with irrigation, the generation of hydroelectric power, and in some instances flood regulation. The supply of potable water has, or will in future, come to rely heavily upon sophisticated inter-basin transfers of comparatively large volumes of water to dilute the increase in total dissolved solids and guarantee supply during periods of drought. Sustained turbulent flows down river courses previously subject to long periods of low or zero flow create a material change in the community structure of the invertebrate animals (notably insect larvae) which inhabit river margins, stony runs and sediments. The work of F.M. Chutter and his colleagues in the Vaal River, and of one of us (J.H.O.) in the Fish River, shows clearly the variation in interspecific tolerance, for example, within the Simulium complex as channel flow varies. Where flows are seasonably variable, S. nigritarsus and S. medusaeforme are dominant. As soon as river flow increases and is sustained as a consequence of regulation, the mammophilic S.chutteri is selected for and causes such irritation to livestock, grazing on lands adjacent to the river, that the lands can no longer be used. The effect of changes in the hydrodynamic character of the river flow at the most sensitive life cycle stadia in the control of this insect pest demonstrates the value of fundamental research in the solution of practical management problems. Similarly, studies of the feeding efficiency of S.nigritarsus and S.chutteri by H.Barber, as yet unpublished, point to both velocity and the degree of turbulence, as measured by Reynolds number, as important factors bringing about change in community structure. S. chutteri feeds more effectively at higher Reynolds number (Re = 2000) than does S. nigritarsus which feed optimally at the transition between laminar and turbulent flow (Re = 500 - 800). These and many of the other areas of hydrological or hydrodynamic change described in the text demonstrate that bio-engineering solutions to water orientated problems clearly depend, or should depend, upon the timeous intervention of specialists from other essential disciplines. There is a need to recognize that there will always be a response to any alteration in the hydrological cycle. The associated biological systems are not immune from Newton's third law! Our responsibility is to predict the magnitude of the response(s), and assess the problems, if any, which may arise either immedi• ately or over long periods of time. These issues on a wider continental or intercontinental basis have been given detailed consideration by Davies (1979) and Davies & Walker (1986) and specifically in the subcontinent by Petitjean & Davies (1988). 390

The reservoirs, in common with those in other southern lands such as Australia, are largely monomictic, with the onset of stratification dependent upon surface heating and wind mixing of the warm buoyant surface layers downward. We have established, however, that there is considerable variation in the appearance and duration of both the seasonal and the diurnal thermo• clines. Much of this variation is due to (a) river input and (b) high insolation during periods of low windspeeds. These appear to act antagonistically to bring about a redistribution of warm surface waters by entrainment or an increase in stability. Quite high temperature and therefore density differentials develop during summer. A 4 or 5°C drop across the metalimnion, representing a density differential of '" I kg m-3, maintains stratification in monomictic reservoirs. In these respects the reservoirs of the subcontinent do not differ greatly from the reservoirs of Australia or in the latitudinally equivalent regions of Brazil and Argentina (Tundisi 1981; Matsumara-Tundisi et a11981; Bonetto & Di Persia 1984). These reservoirs also exhibit a feature which has been found here, namely that monomixis is by no means as widespread as was previously thought. Polymixis is frequently found and implies that diurnal heating events, coupled with variable wind fields, are the genesis of such a density structure. Retention time is often implicated, although in southern Africa not only do reservoirs with short retention times (0.1 years), e.g. Henley Dam in Natal, display polymixis, but those with retention times greater than I year also exhibit this feature from time to time, e.g. Lake Midmar. Investigations of the thermal structure of reservoirs during summer storms, leading to rapid increases in inflow, have shown that these events are often reflected in deepening and cooling of the epilimnion. As they generally occur during the second half of summer, when the lake surface is warmer than the ambient air, such events maintain epilimnetic cooling. The subsequent cas• cades of cooled surface water during autumn result, finally, in isothermal conditions developing in the water column, and winter circulation is initiated. The frequently observed lowered oxygen in the deeper layers of these reser• voirs appears to be related not only to the condition of the valley which was inundated, but also to the relatively high temperatures of the water column which increase the rate of bacterial oxidation of organic material of au• tochthonous and allochthonous origin. If these rates exceed that of the downward transfer of oxygen-rich water from the euphotic zone due to phases or periods of stratification, then oxygen depletion can be expected. The thermal properties of the monomictic reservoirs are capable of repre• sentation by hydrodynamic models. The requirement of one-dimensionality by these models is their primary feature upon which successful simulation depends. In the description of the vertical temperature structure of Lake Ie Roux this requirement has been satisfactorily retained, and models such as DYRESM which depend upon this quality can, therefore, be used in the simulation of the thermal regime of reservoirs. Significant predictive ability is 391 then available for management options, if the primary data sets are up to standard. The success of any simulation has been shown to be very sensitive to the quality of the data record for both the incoming shortwave radiation and the daily variation in the thermal input via influent rivers. Unless it is possible to measure flow and its temperature with acceptable precision, the simulation is poor. Mineral or inorganic turbidity is a prominent feature of the southern African limnologicallandscape. It reaches its fullest expression in Regions 2 and 5, i.e. the elevated plateau and south eastern coastal plain, and the arid Karroo and north-western interior (Fig. 4.1 b, in Chapter 4). Aridity and consequent low vegetal cover, an episodic hydrology with erosive flash floods, and the erodable sedimentary geological strata on which much of these regions are sited are natural features and factors contributing to the prevalence of high mineral turbidity in the rivers, pans and reservoirs of the region. As high turbidities arise naturally the biota will have evolved appropriate adaptive responses to this condition. Because of the well known positive relationship between phytoplankton photosynthetic capacity and temperature, the localized surface heating of turbid waters is likely to increase productivity, although, conversely, this will be constrained by the effects of light limitation. Included within such limita• tion is the competition for available photons between phytoplankton and the intrinsic coloured material gilvin (Kirk 1985), and the ratio of euphotic depth to circulation depth. In shallow reservoirs high values of this ratio in the absence of gilvin benefit algal photosynthesis, while in turbid reservoirs in which the above ratio is very much less than unity there is an apparent tolerance or insensitivity to nutrient enrichment. This has important implica• tions in the management of raw water supplies. Obviously such a simplistic interpretation is only partly consistent with what is in effect a complex of interactions regulating the primary productivity of turbid reservoirs. The flocculation of suspensoids by algal extracellular organic excretions; the mutual co-flocculation of suspensoids by algae and clay particles (Avnimelech et al 1982); and the likely rapid degradation of water quality (as a result of algal growth) in eutrophic turbid waters rapidly relieved of light limitation by flocculation, but with continuing nutrient inputs, represent another aspect of the complexity of interactions possible. Comparative quantitative analyses of the complex multifactorial regulation of primary (autotrophic) production in terms of interactions between euphotic depth, the ratio of euphotic depth to circulation depth, temperature, phyto• plankton abundance and composition, and nutrient supply could be profitably undertaken in laboratory simulations. Field studies have not, and perhaps never will allow as complete an assessment of the relative importance of the aforementioned components and influences as is often necessary. The findings of Bowen (1979, 1980) in Lake Sibaya in South Africa and in Lake Valencia in Venezuela, although not directly concerned with mineral 392

suspensoids, have shown that very fine particles derived from DOM by precipitation are a good source of nutrition for the cichlid Oreochromis. This is an important contribution to this difficult, but obviously essential research field. Likewise, the recent review by Mann (1988) on the production and use of detritus in various aquatic systems establishes unequivocally the importance of DOM which precipitates easily on surfaces and forms amorphous particles with a low refractory content. In the presence of mineral inorganic suspen• soids we may expect the surfaces which they provide to be richly covered with such precipitates and form a trophic source for microphagous feeders. The potential role of such organic-mineral complexes and of heterotrophic bacteria and particularly bacteria-suspensoid aggregates as energy sources for mi• crophagous zooplankton is, in effect, an open field of study. Several authors comment on the abundance of zooplankton in turbid waters, while, on the other hand, their experimental investigations demonstrate that suspensoids greatly depress ingestion and incorporation rates of algae by daphnid plankters. The depression of daphnid feeding rates at even moderate suspensoid concentrations contrasts with the existence of significant densities of daphnids in a variety of suspensoid-rich waters. Closer attention to inter-specific variability in the influence of suspensoids upon feeding rates, and a more innovative approach to ascertaining the existence and importance of unconventional food resources (such as sediment-sorbed organics and/or bacterial-suspensoid aggregates referred to above) is required. Perhaps some of the present enigma may be attributed to the failure of short-term feeding rate experiments to control the light climate in which these rates were determined. The very relevant observations by Young et at (1984) demonstrate the depression of limb beat rate (and by implication, ingestion rate) with a rise in the proportion of side light (scattered lateral light) to overhead light in Daphnia magna. Since the relative proportion of lateral scattered light to direct overhead light rises with increasing turbidity, a behavioural mechanism exists to account for the observed depression of feeding rate. Presuming that daphnids which naturally inhabit turbid waters are sensitive to this, future experimental work will have to define more closely the light field under which feeding rates are determined, and match this to in situ conditions. At present it is not known whether daphnids are sensitive to these optical influences. They may exhibit other compensatory mechanisms to ensure the acquisition of adequate food in what are generally severely food-limited environments, at least with respect to conventional planktonic algae. The possible nature of these compensatory mechanisms, if they exist, is presently speculative. In other respects, the composition of zooplankton communities in turbid waters, specifically the preponderance of calanoid copepods, is consistent with our contemporary understanding of zooplankton feeding, particularly the selective chemosensory feeding capability of the calanoid element. The size structure of zooplankton in turbid waters is another area which has 393 been examined. The relatively large size of zooplankters in sediment laden waters has been noted by several authors. In terms of contemporary interpre• tations of the dependency of plankton size structure upon the severity of visual predation, the visual refuge provided by particles in turbid waters appears paramount in permitting the co-existence of zooplankton with visual planktivores. This has to be weighed against the sparsity of visual planktivores in the ichthyofauna of artificially turbid reservoirs in southern Africa, and their virtual exclusion from naturally turbid pans in the interior by virtue of the impermanence of such habitats. On the other hand, floodplain pans invite study of this influence on zooplankton community structure since cyclical river recharge will enable natural re-stocking of fish in the event of the catastrophic desiccation of the pans themselves. It is significant in this context that the zooplankton of turbid floodplain pans lack large crustacean elements. Within the temporary turbid pans isolated from riverine fish inocula, the "thrust and parry" (O'Brien 1979) of predation will focus principally on tactile predators and their selective influences. In copepods like Lovenula we see a virtual culmination of copepod size selection. The relative gigantism of this predator is paralleled in cladocerans like Daphnia gibba, but not in co-existing microphagous calanoids such as Metadiaptomus, which accord• ingly appear to bear the brunt of Lovenula predation. What are the constrain• ing factors in this size selection? If the size of Metadiaptomus is constrained by the severity of food limitation in turbid waters, why do similar constraints not apply to D.gibba? Such size-selective interactions and their evolutionary ecological implications require more than the superficial analysis which has been undertaken to date. We have argued that the response of clear water impoundments to enriching inflows of phosphorus and nitrogen-containing compounds is dependent not only upon the resultant ratio of total phosphorus to total nitrogen, but also upon the hydrodynamic properties of the recipient water body. In this regard much of the research into the reasons why Microcystis aeruginosa is such a successful algal colonizer depended upon a remarkable temporal coincidence in the investigations of C.S.Reynolds at Windermere, J.Imberger and his students S.Humphries and V.Lyne at the Centre for Water Research in the University of Western Australia, and workers at the National Institute for Water Research (now Division of Water Technology, CSIR, Pretoria). Thus, given that the cyanobacterium is capable of metabolic buoyancy modification, its successful exploitation of the richly illuminated upper water layers using this physiological adaptation depends upon the magnitude of the diurnal stability profile of the upper illuminated layers in the water column. This, in turn, is a function of windspeed and therefore downward mixing through turbulent kinetic energy. A change in mean wind speeds from 1.6 m s -\ in Hartbeespoort Dam to 2.6 m s -1 in Lake McIlwaine is sufficient to alter materially the magnitude of the turbulent kinetic energy within the upper mixed layer. The increase in TKE in Lake McIlwaine is responsible for 394 the development of small colonies of M. aeruginosa with consequent increase in light attenuation, whereas in highly stable surface layers of Hartbeespoort Dam self shading is reduced by a marked increase in colony size. These researches have established the often surprising nexus of interaction within and between the physical, chemical and biological environments to which the cyanobacterium responds. Barica (1981) characterized hypertrophic aquatic environments as disturbed and unstable lakes, reservoirs and ponds which develop noxious algal and bacterial blooms, and undergo extreme fluctuations in water quality and productivity on diel and seasonal scales. According to Barica (1981), conven• tional remedial measures to reduce the nutrient input and slow down or reverse the eutrophication process are often unrealistic for hypertrophic ecosystems because internal nutrient loading, or regeneration, is high and can exceed the external load. Thus, once a system reaches hypertrophy, it can become self-sustaining. Hartbeespoort Dam, even by world standards, is an exceptional example of a hypertrophic ecosystem. Unlike most reported hypertrophic lakes, it is relatively large. Whole lake anoxia is possible but this event is noF associated with a die-off of the Microcystis population but is due to the entrainment of the anaerobic hypolimnion at overturn (Robarts et al 1982). As a result, the overturn events do not produce large growths of heterotrophic bacteria (Robarts 1988; Robarts & Sephton 1988). Considering the severity of the overturn events in Hartbeespoort Dam, it is surprising that associated fish kills have not been observed. A possible explanation is that the fish could swim upstream into aerated river water (Robarts & Zohary 1988). In many lakes the separation of nutrient-rich hypolimnetic waters from the epilimnion leads to nutrient limitation of phytoplankton growth rates and to phytoplankton succession in the epilimnion. In Mount Bold Reservoir, Aus• tralia, Ganf & Oliver (1982) ascribe the succession from green algal to cyanobacterial dominance to the periodic downward migration of the cyanobacteria into the nutrient-rich hypolimnion during the stratification period. In Lake McIlwaine Robarts & Ward (1978) have shown the mass transport of NH4N and P04P upward from the hypolimnion into the metal• imnion to be a significant source of nutrients when the vertical diffusivity coefficient (KJ is of the order of 0.2 cm2 s -I. The extremely high nutrient loads to Hartbeespoort Dam ensure that nutrients are always in excess of phytoplankton requirements (Robarts 1984; Zohary & Robarts 1989). There• fore, in both these southern African reservoirs the vertical migration under• taken by Mount Bold phytoplankton does not need to occur and phytoplankton succession is largely due to a changing physical environment. The overwhelming dominance of Microcystis in Hartbeespoort Dam has a number of implications for the biology and chemistry of the system. On a seasonal cycle, the absence or presence of Microcystis has been shown to be a major factor regulating the seasonal changes in zooplankton numbers and 395

species composition (Jarvis et al 1Q87, 1988). The large colony-size of Micro• cystis protects it to a very large degree from zooplankton grazing. The zooplankton population is therefore small relative to the phytoplankton population. Robarts (1985) has calculated the mean ratio of zooplankton production to primary production to be only 1.8% in Hartbeespoort Dam. Fish yield in Hartbeespoort Dam is high relative to other African lakes (Cochrane 1987), while the population is dominated by three species, all of which have diets which show dependence on detritus, i.e. they are bottom feeders (Cochrane & Robarts 1986). Robarts & Ashton (1988) have shown that this hypertrophic ecosystem was accumulating a large and growing resource of organic carbon in the bottom sediments upon which the detriti• vores feed. In addition, although planktonic bacterial production in Hartbees• poort Dam is correlated with phytoplankton standing crop and production, it is low relative to primary production (Robarts et al 1986). The major site of bacterial respiration, as Robarts & Ashton (1988) have shown, is the bottom sediments. They have calculated that 95% of carbon outputs from Hartbees• poort Dam were through respiratory losses, principally involving benthic processes. Thus as the direct transfer of energy from Microcystis and zooplankton to fish appears to be low in the water column of Hartbeespoort Dam, the main energy pathway would seem to be Microcystis --+ sedimented detritus --+ fish (Robarts & Zohary 1988). As the study of Hartbeespoort Dam has shown, hypertrophic lakes need not be small, unstable systems as defined by Barica (1981). This, it would seem, should provide sufficient warning that even large water volumes are at risk if their pattern of stratification and load of enriching nutrients cause the necessary shifts in algal community equilibria. And while such lakes, as Robarts & Ashton (1988) have concluded, possess whole-lake processes essentially similar to oligotrophic systems, the difference between them lies in the magnitude of the rates at which such processes occur. An important consequence of salinization of the surface waters of populous and, therefore, sensitive regions of the subcontinent coupled with the unpre• dictability of supply has been, as noted earlier, the development of ambitious civil engineering projects. They involve the transfer of waters from basins with an assured supply of high quality water to basins where quality and quantity are diminishing. It is remarkable that an average TDS elevation of some 200 mg 1-1 above the present background of 250 mg 1-1 of the Vaal Barrage below the Vaal Dam in the Transvaal is responsible for the most ambitious of such interbasin transfers yet developed in the subcontinent. The Highlands Water Scheme alone is expected to cost not less than R 5.5 x 109 (2.3 X 109 US dollars). Together the total cost of hydrological manipulation to save the water supply to the Witwatersrand and beyond will cost some 10 x 109 rand (5 x 109 US dollars). While this expenditure is acceptable (or has to become so) when the industrial heartland of the subcontinent is threatened, opinions differ as to the efficiency of the major irrigation schemes 396 which have developed during the past twenty-five years. In particular the irrigation of valley soils naturally rich in sodium salts has led to serious soil leaching and the breakdown of (sub) structure. It must be clearly appreciated that by such wholesale hydrological modifica• tion the primary limnological character of the subcontinent will be changed. Chutter (1973) and Davies (1979) have both emphasized the changes in river flow during this century. Perennial rivers have become seasonal in some stretches and permanently flowing in others, due largely to the damming of the mainstem rivers and their tributaries. In how far the major interbasin transfers either in existence or presently being built will exacerbate or amelio• rate these and other changes is as yet unknown. Understanding the conse• quences of such changes will be a major part of the limnologist's portfolio during the next twenty-five years. Without his aid no proper amelioraton of the consequences of such wholesale modification is possible. The review by Petitjean & Davies (1988) on the existing or potential ecological impact of current or proposed interbasin transfers is an effective starting point. As yet no eco-hydrological model exists which satisfactorily interprets the influence of such wholesale hydrological transfers upon the recipient and donor catchments. This is clearly an essential component of future research activity. The multifaceted nature of such research cannot be over-emphasized. Furthermore, these transfers extend over a wide range of limnological subreg• ions from the normally well-watered cool mountains of Natal and Lesotho in the east to the arid warm savannas of Namibia in the west. And although when complete the interbasin transfers will involve only some 10% of the MAR of South Africa, they affect some 60% of this country's population! One might expect, therefore, that the margin for ecological error is small, but, surprisingly, no adequate environmental or ecological impact study of any of the total transfer systems is available. It is our view that through this perspective we have shown that the science of limnology is alive and well within the subcontinent of southern Africa, and that it contributes to the cogency of Williams' (1988) arguments for a more balanced perspective of global limnology if the freshwater resources of the semi-arid, subtropical and tropical regions of Earth are to be wisely managed. Nevertheless the reductionism which we collectively bring to our practice of limnology possesses the seeds of failure if we continue to apply its philosophy towards the solution of holistic problems inherent in complex ecological systems. This warning is contained in Walker's (1986) penetrating analysis of the status of ecological research on the River Murray in Australia. He takes the view that "there also appears to have been a decline in the vitality of ecological science applied to resource management. For some years, ecology has languished as a loose coalition of public sympathies, environmental affairs and science". While the professional limnologist in southern Africa has played a signifi• cant role in research, his contribution towards the management of the water 397 resources is minimal. Representatives of the discipline have not become fully integrated members of the resource team, with respect to either the planning of new projects or their execution and maintenance. Granted involvement has been invited from time to time, but this has been largely at the periphery of limnological issues. It is hoped that this contribution to knowledge and understanding of the ecological structure and responses of the freshwater ecosystems of southern Africa will result in a greater involvement of limnology and limnologists in the planning for the critical transition into the twenty-first century. It is a curious anomaly that while Man is the principal agent in the despoilation of the aquatic environment, his limnetic drive causes him to seek out the aesthetic pleasure this environment provides. Recognition of this human need may well go a long way towards gaining the co-operation we unequivocally seek! References

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Abbott, M.A. 23, 25 Birch, G.P. 16 Acocks, J.P.H. 387 Bird, D.F. 296, 299, 301, 308 Agnew, J.D. 52, 57, 71, 76, 77, 80,94,95, Bishop, P.M. 16 102 Blaber, SJ.M. 34,171,313,326,327,347, Akhurst, E.G.J. 207, 236-240, 243, 374,375 245-250,256,257,268,269 Bok, A. 375, 377 Alexander, C.J. 176, 177,348,349,361 Boltt, R.E. 171,313,320,329,330,347, Alexander, W.J.R. 67, 68, 152, 153,388 353,354 Allanson, B.R. 5, 28-30, 34, 58, 72, 76, Bonetto, AA. 390 77,80,98,99,103,105,109,110,114, Boon, PJ. 334 118,121,126, 171-173, 176-180, 182, Bormann, F.H. 147 185,187,195,197,206,207,211-213, Bonunan,C.H. 32, 33, 147 217,221-224,227,228,230,232-234, Bosch, J.M. 152 236,239,242,243,286,288,290,291, Bosman, H.H. 116 313,321,324-327,329-331,341,346, Bott, T.r. 124, 125 356,358,365-377,381,383-385 Boulenger, G.A 97 Andersson, C.l 138, 140 Bowen, S.H. 234, 285, 381,382,391 Annecke, S. 98 Bowmaker, A.P. 202, 203, 321, 375, 379, Appleton, C.C. 34, 321 385 Archibald, C.G.M. 146,313,314,319,320 Boye-Chisholm, M. 369 Archibald, R.E.M. 4, 6, 62, 105, 120 Bradshaw, lA 163,388 Arruda, J.A. 6,352, 372 Branch, G.M. 286, 346 Ashton, E.R. 51 Braune,E. 67, 152, 153 Ashton, P.J. 4,15,57,72,93,94,173, Breen, C.M. 30, 128, 147-149,207-211, 176,177,194,211,213-215,273,278, 246,336,363,366,389 280-283,296,298,299,345,377,394 Brinkhurst, R.D. 4 Avnirnelech, Y. 391 Broadley, D.G. 321 Brock, J.T. 125 Balinsky, B.I. 3, 53, 55 Brock, T.D. 301 Bally, R. 224, 226, 233, 235, 330, 346, Brooks, J.L. 312 353,354,356 Brown, D.S. 4, 49,321 Balon, E.K. 4, 316, 349, 363 Bruton, M.N. 30, 34-36, 58,92, 93, 133, Barica, J. 394, 395 142,143,326,375,379,381,383,384, Barmuta, L.A 125, 127 386 Barnard, K.H. 4, 97 Bruwer, C.A 152, 153, 160, 168, 169,385 Baxter, R.M. 275 Bruwer, M.J. 210, 211 Beadle, L.e. 6, 83, 86 Brylinksy, M. 6 Begemann, G.l 95, 107 Bums, C.W. 316 Begg, G.W. 131, 132, 175,201,203,313, Bush, S.F. 98 316,317,319,322,323,327,363,364 Butty, M. 168, 169, 176, 177,210,218, Bennett, G. 36 349,350,361 Berman, T. 243 Butzer, K.W. 15 Beuthin, C.L. 173, 176-178, 180, 182, Byren, B.A. 373 185,236 438

Cairncross, B. 134-137, 140-142 Defaye, D. 316 Cambray, J.A. 4, 57, 72, 93, 94,128, 156, de Meillon, B. 4 378,379,389 de Moor, F.C. 72, 76, 80, 107, 121, 128, Car, M. 107 156,389 Caulton, M.S. 201, 203, 204, 377, 379, DeMott, W.R. 360 380,383 de Wet, lS. 218, 219 Cholnoky, BJ. 4, 59, 61, 62, 109 Dincer, T. 68, 90 Chrzanowski, T.H. 303 Dingle, R.Y. 53, 55, 56 Chutter, F.M. 4, 47, 72, 76, 80, 98,99, Di Persia, D.H. 390 102-106, 114, 116, 118-121, 126-128, Dodson, S.L 312 152,210,211,217,389,396 Dohmeier, R. 167 Claassens, G.C.D. 385 Donnelly, B.G. 379 Claro, S.M. 390 Douthwaite, R.J. 145 Coche, A.G. 4, 37, 40,41, 168, 173-176, du Plessis, A. 16 188,197,198,201,202,349,363 Duncan, A 336, 340 Cochrane, K.L. 384, 395 Dunn, C.S. 125 Coertze, D.I 147 Dussart, B. 313, 316 Coetzee, AN. 374 du Toit, IF. 98 Coetzee, D.I 313, 314, 324, 325, 327, Dyer, T.G.J. 22, 23, 25, 26 341-343,347,374 Coetzee, O.J. 146 Eccles, D.H. 312, 323, 364, 366, 377, 379, Coetzer, AH. 80, 121 381,383 Coke,M.147 Ellery, K. 134-137, 140 Colvin, P.M. 30,147 Ellery, W.N. 134-137, 140, 167 Combrinck, C. 352 Eloff, IN. 273 Combrink,S.317,337,340,350,363, Elsworth, IF. 4, 77, 88, 99, 100, 102, 103, 369,370,371,395 105, 121, 126 Connell, AD. 176, 211, 213, 273, 323, Ernst, M.H. 376 324,363 Estes, C.C. 159 Connolly, M. 4 Eva, P. 4 Cooper, K.H. 36 Coulter, G.W. 384 Falconer, AC. 212, 266, 270 Cowie, B. 125, 126 Farquharson, F.L. 96, 375 Crass, R.S. 4,97,98 Fauil4R.T.6,352,372 Cross, R.H.M. 290, 375, 377 Ferrar, AA. 160 Crowley, P.H. 318 Ferreira, J.C. 278, 280 Cushing, C.E. 125 Fincham, R. 58 Cyrus, D.P. 36, 327, 383, 384 Fisher, S.G. 122 Fock, G.J. 15 Daborn, G.R. 372 Forbes, AT. 105,217,356 Dakin, F.M. 16 Fourie, P. 366 Danilewitz, D.B. 163, 388 Fourie, S. 315, 319 Davies, A.R. 6 Fowles, B.K. 121,313,314,319,320 Davies, B.R. 4,5,7,30,34,57,59,72,83, Fox, PJ. 145 85-90,93,94,126-129,172,195,206, Frazer, I 4 290,316,320,321,330,353-356,372, Freeman, P. 4 373,388,389,396 Froelich, P.N. 209 Davies, E. 210 Fuggle, R.F. 51 Davies, T. 4 Furness, H.D. 30, 147 Day, J.A. 51, 105, 126, 128, 159, 195, 389 Day, J.H. 320 Gaigher, I.G. 96, 366, 384 Day, L.A. 98 Ganf, G.G. 243, 394 De Decker, H.P. 330, 353, 354, 356 Garnett, B. 98 De Deckker, P. 200 Gaudet, J.J. 278 439

Gentil, J.G. 243 Hoppe, H.G. 303 Gieskes, J.M.T.M. 211, 213, 331 Horsch, G.M. 205 Gilchrist, J.F.D. 97 Howard-Williams, C. 131, 132, 152, 153, Gillespie, R. 16 170-172,176,195,206,207,221-224, Gilmore, C. 143 228,230,232-234,283,290,291,330, Gilmore, K.S. 142 354,383 Gliwicz, Z.M. 316-319, 322-324, 326, Howell, C.I 95, 106, 107 336,340,352,363,364,369,378,379 Hubbard, IH. 303 Gore, IA. 159 Hughes, D.A. 80, 105 Gorgens, A.H.M. 200, 214, 219 Hurly, P.R. 126, 127 Greenwood, P.H. 57, 384 Hutchinson, G.E. 29,167,173,195,196, Grindley, J.R. 17,313,314 198,213,309-314,317,319,320,331, Grobbelaar, J.U. 49, 50, 58, 59,170,207, 348,372 210,235,251,256-258,293-295,304 Hutchison,I.P.G. 140, 141 Grobler, D.C. 168, 169, 210, 215, 218, 219 Hyman, K.L. 210, 211 Grunow, 10. 32, 33, 147 Hynes, H.B.N. 118, 127, 151

Haacke, W.D. 35 lllies, l 35, 88 Hagborg, D. 143 Imberger, l173,173,176-178, 181-184, Hall, A 30, 34, 88, 90 186,190,191,205 Hall, D.J. 316 Iwakuma, T. 269,277 Hall, G.C. 200, 217, 219 Hamblin, P.F. 178,190,191 Jackson, P.B.N. 24, 83, 86, 87, 142,211, Hamman, K.C.D. 379, 383, 386 321,375,376,379,384,385 Hancock, F.D. 115 Jacot Guillarmod, A 4,49, 50, 94 Harding, D. 173,200,201,379 Jansen, CJ.173,176-178, 180, 182, 185, Harris, G.P. 277 236 Harrison, AD. 4,34,35,46,47,52, Jarvis, AC. 312, 317, 324, 337, 340, 348, 73-77,88,95,98-100,102-105,108, 350,352,363,369,370,371,395 115,117,121,126,314,320,321 Jennings, AC. 147 Hart, B.T. 200 Jezewski, W.A 158 Hart,R.226 Joubert, C.S.W. 379 Hart,R.C.5, 34,35,94,95, 152, 153,217, Joubert, S.C.I 157 221,226,227,236,239,242,243,285, Jubb, R.A. 4, 6, 96,156,321,375,376, 312,313,315,317-320,323-327,329, 380 330,332,337,338,340,341,343,346, Junor, FJ.R. 322, 364, 376, 379, 380, 384, 347,349-354,356-358,360,361,363, 385 364,367-371,377,384,385,395 Hattingh, W.II 65 Kalff, J. 296, 299, 301, 308, 348, 350 Haughton, S.H. 9, 37 Kalk,M.383 Heeg,J.30, 128,147-149,207,247,389 Kappers, F.I. 273 Hemens,l 5, 29, 30, 66, 69,71,78,80, Kato, K. 305 131,167,385 Keiffer, F. 4 Hendey, Q.B. 53, 55, 56 Keller, P. 104, 109, 114 Hensha1l-Howard, M.-P. 126, 127 Kemp, P.H. 80, 146 Herbert, B. 178 Kempster, P.L. 116 Hewitt, J. 97 Kenmuir, D.M.S. 331, 359, 380 Hill, B.J. 30, 171,313,320,347,355,380, Kenyon, C. 290 381 Kerfoot, W.C. 313 Hino, K. 390 Kerr, S.R. 6 Hobday, D.K. 17 Keulder, P.C. 94, 95,198,199,278,283, Hocutt, C.H. 156 284,295,319,332,340,349,358,361, Holloway, P.E. 186 363 Holmes, G.W. 106 King, E.M. 367 440

King, I.L. 98 McCauley, E. 348, 350 King, I.M. 51, 80, 105, 106, 126, 127, 152, McGee, O.S. 21, 22, 24 153, 159 Mcfutire, C.D. 125 King, K.A.I. 349, 363 McIver, I.R. 141, 142 King, L.C. 9,10-12,17,37,38,55 McKelvie, I.D. 200 Kirk,I.T.O. 168, 171,236,239,265,391 McLachlan, A.I. 331-336, 353, 358, 383 Kogure, K. 296 McLachlan, S.M. 203, 204, 331-333, 336, Kohlmeyer, S.I. 176,211,213,273,363 358 Kok, D.I. 311, 315 McNaught, D.C. 317, 351 Kok, H.M. 375 McQuaid, C.D. 224, 226, 233, 235,346 Kok, 1.147 Meade, R.H. 6 Kok, O.B. 58, 59 Melack, I.M. 211, 243 Kokkinn, M.I. 6 Merron, G.S. 90, 92, 93, 133, 134, 143, Kruger, E.I. 323, 331-333, 336, 340, 358, 144,383 364 Metz, H. 29 Kruger, F.I. 153 Meyling, A.H. 98 Kruger, G.H.I. 273 Meyling, I. 98 Middleton, B.I. 69, 70 Lake, P.S. 125, 127 Midgley, D.C. 69,70, 140, 141 Lambrechts, J.J.N. 51 Milliman, I.D. 6 Lampert, W. 326, 336, 340, 369 Mills, M.L. 316 Landsell, K.A. 97 Milstein, P.le S. 27, 36 Langerman, I.D. 376, 379, 380, 384,385 Minshall, G.W. 123-125, 127 Laurenson, L.B.I. 156 Minshull, J.L. 143 Le Roux, P.I. 379 Mitchell, D.S. 34, 152, 153,212,266,278, Lemoalle, I. 243 280 Lenton, G.M. 207 Mitchell, SA 378, 384 Lewis, W.M. 243 Moll, E.I. 32, 34 Likens, G.E. 122, 123 Monisrnith, S. 183, 184, 205 Lindley, A.I. 153 Morant, P.D. 131 Lineham, S. 23 Mortimer, C.H. 183, 184 Livingstone, D.A. 211 Muir, R,W. 95, 107 Loftus, K.H. 6 Mukwena, P 2.352 Loh, I. 178 Mulder, P.F.S. 323,331-333,336,340, Lombard, W.A. 104 358,364 Lorenz, S.A. 69, 70 Mumo, I.L. 212, 379 Louw, P. 95, 107 Murphy, G.I. 6 Lovengreen, C.C.E. 261 Musil,C.F.30,32,33,147 Lowenstein, F.W. 132 Lubke,R.58 Naiman, R.I. 125 Nanni, V.W. 153 Magadza, C.H. 316, 327, 349, 352, 364, National fustitute for Water Research 176, 386 211,213,216,312,317,331,332,349, Malan, W.C. 39 358,363,366,370,378 Maloney, T.E. 249 Nduku, W.K. 210, 212, 270 Mann, K.H. 392 Nicol, S.M. 147 Marshall, B.E. 212, 258, 266, 331, 333, Noble, R.G. 5,66,69,71,78,80,131,167, 336,358,364,376,378-380,384-386 216,376,385 Martin, A.R.H. 17 Marzolf, G.R. 6, 340, 352, 372 O'Brien, W.I. 6, 313, 352, 393 Matsumara-Tundisi, T. 243, 390 Ojeda, F. 261 Matthiessen, P. 145 O'Keeffe, C. 4 McCabe, G.D. 6, 352 O'Keeffe, I.H. 4, 49, 71, 72, 76,80,81, McCarthy, T.S. 134-137, 140-142 121,128,129,156,159,163,388,389 441

Oliff, W.D. 4, 29, 47, 49, 77, 98, 99,103, Roberts, C.P.R. 157, 158 108, 115, 121 Robson, W.F. 36 Olivier, H. 385 Rogers, F.E.I 147 Olivier, R.L. 394 Rogers, K.H. 134-137, 140, 147, 152, 153, Orner-Cooper, Joseph 98 167,373 Orner-Cooper, Joyce 4 Rossouw, H.B.H. 159 Orrne, A.R. 17 Rounick, IR. 125, 126 Orsborn, IF. 159 Russell-Hunter, W.D. 382 Ovink, R.W. 125 Russell-Smith, A. 145 Ryder, R.A. 6 Palrner, R.W. 129 Patterson, J.C. 178, 190, 191 Sadie, D.N. 291 Peacock, P.N.B. 98 Sars, C.O. 4, 97 Pedros-Alio, C. 301 Sartory, D.P. 318 Perrin, M.R. 58 Schindler, DW. 212, 215 Petersen, R.C. 124, 125 Schmidt, O.w. 243 Petitjean, M.O.O. 59, 389, 396 Schoeman, F.R. 15,62, 121, 194 Phelines, R.F. 147 Schoonbee, HJ. 47, 80, 207, 312, 376 Pickford, O.E. 29,167,195,196,198,213, Schultz, V. 313, 320 309-314,317,319,320,331,348 Schulze, R.E. 21, 22, 24 Pienaar, P.N. 240 Schuurman, IF.M. 29, 167, 195, 196, 198, Pierce, S.M. 224, 226, 233, 235, 346 213,309-314,317,319,320,331,348 Pieterse, AJ.H. 278, 283, 284, 295, 319, Schwartz, H.I. 39 332,340,349,358,361,363 Sciacchitano, I. 4 Pike, I 140-141 Scotney, D.M. 132 Pitchford, R.I 98, 128, 191,376 Scott, K.M.F. 4,8,72,76,80,98, 105,217 Pitman, W.V. 69,70,219 Scott, L. 15 Pontes, M.C.F. 243 Scott, W.E. 176, 198,211,213,273,278, Pool, R.C. 374 282,283,327,346,363 Pott, R.M. 96, 147 Seaman, M.T. 176, 198,211,213,273, Poynton, IC. 321 317-319,327,340,346,348,349,361, Preston-Whyte, R.A. 10,21,22,24,26, 363,367,369 58,387 Sedell, IR. 123-125, 127 Pretorius, S.J. 146, 147 Seely, M.K. 195 Prinsloo, IF. 49 Selkirk, W.T. 169, 170, 173, 176-178, Prosser, M.V. 275 180,182,185,200,217,236,239, Pullen, R.A. 39 242-245,257,327,329,358,368 Sephton, L.M. 170, 173, 176, 177,211, Rabie, M.A. 212, 217 263,272,273,282,295-298,300-306, Rayner, N. 309, 311, 314, 315, 318, 319, 308, 377, 394, 395 339,340,363,366,367,369 Shiff, C.J. 98, 320 Reed, LW. 391 Sibbald, R.R. 29, 30 146 Regier, H.A. 6 Simidu, U. 296 Reinecke, A.I 352 Shnpson, D.E. 29,30, 152, 153 Reynolds, C.S. 276, 340 Skelton, P.H. 50, 52, 57, 90, 92, 93, 96, Ribbink, AJ. 57, 381, 384 133,134,143,376,380 Rich, S.O. 97 Skoroszewski, R.W. 159 Robarts, R.D. 7,168,170,173,176,177, Smith, P.A. 90 195,207,210-212,221,222,225, Smith, V.H. 273 228-234,243,244,254,256,258-278, Sommer, U. 336, 340 280,282,286-290,295-308,369,377, South Africa. Commission of Enquiry into 384,394,395 Water Matters 5, 39 Robb, F.T. 286, 290, 346 South Africa. Department of Water Affairs Roberts, C.H. 286, 346 55,65,155,156,215,218 442

South West Africa / Namibia. Directorate van der Lingen, MI. 212 of Water Affairs 159 van der Piepen, H. 168, 169,218 Southall, G.C. 210, 211, 258, 267, 270, van der Waal, B.C.W. 92, 93, 133, 198, 280 312,327,346,382,384 Spigel, R.H. 170, 182, 183 van der Zel, D.W. 51, 105, 153, 159 Stander, C.l 98 van Eeden, J.A. 49, 147,323,331-333, Stanford, lA. 127-129,388 336,340, 358, 364 Statzner, B. 125 van Ginkel, C.E. 343, 346, 351, 352 Stefan, H.G. 205 Vannote, R.L. 123-125, 127 Stegmann, P.49, 50, 170,173,235, van Vuuren, H.J.I. 291 237-239,241,243,251-258,268,269, van Wyk, D.B. 152, 153 276,277,291 van Wyk, J.D. 197,375,377 Stewart, B.A. 355 van Zinderen Bakker, E.M. 47-49 Steyn, DJ. 210, 211, 278, 282, 283 Vennaak, J.P. 207 Stich, H.-B. 326 Vincent, W.F.170 Straughan, M. 4 Visser, J.H. 211 Stuckenberg, B.R. 50, 53, 55 Visser, P.S. 128, 191,376 Stuckenrath, R. 15 Swanepoel, lH. 207 Walker, K.F. 128,389,396 Walley, G.C.B. 147 Taga, N. 296 Walmsley, R.D. 5,168,169,172,176, Takarnura, N. 269, 277 177,195,198,210-213,218,261,273, Talling, LB. 198 327,346,348-350,361 TaIling, J.F. 198,271,274,275,277,359 Walsby, AE. 276 Taussig, H.J. 173, 176, 177,211,273,282, Walter, G. 58 296,298,377,394 Ward, J.V. 127-129, 175,212,265,388, Taylor, D.1. 224, 225, 234, 235, 290, 372 389,394 Taylor, V.A. 352, 392 Waters, T.F. 352 Tennant, D.L. 159 Watts, C.J. 212, 270 Thompson, K. 145 Watts, E. 352, 394 Thompson, R.O.R.Y. 182 Weir, lS. 47 Thompson, WW. 97 Welcomme, R.L. 143, 144 Thornton, J.A.167, 173, 176, 177, 195, Werger, M.lA 4, 14 197,198,200,211,212,273,282,296, Wetzel, R.G. 246 298,377,394 Whitfield, AX. 326, 327, 355, 372-375, Threkeld, S.T. 316 381 Tlou, T. 138, 139, 142 Whitlow, J.R. 153-155 Toerien, D.F. 176, 198,207,210-213, Wicks, R.J. 308, 395 218,219,273,291-295,305,307,327, Wilby, A.F. 132 346,363 Wilkinson, R.C. 121 Toerien, M.C. 305 Williams, C.B. 114 Tomasson, T. 377, 379, 383, 386 Williams, M.A.J. 16 Tow,M.173 Williams, N.V. 40, 41 Tracey, R.P. 291 Williams, W.D. 3, 200, 216, 396 Troeger, B.W. 391 Willis, J.P. 16 Truswell, J.F. 15 Wilson, B.H. 68, 90,134,135,139, 140 Tundisi, J.G. 243, 390 Winterbourn, M.J. 125, 126 Tur, N.M. 278, 280 Winternitz, N.L. 167 Twinch, A.l 152, 153,208-211,246 Wood, AB. 145 Tyson, P.D. 10,21,22,24,26,58,67,386 Wood, R.B. 275 Wooldridge, T. 314 Valente, 1. 30, 34, 88, 90, 316 World Water 90 van As, J.G. 352 Wright, R.T. 305 van de Heiden, J.T. 378 443

Yasuno, M. 269, 277 Zohary, T. 243, 244, 254, 261, 263-266, Young, S. 352, 392 269,270,272-278,301,302,305-307, 394,395 Zaloumis, E.A. 27, 36 Zaret, T.M. 311, 313, 367, 369 Zilch, A. 15 Index of organisms

Acartia natalensis 313, 326, 343-345 tricuspidatus 44 Achnanthes minutissima 61 Apseudes digitalis 321,330,354,357 Acinobacter 291 Aquidalidae 36 Acroperus harpae 317 Arcuatula capensis 321,354 Aeromonas 291 Ardeidae 36 Aeschna miniscula 45, 111 Aristida junciformis 34 Aeschnidae 45, 111 Asphartharia wahlbergi 359 AjTonurusbarnardi44 Asplanchna brightwelli 314 harrisoni 44, 112 Atherina breviceps 374 scotti 44 Athripsodes 77 peringueyi 44 harrisoni 115 oliffi 44 Atrichopogon 112 Alcaligenes 291 Atydiae 35, 43, 320, 321 Alcedinidae 36 Aulonogyrus abdominalus 113 Alona 314 alternata 113 diaphana 110 Aulophorus 110 Amarodytes peringueyi 112 Austrocaenis 111 Amphibia 46, 53, 97, 311 capensis44 Amphipoda 43,320,327,330 Austrocleon 111 Amphipsyche scottae 45 ajTicanum 111 Amphora acutiuscula 61 virgilae 111 veneta 61 Austroglanis sclateri 96, 380 Anabaena 211,226,241,242,259 AzollaJiZiculoides 278,280-282 azollae 280 circinalis 211, 214, 215, 239, 242 Bacillariophyceae 34,61, 115, 120 fios-aquae 211 Bacillus 291 Anabaenopsis 226, 260 thuringiensis 107 Anabantidae 50, 52 Baetidae44, 77, 95,111,112,115,119 Anatidae 36 Baetis bellus 44, 77, 111 Anhingidae 36 glaucus 44,77 Anisops debilis 110 harrisoni 44,77,95,105,108, Ill, gracilis 110 115,119 varia 110 latus 77 Anisoptera 358 natalensis 44 Anisus natalensis 113 quintus 95 Annelida 121, 321 Barbus 50, 52, 96, 98 Anomoeneis exWs 61 aeneus 96,156,312,323,365,366, Anura 46,97,311 368,377,379,383,386 Aphanicerca 77 anoplus 96, 378, 379 Aphanicercella 77 cavernicola 376 Aphanicercopsis 77 hospes 57,96 Aplocheilichthys myaposae 35 kimberleyensis 96, 156,383 Aponogeton 314 natalensis 35 Aprionyx77 pallidus96 445

paludinosus 35, 96, 383 thomasseti 45, 77, 111 trimaculatus 376 zuluensis 45 Bellamya capillatus 46 Chiloglanis paratus 35 Belostomatidae 111 swierstrae 35 Bezzia 113 Chimarra77 Biomphaleria pfeifferi 46 ambulans 112 Blepharoceriidae 45,50 Chironomidae 34,59,107,108,111,112, Bosmina 316, 318, 323, 337, 341, 360, 370 115,121,320,321,330-333,335,336, longirostris 42, 110,313,316,317, 354,358 322,324,327,337,341,363,364, Chironomini 119, 121 367,371 Chironomus 119 Bosminidae 42 calipterus 108, 110 Bosminopsis dietersi 316 formasipennis 111 Botryococcus braunii 240 leucochlorus 112 Brachionus 314 pilosimanus 111 calcilforus 318,340 transvalensis 335, 336, 353, 358 caudatus 314 Chlamydomonas 239 falcatus 314,318 Chlorolestes 45, 53 Brachyceridae 44 Choroterpes ? bugandensis 44 Branchyura 110 Chydoridae 42 Bulinus forskali 46 Chydorus 314 globosus46 g lobosus 11 0 natalensis 46, 353, 354 sphaericus42, 110,314 tropicus 113 Cichlidae 57, 285, 286, 312, 327, 375, 376, 378,380-383 Caelatura mossambicensis 359 Cladocera59,97, 110, 111,311-319,325, Caenidae 111,121 337,340-342,363,366,370,371 Calanoida 309,311,317-319,324,338, Cladophora 223, 226, 235 341-345,352,360,367 Cladotanytarsus reductus 112 Caridina 35 Clarias gariepinus 35, 96, 148, 156, 312, nilotica 35, 43, 352, 356, 357, 373 366,376,381, 383 Castanophlebia albicauda 77 Clariidae 337 calida 44 Cloeon 111 Centropages 313 crassi 105 Centroptilum 77 Closterium 226,239 excisun44, 77,111,115 pronum34 indusii44 Coenagriidae 110 medium 112 Coleoptera 112 parvum44 Conochiloides? dossuarius 314 sudafricanum 44 Copepoda 42, 59,110,309-319,322, Centroptiloides bifasciatum 44,98, 395 324-327,329,338,339,341-346,360, Ceratophyllum demersum 33, 222, 354 363,366-369 Ceratopogonidae 112, 113 Copelatus capensis 112 Ceriodaphnia 314,316,318,337,340, Corbicula africana 46,374 350,370 Corixidae 34, 11 0, 111 comuta 316 Corophium triaeonyx 321, 354 dubia 316 Coscinodiscus lineatus 228 reticulata 317,340,371 Crangonyx robertsii 43 Chaetogaster 110 Crassula natans 48 Chaoborus 318,319,367 Cricotopus 332 Chara 224, 235, 354, 355 albitibia 112 globularis 223 Crocodilus niloticus 35 Charophyta 225, 372 Croilia mossambica 35, 326, 374, 375 Cheumatopsyche afra 45, 111 Crucigenia 240 446

Crustacea 35,42,59,97, 125,310, Diaptomus 314 315-319,321,323,324,339,341,343, capensis 314 351,360,368 ? spectabilis 314 Cryptochirorwmus lindneri 335 Dichrotendipes 358 Cryptophyceae 240 peringuayanus 112 Ctenipocoris africana 111 Dinetus aereus 113 Cterwdaphnia 59 Diptera 35, 45, 50, 97, 110, 119 Culex poicilipes 112 Dytiscidae 34, 45,111,112 Culicidae 112 Cyanophyta 350 Echirwchloa 32 Cyathura carinata 354 Ecnomidae 113 Cyclopoida 42,313,318,319,323,324, Eichhornia crassipes 32,34,97,278,282 326,327,339,341-345,367,368 Elassoneuria trimeniana 43,77 Cyclops 314 Elporia 45, 50 Cyclotella 239, 369 Enallagma glaucum 111 Cymbella pusilla 61 nigridorsum 45 Cynodon dactylon 147 Engraulicypridae 57,96 Cyperus 32, 283 Engraulicypris brevianalis 312,366 natalensis 222 Enithares sobria 111 papyrus 32, 134 Entomostraca 108, 309 Cypridopsis 111, 119 Ephemerillidae 44 Cyprinidae 50, 52, 57, 95, 376, 377, 379, Ephemeroptera 35,43,50,77,95,97,105, 383 106,111,115,119,320,338,358 Cyrinus carpio 312, 366 Ephoron savigna 43 Ephydra 113 Danthonia 49 Ephydridae 113 drakensbergensis 49 Eristalis 111 macowani 49 Eudiaptomus 316 Daphnia 59, 314, 316, 318-320, 323, 324, Euthraulus elegans 44, 112, 115 337-340,350,360,366,370 Eutropius 324 barbata 42, 315, 316, 338, 340, 346, Evadne 313 351,352,364,365,367-369 Exosphaeroma lylecoetes 354 gibba 42,312,315,338,346,351, 363-365,367-369,393 Fasciola hepatica 49 laevis 352, 367 Ficus trichopoda 29 longispina 42,314-317,323,338,367, Filinia opoliensis 311,314 368 Fulica cristata 283 lumholtzi 316,363 Frustula rhomboides var. saxonica 115, magna 392 116 parvula 372 pulex 42, 317, 323, 339, 352, 363, 367, Galaxias zebratus 52 372 Galeichthyesfeliceps 374 pUlexllongispina 312, 337, 363, 369, Gastropoda 34, 46, 320 370,371 Gephryoglanis sclateri 156 similis 111 Gilchristella aestuarius 35, 326, 327 Daphnidae 42,312,314,324,328,337, Glossiphonia 110 338,352,360,366,367,370,372 disjuncta 110 Dexapoda 35, 43, 320 Glossogobius giurus 326 Dero 110 Gobiidae 326,375 Desmidiacae 115 Gomphidae 111 Diaphanosoma 314, 315, 318, 323, 337, Gomphonema parvulum 49 340,350,370 Grandidierella bonnieri 354 excisum316, 317, 339, 340, 367, 371 lignorum 321, 330, 353, 354, 357 Diaptomidae 42, 318 Guignotus capensis 111 447

Gyraulus cornicum 113 Lemna32 costulatus 46 Lepomis macrochirus 366 Gyrinidae 113 Leptodactylidae 53 Leptophlebiidae 35, 44, 77, 112, 115 Halicyclops 313, 326 Lestes 111 Heleophryne 53 Lestidae 111 Helmidae 112 Leydigia macrodonta 42 fusiform 112 propinqua 111 Hemihaplochromis philander 57 Libellulidae 45, 111 Hemiptera 97 Limnodrilis 110 Hepsetia breviceps 35,326,327,374 Limnosella capensis 48 Heptageniidae 44, 112 Limnothrissa miodon 317,322-324,364, Herophydrus oscillator 112 379 Hexarthia 314 Lithogloea 77 Hirudinea 110, 333 harrisoni 44 Hydra 120 pennicillata 44 ? attenuata 110 Lovenula 309,311,313,318,338,367, Hydrocynus vittatus 86, 324 393 Hydropsychidae 35, 45,104,111,120 excellens42, 311, 312, 315, 338, 346, Hydroptila capensis 45, 113 351,366,368 Hydroptilidae 45, 113, 115 falcifera 311, 315 Hydrozetes 115 Ludwigia stolonifera 33, 334 Hymenosoma orbiculare 356, 374 Lumbricidae 108 Hyporhamphus capensis 374 Lymnaea columella 46, 112 knysnaensis 374 natalensis 46, 112 truncatula 49 Ilyocryptus sordidus 42, 110 Lymnaeidae 108 Ilyocypris 110 Insecta 35,43, 125, 320, 321 Macrobrachium 35 Ischaeum arcuatum 222 equidens43 Isopoda 43, 97, 320, 327 petersi43 Macrocyclops albidus 316 Jacanidae 36 Macronema 113 funcus 283 Macronematidae 113 glaucus49 Macrostenum capense 45 Macrothricidae 42 Keratella 314 Macrothrix spinosa 110 cochlearis 322 Megalocypris tuberculata 110 tropica 318 Megaloptera 50 Kniphofia caulescens 49 Melanoides tuberculata 46, 374 Melita zeylanica 354 Labeo capensis 96, 156, 379, 383, 386 Melosira 239, 260, 264, 369 umbratus 96, 383 granulata 34, 226, 240, 259, 263 Laccocoris limigenus 111 Merismopedia 240 Laccophilus cyclopsis 111 Mesobola brevianalus 57,96 lineatus 112 Mesocyclops 314,316,324 pellucidus 45 emini314,317,323,340 Laccotrephes brachialis 111 leukarti 42,313,314,316,322,323, Lagarosiphon muscoides 48 341,363 Lamellibranchia 46, 147,326 neglectus 314 Lamellibranchiata 34 Metadiaptomus 314,318,360,393 Laridae 36 capensis 314 Lates nilotica 384 colonialis 352 Leersia hexandra 222 meridianus 42,59,315,338,340,346, 448

351,352,360,361,368,369 Oligochaeta 104, 108, 110, 119, 147, purcelli 314 330--333, 358 Micrococcus 291 Oligoneuridae 35, 43, 77 M icrocyclops varicans 314 Oligoneuropsis lawrencei 43 Microcystis aeruginosa 189, 211, 214, Oocystis 263, 369 215,239,240,242,259,260,263-266, Opsaridium zambezense 87 269,273,274,276-278,306,307,337, Oreochromis andersoni 312 350,370,371,393,394,395 mossambicus 35, 285, 366, 375, 377, M icronecta dimidiata 111 378,380--382,392 quewale 111 shiranis chilwae 383 scutellaris 111 Oreodaimon quathlambae 50, 52, 96 Moina 313, 314, 318, 324, 337, 338, 340, Orthocladiinae 35, 119, 121 341,350,351,360,370 Ostracoda 43, 110, 111, 119, 121,310,327 brachiata 42, 315, 338, 346, 351, 352, Oxyethira velocipes 115 368 dubia59,110,315-317,340 Panicum repens 222 micrura 315-317,371 Pracalanus 313 propinqua 315 Paracyclops affinis 314 rectirostris 111 Paracypretta 110 Mollusca 34,49,97,125,147,320,321, Paradiaptomus 313,314 330 ? lamellatus 314 Monodactylidae 381 Paragomphus hageni 45,111 Monodactylusfalciformis 372,374,381 Paramelita nigroculus 43 Mugilidae 381 Paspalidium 32 Mugiligobius pongolensis 35 Pelecypoda 113 Musculus virgiliae 321, 354, 372 Pelicanidae 36 MuteZla dubia 359 Perlidae 43, 113 Myriophyllum spicatum 222, 354 Phaenocorafoliacea 110 Phalacrocoracidae 36 Naiidae 108, 332 Pharyngochromis darlingi 312 Nais 110, 119 Philopotamidae 112 Najas pectinata 32, 33 Phoenicopteridae 36 Navicula 239 Phragmites 32, 224, 283, 332, 355, 358 ammophila 61 australis 207, 224, 284 halophila 61 Phreatoicus capensis 43 pupula 61 Physopsis africana 113 tongatensis 61 Pinnularia acoricola 116 Nematoda 104,110 microstauron var. brebissoni 116 Nemertini 110 Pionocypris 110 Nemouridae 43,77 Pipidae 113 Neoperla spio 43, 77, 113 Pisidium 49, 113 Neurocaenis discolor 44,77, 105 pirothi 46 Nilodorum brevibucca 332 vividarium 49 Nitschia 49,61,239 Pistia 32 liebetruthii 61 Plataleidae 36 Nostoc59 Platycyclops poppei 110 Notonectidae 34, 110, 111 Platyhelminthes 110 Notonemouridae 53 Pleaniae III Nychia marshalli 111 Plea pullula 111 Nymphaea32 Plecoptera 43,50,77,97, 118, 127 Nymphoides 32 Pleuroxus aduncus 42 Podicipidae 36 Odonata45, 53, 97, 320, 333 Podon313 Oithona313 Polychaeta 320, 326 449

Polygonum senegalense 278, 280 Sandelia 52, 333 Polymictarchidae 34, 43 Sanseviera rhodesiana 139 Polypedilium anale 115 Sarotherodon mossambicus see natalense 112 Oreochromis mossambicus vittatum 112 Scapholebris kingi 111 Pontogeloides latipes 354 Scenedesmus 239 Potamogeton 32, 222, 224, 225, 283, 290, Scirpus 224,283,314,355 291,353,355,356,372 digitatus 53, 103 crispus 32,33, 147 littoralis 224 pectinatus 32,115,206,207,223,224, Scolopacidae 36 283,290,359 Scopidae 36 pusillus 115 Selenastrum 352 schweinfurthii 32, 222, 354 capricornatum 211 P otamon perlatus 43, 11 0 Sigara whalbergi 110 sidneyi 43 Silhouetta sibayi 35, 375 Povilla adusta 34, 43,334 Simocephalus 314 Prionum serratum 53 exspinosus 111 Pristina 11 0 serrulatus 110 Prosobranchia 330 vetulus 42, 110 Prosopistoma crassi 43 Simuliidae 35, 45, 105, 107, 108, 112, Prosopistomatidae 43 113, 119-121, 128, 157 Prostoma 110 Simulium 107, 389 Protojanina prenticei 43 adersi 112 Pseudagrion citricola 45 bovislchutteri 45 fnassaicum 45 chutteri 95,106,107, 157,389 salisburyense 45, 110 damnosum45 Pseudocleon inzingae 44 gariepense 95 maculosum 44, 95, 111 medusaeforme 45,389 vinosum44 medusaeforme forma hargreavsi 113 Pseudocrenilabus philander 35, 96, 376 nigritarsus 45, 112,389 Pseudodiaptomus 3, 18 ruficorne 112 hessei 42,313,314,324-326,329,341, Spariidae 381 343-347,380 Sphaerodema capensis 111 Pseudomonas 291 nepoides 111 Psychoda 111 Sphagnum truncatum 115 alternata 108, 111, 119 Spirogyra 58, 59 Pulmonata 49, 112, 113, 320, 333, 358 cylindrica 59 Pyxicephalus adspersus 46 daedalea 59 spreciana 59 Rallidae 36 welwitschii 59 Rana angolensis 113 Stauroneis wislouchii 61 fuscigula 46 Stenochlaena tenufolia 32 umbraculata 46 Stenocypris 110 Ranatidae 111 Sternidae 36 Ranatra vic ina 111 Stictochironomus puripennis 112 Ranidae 113 Stigeocloneum lubricum 115 Recurvinostridae 36 Synedra acus 34, 226 Rhabdocoela 11 0 Synlestes 53 Rhabdosargus holubi 372, 374, 381 Synodontis macrostigma 312 Rhopaloida gibberula 61 Syzygium cor datum 29 Rotifera 314,318,319,322,323,339 Ruppia maritima 224, 354 Tabanidae 113 Tabanus 113 Salvinia molesta 203, 278-280, 334 Tanaidae 320,330 450

Tanypus guttatipennis 112 Tropodiaptomus 314,316,318 Tanytarsus 107, 335 hutchinsoni 316 Thermocyclops crassus 313, 341 kraepelini 316 emini 313,316,341 spectabilis 314,339,352 hyalinus 316 Tubife:x; 110 neglectus 316,352 Tubificidae 108 oblongatus 317,323,340,343,346, Typha 32, 283 351,352 domingenis 207 schuurmanae 42 latifolia 283 Thermodiaptomus syngenes 311,316,317, latifolia (capensis) 207 323,340,351 Tilapia rendalii 145, 312, 379, 380, 382 Unio46,113 sparrmanii 35,96,312,376,380 Unionacea 331 Tipulidae 97, 113 Trapa bispinosa 32, 33 Wardia hygrometrica 53,78,103 Trichocerca chattoni 311, 322 Wolffia 32 Trichoptera 8, 35, 45, 97,104,105,108, 121,333,358 Xenopus laevis laevis 46, 113 Trichorythidae 77, 112 Trichorythus discolor 112 Zostera marina 207 Trimicra 113 Zygonyx77 Trithemis arteriosa 45 Trithemus risi 111 Tropocyclops brevis 42, 313, 341 prasinus 314 General index

acetylene reduction 211 Australopithecine 12 acid rain 6, 116 autochthonous 104, 195,223,224,235, acid waters 27,67,75 390 Cape fold montane region 27, 67, 195 Transvaal 115 bacteria 285 adenosine triphosphate 295 aerobic heterotrophic 285-287, 290, Aeolian sand transport 17 292,294,296,306 African planation 9 coun~291,296,299,301,302 afforestation 152, 153 C-14 acetate uptake 287-289 agricultural practice 28, 154 C-14 carbon dioxide 288 Caucasian Man 8, 34 C-14 glucose uptake 285-288, 296 Nguni Man 8, 34 metabolic parameters 287, 292-294, algae 300,303-307 benthic 234, 334 Baro~eland 90 Cyanobacteria 7,240,302,393 Baro~e flood plain 47 diatoms 290, 329 barrierlakes 16, 18,28 dinoflagellates 229, 289, 290 basalt laval cap 14,47 flagellates 230, 289, 290 basin geometry 179 algal growth potential 21 0, 211 basin transfers 72, 105, 156,309,389 allochthonous 69, 104, 153, 195,340,388, basins 390 deflation basins 15,312 allopatric speciation 52 drainage basins 91 ammonia 49, 88, 129,270,394 Kalahari Basin 9,55, 133, 197, 198 anaerobic zone 230, 231, 286 Kariba Basin 4 Angola 10, 90-92 Orange River Basin 55-56 annual runoff see runoff Tugela Basin 131 anoxia 330, 331, 356 Beaufort strata 39, 198 aquatic birds 36 Benguella system 21 aquatic ecosystems 6 benthic invertebrates 35 aquatic invertebrate fauna community structure 320, 321 principal divisions 42-96, 106 dynamics 352 tolerance categories 110-113 ecological role 372 aquatic macrophytes (= hydrophytes) filter feeders 104, 333 communities 32, 33, 48, 106, 147, 207 production 335,357 decomposition 290, 330, 353, 355 PIB values 356, 357, 359 production 222-226, 278, 280, 283 spatial distribution 331,356 sporocarps 281-282 standing stocks 334, 336, 353-355, 358 succession (hydrosere) 32 temporal dynamics 352-353 Arrhenius equations 254 bilharzia (= Schistosomiasis) 147 plot 291, 294 biocidelbiological contrall07 aspect ratio 182 bio-engineering 389 atomic proportions 197-200 blackfly (Simulium) 95, 106, 107 Augrabies falls 12, 57, 93 bogs 47,94 Australo-montane (alpine) region 47 and sponges 48 452

ecosystems 49 density current 175, 202, 203 Botswana 27, 38, 58, 90 density-temperature dependent coefficient Bowen's ratio 177 of water 6 Brunt-Vaisala frequency (W) 181, 182 desert encroachment (= desertification) 58, buoyancy 175, 182, 186, 187,277 387 Bushveld granites 39 detritus 285 diel temperature variation 6 caldera 15, 194 dimensionless number 173, 178 Cape fold mountains 9, 16, 19,50-52,67 dissolved extracellular organic carbon carbon-14, 230, 234, 267, 270 (EDOC) 259, 298, 305 carbon dioxide (partial pressure) 330 dissolved organic carbon (DOC) 171, 172, carbon-flow model (Wuras) 295 299,303 cascade mixing 177, 188 dissolved organic matter (DOM) 203, 237 Cenozoic canyon 56 DOM adsorption 372 chemical composition of water dissolved oxygen 88, 97, 174, 298, 330 geological effects 39-41 diurnal heated layer 186, 390 lakes 30, 195-216 diurnal thermocline 203 reservoirs 195-216 Dolomite 115, 376 river 30,76-79,89,94,95 Dolorite compartments for groundwater world average 58, 59, 197 storage 219 chemocline 194 drainage basins 91 chlorophyll a 58,219,224,230,232,233, drainage capture 52 239-242,257,263-265,349 drainage patterns 38 climate 21 Drakensberg 9, 10,27,47, 74 cycle 26, 27 Drakensberg divide 9 mean annual precipitation 24 drought corridor 55 oscillation 23 Dwyka formations 37 pattern 22 DYRESM (Dynamic Reservoir Simulation rainfall 22-24, 65, 66,70,93, 202 Model) 178, 190-193,390 solar radiation 21 dystrophiclakes 171, 172 variability 387 coastal lakes 28, 313, 314, 318, 320 East African Rift 41 compensation depth 228 Eastern National Water Carrier 93,141, conductivity 97, 129,201 151 continental shelf 56 Eastern Transvaal 15 convection 186 Ecca formations 39, 199 convective thunderstorms 172, 176 eco-hydrological model 396 Coriolis' Force 179 eddy diffusivity 178, 191 Cretaceous 10, 29 effluents currents discharge 212, 213 density 175,202,203 salinized 217 wind-induced 182-184 Endosulphan 144-145 epifauna 333,356,358 dam (walls) 7 epiflorescence 296 P.K.le Roux Dam 7,95 epilimnion 171, 173, 181, 188,296 Vaal Barrage 104, 218 epiphytes 206, 207, 373 Vaal Dam 104, 105 epipsarnrnic algal production 234 Vaal-Hartz Weir 106, 107 erosion 37 Verwoerd Dam 95 scarp (escarpment) 10, 14 see also man-made lakes for dams as wind 16 water bodies estuarine lakes and fauna 27,28,320,324, DAPI295 342,373 deflation basins 15,312 euphotic depth (= zone) 168, 170,221, Delagoa Bay 27 222,236,237,240 453

Z /Z 236,238 Gondwanaland 9-11, 40 euryh~lin:318 elements 53 euryphagy (fish) 378 fauna 321 eurytherm 35 fragmentation 10 eutrophication 6, 167,210-212,215 landscape 40 hypereutrophy (= hypertrophy) 7, 211, Mesozoic 53 213,258,265,282,296,394 pediplain 55, 195 N : P-ratio 211, 213-215 planation 9 gradients of variables in Lake Ie Roux 328 Fasciolariasis 49 granites 12,37,40 faunal community distribution 116-117 Great Escarpment 9 fish (= ichthyofauna) 5, 35, 50,53,57, Grootfontein 59,60 142,328 breeding requirements 379 halo cline 230, 231 colonization of man-made lakes Harare 41,212 376-380 heating differential 203, 205 community structure 96,375-376 herbicides 282 food availability 377 heterotrophic/autotrophic gradients in malnutrition 381-382 reservoirs 329 population dynamics 143-144 Highlands Water Project 50,94, 155,218 specialized habitats 380 Highveld 37,65 suspensiods 382-383 pediplain 13 swimbladder and depth distribution 380 Holism 396 thermal conditions 376-377 Holocene 17 traps segmentation 17-19 "fonya" baskets 148 holomixis 259, 302 trophic resource utilization and Hosabes Spring 194, 195 biogenetics 312, 381 "hunzhenje" (papyrus raft) 139 fishery yields 364, 365, 384-386 hydrodynamics 172, 176,207,389-393 Fish River Gap 53, 54 effect of inflow 202 floodplains processes 178-195 Okavango Delta 4, 12, 84, 90, 91, Hydrological Research Institute, Pretoria 132-137, 151 39 accumulation of salts 141-142 hydrology 67, 72,151,340,349,395 water budget 140-141 hydrophytes see aquatic macrophytes Pongolo 33, 145-149,207 hydrosere 32 Zambezi 132 hypereutrophy (= hypertrophy) see flood-producing rains 26 eutrophication "Floristischen Analyse" (sensu Cholnoky hyperscums 263 1966) 61 hypolimnion 173, 203, 296, 331, 334 food webs 383 temperatures 193 forestry afforestation 152-153 ichthyofauna see fish c1earfelling 153 igneous complex 38 Froude number 189, 190, 202, 203 Indian Ocean 27

inflow (FI) 189,202 inter-basin transfers 72, 105, 156,309,389 outflow CFo) 190 Interpluvia155 "Fynbos" floral community 51,67, 105, Intertropical Convergence Zone crrCZ) 106, 126, 153 21,23 irradiance gelbstoff221,239 cosine 170, 221 geomorphology 9, 10 downwelling 170, 171 gilvin 169, 221, 239 scalar 170, 171 glacial lakes 6 isopycnals 184, 189 454

Johannesburg 7, 109,213 Valencia (Venezuela) 391 Wilderness lakes 313,314,326 Kafue Gorge 37 Zandvlei 355 Kalahari Basin 9,55, 133, 197, 198 Zeekoevlei 314 Kapachira Falls 87 see also estuarine lakes Kariba Basin 4 Langmuir absorption isotherm 208, 209 Karroo system 74,195 Lebombo Mountains 29 sedimentary rocks 37-39, 80, 198 Lesotho 27, 37, 47 strata 52 Highlands Water Project 50,94, 155, Karstveld 59, 60 218 KhoiKhoi 8 montane massif 48 Khomas Highland 9 light Kilimanjaro 47 attenuation parameters 168, 169, 186, Kimberley 15 221,232,261 Kosi Bay 17 effect of particle size 265-266 Kosi complex 18, 29 limnocorrals 249 limnological regions 27, 388 lake levels 16 character 387 Quaternary 16 Limnological Society of Southern Africa variation 204 xii,4 Lake Number 173, 178 Lupata Gorge 37 Lakes and vleis 32 Amanzimyana 29 Makarikari Pans 83 Barberspan 312 Malawi 27 Black Bass 314 MaImesbury shale 217 Bot River Lagoon 224, 226, 235, 313, Maluti Mountains 47 330,347 Man Chilwa 207, 383 aboriginal 132 Chrissie 15 European 8 Eilandvlei 344,345,347 industrial 6 Fundudzi 13,37 influence 69 Groenvlei313,314,340-342,347 Nguni 8 Kivu 6 man-made lakes Langvlei 342, 344, 345, 347 Arthur 385 Liambezi198,312,327,348,382,384 Bangala 385 Malawi 87 Boegoeberg 57 Mgobezelini 30 Bloenrrhof219,385 Mzingazi 313,314,319 Bospoort 349 Ngami 58,91, 138 Bridle Drift 162, 173 Nhlange 28, 330 Bronkhorstspruit 349 Nseze 30 Buffelspoort 169, 349 Piti 30 CahoraBassa34, 37,83,86-88,151, Poelala 28,30,171,313,347 315,316,319 Princess Vlei 314 Darwendale 385 Rondevlei 326, 342, 344, 345, 347 Doorndraai 385 Sibaya 19, 28, 30, 31,34,35,187,234, Florida 310,314 313,319,347 Grassridge 385 Sirkelsv lei 314 Gwenoro 385 Sossusvlei 58,59 Hartbeespoort 173,176,177,189,211, St. Lucia 28, 35, 383 274,275,282,295,303,304, Swartvlei 19, 171, 194,206,223,224, 307,316,319,349,385 228,232,313,326,342,344, Henley 390 345,347 Ingwezi 385 Tanganyika 6 Kalkfontein 385 455

Kariba 37,41,84,88,90, 151, 167, models 173-175,198-200,280,316, Dynamic Reservoir Simulation Model 319,349,385 178,190-193,390 Kommandodrif 385 eco-hydrologica1396 Kyle 385 hydrological (groundwater storage and Laing 161, 162 base flow) 219 Ie Roux 7, 57, 94,173,176,178-181, one-dimensional 178 190,191,315,319,385 seasonal floodplain fisheries 144 Lesapi 385 Talling's 271, 274 Lindleyspoort 169, 349 monimolimnion 195, 288, 326, 330 Loskop 176, 349, 358, 385 monocline 10, 11 MacDougall 385 monomixis 6, 173, 176,390 Mazoe280 Mont-aux-Sources 49 Mcllwaine 168, 175, 189,211,212, 267,274,280,385 Namibia 10, 27, 91 Mentz 385 desert 58 Midmar 7,189,199,209,211,237, geomorphology 9 240,274,319 Naukloft Park 58 Nahoon 173 surface water 59 New Doringspoort 349 Ndumu35 Neema385 Newton's Third Law 389 Olifants Nek 349 Nile crocodile 35 Pongolopoort 145, 146,385 nitrate 49,88, 195-198,201-203,249,270 Rietvlei 214, 215, 349 nitrite 270 Roodeplaat 116, 343 nitrogen fixation 214 Rust der Winter 169,349 nitrogenase activity 211, 281 Spioenkop 319 nomenclature of "darn" 7 Sterkfontein 218 non-dimensional number (= dimensionless Tonteldoos 349 number) 173, 178 Vaal 105, 218 nutrients Vaal Barrage 218 availability 280 van Ryneveldspas 385 cycling 203, 246, 290 Verwoerd 57,93,94,168,173, 176, enrichment 210 178,280,281,315,319 intemalloading 246 Wellington (Australia) 183 loading 212 Wuras207,237,238,274,283,295, pump 207 307,319,349 transport 205 Maputaland 34-36 "mekoro" 138 Okavango Delta see floodplains meromixis 6, 194, 195,326,330 oligotrophic 34, 48,69,201,208,221, metabolic buoyancy 393 227,232 metalinmion 173, 177,214,390 one-dimensionality 390 Mesozoic era 10 Orange River Basin 55-56 Michaelis-Menten equations Orange River Project 105 Lineweaver-Burk modification 287 Orange-Vaal system 4, 56 mine dumps (gold and coal) 114, 115, 217 Orange River mineral turbidity see turbidity assymmetry 55-56 mineralization 109, 146,373 drainage evolution 53 mines, diamond 50 northern and southern oscillation 96 Miocene 10 Oribi Gorge 12 mixing depth 170,236,238 osmoregulation 105, 377 rnixolinmion 194, 326 overturn 177, 203 Moc;;ambique 27,36,74 Moc;;ambique current 21 Palaearctic 47 456 palaeo genic elements (fauna) 50, 95 sediments 38 palmiet (Pronum serratum) 53 Quebra Baco Gorge 37 pans 13, 15,27,32,207,375 Makarikari (= Makgadikgadi) Pans 83 radiation flux 21 Mholo Pans 207-208 rainfall see climate Pretoria Salt Pan 194 Reductionism 396 Pan-Ethiopian 34,47,57,320 relict fauna 53, 321 papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) 134, 135 reservoirs see man-made lakes papyrus raft ("hunzhenje") 139 Rhodesia see Zimbabwe particulate organic matter 123-126 Richardson's Number (R 1) 182, 183 pediplain 9, 10, 167 Rift Valley 10 peneplain 27,28 rimland 9 pH27,29,47,58,97, 115, 116, 195 River Bushmen 138 phosphate 49,88,94,129,197,201,203, River Continuum Concept 123-127, 388 204,210,233,250,270,290 rivers adsorption 206, 208, 209 abstraction 72, 157, 161 cycling 206, 210 changes 120-121 exchange 208, 210 classification 72-81 32p labelling 207, 208 conservation 161, 163-164 standard 215,216 differences between northern and photosynthesis southern hemisphere 117 inhibition 224, 244, 274 drainage patterns 37 parameters 232, 233, 236, 238, 242, ecosystem functioning 121-129 244-249,251-255,259, flow 159 264-273,276-278,299,305, intermittent 72 307 minimum 159-160 photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) 169, perennial 72 171,221,237 seasonal 72 phytoplankton 197 see also regulation productivity 227, 233, 243, 250, 258, important systems 266,267,272,298 Berg 4, 77, 98,99, 102, 103, 108 standing stock 34, 228, 263 Breede (Bree) 97,102 plateau 27 Buffalo 80, 162,388 Pleistocene 15, 17,28,96 Caledon56 Pliocene 10, 11 Crocodile (Jukskei) 37, 39, 74, 80, Pluvial 55 98,99,103,108,213 pollution 108 Cunene 12, 58, 60, 91, 92 acid effluents 7,108,114-116 Gamtoos 76, 80 biotic indices 118-120 Gouritz 76,80 gold and coal mining 7 Great Fish 36,38,69-71,76, 105 livestock production 49 Hartbees 67 N and P effluents 109 Hartz 106, 107 organic 108-114, 146 Kafue 37,84,88, 132 polymixis 208, 327, 390 Kuiseb 59,60 Pongolo River floodplain see floodplains Limpopo 9, 13,27,36,37,65,75, Port Elizabeth 27 83,163 potamon zone 35 Luangwa 84, 88 Pretoria 116 Makabusi212, 259 Pretoria Salt Pan 194 Mgeni 36, 208 pycnocline 177, 183 Molopo 55, 72 Mwenda202 Ql0 257,269,277,291,294 Mzimkulu 12 Quaternary 11,13,16 Nwanedzi 74 lake levels 16 Okavango 12, 58-60, 65,71,83,84, 457

90-93,96 sponges 47, 94 Olifants 74, 80, 102 stability (water column) 6, 173, 176,247, Orange 9,13,47,53,55-57,65,67, 277,390 71,80,83,93,95,96,107 stenothermal 35, 95, 320, 321 Pienaars 107 stratification, thermal 172, 175-177, Pongolo 27,30,75,145-149,312, 183-185,259,340 313 Stone Age Man 12 Sabie 74 subtraction zone 35, 375 Sanyati 327 surface heating 176, 177, 181 Shire 87 surface layer 173 Sundays 71, 76, 105,219 suspensoids 39, 41, 55, 94,210,237,238, Tugela 4,47,77,98,99, 103, 105, 257,391 108 inorganic (mineral) 6, 168, 169,200, Vaal 4, 9,13,37,39,55,57,93,98, 219 103, 106-108, 115 silts 103 Wilge 74, 218 Swaziland 36 Zambezi 3, 9, 27, 30, 34,41,65,71, 83-92,96,132,151,175, Table Mountain Sandstone 12, 51, 75, 77, 201 80,102,171,195,200 regulation 7,88, 155-157,384,388 TaIling's model 271, 274 effects of impoundment 128 tectonic events 9 minimum flow 159-160 temperate 42 zonation 99-107 Tertiary 9, 13, 19 Ross by radius (Rr) 179 plain 36 r-strategy 362, 379 Thabana Ntlenyana 47 Rua Cana Falls 12, 60 thermal effects of impoundments 128 runoff 23, 115 thermal microstructure 183 mean annual runoff (MAR) 65, 66, 68, thermal siphon 205 388 thermal stratification 172, 175-177, 183-185,259,340 salinity 195, 201, 353 thermally mixed layer 91, 181, 183, 186, salinization 105, 199,207,216,219,395 191, 193 effluents 217 thermocline 175, 195 saltpan 15, 19 diurnal 203 Schistosomiasis 147 Tillite 37, 199 sea level tilting of continental margins 9 regression (Eemian) 16 time series analyses 22 transgression (Flandrian) 16, 167 total dissolved solids (TDS) 37, 75, 76, Secchi disc transparency 88, 168,360, 115,142,147,217,218,395 361,363 Transvaal 36, 38 sediment transport 39,41 Tsitsikama mountains 51 sedimentary rocks 37 Tugela Basin 131 sedimentation 104 turbidity sediments 28, 41, 67, 332 biogenic 256, 258-266 seiche 175-177,183,191,207 inorganic 6, 67, 69, 80,97, 169, sensible heat 186 172,186,194,195,218, Serial Discontinuity Concept 127, 388 219,236,247,268,312, shear 175, 176, 182, 184, 188 315,338,359,360,363, Smith, J.L.B., Institute ofIchthyology 6, 366,383,391 144 turbulence (TKE) 175, 187-189,247,393 sodium carbonates 141-142 turnover see overturn solar pond 195 solar radiation 21 upper mixed layer (UML) 91, 181, 183, South Equatorial Divide 37 186, 191, 193 458 uplift (geological) 8,11,117 zoobenthos 320-321, 372 zoogeography 3, 309, 321 vertical exchange coefficient (~) 178, 394 zooplankton 309,311,327 Victoria FaIls 12,47,83,84,86-88, 151 clutch size 361 vleis see lakes and vleis community grazing 370 community structure 315-319 water budget cyclomorphosis 312, 313, 367 Okavango 140-141 density 203, 344-345, 392 water engineering projects 141 depression of feeding 392 inter-catchement transfers 156 diel vertical migration (DVM) Sterkfontein Dam, Wilge River 218 322-324,326,366 water quality distribution 322 blending 218 diversity 318 geological effects 39-41 dynamics 326, 343 Wedderburn Number 175,179,182,183, ecological role 372 185, 186, 188 feeding biology 369-372,392 wetlands27,28,35,131-132,210 heleoplankton 311 see also floodplaints horizontal distribution 326, 329 Wilderness Lakes embayment 16 limnoplankters 311, 366 wind planktonivory 311, 312, 324 action 39 population parameters 346 erosion 16 predation avoidance 324, 364 patterns 277 production and PIB ratios 346, 351, speed 343 352,361 stirring 186 seasonality and succession 336-338, Witwatersrand 114,115,212,218 340-342 complex 155 size-structure and plantivore avoidance system 74 362,365,392 standing stocks 344-350 Zambezi Trough 9 tychopelagic 327 Zambia 27,91 Zoutpansberg 13 Zimbabwe 7, 27, 36, 37, 167 Zululand (Kwazulu) 36,80, 171