TOUGH TECH 01 | 1 | A home A home for Tough Tech founders.

TOUGH TECH 01 | 2 | TOUGH TECH 01 | 5 | g. | 54 | Manifesto d. | 10 | The Future is Quantum | | 30 | The Engine’s Portfolio Companies f. b. c. | 8 A Grand Leap of Faith | 6 | What is Tough Tech? | e. | 22 Fusion Energy Development Enters a New Era a. | 4 | About The Engine CONTENTS Spring 2018 Built by MIT The Engine, Print by Puritan Capital, NH, MA. Design by www.draft.cl Tough Tech Publication 01 TOUGH TECH 01 | 7 | It takes time for new-science technologies to make the journeyIt takes time for from lab manufacturing new processes. time to invent often including to market, capitalists than most venture is longer which take 10 years, It may [...] can wait. system venture-capital-driven innovation our highly optimized, Today, concepts slower-growing is simply not structured to support complex, might lead significant—the kind that could end up being hugely that to disruptive in sustainable energy, solutions to existential challenges and health, security, and food water Built by MIT, The Engine was a response to a challenge the university’s The Engine university’s a response to a challenge the was Built by MIT, leaders finding the heard from faculty entrepreneurs: and alumni nearly impossible. ideas was Tech Tough sustained support to develop Washington Rafael articulated Reif MIT President L. the problem in a 2015. op-ed from May Post new kind of organization—an The op-ed defined the need for a startups Tech Tough orchard”—specially designed to help “innovation success. sustained achieve President Reif challenged MIT’s From this first sketch of an idea, leadership to understandthe institution could do to spur more what an environment Could they create and regional development. invention breakthrough ideas and deliver to develop innovators empowered that them to the world? Treasurer President and Vice Executive Israel Ruiz, a year, over For and companies to explore entrepreneurs, spoke to founders, of MIT, was The answer could realize Reif’s the university how vision. and access to specialized instrumentation, long-term capital, simple: entrepreneurial expertise. The Engine emerged Born from these experiences and connections, orchard might be. an innovation of what as the demonstration “the most Headquartered close to Kendall Square—famously, defining square mile on the planet”—The Engine’s innovative founders who seek to create Tech Tough principle is to support By prioritizing breakthrough impact on society. materially positive new fields and The Engine to cultivate seeks early profit, ideas over push the boundaries of innovation. OUR STORY OUR We are a community of We like-minded individuals and together corporations working and expand advise, to guide, the Tech possibilities of Tough companies. From equipment to labs, we we From equipment to labs, foundersensure that and access to their teams have the resources they need to efficiently continue their work and economically. Commercialization is Commercialization nuanced and intimidating. help founders navigate We providing this landscape by them with entrepreneurial expertise, knowledge, and guidance. inspiration,

We provide long-term provide We prioritizescapital that breakthrough ideas over Tough because early returns, takes time. Tech

technologies from the lab into the light. the light. the lab into technologies from and commercialization; to bring disruptive to bring disruptive and commercialization; to help bridge the gap between discovery discovery gap between to help bridge the infrastructure they need to thrive. It’s our job It’s thrive. need to they infrastructure term capital, knowledge, and the specialized and the specialized term capital, knowledge, entrepreneurs, and visionaries—with long- and visionaries—with entrepreneurs, forefront of their fields—scientists, engineers, their fields—scientists, of forefront We’re here to empower and inspire those at the those at and inspire to empower here We’re companies. create the next generation of world-changing world-changing of generation the next create The Engine, built by MIT, helps founders helps founders MIT, built by The Engine,

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ADVANCED MANUFACTURING Tough Tech is worth the wait. the is worth Tech Tough breakthrough science, engineering, and leadership. and leadership. science, engineering, breakthrough solves the world’s important challenges by uniting uniting important by challenges the world’s solves Tough Tech is transformative technology that that technology is transformative Tech Tough

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TOUGH TECH 01 | 8 | TOUGH TECH 01 | 11 | - compelling the technol how compelling the science, how o matter of the guarantee there is never the invention, compelling how ogy, of the bench to the the world The leap from a compelling business. it is one, But long and uncertain of the balance sheet is a world one. stirs that new questions and perspective, when taken with intention N These articles- explore the intersection innova of potentially world-changing in our first features selected quantum computing and fusion energy as pub- We and is continuing to become more refined and practical, Quantum hardware a change has created of climate threat the pressing science, those in fusion For already taken the first leap to com- with have work founders we Tech Tough The And here are far ideas featured The transformative from exhausting their potential. and challenges, bringing with it greater innovation and investment. It is a leap that It is a leap that bringing and investment. with it greaterand challenges, innovation is as necessary technologies for individual as it is for the ecosystems in which they reside. of the challenges They investigate tions and the realities of their commercialization. and their impact and others, regulation, economies of scale, repeatability, scalability, some ideas must be why They hope to showcase of a technology. on the evolution potential. to reach their world-changing privatized these technologies are in profound periods believe of precisely because we lication transition. As more “inevitable.” supporters quantum computing is argue that of the field now computing are becoming of quantum for the inherently quirky nature applications the technology faces it is also clear that profound challenges around error apparent, be facedThese challenges will head-on as quantum computing and speed. scale, rates, commercial reality. from conceptual lab science to moves fusion reaction a functional net-positive to invent moral and existential imperative and cost reliable, safe, and to bring technology to market in a manner that’s that and material science, in plasma science, advances the past decade, Over competitive. a remarkable set of tools and understanding bring created that the have computation prospect of commercially-viable fusion closer than ever. - and the innova the imagination, work, done the hardest have mercialization—they landscape by this nuanced and intimidating our job to help them navigate It’s tion. and technical inspiration expertise, them with entrepreneurialproviding knowledge, the challenges inherent in commer- that We believe as the space flourish. as well tools, the journey and that thinking, out of the are a necessarycialization for novel catalyst lab is an important one. we as the commercial viability of quantum computing and fusion energy edge closer, of science spurred by an alchemy forward can expect to see breakthroughs accelerate, and business. N

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Katie Rae A Grand Leap of Leap A Grand Faith

TOUGH TECH 01 | 10 | THE FUTURE IS QUANTUM | 13 |

Quantum computing could revolutionize computing Quantum computing could revolutionize it—if engineers to know figure out how can as we make it useful. Danilo Agutoli by | Portraits By Michael Blanding for The Engine by Vasjen | Illustration The Future is Future The

TOUGH TECH 01 | 12 | THE FUTURE IS QUANTUM | 15 | - he provoca In it, (1) The idea of creating a quantum com- a quantum The idea of creating laborious through process of clicking to arrive a at by one, one calculations quick- a problem much more solution to effort. ly and with much less firstputer was by theoretical proposed in a lecture, Richard Feynman, physicist with Computers,” Physics “Simulating in 1981. he gave that tively asked whether it was even possible even asked whether it was tively with classical to truly physics simulate Since the true of nature computers. he said, is quantum mechanical, physics the closest a classical computer could get to truly the universe ever simulating I’m not “And is only an approximation. go with happy with all the analyses that nature because just the classical theory, he concluded, dammit,” classical, isn’t to make a simulation want “and if you better make it quantum you’d of nature, a wonderful and by golly it’s mechanical, Put another way, classical computing Put another way, of to represent the state want “If you “entan- Furthermore, qubits can be cal to quantum,” says Tufts University University Tufts says cal to quantum,” is, “That Love. quantum theorist Peter make science in which you a picture of a pre-existing measurements to uncover mea- there before you was reality that Quan- think like that. can’t You sured it. participatory.” tum measurement is - essential can be reduced to series of bits, ly containers contain either a 0 or a that can reproduce “You time. given any 1 at every of a classical computer by action writing numbers on a piece of paper,” no difference there “There’s Love. says and a modern an ENIAC lap- between on the other hand, A quantum bit, top.” which could either represents a process, actually decide doesn’t but be a 0 or a 1, measure it. which until the moment you is at called a superposition, state, That the heart of quantum mechanics—the can be that cat famous Schrödinger’s the same time. and dead at alive are you now well a quantum computer, The best Love. says in a bit of a pickle,” is he continues, someone could do, that to write the probability of wheth- down any be a 0 or 1 at er each qubit would particular moment of measurement—a have “If you mammoth undertaking. need 2 to the n would you n qubits, Ten Love. says possible measurements,” 1,000 possibil- yield over qubits would a million. yield over would twenty ities; of a huge number of pieces “That’s says. Love paper,” the meaning that with one another, gled” to the state of one (0 or 1) is related state “If I’m not able to describe of another. of qubit one independently of the state Love entanglement,” that’s qubit two, superposition qualities, Those two says. seem esoter- may and entanglement, they however, Practically speaking, ic. quantum computersmean that can take wiping out the shortcuts in calculations, No matter how fast silicon-based computers get, get, computers how matter silicon-based fast No just too difficultfor literally are problems some to solve. them That’s where quantum computers where That’s those engineers on the stand Now, when trying quickly fall away Words just too difficult for them to solve. A for them to solve. just too difficult for example, reaction, simple chemical Keep- 40 electrons. 30 or might involve positions and ing track of all of their number of requires an exponential states the capa- quickly taxes that calculations the fastest supercomputer. bilities of even used every “If you bit of silicon in the still not be able to would you universe, Christopher says these problems,” solve CEO of quantum computing Savoie, Zapata. company Suspended in their deep freeze come in. of copper strutsinside a lattice and principle on the qubits operate of wires, making them capa- quantum mechanics, ble of performing the reach beyond feats That silicon-based computer. of any makes a quantum computer as different from a classical computer as a string of 1s and 0s differs of from the complexity first proposed Since they were an atom. and com- physicists some 40 years ago, worked puter engineers have like Oliver to harness actual complexity with an that quantum computer. working a the Holy Grail: cusp of demonstrating can conduct a quantum computer that is impossible to simu- that calculation Companies a classical computer. on late and Microsoft, Google, including IBM, smaller start- as several Intel—as well ups—are all racing to be first to achieve “quantum supremacy,” dubbed feat, that which will almost certainly happen in the - howev moment, That or two. next year is only the first step in the possible er, to come, quantum computing revolution Be- of a bar bet. the high-tech equivalent and science fiction all of the hype yond new formof unleashing a dramatically of the question computing into the world, can quantum computing what remains: is actually useful for the world? do that a quantum comput- to explain what with explanations er actually does, sounding in short order like—take your lose “You magic. voodoo, pick—alchemy, go from classi- something when you (1) http://physics.whu.edu.cn/ en/sites/physics.whu.edu.cn.en/ files/1_00_QIC_Feynman.pdf Qubits are short for “quantum Qubits are short for the has happened over thing A funny however. feel too bad, Intel shouldn’t from the ceiling. The outer layer of each The outer layer from the ceiling. looks like nothing so much as a white each layer, Through plastic trash barrel. colder, the devices gets successively “So we until they reach 20 Millikelvin. are about 100 times colder than outer where the “That’s Oliver. says space,” qubits live.” bits”—the heart of this strange contrap- that called a quantum computer, tion, just transformmay our conception of the since Ever computing can be. what engi of the first- computers, invention them faster. pushed to make neers have Starting tubes of ENIAC with vacuum and progressing through the invention of transistors and the silicon microchip, progressedcomputers with blinding have the last half-centuryspeed over to the supercomputers can point where today’s perform more than a thousand million a second. million operations as com- Even however. last decade or so, the continued to get faster, puters have increase has been slowing speed of that silicon chips have 50 years, For down. named after Intel Law, Moore’s followed which held that founder Gordon Moore, the number of transistors can fit on a you years. double every two microchip would the inevita- Intel acknowledged In 2016, transistors there only so many ble—that and updated can cram onto a chip, you years. of doubling to everyits rate five fast how com- silicon-based No matter some problems are literally puters get,

Do you want to see the want Do you physics computer?” professor of the prac- asks, Will Oliver tice sitting in his office on “ Stacks of shiny chrome boxes fill fill chrome boxes Stacks of shiny hear is pulsing sound you “That

the third floor of Massachusetts Institute the third floor of Massachusetts Institute As he leads 13. Building Technology’s of to the concrete stairwell down the way the ground the hallway, floor and down “We a pulsing whir gets steadily louder. to keep the team up here—oth- have be too loud for them erwise it would to opening the door he says, to work,” grad where several students sit the lab, computer monitors. hunched over buttons, in knobs, covered one wall most and colored wires like the world’s of them Several DJ system. elaborate sport monitors os- their own showing turquoise Technicolor in waves cillating It looks less like a mod- and magenta. ern computer than a mainframe from a however, Technically, half-century ago. has Oliver computer that the this isn’t is another level That off. come to show connected to this control system down, through the floor and suspended in sev- eral super-cooled refrigerators. to about down cooling the temperature nonchalantly, Oliver, says outer space,” That downstairs. as he leads the way some 2.7 Kelvin or -270 temperature, is only the first stage in cooling Celsius, it to the temperature the computer down shielded like “It’s really needs to operate. says, Oliver a series of Russian dolls,” pointing out four refrigerators suspended N Peter Love Peter Will D. Oliver Will D. Christopher Savoie Christopher CEO, Zapata Computing Astronomy, Tufts University Physics Professor of the Practice and Associate Director of the RLE Associate Professor of Physics and (MIT),and Lincoln Laboratory Fellow (MIT),and

TOUGH TECH 01 | 14 | THE FUTURE IS QUANTUM | 17 | Founders Fund Alán Aspuru-Guzik Zapata Computing Aaron VanDevender Aaron Chief Scientific Officer, Biology at Harvard University, Chief Scientist and Principal, Chief Scientist and “Even five or six years ago, it wasn’t wasn’t it years or six ago, five “Even Professor of Chemistry and Chemical Professor of Chemistry and Chemical this quantum computer, that upends all that this quantum computer, of modern cryptographic communication “If you’re VanDevender. says systems,” to an existential threat that’s the NSA, the system.” have The intelligence community doesn’t however. to worry yet, about such threats began working Since quantum physicists in earnest to try a quantum and create yet they have 1990s, computer in the late approaching a working anything to build mind running never anything machine, algo- or Shor’s as complex as Grover’s due to one simple That’s rithms scale. at quantum an effective to create reason: necessary qubits to isolate it’s computer, enough so from the outside environment interactions with the outside world that a concept known errors, create don’t they At the same time, as coherence. to be sufficiently connected to the have they can be manip- that environment into performingulated the operations has combination That required of them. especially as extremely difficult, proven engineers tried to scale up from two have qubits to 5 or 10 or 100. be able to make a useable ever clear we’d Quantum computing could have could have Quantum computing quantum more sinisterly, Somewhat moving through a membrane—these are membrane—these through a moving - Van mechanical reactions,” all quantum algorithms Developing says. Devender could these interactions to simulate drugaid in high-throughput screening, millions of of enabling exact simulation compounds in the virtual realm before to test in the lab. honing in on a handful as well—for in other areas applications finding the optimal route example, for package delivery or a ride-sharing help make machine service. It could also learning and searching more efficient. Bell Labs com- for example, In 1996, proposed a Grover puter scientist Lov quantum algorithm could rapidly that had you “Say searches. database improve and one cards face-down, four playing explains Zapata’s of them is a queen,” need you’d “In a classical search, Savoie. - so math all of the cards, to turn over an need to turn over you’d ematically, find of 2.25 cards before you average algorithm, With Grover’s the queen.” the a computer could simulate however, all having qubits, four cards using two “The once. to it at available four states peek under all you be that analogy would are so you the same time, four cards at in one shot guaranteed to get the answer Magic. Savoie. says every single time,” computing could also totally subvert the The most field of modern cryptography. common standard of cryptography that and cred- protects all of our passwords nothing it-card purchases online—to say securitynational communi- of sensitive on the assumption predicated cations—is for com- practically impossible it’s that puters to determine the prime factors of A quantum al- extremely large numbers. gorithm by MIT mathematician created could the- however, Shor in 1994, Peter with a relatively feat that oretically attain can build “If you small number of qubits.

From there, it’s it’s From there, (2) The first computers, such as ENIAC such as ENIAC The first computers, in a applications could have That help speed development of a wide array help speed development of chemical and biological products. biological how molecules “Looking at or bind to each interact with each other, - an enzyme catalyz or how other in a cell, or the energetics of a drug es a reaction, problem, because it doesn’t look so easy.” because it doesn’t problem, to simulate created were and UNIVAC, the trajectory of artillery for the US fire using differential equations military, the Over the outcome. to approximate been able to do computers have years, different tricks in different fields to ap- ranging in other fields, results proximate from particle- to superconduc physics a classical most systems, “For tivity. says is good enough,” approximation - a quantum phys VanDevender, Aaron icist turned capitalist with the venture reached a have “But we Fund. Founders are telling a bit of a lie we and it’s limit, the universe is classical ourselves that to run okay these simulations and it’s of The power on a classical computer.” it could a quantum computer is that theoretically yield not just approximate in a common precise results but results, language without the specialized tricks can use one quantum “You for each field. other quantum any system to simulate “From a says. VanDevender system,” battery to a black hole.” paper in In a 2005 wide range of areas. and Harvard’s Love Science, for example, Aspuru-Guzik just suggested that Alán a few dozen qubits could be used to the molecular energiessimulate in many chemical processes better than classical could. computers ever (2) http://science.sciencemag.org. resources.library.brandeis.edu/con- tent/309/5741/1704 The power ofThe power it could is that a quantum computer results, just approximate yield not theoretically without language in a common results but precise tricks each the specialized field.for a quick leap, says VanDevender, to imag- VanDevender, says a quick leap, quantum computersining how could Nathan Fiske. Fiske. photo by Nathan Superconducting qubit processor control lab. Engineering Quantum Systems (EQuS) group at MIT, led by Will Oliver, Simon Gustavsson, and Terry Orlando. Nathan Fiske. Fiske. photo by Nathan Dilution refrigerators that house that house refrigerators Dilution Engineering processors. qubit superconducting Will at MIT, led by (EQuS) group Quantum Systems and Terry Orlando. Gustavsson, Oliver, Simon

TOUGH TECH 01 | 16 | THE FUTURE IS QUANTUM | 19 | In the short most companies term, you absolutely certain of the outcome. absolutely certainyou of the outcome. kind of er- achieving that Unfortunately, ror correction computer with a 100-qubit require on the order of 100,000 would or a million qubits just to keep errors gets costly very“That - quick in check. is“A million pennies Johnson. says ly,” talking about when Of course, $10,000.” cost gets that than pennies, qubits rather astronomically larger. a quantum creating towards working computer are focusing just on putting enough qubits together into a single de- vice in order to actually do simple com- Due to the substantial costs putations. had to companies have of fabrication, the most By far, choose one technology. which popular is superconducting qubits, Google, is the method of choice for IBM, existing their who can leverage and Intel, expertise in lithographic tools for silicon Active error correction, meanwhile, fo- error meanwhile, Active correction, As MIT physicist Seth Lloyd once said, since the said, once Seth Lloyd since the As MIT physicist state ofnatural is quantum, the world “Almost if a quantum computer becomes anything you shine the right kind of it.” light on cally, it will stay in longer.” it will stay cally, cuses on flooding the zone with so many they will together compensate qubits that small number for decoherence in any are kind of hiding the “You of them. says information from the environment,” analo- who poses the following Johnson, whether the to tell you I wanted “Say gy: am going and I last night, Celtics won that a penny to do this by handing you is a 10 But there is either heads or tails. percent chance of the coin being flipped.” problem to protect against that One way to send three pennies instead of be would came out tails, if one penny one—so even sure from the could still be relatively you the game. Boston won that heads two three pennies, out beyond Extrapolated each additional penny easy to see how it’s con- increase your would received you you got to the point where fidence until Decoherence errors are a bit more Bristlecone quantum processor. quantum Bristlecone Google. Erikphoto by Lucero, control sources: can result from two A control error is errors and decoherence. analogous to setting the radio dial slightly a bit of static. creating off from a station, for exam- With superconducting qubits, each one will be slightly different than ple, and they must be carefully the others, in order to respond to the mi- calibrated control their gates. pulses that crowave insidious—the same entanglement that qubits to connect with one anoth- allows er can backfire when they become entan- in the environment gled with other atoms called “There is something that’s instead. says of entanglement,” the monogamy a quantum theorist at Johnson, Peter Harvard who is also part of the founding I to you, “If I am wed team of Zapata. In order to someone else.” be wed can’t quantum to protect against promiscuity, engineers methods. one of two follow error suppression consists of Passive sending small pulses to dynamically decouple qubits from the environment. - lacrosse play it to the way likens Oliver ers cradle the ball in the stick pocket, back and forth it rhythmically as moving you just held “If they run the field. down he says. fall out,” the ball would the stick, “By making these body motions periodi- Another dark horse (3,4,5,6,7) Each of these technologies its own has (3) https://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2015/08/150812151247.htm (4) https://scitechdaily.com/new- kind-quantum-computer/ (5) https://news.stanford. edu/2017/05/09/new-materials-bring- quantum-computing-closer-reality/ (6) http://news.mit.edu/2017/ toward-mass-producible-quantum- computers-0526 (7) https://quantumfrontiers. com/2017/08/16/topological-qubits- arriving-in-2018/ - of superconduc exceed the abilities even as MIT After all, tors and trapped ions. since the once said, Seth Lloyd physicist is quantum, of the world state natural becomes a quantum “Almost anything shine the rightcomputer if you kind other contend- So far, of light on it.” single atoms , atoms neutral ers include: hit by can be that suspended in a lattice lasers them to a quantum state to excite photons, atoms; without affecting nearby can that by atoms quanta of light emitted with themselves be redirected to interact consisting of quantum dots, with mirrors; of electrons on the nanoscale, “puddles” and quantum spin; each with its own centers in diamond, nitrogen-vacancy imperfections in which exploit natural spare free-floating create diamonds that into a can be manipulated electrons that quantum state. , theorized technology is topological qubits, de- which Caltech, Kitaev at Alexei by pend on a theoretical quasiparticle called of The advantage a Majorana fermion. they are theoretical- these qubits is that ly much more stable than other kinds; no one to date, is that the disadvantage such that has successfully demonstrated particles exist. and disadvantages—some advantages while others are for example, are faster, though none of them less error-prone, hard to it’s “These days, are ideal so far. know, “You Savoie. says pick a winner,” one’s that Well, which horse want? do you got a sore this one’s but and gimpy, slow No They are all kind of bad.” on its heel. creating technology is used, what matter a functional quantum computer requires simultaneously making qubits faster and protecting them from the errors can that cause decoherence in order to maintain Errors their superposition longer. states The other leading form of qubits Superconducting qubits and trapped Behind those technologies are a tremely low temperatures, engineers temperatures, tremely low which the frequencies at can control phases, two create to resonates this state By the 0 and 1. which then become pulse, a microwave hitting the qubit with from one the transition they can drive it in superposi- or leave to another, state is that, The problem them. tion between in the circuits can only remain thus far, small periodssuperposition for relatively of time—currently around 100 microsec- lifetime as to make that want “We onds. long to how long as possible compared from groundit takes to drive to excited is, “The question Oliver. says states,” can I perform of these gates many how quantum information?” before I lose that Current to times are still long enough perform- depend 1,000 to 10,000 gates a ing on the complexity of the operation, the past over tremendous improvement long enough to do not yet but 15 years, useful. anything which consist of are trapped ions, today charged particles suspended in vacuum and hit with an electromagnetic field, with pulses from lasers their to drive - Compared to supercon different states. trapped ions are able to ducting qubits, a maintain their coherence longer—up to they are leisurely second or longer —but to respond to pulses also much slower so the from the outside environment, possible with both total number of gates technologies is about the same. With other differences as well. ions have possible to it’s for example, trapped ions, other in the qubit with any entangle any With superconducting qubits, same trap. qubits must each be discretely however, connected to each other in order to allow entanglement—so in linear architecture, each qubit could only be for example, neighbor, entangled with its immediate each could be while in a square lattice, connected perpendicularly or diagonally lab Oliver’s with multiple other qubits. has been further experimenting with a three-dimensional architecture that qubits connections between could create adjacent. are not immediately that number of other techniques for creating promise or show one day may qubits that Peter Johnson Peter Robert Schoelkopf Robert Physics and Physics, Yale co-founder Zapata Computing co-founder Zapata Co-Founder, Quantum Circuits University. Chief Architect & Sterling Professor of Applied Quantum information scientist, Quantum information By cooling the qubit down to ex- By cooling the qubit down Currently, two leading contenders for two Currently, quantum computing technology are su- perconducting circuits and trapped ions, their benefits and both of which have Superconducting circuit qu- drawbacks. use MIT, lab at like those in Oliver’s bits, the same basic techniques as those used using modernto create computer chips, semiconductor manufacturing tools to - and etch superconduct pattern, deposit, the For ing aluminum on silicon wafers. of superconducting layers two qubit, of in- by a layer aluminum are separated a through that, aluminum oxide; sulating junction” “Josephson called a tunnel tiny millions of electron pairs allows to flow quantum creating without resistance, just like and discrete energy levels states a giant atom. system,” says Robert Schoelkopf, a Yale Yale Robert says a Schoelkopf, system,” who has been experimenting physicist quantum computersto create since “In the beginning, the question 1998. a be able to make ever would we if was from the enough and isolated qubit well could have we enough that environment could manipu- superconductors we that with some reasonable fidelity.” late

TOUGH TECH 01 | 18 | THE FUTURE IS QUANTUM | 21 | Sergio Boixo Sergio Lead of Quantum AI, Google Lead of Quantum AI, Unlike most quantum companies, Unlike most quantum companies, Research Scientist and Theory Team Research Scientist “I like these images of these heroes he says. doing something for humanity,” history to revolutionize “I want though his postdocs After watching computing.” one by one and graduate students leave he de- for the likes of Google and Intel, cided to start- quantum comput his own sketching out last summer, ing company a couple of burritos “over the company After Qdoba in Harvard the at Square.” - casting around for a sufficiently revo he settled on Zapata, lutionary name, leader the peasant after Emiliano Zapata, “He was during the Mexican revolution. and he had a beautiful mous- a good guy, he says. tache,” quantum focused on building which have has focused Zapata computing hardware, might be considered software— on what the algorithms- quantum com drive that of a Before creation puting calculations. error-correcteduniversal quantum com- enough to run algorithmsputer powerful Aspuru-Guzik and Shor’s, like Grover’s there will be a long period in which says, “We they can still run useful programs. the algorithmsalready know for a million job is “My company’s he says. qubits,” are the algorithmsto figure out what for and 10,000 1,000, these decades of 100, is looking past the point Zapata qubits.” Aspu- of quantum supremacy—which ru-Guzik“quantum inflec- prefers to call supremacytion point because the word quantum is loaded politically”— to how

(10) (9) That’s been the focus of chemistry That’s Such a task, while certainly a mile- Such a task, The best way for a quantum comput- The best way In his paper, Preskill proposed a new- In his paper, “noisy intermediate stage NISQ or term, to define the stage in which quantum” systems with 50 to 100 qubits might still be able to perform useful tasks better without even than classical computers, error correction. professor Alán Aspuru-Guzik, who is currently to the Harvard at moving but His this summer. Toronto University of Fairey graphic office is full of Shepard prints in red and black. of revolutionaries stone, would be a far would cry stone, from a universal could runquantum computer that useful and Shor’s algorithms such as Grover’s algorithms quantum systems or simulate For for use in chemistry biology. and quantum researchers many reason, that from using the term away moved have as the indicator “quantum supremacy” Even for achieving success in the field. who Preskill, John Caltech physicist first coined the term quantum suprem- acy the in 2011 has tried to downplay writing in a paper published in hype, “quantum supremacy is a January that notable for entrepreneurs goal, worthy not so much because of and investors as a its intrinsic rather but importance, more valuable sign of progress towards furtherapplications the road.” down Electronics Show in Las Vegas. With a Vegas. in Las Show Electronics could those chips enough errorlow rate, supremacy quantum the in also achieve near term. of course, supremacy, er to demonstrate system. be to model a quantum would reactions, the most basic chemical Even the scope of the are beyond however, noisy non-error of corrected devices any able to produce in the companies will be In a paper published in the near future. Boixo proposed , April Physics in Nature quan- to demonstrate one way the that the be to calculate tum supremacy would outcome of a sampling of random quan- tum circuits—a task notoriouslydifficult for classical computers to achieve. “I want to revolutionize history though though history to revolutionize want “I Aspuru-Guzik - Alán computing.” In its an- (8) All of these companies are engaged All of these companies Of course, that feat requires per- feat that Of course, (8) https://ai.googleblog. com/2018/03/a-preview-of- bristlecone-googles-new.html (9) https://www.nature.com/ articles/s41567-018-0124-x (10) https://arxiv.org/ pdf/1801.00862.pdf in a new superconducting medium. Sev- medium. in a new superconducting eral startups also experimenting are with Rigetti including qubits, superconducting Califor- based in Berkeley, Computing, spun out of and Quantum Circuits, nia, Maryland-based lab. Yale Schoelkopf’s is pursuing a meanwhile, startup IonQ, while Microsoft trapped ion approach, has placed a bet on topological qubits. can put the most in a race to see who a functioning chip qubits together into the in order to be the first to achieve quantum supremacy can moment that a quantum computer that demonstrate At the pres- can best its classical cousins. race Google is leading that ent moment, with the announcement in March of a 72-qubit processor it dubbed Bristlecone after the prickly distribution of x-shaped qubits in its square array. nouncement of the technology, Google nouncement of the technology, it could use a that it believed said that processor of this size to demonstrate quantum supremacy. forming enough with a low calculations “The critical piece is degree of errors. also it’s not just the number of qubits, Google says the fidelity of the system,” a former physics researcher Sergio Boixo, the University of Southernprofessor at released While Google hasn’t California. past the error for its current rates chip, per- as 0.6 as low had rates chips have a critical measure cent for 2-qubit gates, Google has Boixo notes that of fidelity. focused its efforts on increasing the number of qubits while maintaining - and even the current of fidelity, rates The fidelity. increasing gate tually even it will need error that estimates company of less than 0.5 for 2-qubit gates rates and quantum supremacy, to achieve its timeline to predict recently updated supremacy that some- achieve it would and Intel are not far IBM time this year. 50-qubit and 49-qubit unveiling behind, Consumer January’s at respectively, chips, IBM. photo by IBM. Rigetti 19Q processor. IBM. IBM. photo by IBM Q Experience. IBM Q

TOUGH TECH 01 | 20 |

calculations, this may be the future—a be may this calculations, quan- of increasingly better convergence tum computers better and increasingly algorithms to perform more and more not be be- may The real race useful tasks. computers, quantum and classical tween quantum hardware between but after all, chips “Quantum and quantum software. an at to improve are going to continue and pretty soon the exponential rate, outstrip capability is going to physical of,” to take advantage how know we what in will be huge value “There Rigetti says. capturing the right algorithms to unlock these possibilities.” “One of the most important (12) Berkeley-based start-up has Rigetti its own Rigetti has created Like IBM, Until engineers can truly a build advanced users, IBM has begun to de- IBM has begun users, advanced programming its own language for velop an called QISKit, quantum computing uses Python which open-source software scripts algorithms to execute on quantum hardware. things we can do in the near termthings we is get “It’s says. Chow more people involved,” mindset, developer really tapping into the the next gen- to cultivate want where we of quantum developers.” eration “soup-to-nuts” it own been building from the ground up, quantum company and computer, chips, including building The com- the same time. at software a building has focused on speed, pany quantum integrated circuit fabrication a new design on a can iterate lab that than the 12-18 rather timeline, 4-6 week might be typical to month timeline that we “Since a new quantum chip. build first started manufacturingJan- chips in doubled the number of we’ve uary 2016, expect and we qubits every six months, to keep doubling every for a six months CEO Chad Riget- says handful of years,” biggest publicly Rigetti’s Currently, ti. released chip has 19 qubits—though he or two a doubling they already have says has (though the company that beyond yet). many not released exactly how cloud-based programming interface, a similarly open- which is calls Forest, using Python scripts. source software than focus solely on the quantum Rather language Rigetti’s however, environment, for the integration of quantum allows and classical computers in the same calls the company something program, computing.” “quantum-classical hybrid “It uses a quantum computer as part loop on a classical of an optimization than Rather Rigetti explains. machine,” he likes to use the quantum supremacy, to explain “quantum advantage” term quantum in the near-term least, at how, solutions computing can help to improve that an answer to problems by providing or or takes less time, is more efficient, than a classical com- costs less money, puter can do alone. is free enough quantum computer that from errors to perform the advanced “It (11) IBM’s website also features video also features website IBM’s In various ways, other companies are other In various ways, in success In addition to its own allows us to reach a broader community allows people and just researchers, of students, who are interested in learning about new Jerry says Chow, computing technology,” manager of experimental quan- IBM’s “The idea is to break tum computing. barriers, are not the only down so you person the cocktail party at who under- quantum computing is.” stands what tutorials by its engineers breaking down quantum computing concepts into bite-sized 3-minute lessons to demystify ‘quantum getting call that “We the field. the company Already, says. Chow ready,’” has gotten a lot of interest from college school students eager to high and even more For learn about the new technology. (11) https://quantumexperience. ng.bluemix.net/qx/experience (12) https://qiskit.org/ developing their own approaches for approaches their own developing in computing useful making quantum who created Schoelkopf, the near term. Circuits out Quantum company his own is pursuing of a strategy Yale, of his lab at and software integrating hardware both the first plan to field “We in one package. systems,” useful quantum computing likely this will be offered “It’s he says. things aren’t since these as a service, has been His lab very portable now.” for pursuing unique modular architecture, a put qubits on smaller chips which would into a system be networked could that depending on in different configurations type of problem a client is tryingwhat to could probably be means you “It solve. more efficient in implementing certain are not stuck to because you algorithms, he says. of connectivity,” one network IBM has fabricating quantum chips, focused efforts the public on educating on the potential of quantum computers, moment to prepare them for the eventual when they will be able to perform useful it launched the Q Recently, functions. a cloud-based interface in Experience, which users- can use a quantum compos which looks like an image of guitar er, onto to drag-and-drop gates tablature qubits to perform algorithms on real quantum computing hardware. Zapata’s CEO Christopher Savoie CEO Christopher Savoie Zapata’s the algorithm to get the strings of a chord he says. closer to the notes I want,” compares this stage in quantum soft- to the early years of development ware before the even classical computing, never of assembly language, invention mind modern computer languages like is literally company the At this point, C. sketching out its algorithms as complex and sending those to companies circuits, it partners with in order to perform cer- “So the program is software tain tasks. he quips. a soft piece of paper for now,” has been Zapata estimates, Savoie So far, in a large majority of the near- involved term algorithms currently being tested partneringon quantum computers, with all of the major companies to run algo- Being flexible on rithms on their systems. Zapata which technology it uses allows of qubits to pick the ideal configuration able to be entangled with each other in might go to a “We order to pull it off. customer like a pharmaceutical compa- the mathematical here’s and they say, ny, he says, trying to solve,” problem we’re of a bunch and draw that take “and we and then Greek letters on the board, Then we into a diagram. that convert I need linear connec- oh wow, might say, tivity for this thing—or I need a lot of and so I need faster speeds, gate samples, choice.” that make we’ll Ultimately, Zapata aims to focus on Zapata Ultimately, computing can best classical computing “The interesting point in the NISQ era. 200 and a happens between is what the first point that What’s million qubits. is useful for it will do a quantum task that humanity?” Aspuru-Guzik and Peter which chemistry, identified more than a decade ago Love helping quantum problem, as the ultimate to design algorithms might better that for chemical processes identify catalysts In molecules and materials. or candidate quan- he says however, the meantime, tum algorithms will be able to aid in any will require a more optimal problem that provide ultimately if it can’t even answer, Those problems could the best answer. include machine learning, compression, He and searching. route optimization, algo- “variational calls such algorithms compares them to tuning and rithms” a guitar string with the help of a tun- the I want “The tuner is what ing fork. I can use but quantum algorithm to do, Jerry Chow Jerry Chad Rigetti Computing, IBM Manager of Experimental Quantum Founder and CEO, Rigetti Computing quantum hardware and quantum software. and quantum quantum hardware and classical computers, after all, but between all, after and classical computers, but between The real race may not be between quantum quantum be between not may race The real Rigetti. Rigetti. photo by Rigetti Lab in Berkeley. Lab in Rigetti

TOUGH TECH 01 | 22 | FUSION ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ENTERS A NEW ERA | 25 | Bob Mumgaard photo by Enters a New Era Era a New Enters Peter Dunn, for The Engine by Julie Carles | Illustrations for Dunn, By Peter

A wide-angle view of the inside of the Alcator C-Mod tokamak at MIT. at C-Mod tokamak Alcator of the the inside view of A wide-angle

growing sense of mission: Knowledge, capital, and a

TOUGH TECH 01 | 24 | FUSION ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ENTERS A NEW ERA | 27 | 2007 ITER Tokamak MCF Founded: 2007; France-Provence Investment: ~€20 billion Investors: European Union, USA, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia But realizing this vision has proved has proved But realizing this vision the need to One hurdle has been Moreover, plants could be located close located plants could be Moreover, reducing to where electricity is needed, lines. long transmission the need for with dozens of to be brutally difficult, different experimental reactor con- net-positive cepts failing to achieve energy output. of better basic knowledge develop gases like ionized plasmas—superheated of stars—andthose found in the core an main- understanding to create, of how - The field of plas and control them. tain, only began to emerge in the ma physics researchers and fusion mid-20th century, made substantial contributions to have its advancement. Time Frame? An Accelerating been difficult The challenges have - technol even until recently, enough that, working ogy optimists did not envision fusion reactors half before the latter a commonly with 2100 of the century, for commercial availability. cited date The flagship the interna effort- to date, tionally funded ITER project in south- net is designed to achieve ern France, output for limited periods positive after at commencing experiments in 2025, the but 20 billion Euros, a cost of over of its originsnature and mission mean 2007 Sandia National Laboratory -Z Pulsed Power Facility (Z Machine) Z-pinch/ICF USA-New Mexico Fusion research begun in 1960s, latest upgrade 2007 Investment: $90 million for 2007 upgrade On paper, fusion is almost ideal: fusion is almost ideal: On paper, The concept has been a staple of energy to the entirety of humanity in a entirety of humanity energy to the responsible environmentally that’s way forever.” will last and that no carbon emis- fundamentally safe, little prolif- 24/7 availability, sions, is by fuel that powered risk, eration inexhaustible and equita- inexpensive, A fusion-based power bly distributed. incorporate or more one plant would reactors star-like conditions of where and pres- extremely high temperature nuclei to overcome atomic sure allow This their inherent repulsion and fuse. nucleus while releas- a heavier creates which ing energy in the form of heat, be channeled to turbines for would electricity production. and as futuristic and movies, literature generally an assump- “there’s a result, Mi- says a good thing,” it’s tion that chief technology officer chael Delage, “That’s General Fusion. of 16-year-old to have when you different from the day a plant and engage with the local build a lot of inherent there’s but community, There is no risk uncontrolled of safety.” and while reactor maintenance reactions, result in and decommissioning would “it can be material, some radioactive managed on a human time scale—de- notes Delage. cades and not millennia,” 2007 “Fusion is audacious and aspirational, “Fusion is audacious and aspirational, next 25 or 30 years, humanity will not be humanity 30 years, next 25 or to a moral obligation it’s spot; in a good out of ‘get and fusion is like a our kids, Michl Binderbauer, says card,” jail free’ officer of president and chief technology 20 years which after Technologies, TAE is one of the longest-standing in business seeing this “We’re fusion companies. sense of urgency and passion in every- and especially the for us, one who works people.” younger of the Stars” the Power “Leveraging potential, all its world-changing For proving fusion must still pass a basic test: its worth elec- as a means of generating tricity against competitors like natural and hydro, geothermal, wind, solar, gas, nuclear fission (some new-generation of which can be augmented by energy storage and carbon capture and seques- even But if it fulfills {CCS}). tration fusion could a portion of its promise, relationship traditional change society’s with energy. triggered something in people, always it’s of the power the idea of leveraging head of MIT’s Whyte, Dennis says stars,” Department of Nuclear Science and En- gineering of the Institute’s and director “It’s Plasma Science and Fusion Center. should provide we that of saying a way Korean Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research (KSTAR) Tokamak MCF South Korea-Daejeon Fusion research begun 1995; KSTAR completed 2007 2002 General Fusion Magnetized Target MIF Founded: 2002; Canada-BC Investment: $89.6 million (per Crunchbase) Each company is pursuing a distinct Each company unprecedented assertivenessThat It’s more than just electricity. “It’s fusion companies are now in operation, in operation, are now fusion companies and some $1 billion in capital backed by worth of hard-won decades’ with seven most recent The on. to draw knowledge Sys- Fusion of those is Commonwealth which spun out of MIT this tems (CFS), Engine. The is supported and year by sequential goals of the towards strategy fusion and net-positive demonstrating plant, power applying it in a practical expertise on its own and new drawing - mate in areas like magnetics, advances And several and control systems. rials, - announced roadmaps for demon have of energy-gain fusion by the mid- strating 2020s and usable reactor designs in the with commercial availability early 2030s, shortly thereafter. - comes not only from greater knowl edge and the increased risk of tolerance also from an but organizations, private sense of purpose. increasingly imperative among a widespread perception There’s engineers, fusion-oriented scientists, they have that and investors managers, the indeed, the opportunity—and, duty—to address grand facing problems the entire planet. If living standards. health, water, food, make a course correction don’t in the we

1998 Tae Technologies Field-Reversed Configuration MCF Founded: 1998; USA-California Investment: “Over $500 million” (per press reports)

he prospect of inexpen- plentiful, carbon-free sive, electricity generated by fusion has been 1994 T But a new dynamic and new opti-

tantalizing but elusive since the 1950s. since the 1950s. elusive tantalizing but groundbreakingDespite painstaking, science-oriented academic research at no one research labs, and government fusion a net-positive achieved has yet than produces more power reaction that it consumes. mism are afoot in the fusion community, as evidenced by increasingly vibrant Roughly 20 sector activity. private N Wendelstein 7-X Stellarator MCF Founded: 1994; Germany- Mecklenburg- Vorpommern Investment: >€1 billion Investors: Germany, European Union 1985

EMC2 Fusion Development Corp. Polywell – Magnetic Cusp Confinement Founded: 1985; USA-New Mexico Fusion Timeline Fusion

their work just stay in the lab? just stay their work to make a difference? Or should Or should a difference? to make commercially-viable fusion in time in time fusion commercially-viable startups demonstrate net-positive, net-positive, demonstrate startups Can today’s group of fusion today’s Can

TOUGH TECH 01 | 26 | FUSION ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ENTERS A NEW ERA | 29 | 2018 Commonwealth Fusion Systems Compact tokamak MCF (SPARC, ARC) Founded: 2018; USA-Massachusetts Investment: $50 million (per company) While power grids are evolving, that grids that While power are evolving, “To compensate for the compensate “To Economics: higher economic risks with associated fusion plants must new technologies, What Do Potential Customers Want? Customers Do Potential What one the moment that assume for Let’s manage or projects or more companies At that Criterion. to meet the Lawson the emphasis will shift to applying point, some- that the technology in a product one will buy. is likely to be utility compa- “someone” and perhaps the best summary of nies, in can be found to buy they want what a 1994 report from the Electric Power the research Research Institute (EPRI), armand development of the US utility Criteria Fusion Practical for industry. “criterion Systems identifies three Power that importance” groups of overarching today: are still widely seen as valid 2014 What will all that money be spent spent money be will all that What U.S. Department of Energy ARPA-E ALPHA Program Funds multiple early-stage projects (private, academic, national labs) in lower-cost intermediate-density fusion (between MCF and ICF). Founded: 2014; USA Investment: ~$30 million Government ofGovernment the progenitor funding was this new of wave continue and will enterprises fusion scientific in building additional to be essential public-private just as combined understanding, in space new have driven approaches efforts and advanced fission. exploration in the FY18 budget, including $122 including $122 budget, in the FY18 ITER and $410 million million for American program, domestic for the tokamak research including the DIII-D programAtomics and run by General Exper- Torus Sphericalthe National That Princetoniment at University. increase over represents a $152 million future appropriations are an FY17—but open question. design and pro- on? Most will go into machineryduction of one-of-a-kind and systems for reactorssidebar, (see The goal is to of Fusion). The State conditions hot enough for long create and with enough density of nu- enough, fusion to occur—a for net-positive clei, as the known meets what’s that state Criterion, originallyLawson in defined the 1950s. 2014 “An acceleration is taking place, but but is taking place, “An acceleration progeni- the funding was Government Con- that however, Holland adds, Lockheed Martin Skunk Works High Beta MCF Program Commenced: 2014; USA-California there’s still a long way to go on the sci- to go way still a long there’s and ten-figure need nine- We ence side. $300 something like investment, level for each viable million to $600 million to demonstrate project to be in a position scale.” a generator-relevant at net power talent gain more visibility and attract (To the Consortium and funding to the field, is entering fusion as a theme for the Visioneering 2019 cohort of the XPRIZE winning towards with an eye Program, sponsorship for a prize competition start- ing in 2020.) of fusion enterprises tor of this new wave - and will continue to be essential in build ing additional scientific understanding, effortsjust as combined public-private ex- driven new approaches in space have However, fission. and advanced ploration Director of Studies Andrew Holland, for Energy and Cli- and Senior Fellow American Security Project, the at mate is something of a Washington notes that “At lagging of fusion interest. indicator this point for politicians and policy peo- stage,” the so-what fusion is still at ple, 10 to 15 years pointing out that he says, is a lifetime in politics. gress did appropriate a surprising $532.1 million for fusion development 2009 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory - National Ignition Facility Laser indirect drive ICF USA-California Fusion research begun in late 1950s, NIF completed 2009 Investment: “About $3.5 billion” As encouraging as these developments As encouraging as these developments ics venture firm to invest in a portfolio in firmics venture of to invest - the case is solid says fusion companies, it was I thought I started, “When ifying. the as I built but just impact investing, not just people started it’s saying case, The first a good investment. that—it’s reactor gain demonstrates that company certainlyfrom fusion can almost go pub- a commercial especially if they have lic, good or a If they can get to that, path. you can invest years, to ten in five proxy, normalprofit-seeking with relatively not crazy.” it’s but longer term, It’s goals. Atomics currently has $4 million Strong in four startups (which are also invested receiving funding from the US Depart- development ARPA-E ment of Energy’s program) and is planning a substantially larger second phase of investment. di- executive Volberg, Randall says are, rector of the recently formed non-profit Fusion Consortium outreach organiza- current beyond levels funding well tion, “NASA has a technology will be needed. ranges from one, readiness scale that to nine, all the way basic observations, representing commercial deployment. to five, range around two we Collectively, out where research continues to prove while tech- the feasibility of the physics using progresnology is demonstrated - prototypes. sophisticated sively 2009 Investment is starting from to flow Investment a former software Malcolm Handley, the mid-2020s. And MIT spinout CFS MIT spinout CFS And the mid-2020s. the grid putting energy on has targeted in 15 years. Crazy” Not It’s But Term, Longer “It’s are shortWhile those time scales by long for tradi- they’re fusion standards, so much potential, With tional investors. putting money on the table however, for long- is not out of the question and term investors, impact thinkers, strategic seeking future organizations those willing to advantage—especially manage risk and with an understanding including of science and technology, scaling processes. individuals and institutions to the private $500 mil- over has received TAE sector. such as from investors 20 years, lion over Gold- Allen, Microsoft co-founder Paul CFS has an ini- Venrock. man Sachs and tial $50 million stake from Italian utility which will also support work related Eni, First Light Fusion The UK’s MIT. at according has raised about $33 million, and the list to the Crunchbase website, Bezos and a Jeff Amazon’s with goes on, VC and energy funds investing range of founder in General Fusion and PayPal in Helion Energy. Thiel investing Peter Atom- engineer who launched the Strong Helion Energy Magnetic Compression MIF Founded: 2009; USA-Washington Investment: $12.1 million (per Crunchbase) 2009 UK-based Tokamak Energy has Energy has Tokamak UK-based That evolving fund of knowledge set fund of knowledge evolving That Other substantial efforts have been been effortsOther substantial have Tokamak Energy Tokamaks Spherical Compact Founded: 2009; UK-Oxfordshire Investment: £22 million (per company) stated a goal of achieving firststated electric- ity by 2025 and a commercially viable TAE’s Module by 2030. Fusion Power aims Binderbauer has said the company energy by net positive to demonstrate the stage for the current rise in pri- and more-optimistic activity, vate-sector Lockheed Martin In 2013, timelines. announced ambitious plans to demon- reactor fusion a 100-megawatt strate small enough to fit on a truck by 2019, years with commercial production five not provided Although they have later. were and since then, an official update comment for this article, for not available put their other companies have several stakes in the ground. own underway at publicly funded laboratories publicly at underway In and China. Germany, UK, in the US, plasma science, addition to advancing new sensing and cultivated they have materials measurement technologies, can withstand the extraordinarilythat harsh inside reactor cham- conditions and a ultra-precise control systems, bers, technologies—ofhost of other enabling - ten in partnership and with universities contractors. private that it is oriented towards research and research and it is orientedthat towards not electricity generation.

TOUGH TECH 01 | 28 | FUSION ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ENTERS A NEW ERA | 31 | Magneto-Inertial Fusion (MIF) (MIF) Fusion Magneto-Inertial compressive MIF combines the the sta- heating of ICF with en- bility and magnetically of MCF. hanced alpha heating lab- A number of US national it, oratories have pursued Fusion and Canada’s General is developing an approach that uses a sphere filled with molten lead-lithium, in which a vortex is formed to contain an injected pulse of magnetically confined fuel (deuterium-tritium). The fuel is compressed to fusion conditions via an array of pistons that squeezes the liquid metal and shrinks the vortex opening. Oth- ers developing the concept are startup Helion Energy, 10-year-old Magneto-Inertial Fusion Technologies Inc., and HyperJet Fusion Corp. OTHER APPROACHES: pursuing are companies Other confinement approaches that do not neatly fit these cat- egories, such as Lawrencev- ille Plasma Physics, which is exploring dense plasma focus technology. While each approach has its own daunting challeng- es, there are some general distinctions. “The toka- mak and laser-driven ICF are the most scientifically mature approaches, and both are approaching the Lawson “Oth- Hsu. notes criterion,” er approaches are at lower levels of scientific ma- turity and performance but engineering the reduce might complexity and cost of hy- pothetical reactor designs. My own view is that, at the present stage of fusion en- ergy development, we should and need to explore many different approaches—the potential benefits are too great to leave any credible stone unturned.” Magnetic Confinement Fusion (MCF) (MCF) Fusion Confinement Magnetic can No material container withstand the temperatures fusion; needed to sustain is a “mag- one alternative can netic bottle” that a steady- contain and manage millions of state plasma at degrees C. In the 1960s, Soviet scien- tists designed an MCF reac- tor called a tokamak, with a toroidal (doughnut-shaped) chamber, which has since become a primary avenue of development. It is used by the ITER program, and in the MIT research that led to the formation of Common- wealth Fusion Systems, which intends to make the con- cept less expensive and more compact by applying newly available superconducting magnet materials. Advances developed in to- kamak research are being applied in variations like the stellarator, which is being explored at the Ger- man Wendelstein 7-X pro- gram, spherical tokamaks (at private companies Toka- mak Energy and Applied Fu- sion Systems), and sphero- maks (being developed by CT Fusion). TAE Technologies is focused on the field re- versed configuration (FRC), an alternative means of magnetic confinement. (ICF) Fusion Confinement Inertial This approach pursues pulsed methods to achieve the Law- son Criterion, heating and compressing a fuel target to very high plasma densities. ICF has been studied in gov- ernment facilities around the world, including the US, France, and Japan, for ma- terials science and weapons research, as well as ener- gy production, and is being pursued privately by Univer- sity of Oxford spinout First Light Fusion in the UK.

The Fusion Landscape Fusion The and Approaches Concepts “Fusion ‘zoology’ can be “Fusion ‘zoology’ bewildering to non-experts, experts,” and even to some Hsu, a acknowledges Scott Alamos Na- scientist in Los Plasma tional Laboratory’s simpli- Physics Group. Let’s fy the ecosystem. APPROACH: UNDERLYING Fusion Steady-State Steady-state approaches strive to generate a con- tinuous flow of heat from a stable plasma at relatively low fuel density and pres- sure. This requires not only challenging levels of plasma control, but also a reac- tor vessel that can with- stand continuous high-pow- er flux at close range and efficiently divert heat for electricity generation. Fusion Pulsed Pulsed approaches dodge some of the inherent difficulties faced by steady-state fusion by compressing or imploding tiny fuel pellets or plasma to extremely high density and pressure for short periods of time (although this also raises new issues to grapple with). The compressed fuel is not held in place; it simply expands back out after under- going enough fusion reac- tions to generate net energy gain, with the process being repeated steadily to create a stream of heat for generation purposes. Achieving suffi- cient stability and energy confinement are fundamental challenges. CONTAINMENT: OF METHOD Multiple approaches can be used to confine the reacting fuel, which is typically some combination of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and triti- um (though use of helium or boron is also being explored). There is also the Fusion IndustryThere is also the Fusion public between Such collaboration be an ongoing “There will naturally is the InternaAnother development - few see happening One thing that more And the fact there are now that Security Project (ASP), which focuses on Security Project (ASP), increasing public policymakers, educating and encouraging public-pri- awareness, cooperation. vate an independent association Association, American Security with the affiliated This a 501(c)4 nonprofit. Action Fund, and pro- to lobby and advocate, it allows to callWashington voice in vide a unified public-private for regulatory certainty, research partnerships, and government financial support innovation to encourage and reduce risk. entities could be a boon to and private potential projects like a materials testing stretch the resourc- which would facility, General Fu- single company. es of any already there’s Delage notes that sion’s on simulation substantial cooperation ex- and he cites heat and diagnostics, traction from reactors that as something affects every approach to fusion. “The Delage adds. role for government,” biotech industry tremendously does a good job of integrating academic and and com- publicly funded research, in the We of discovery. mercialization sciences can learnphysical from them and hopefully to get the mix right, how one of fusion will find a model—that’s the exciting things about CFS and their integration with MIT.” Fusion tional Conference in Innovative among other efforts, Approaches which, of building is seeking to bridge China’s fusion capabilities and expertise with the established fusion research community West. and infrastructure in the in the near term is industry consolida- a not hard to envision although it’s tion, scenario where certain companies might IP and access to one another’s find that As expertise could bring results sooner. it holds but (of CFS, says Whyte MIT’s “there is a 100 per- true for everyone), someone else comes cent probability that up with a key breakthrough.” than ever in business “someone elses” the most promising perhaps, before is, future. immediate sign of all for fusion’s - the Law One is new progress towards One intriguing sign is the recent for- It’s worth noting that EPRI, which worth EPRI, that noting It’s Mumgaard, notes And more broadly, ferent models for generation, consump- ferent models for generation, an exciting “That’s and purchase. tion, the fusion industry is navigating aspect; will need to and we changing waters, of and learntake advantage from the rise and other sources.” of renewables For Watch to What The first of controllable demonstration fusion will mark a technological and engineering if the history triumph; of a fair there’s guide, is any innovation chance it could happen in more than one are What place around the same time. some intermediate the indicators that milestone might be nearing? son Criterion, especially among technolo- close (such gies are already relatively that as tokamaks and laser-driven inertial important But it’s confinement fusion). Binderbauer TAE’s as to keep in mind, does not point success on that that notes, necessarily via- into commercial translate need going forward be a There may bility. agreed-uponfor separate metrics can that factor in economics. industry of several mation organizations. In addition to the Fusion Consortium, American Fusion Project the there is now American a spin-out from the (AFP), out, it takes a dialogue, figuring things a dialogue, it takes out, already We’re out with stakeholders. on that.” working fusion-orientedreleased its last major plans to take a fresh look report in 2012, “Based on the the subject this year. at greater growing number of inquiries, said be in order,” to fusion may attention for technical executive Andrew Sowder, nuclear technology. advanced grids power in 2050 will likely worldwide dif- with be quite different from today’s, “A positive “A positive CFS chief executive Bob Mumgaard CFS chief executive These types of issues are likely These types of issues are likely This is where the vision of fusion as a This is where the vision of fusion as a have lower life-cycle costs than com- lower have at technologies available peting proven commercialization.” the time of Acceptance: Public be best achieved public perception can - envi power’s by maximizing fusion of economy ronmental attractiveness, and safety.” production, power Regulatory Simplicity: “Any permit- for fusion power ting/licensing process to allow plants should be designed issuance of permits/ licenses prior to and for the major capital commitment life of the plant.” place around the same time. place around the same a fair chance it could happen in more than one than one a in more chance it could happen fair if the history of innovation is any guide, there’s if of there’s the history guide, is any innovation mark a technological and engineering triumph; engineering mark a technological and The first demonstration of The first demonstration controllable will fusion speaks in terms of a “social license,” a “social license,” speaks in terms of a has to be earnedbroad acceptance that technology on its merits— new by any from genetic sequencing to electric when fission He notes that scooters. “it started with a emerged in the 1950s, going to be available it was license that then the byproducts but to everybody, of the technology meant it had to be make don’t you constrained—provided implement it in a way you bombs with it, handle the you melt down, it can’t that that to work have fusion we For waste. addressable through a combination of of addressable through a combination engineering,planning, and regulation, and they will increase with importance along with the chances of actual mar- ket uptake. world-changing technology must make a a world-changing technology must make on cost per kilowatt-hour, practical case: cool- much and questions like how plant might a fusion power ing water whether maintenance will require need, components to be trucked radioactive measures are what through city streets, and safety, needed to ensure worker rich to make certainhow a reactor’s be used for stream of neutrons can’t nefarious purposes.

TOUGH TECH 01 | 30 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 33 | dvanced Materials & Advanced Manufacturing Advanced Materialsdvanced & A

Deep Software & AI & Deep Software Kytopen Manufacturing Advanced Sciences & Life Biotech, Suono Bio Sciences Biotech & Life Via Separations Energy, Zapata Computing Quantum Computing Software Analytical Space Analytical Things InternetSpace & of C2Sense Things MaterialsAdvanced & Internet of Electronics Cambridge Semiconductors Biotech Cellino Sciences Biotech & Life Systems Commonwealth Fusion Energy Form Energy Energy iSee

THE FOUNDERS THE redefine the future. that hold the potential to that hold the potential converging technologies converging technologies breakthroughs and are working on scientific are working on scientific founders they represent— founders they represent— These companies—and the These companies—and audacious,and the new. transformative, the We invest in the We invest Portfolio Companies Portfolio

Engine’s Engine’s The

TOUGH TECH 01 | 32 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 35 | |2| |1| Analytical Space will Dan Nevius |2| Dan Oliveira, |1| Justin HBS House, White Resources, NASA, Planetary Things of Internet Space, is solving this throughput and availability Analytical Space is solving this throughput and availability

THE FOUNDERS THE

data from space. Unlocking the potential of Unlocking the potential get more of the important data to those that matter, with greater get more of the important matter, to those that data cost than previously thought possible. efficiencyat lower The solution starts with light. With the same space and energy that that With the same space and energy The solution starts with light. light-based communications traditional radio frequency systems use, of small satellites, a network By operating can send far more data. technology, RF-optical communication equipped with hybrid service, in essence relay an in-space data Analytical Space will provide serving as a router for remote sensing satellites. problem. And it’s doing it for earth’s existing collection of satellites as existing collection of satellites doing it for earth’s And it’s problem. Their as the rapidly growing sector of small commercial satellites. well and backwards-compatible. technology is forward-thinking Satellites gather enormous amounts of data. Data used in climate used in climate Data enormous gather Satellites amounts of data. precision agriculture—data city planning, used to help modeling, reaches most of it never But and protect our planet. organize, feed, too flow The theoretical pipes are too small and the data the ground. irregular.

Space Analytical Background Industry Founders

TOUGH TECH 01 | 34 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 37 | visible. Jan Schnorr, Tim Swager, Eric Keller Eric Tim Swager, |1| Jan Schnorr, Lab MIT Tim Swager Things of Internet Materials, Advanced The more we know, the safer and healthier we can become. C2Sense become. can the safer and healthier we know, The more we making them detectable and trackable, a variety of gases, reveals in perspective. and our actions within it, helping us put our world, A digital olfactory C2Sense technology sensor platform for industry, transforms can be accessed remotely. that smell into real-time data C2Sense will empower priceWith high-fidelity sensorsat a low point, in food supply, a broad array of industries including those involved to take control of their and chemical production generation, power improves Such transparency and control reduces waste, environments. more efficient a and helps us build the safety and health of employees, world. and productive C2Sense Founders Background Industry Making the invisible Making the invisible |1| THE FOUNDERS THE

TOUGH TECH 01 | 36 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 39 | |2| |1| Tomas Palacios |2| Tomas |1| Bin Lu, Semiconductors Microsystems Technology Laboratories MTL, Department Laboratories Technology Microsystems Electrical Science EECS Engineering and Computer of

THE FOUNDERS THE world’s energy usage. material to transform the material to transform Using a revolutionary new Using a revolutionary Industry Founders Electronics Cambridge Cambridge Background Cambridge Electronics is harnessing the inherent benefits of GaN to increase the efficiency of energy processing and management Those are seismic numbers. 20 percent. by 10 to the chip level at proprietary technology is targeted to bringThe company’s these 5G electric cars, centers, to electronics for data energy savings consumer devices—the entire energy processing communication, efficiency is poised to transform that the future of It’s landscape. and transportation. management, power connectivity, Every material are simply has a truth its molecular level—some at of energy processing, In the world born better for certain applications. gallium nitride (GaN) is poised to supplant silicon for this very works. Its physics reason.

TOUGH TECH 01 | 38 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 41 | Stan Wang, |3| Stan Wang, Wagner, |2| Matthias |1| Nabiha Saklayen, |4| Marinna Madrid Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences School of Harvard Lab Medical Church School, The Harvard (SEAS), Biotech & Life Sciences & Life Biotech nanotechnology. Enabling cellular Enabling cellular Cellino Biotech Founders Background many the potential to treat Stem cell-derived therapies hold induced Made from adult tissue, the cellular level. diseases at other cell type— pluripotent any stem cells (iPS cells) can generate disease. an unlimited supply of therapeutic cells to treat providing the engineering cells is of therapeutic cells from iPS However, Cellino Biotech is solving this at scale. inefficient and expensive and biology. optics, mix of nanotech, problem with its novel the firstCellino has built platform enables precise digital that Their proprietary environment. natural cells in their control over the right executes sequence of NanoLaze, delivery technology, using synthetic biology to precisely precise time points, code at genes are turned control discretize how on and off inside a cell. cell type, “digitally iPS cells to a target steers” The technology will.” cell at any creating the and provides platform and robust, is versatile Cellino Biotech’s throughput and dependability necessary to transform the biotech industry—it is a platform will make cell-based therapies a that staple of 21st-century medicine. Industry therapies using lasers and therapies using lasers |4| |3| |2| |1| THE FOUNDERS THE

TOUGH TECH 01 | 40 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 43 | |6| |5| |4| |3| |2| |1| Brandon Sorbom, |3| Martin Hartwig, |2| Brandon |1| Zach |5| Bob Mumgaard, |4| Dennis Whyte, Greenwald, Brunner |6| Dan Center MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Energy Commonwealth Fusion Systems has. Commonwealth

THE FOUNDERS THE We are on course for a future in which fusion power can claim both are on course for a future in which fusion power We Imagineworld with limitless— a victory. financial and environmental and no long-lasting nuclear waste. zero greenhouse gases, safe—energy, Because is at the forefront of the modern Fusion Systems is at Commonwealth Built with its revolutionary with magnet technology. fusion movement can slim down tech that it’s yttrium-barium-copper (YBCO), oxide eventually viable levels, reactor size and cut costs to commercially Such source. global power supplanting fossil fuels as the dominant generation increases in power technology will also produce significant energy-hungry more voracious the demands of an ever to satisfy world.

Systems

Fusion Commonwealth Commonwealth

limitless fusion energy. limitless fusion The fastest path to clean, The fastest path Background Industry Founders

TOUGH TECH 01 | 42 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 45 | |5| |4| |3| |2| |1| Ted Wiley, Wiley, Chiang, |3| Ted |2| Yet-Ming Jaramillo, |1| Mateo Ferrara |5| Marco |4| William Woodford, Energy A123, Tesla Technologies, 24M DMSE MIT, Energy

THE FOUNDERS THE renewable energy. renewable energy. to transform the potential of to transform the Creating a new class of batteries Creating a new class

Energy Form Form This future, one in which humanity sources the majority its of This future, to is not one relegated plants, power baseload energy from renewable and scalable— achievable It is tested, the realm of the hypothetical. Energy will shepherd from the lab into the grid. Form one that Form Energy’s Form Energy’s plants, generation Built to displace fossil fuel baseload via hundreds of megawatts core technology will store and supply technology will Their the existing energy distribution infrastructure. facilities—the of an industrial size massive chemical plant— power economies of scale. facilities come massive and with these massive or oil. gas, electricityReliable renewable for less than the cost of coal, will solve large-scale renewable energy’s most energy’s large-scale renewable Form Energy will solve a novel And they’ll do it with fundamental limitation—reliability. than thinking of batteries in the Rather approach to energy storage. they think of them as simply as storage vessels, traditional sense, plants. bidirectional power Background Industry Founders

TOUGH TECH 01 | 44 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 47 | iSee AI pioneered by ISEE can The thinking understandwe’re what (or may and the choices we not) make based on those may They call it Humanistic thoughts. with a unique built and it’s AI, ISEE is leveraging core. cognitive trulyAI to create safe this designed autonomous vehicles a human can—drive to do what These 100 years without a fatality. AI by an powered are vehicles react to the can proactively that not because of unpredictable, coded rules or machine learning, because they understand. but core technology has ISEE’s benefits and applications With far mobility. beyond this AI on the road, Humanistic for the startup the way is paving rise artificial cognitive intelligence in industry and beyond. Humanistic Yibiao Zhao, |3| Chris Baker Zhao, |2| Yibiao |1| Debbie Yu, Science Group & Cognitive MIT Computational & AI Deep Software Founders Background Industry artificial intelligence. |3| |2| |1| THE FOUNDERS THE

TOUGH TECH 01 | 46 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 49 | |2| |1| Paulo Garcia |2| Paulo |1| Cullen Buie, Mechanical MIT Engineering Manufacturing Science & Advanced Life Biotech,

THE FOUNDERS THE cells. new, genetically engineered new, genetically Infinite possibilities for Infinite possibilities Kytopen can accelerate and can accelerate Kytopen With its microfluidic-based tool, the genetic engineeringautomate of cells 10,000x times faster speed comes increased cell And with this than current methods. will shift the Kytopen With greater speed and precision, viability. bioengineering drug paradigm—it will cut costs in development, It will inspire and more. biofuel manufacturing, chemical production, time scientists to spend all while liberating and enable new therapies, matter. on the things that can change all that. can change all that. Kytopen Cells are stubborn things, their obstinance slows the process of their obstinance slows Cells are stubborn things, a key phase in industrial bioengineering, production, to a biocatalyst must manually insert humans It means that genetic material crawl. the viability of each cell is then, And even into a cell with a pipette. higher. Costs are even high. are rates Failure unpredictable. Background Industry Founders

TOUGH TECH 01 | 48 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 51 | delivery. Carl Schoellhammer, Robert Langer, Amy Schulman, Amy Langer, Robert |1| Carl Schoellhammer, Gio Traverso Langer Lab MIT Sciences & Life Biotech Treatments for many of our most insidious diseases are crude for many Treatments difficulties or the whether it be due to anatomical and ineffective, inflammatory diseases Take themselves. molecules of the treatments and colitis, ulcerative disease, Crohn’s for example. of the GI tract, are uncomfortable for for these take hoursIBS—treatments or days, variable and their efficacyat best. is the patient, Suono Bio is pioneering is more a superior modality that treatment currently than anything effective and more less intrusive, precise, the accelerate that Ultrasonic bubbles secret? Bubbles. Their available. directly both a higher speed and higher dosage, at drug into the tissue, result in markedly higher efficacy Bubbles that and quality on target. of life. with inflammatory initial work diseases of the GI tract Suono Bio’s has which will serve of the technology, for the viability as a showcase Such ultrasonic therapy is possibilities across the biotech ecosystem. most humanity’s making it ideal for combating inherently versatile, Depending on the final form Suono factor, pressing health challenges. therapeutics for deliver technology can be used to effectively Bio’s and viral infections. cancer, diabetes, Suono Bio Suono Founders Background Industry Ultrasound-mediated drug Ultrasound-mediated |1| THE FOUNDERS THE

TOUGH TECH 01 | 50 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 53 | |2| |1| technology has the potential exists to solve exists to solve Via Separations Via Separations’ Brent Keller, Jeff Grossman Jeff Keller, |1| Shreya Dave, |2| Brent MIT Group The Grossman Manufacturing & Advanced Materials Advanced Energy,

THE FOUNDERS THE

tiny pores. Massive energy savings from Massive energy savings

Separations Via Via Separating things takes energy. A lot of it. 15% of US energy 15% of US A lot of it. things takes energy. Separating But much of this processes. consumption goes into separative an industrial that exercise remains out of sight—it’s separation chemicals, blocks for innumerable materials, the building generates used in towers distillation Think of the massive and consumer goods. runningthe petrochemical industry; these facilities can account for Such processes are costs. operating more than half of an industry’s they are inefficient. but vital, beyond Wide-scale adoption of this efficiency problem. this efficiency problem. to replace thermal separation. It could save the energy equivalent used the energy equivalent It could save to replace thermal separation. Their nanoscale by the entire gasoline industry every in the U.S. year membranes are positioned to become the industrial of an workhorses future. clean, efficient, Background Industry Founders

TOUGH TECH 01 | 52 | THE ENGINE PORTFOLIO COMPANIES | 55 | Peter Johnson, |3| Alán Aspuru-Guzik, |2| Peter |1| Chris Savoie, Olson, |5| Jonathan Fontalvo, Romero |4| Jhonathan Cao |6| Yudong Group Research Aspuru-Guzik Computing Software Quantum Without an application layer built to harness the raw power and to harness power built the raw layer Without an application how no matter the technology, eccentricities of quantum hardware, segments of the industrial will remain irrelevant vast to elegant, leading by the world’s Founded will change that. Zapata market. is positioned to expert the company in applied quantum algorithms, of the quantum tipping point. capitalize on the inevitable reality brings Each day us closer to that timing is everything. , Zapata For laboratory hardware’s tipping point—the time when quantum on quantum work The startup’s success meets commercial viability. the practicality is actually helping accelerate computing applications So when that and speed of quantum computing as a whole. delivering useful will be there, Zapata does arrive, inevitable day to transform chemical and the power with quantum applications pharmaceutical level. on a profound and optimization design Zapata Computing Founders Background Industry breakthroughs in computation. breakthroughs in |6| Using quantum technology to create Using quantum technology |5| |4| |3| |2| |1| THE FOUNDERS THE

TOUGH TECH 01 | 54 | TOUGH TECH 01 | 57 |

We ensure this potential doesn’t doesn’t this potential ensure We by the cracks slip through hard work bridging the gaps. We the lab from Tech Tough move to the light. into

unbelievable. unbelievable. the unimaginable, and the and unimaginable, the We’re here for the long shots, the long for here We’re

TOUGH TECH 01 | 56 | TOUGH TECH 01 | 59 | Interested in contributing to our next publication? Email us at: Interested in contributing Email us at: to our next publication? [email protected] toughtechsummit.engine.xyz October 29, 2018 October 29, Hotel Commonwealth MA Boston, Equal parts collaborative and visionary, the Tough collaborative and visionary, Equal parts curious individuals aims to bring together Tech summit contributing to, in learning about, and interested movement. the Tough Tech and see see and Summit Tech Tough inaugural for the us Join engineers, scientists, world’s leading of the how some that shape technology are helping and entrepreneurs world. the will transform TOUGH TECH 01 | 60 |