Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: Anticipators and Forerunners

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Abstract Volume 2 Issue 5 - 2018 Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were not much recognised during their short lives. Jan–Erik Lane Kierkegaard was often ridiculed when he roamed the Copenhagen centre daily UNIGE, Switzerland and Nietzsche was far from the best–seller he happen to be today. But they were forerunners to the existentialism of Sartre and Heidegger, though without sharing Correspondence: Jan–Erik Lane, Emeritus Professor, UNIGE, the Marxism of the former and the mysticism of the latter. Kierkegaard anticipated Switzerland, Email [email protected] modernism (individual choice behaviour) and Nietzsche anticipated the subjectivism and perspectivism of post–modernism. Kierkegaard had another side – a kind of Received: August 08, 2018 | Published: September 21, 2018 religious pietism– like Nietzsche, whose admiration for force and violence contradicts his admiration for Greek culture.

Keywords: modernism, post–modernism, anticipation philosophy, Kierkegaard’s and Nietzsche’s micro orientation

Kierkegaard Kierkegaard’s two sides Introduction S.A. Kierkegaard (1813–1855) broke with the dominant philosophical mode at the time in the first half of the 19th century, If any philosopher can be said to be ahead of their time, it should launching the rudiments of modelling individual human behaviour be the Dane Soren Kierkegaard and the German–Swiss Friedrich along lines that were formalized systematically by 20th century game Nietzsche.1 They rejected the prevailing ideas of the first haft of the theory.2 Rejecting both German macro determinism and Kantian 19th century – German idealism and Kantianism. And they were intellectualism, he provided new insights into human choice action out of tune with the coming analytical philosophy of the second and the foundation of human decisions in volitions and emotions. half of the 19th century. But they anticipated major trends in 20th century philosophy and Weltanschaungen, namely individualism, Kierkegaard was deeply religious but he managed to uphold the indeterminism and game theory (Kierkegaard) as well as existentialism distinction “croyance” and “savoir” in a remarkable way. Kierkegaard and post–modernism (Nietzsche). found no school of philosophy or theology and had not memorable students to elaborate his ideas. He was the perfect loner with one These two scholars were prominent on the philosophical scene distinctive mark, the rejection of Hegelianism, right or left. What is after the death of I. Kant in 1804 up to the coming of G. Frege in original with Kierkegaard is not his highly emotional Christianity or 1879 by means of their rejection of German idealism. Both distanced his peculiar relationship with the opposite sex, especially his failed themselves from the search of “das Ding an sich” in the nation (Fichte), engagement to Regine Olsen, but his indeterminist philosophy. Schelling (Nature), the Spirit (Hegel), the will (Schopenhauer) and alienation (Marx). The Danish genius abstained from metaphysics, Born in 1813, Kierkegaard enjoyed only a short period of hectic which Nietzsche did not succeed in despite great efforts. publishing, between 1843 and 1855, when death stopped him. His texts include lengthy books and shorter booklets or pamphlets besides Kierkegaard is today looked upon with concepts from the 20th lots of occasional newspaper publishing and personal correspondence century. How do we establish that a philosopher is “similar” to as well as a diary. Using pseudonyms often has raised the problem another thinker? Kierkegaard is classified with J.P. Sartre, which is of who is speaking in the books or booklets. Sometimes this may very misleading, given Sartre’s endorsement of a certain type of harsh be confusing, as the text is sometimes a dialogue for and against the Communism. Kierkegaard is also put together with F. Nietzsche, position that the pseudonym is presenting. In general, Kierkegaard which is simply erroneous, given the latter’s determinism: “eternal is not easy reading, as he tends to enter into long discussion for and recurrent”. Or he is regarded as a forerunner to Heidegger, which does against an argument. Here, I will focus upon the following texts: not provide justice to him, given Heidegger’s mysticism. So, what Either–Or (1843) and Unpublished Unscientific Manuscript (1846), or whom is Kierkegaard similar to? Where to place him: Camus’ where his three most important tenets, in my view, are presented. existentialism, Christianity. Indeterminism, scepticism, etc.? In the other books or booklets, one may find several interesting Nietzsche is even harder to place as a forerunner. There is the discussions, for instance about dread, fear and trembling as well as the accusation of inspiration of fascism, but also the praise for a source separation between religion as institution against religion as faith. But of inspiration for human self–liberation and authentic expression as his high ranking among philosophers stems from these three tenets. a true individualist against all form of collectivism and self–deceit. Instead, his importance to Western philosophy is to be found in three In post–modernist thinking, Nietzsche is highly revered, also by Left tenets, to be discussed below: authors. His life was tragic, ending in insanity by a cause not fully known. Kierkegaard ‘life is also often described as unlucky due to his 1) The Idea of Individual Choice; unfulfilled love to promised fiancé. 2) The Asymmetry between the Past and the Present– Future;

Submit Manuscript | http://medcraveonline.com Art Human Open Acc J. 2018;2(5):264‒271. 264 © 2018 Jan–Erik. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your work non-commercially. Copyright: Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners ©2018 Lane 265

3) The distinction between Objectivity and Subjectivity. that human beings are driven by their mundane motivation to a natural state of “omnium bellum contra omnes”. But then he posits a decision Kierkegaard spent a lot of time in newspaper debates, attacking to create a grand contract for peace and moreover Hobbes says that and counter–attacking his critics. He had a very poisonous pen for the there is a choice between monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. This established state church and its hypocrisies. choice is based on a deliberation by those making the covenant and it Analyse of decision–making is resolved by Hobbes himself in favour of monarchy, on very shaky theoretical grounds. Is this determinism? In political economy and public choice, one encounters very often the concept of the alternatives of action. In fact, policy analysis is Similarly, the hard core determinist Spinoza enters several often the enquiry into the set of alternatives in a policy area, spelling contradictions in his Political Treatise, where he moves from a out the consequences of each alternative as well as their pros and Hobbesian state of nature, human motivation driven by enlightened cons. In the natural sciences, one does not find something similar to egoism, often brutal, to an extended deliberation about the choice this framework of enquiry into action alternatives or possibilities. of the best “dominion” or “commonwealth” with Hobbes. “Best state’ here means peace and the welfare of citizens. Spinoza makes The more alternatives of action there are, the higher the degrees a lengthy enquiry into a number of crucial decisions about various of freedom in behaviour, Real alternatives of action entails degree of forms of monarchy, of aristocracy and democracy, favouring the latter freedom, i.e. action must be unforced or voluntary. When there is only on principal–agent reasons. Political choices! one course of action, the behaviour is deterministic. Indeterminism is the admission of alternatives of action, or degrees of freedom.2 Alternatives of action and degrees of freedom In game theory, these concepts form the foundation for the theory Kierkegaard’s great achievement is to hand down the first of choice, or rational decision–making. The theory of choice is a comprehensive analysis of human deliberation and choice, in micro approach to individual behaviour that is completely at odds opposition to German metaphysics, right–wing or left–wing or with macro deterministic approaches to social systems. Here, we have Schopenhauer’s grandiose pessimism. Kierkegaard’s philosophy of the opposition between Kierkegaard and Hegel. action cannot be associated with a French Marxist like J.P. Sartre; to analyse his life as an entire Freudian neurosis towards one woman3 Of course, the concept of determinism is ambiguous, as different is just not pertinent to the case. His first book –Either – Or (1843)– connotations have been suggested. The term “indeterminism” is even is one of the absolute4 masterpieces in Western philosophy, to be more complex and perhaps incoherent. followed up with stunning books or booklets on the dimensions of In Collins English Dictionary, we find a standard definition of choice: anxiety, remorse, fear, trembling, subjectivity–objectivity, etc. “determinism”: We make a few quotations from Either–Or: “Also called: necessitarianism the philosophical doctrine that “Now in case a man were able to maintain himself upon the all events including human actions pinnacle of the instant of choice, in case he could cease to be a man, and choices are fully determined by preceding events in case he were in his inmost nature only an airy thought, in case and states of affairs, and so that freedom of choice is illusory.” personality meant nothing more than to be a kobold, which takes part, indeed, in the movements but nevertheless remains unchanged ; in https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ case such were the situation, it would be foolish to say that it might determinism ever be too late for a man to choose, for in a deeper sense there could One finds several other definitions of this often employed term, be no question of a choice. The choice itself is decisive for the content as when in physics strict determinism is contrasted with probabilism, of the personality, through the choice the personality immerses itself particle level indeterminism and chaos states. Here, I deal only with in the thing chosen, and when it does not choose it withers away in 5 determinism is the sense above and “indeterminism” is the opposite consumption.” theory, confined to human affairs. Kierkegaard creates a solid foundation for the analysis of human In political theory, the problem of free will in individual behaviour behaviour from the micro perspective, anticipating the perspective of created lots of confusion, up until Kierkegaard. In the ancient 20th century game theory. He had visited Berlin several times, but philosophies like Epicurism and Stoicism, determinism was the main there he found only macro metaphysics in the lectures of prominent line, but elements of free will had to be recognized, creating lots of Germans. His originality is high: confusion. During the medieval period, the question of the freedom of “You will perceive also in what I have just been saying how individual behaviour was intensely debated on a religious ground of essentially my view of choice differs from yours (if you can properly the condition for redemption, i.e. simple predestination against double be said to have any view), for yours differs precisely in the fact that predestination. Erasmus of Rotterdam became famous for his defence it prevents cogitation involved in weighing the alternatives, not on of free will against Luther and Calvin. account of the multiplicity of thoughts which attach themselves to In modern secular political philosophy, the adherents of every link in the chain, but rather because there is danger afoot, danger determinism are many: Hobbes, Spinoza, Holbach, Helvetius, that the next instant it may not be equally in my power to choose, that etc. Kant tried a double solution with “two kingdoms”, reserving something already hast been lived which must be lived over again. For determinism for nature and indeterminism for human behaviour. The to think that for an instant one can keep one’s personality a blank, or macro philosophies of the 19th century were all deterministic, like that strictly speaking one can break off and bring to a halt the course Schopenhauer, Hegel and Marx. of the personal life, is a delusion. The personality is already interested in the choice before one chooses, and when the choice is postponed It appears that the strict determinism of e.g. Hobbes and Spinoza is the personality chooses unconsciously….”.5 contradicted in their own theoretical constructs. Thus, Hobbes claims

This emphasis upon choice has a tremendous theoretical force, objectivity in a fashion that is original and worth examining (Table 1). with lots of implications that Kierkegaard studied in the next–coming Table 1 Kierkegaard’s conceptual scheme books. We must ask what when the distinction either–or matters for human affairs. Kierkegaard replies: the future. Objectivity Subjectivity Asymmetry between past and present or future Objective truth Subjective truth Outside Inside The doctrine of indeterminism or voluntarism is criticized for harbouring unscientific nations like causa“ sui” or events that lack Approximation Appropriation conditions completely. Let us quote from The Information Philosopher: Uncertainty Emotions, Passion

“The core idea of indeterminism is closely related to the idea of One talks about objective knowledge or objective truth on the one causality. Indeterminism for some philosophers is an event without a hand and subjective insights or subjective attitudes on the other hand. cause (the ancient causa sui. But we can have an adequate causality Can one speak of subjective truth against objective truth? Perhaps without strict determinism, the “hard” determinism which implies objectivity is figment of the philosopher’s imagination and subjectivity complete predictability of events and only one possible future. We is the correct position, not only in relation wishes or preferences but can call this “adequate determinism.” also faith and all beliefs? Kierkegaard develops a conceptual scheme http://www.informationphilosopher.com/freedom/ for debating objectivity versus subjectivity: indeterminism.html Kierkegaard looks upon these dichotomies as a logical list on both In indeterminism revised, the focus is not upon “causa sui” but sides, employing them to clarify what subjective Christianity would upon choice, alternative of action and degrees of freedom in individual amount to. Objective Christianity does not exist. Here, Kierkegaard decisions. This framework, elaborated in modern game theory, calls achieves a clear separation between belief and faith, often confused in for a distinction between the past, which cannot be changed, and he both philosophy and theology. And his goal with these distinctions is present–future, where choice is feasible. to safeguard “Frommichkeit und Dienst”: In Either–Or, Kierkegaard already anticipates this well–known “But the speculative philosopher views things altogether distinction: between the presence and the future from an action point differently. He believes but only to a certain degree. He puts his hand of view: to the plow but quickly looks about for something to know. From a Christian perspective, it is hard to see how he could reach the highest 5 “As truly as there is a future, just so truly is there an either/or.” good in this manner.” (Philosophical Scepticism, 270) However, the famous Kierkegaard distinction is spelled out Kierkegaard’s distinctions would hardly go down with the more sharply in his Journals/Notebooks, from which we render this subjectivism of post–modernism, but sits well with modern game quotation: theory where information belongs to the right side and preferences “It is really true what philosophy tells us, that life must be understood to the left side. backwards. But with this, one forgets the second proposition, that it must be lived forwards. A proposition which, the more it is subjected Nietzsche to careful thought, the more it ends up concluding precisely that life Introduction at any given moment cannot really ever be fully understood; exactly because there is no single moment where time stops completely in The literature on Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) increases order for me to take position [to do this]: going backwards.” with new comments and interpretations. His books are now all on the WEB. Post–modernist philosophy and social science has resulted Note: Kierkegaard, Journalen JJ:167 (1843), Søren in a fundamental re–evaluation of his ideas. Thus, the emphasis is Kierkegaards Skrifter, Copenhagen, 1997––, volume 18, page now upon his insights into human personality and the link between 306.6 psychology and dominant culture or moral ideology–the key words http://homepage.math.uiowa.edu/~jorgen/ being emancipation, self–realization and expressiveness. Nietzsche’s kierkegaardquotesource.html most original contribution is no doubt his epistemological subjectivism in a period when the dominant philosophy of science was positivistic, This distinction, first made by Kierkegaard, has a strong bearing underlining objectivity; this perspectivism make him a major upon the solution of the paradox of determinism versus indeterminism. forerunner to the post–modernist revolution after the Second World What he suggests is in reality some kind of ex post determinism and War. Actually, Nietzsche is regarded as the first major philosopher of ex ante indeterminism, as a solution of the conundrum of causality and perspectivism: “There are no facts”. free will. For the past holds that one could not have acted differently, determinism, but for the future there are degrees of freedom when However, his major effort went into practical philosophy, decision is voluntary, meaning a choice based upon deliberation. especially moral theory, with his typical perspective of power as a dominant force in shaping culture and religion. Nietzsche is seen as Objectivity versus subjectivity the philosopher of individualism, subjectivism and personal freedom. Yet, he had no place for the idea of free will in his philosophy. Let us In the booklet Philosophical Fragments (1844), Kierkegaard make a few telling quotations: debates the nature of faith in general and Christianity in particular. It falls outside of my interest here. But in a large book meant as addition, “Freedom of will and isolation of facts. – Our usual imprecise the Concluding Unscientific Postscript (1846), Kierkegaard spells out mode of observation takes a group of phenomena as one and calls how he looks upon the philosophical problem of subjectivity contra it a fact: between this fact and another fact it imagines in addition

Citation: Jan–Erik L. Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners. Art Human Open Acc J. 2018;2(5):264‒271. DOI: 10.15406/ahoaj.2018.02.00068 Copyright: Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners ©2018 Lane 267 an empty space, it isolates every fact. In reality, however, all our corruption, to withstand Christians . . . This secretive worm that crept doing and knowing is not a succession of facts and empty spaces up to every individual under the cover of night, fog, and ambiguity but a continuous flux. Now, belief in freedom of will is incompatible and sucked the seriousness for true things, the instinct for reality precisely with the idea of a continuous, homogeneous, undivided, in general right out of every individual, this cowardly, feminine, indivisible flowing: it presupposes that every individual action is saccharine group gradually alienated the ‘souls’ from that tremendous isolate and indivisible; it is an atomism in the domain of willing and structure, – those valuable, those masculine–noble natures that saw knowing.”7–8 Rome’s business as their own business, their own seriousness, their own pride.”7–8 Nietzsche adduces his Herakleitian heritage, referring to life as an endless flux of events –“panta rhei” said the great philosopher from What is maybe stunning is the thesis that Nietzsche really Ephesos. No time for deliberations about ends and means of action, as maintains that: life is a like a powerful stream of water, carrying everyone along in its i) Christianity is Judaism reinvented or falsified by St. Paul; determined course. The only comfort is the “amor fati” and the eternal ii) Christianity is nothing by a giant moral reversal of good and recurrence. Is it really “comfort” for lower strata? Well, nothing bad; else exists, as the freedom of will and choices after deliberation are iii) Christianity is the slave moral, enslaving civilizations, like the illusions: Ancient Roman and present European. “But what if the opposite were true: that he is always living in The fall of Rome to Christianity is the well–known argument by manifold dependence but regards himself as free when, out of long historian Edward Gibbons.8 But it is so contested and challenged by habituation, he no longer perceives the weight of the chains? It is only other theories about the fall of the Roman. Numerous hypotheses have from new chains that he now suffers: – ‘freedom of will’ really means been put forwards: invasions by Barbarian tribes, economic troubles nothing more than feeling no new chains.”7–8 and over–reliance on slave labour, the rise of the Eastern Empire, Nietzsche even argues that the idea of a free will is an invention overexpansion and military overspending, government corruption and of the upper strata to fool the lower strata, hoping in vain for social political instability, the arrival of the Huns and the migration of the change. Yet, when people maximizing the will to power would at Barbarian tribes, Christianity and the loss of traditional values and the every moment, they face choices about how to do that, meaning weakening of the Roman legions. In addition, one may mention the alternatives as well as freedom to choose. Nietzsche is not as coherent theory of a basic shift in economic system, from commerce and trade as Kierkegaard. to serf labour and self–sufficiency, anticipating the feudalisation of the economy and social relationships. The economic system hypothesis Nietzsche had some 15 years of active output of texts, books and was anticipated by Max Weber9 and fully famously developed by pamphlets, poems and aphorisms. A critique of Christianity is to be Rostovtzeff.10 found in almost all books, or booklets except his first book,The Birth of Tragedy. It may be pointed out that Nietzsche’s style evolved or Rejection of envy: resentment against moral changed over time, becoming more high strung and impatient. His superiority self–biography Ecce Homo7 is so arrogant that one may raise the question of megalomania. The resentment idea of Nietzsche may be interpreted as the envy or hatred against moral superiority: The genius of Nietzsche resides to a large degree in his dexterity to write as well as to choose titles. He comes back to his themes very “In an even more decisive and profound sense than then, Judea once often, but in a new context. Often his style is paradoxical, but the again triumphed over the classical ideal with the French Revolution: messages can most often be distilled. Nietzsche propagates a certain the last political nobility in Europe, that of the French seventeenth set of tenets in almost all books and booklets, although the various and eighteenth centuries, collapsed under the ressentiment–instincts versions of these tenets are given different formulation, sometimes of the rabble, – the world had never heard greater rejoicing and more with a risk of being incoherent. He mixes these tenets in several ways, uproarious enthusiasm! True, the most dreadful and unexpected thing sometimes bringing them up abruptly. “Also Sprach Zarathustra” happened in the middle: the ancient ideal itself appeared bodily and is too special to be included here, showing Nietzsche’s mastery of with unheard–of splendour before the eye and conscience of mankind, German language. We have not been able to confirm anything real and once again, stronger, simpler and more penetrating than ever, in about this prophet: life, dates, texts. answer to the old, mendacious ressentiment slogan of priority for the majority, of man’s will to baseness, abasement, levelling, decline Nietzsche’s transformation of all values and decay, there rang out the terrible and enchanting counterslogan: priority for the few!” Nietzsche’s moral philosophy has two sides, one negative in the form of rejection of established values, and another positive as a Here we come to the crux of the matter analysed in this paper, reinvigoration of old time values. the valuation of compassion itself. Starting from his deep insight into the teachings of Schopenhauer, his German collegue in philosophy of The negative message morality, Nietzsche finds that compassion must lead to negation of life The targets of his attacks, often repeated in book after book, are itself. Nietzsche not only the Church institutions, but Christianity as such, socialism “dealt especially with the value of the ‘unegoistic’, the instincts and liberalism. of compassion, self–denial, self–sacrifice which Schopenhauers had Rejection of Christian morality for so long gilded, deified and transcendentalized until he was finally left with them as those ‘values as such’ on the basis of which he said Nietzsche writes: ‘no’to life and to himself as well. But against these very instincts I “But it was not stable enough to withstand the most corrupt type of gave vent to an increasingly deep mistrust, a scepticism which dug

Citation: Jan–Erik L. Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners. Art Human Open Acc J. 2018;2(5):264‒271. DOI: 10.15406/ahoaj.2018.02.00068 Copyright: Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners ©2018 Lane 268 deeper and deeper! Precisely here I saw the great danger to mankind, The positive message its most sublime temptation and seduction – temptation to what? to nothingness? – precisely here I saw the beginning of the end, Nietzsche was not merely a great nihilist, rejecting certain moral standstill, mankind looking back wearily, turning its will against life, philosophies. He also preached a moral of his own making. 11 and the onset of the final sickness becoming gently, sadly manifest: Need of large social stratification Accusation of slave morals and its rejection Few social systems are comparable to the India case system in Nietzsche’s slave insurrection tenet goes like this: terms of ugliness. Yet, Nietzsche raises no objection, although he is, as usual well–informed in old Indian culture and language. Here, we “…the Jews performed the miracle of the inversion of valuations, come to the so–called “Arayan myth”, which evidently Nietzsche by means of which life on earth obtained a new and dangerous believed in, no compassion with the “chandalas” and their suffering: charm for a couple of millenniums. Their prophets fused into one the expressions ‘rich,’ ‘godless,’ ‘wicked,’ ‘violent,’ ‘sensual,’ and “Let us consider the other method for “improving” mankind, for the first time coined the word ‘world’ as a term of reproach. In the method of breeding a particular race or type of man. The most this inversion of valuations (in which is also included the use of the magnificent example of this is furnished by Indian morality, sanctioned word ‘poor’ as synonymous with ‘saint’ and ‘friend’) the significance as religion in the form of “the law of Manu.” Here the objective is to of the Jewish people is to be found; it is with them that the SLAVE breed no less than four races within the same society: one priestly, one INSURRECTION IN MORALS commences.”12–14 warlike, one for trade and agriculture, and finally a race of servants, the Sudras. Obviously, we are no longer dealing with animal tamers: But he mixes this debasement of the Jewish people with positive a man that is a hundred times milder and more reasonable is the only comments that must be underlined here: one who could even conceive such a plan of breeding. One breathes a sigh of relief at leaving the Christian atmosphere of disease and No antisemitism dungeons for this healthier, higher, and wider world. How wretched is In this remarkable quotation, Nietzsche rejects some anti–Semitic the New Testament compared to Manu, how foul it smells!”7–8 proposal that he made in other texts. Interesting! The Indian caste system is forbidden in the modern constitution “Incidentally: the entire problem of the Jews exists only within of the county, with Nietzsche’s endorsement of social harassment of national states, In as much as it is here that their energy and higher the untouchables –“chandala” in Sanskrit, as total. This is written by a intelligence, their capital in will and spirit accumulated from man desperately seeking healing against terrible deceases. generation to generation in a long school of suffering, must come to preponderate to a degree calculated to arouse envy and hatred, so that Irrelevance of compassion: no merci in almost every nation–and the more so the more nationalist a posture Compassion is not entirely unknown to Nietzsche, as he here the nation is again adopting–there is gaining ground the literary confirms that religion may be necessary for living with pain and indecency of leading the Jews to the sacrificial slaughter as scapegoats sufferings. But it is all make belief: for every possible public or private misfortune.” “Religion, and the meaning religion gives to life, spreads sunshine “Moreover: in the darkest periods of the Middle Ages, when the over such eternally tormented people and makes them bearable even cloudbanks of Asia had settled low over Europe, it was the Jewish to themselves. It has the same effect that an Epicurean philosophy freethinkers, scholars and physicians who, under the harshest personal usually has on the suffering of higherranks: it refreshes, refines, and constraint, held firmly to the banner of enlightenment and intellectual makes the most of suffering, as it were. In the end it even sanctifies and independence and defended Europe against Asia; it is thanks not justifies. Perhaps there is nothing more venerable about Christianity least to their efforts that a more natural, rational and in any event and Buddhism than their art of teaching even the lowliest to use piety unmythical elucidation of the world could at last again obtain victory in order to situate themselves in an illusory higher order of things, and and the ring of culture that now unites us with the enlightenment of in so doing stay satisfied with the actual order, in which their lives Graeco–Roman antiquity remain unbroken. If Christianity has done are hard enough (in which precisely this hardness is necessary!).”12–14 everything to orientalize the occident, Judaism has always played an essential part in occidentalizing it again: which in a certain sense Yet, Nietzsche quickly retreats from his compassion. He means making of Europe’s mission and history a continuation of the clearly identifies with the strong and noble against the unlucky and Greek.”12–14 downtrodden: We have now documented extensively that the three negative tenets “They try to preserve, to keep everything living that can be kept by Nietzsche are not accidental but often repeated as his fundamental in any way alive. In fact, they take sides with the failure as a matter civilization convictions. This is Nietzsche’s nihilism. of principle, as religions of the suffering. They give rights to all those who suffer life like a disease, and they want to make every other Some of these tenets sit well with the philosophy of modernism, Feeling for life seems wrong and become impossible. while others are central in post–modernist thinking. Nietzsche’s Whatever merit we Might find in this indulgent, preserving care, secularism anticipates modernism’s a–religiosity or atheism. His which was and is meant for attack on envy and equalization can be heard in post–modernism’s The highest types of people (since these are the ones that, call for self–realization and human self–fulfillment. His high esteem historically, have of the Renaissance and low esteem of Oriental despotism are in Almost always suffered the most), along with everyone else – accordance with both modernism and post–modernism. Perhaps he is nevertheless, the father of existentialism and subjectivism or individualism without In the final analysis, the religions that have existed so far (which mysticism –liberation from idols? have all

Been sovereign) has played a principal role in keeping the type of its citizens. Perhaps “the greatest intellect” needs democratic “man” on control of the by the poor intellects?! He says: a lower level. They have preserved too much of what should be “Culture and caste ––A higher culture can only originate where destroyed.”7–8 there are two distinct castes of society: that of the working class, and Priority of egoism that of the leisured class who are capable of true leisure; or, more strongly expressed, the caste of compulsory labour and the caste of In theories of social justice, it is a necessary condition that justice free labour. The point of view of the division of happiness is not implies the “impartial spectator” (Sen). But Nietzsche put egoism essential when it is a question of the production of a higher culture; in first, the enlightened selfishness of the noble: any case, however, the leisured caste is more susceptible to suffering “And the noble soul honors itself in them and in the rights that it and suffer more, their pleasure in existence is less and their task is gives them; it has no greater. Now supposing there should be quite an interchange between doubt that the exchange of rights and honors belongs to the natural the two castes, so that on the one hand the duller and less intelligent state families and individuals are lowered from the higher caste into the of things too, as the essence of all interaction. The noble soul gives lower, and, on the other hand, the freer men of the lower caste obtain as it access to the higher, a condition of things would be attained beyond takes, out of the passionate and sensitive instinct of retribution that which one can only perceive the open sea of vague wishes. Thus is so speaks to us the vanishing voice of the olden time; but where are there 7–8 fundamental to it. The concept of “mercy” is senseless and still ears to hear it?” noisome inter Endorsement of force pares; there might be a sublime way of letting gifts fall down on you from Nietzsche declares: above, as it were, and lapping them up like raindrops; but the noble “What stood as aere perennius, the imperium Romanum, the most soul magnificent form of organization ever to be achieved under difficult has no talent for this art and conduct. Its egoism gets in the way: conditions, compared to which everything before or after has just it does been patched together, botched and dilettantish, those holy anarchists not generally like looking “upwards,” – but rather ahead, made a ‘piety’ out of destroying ‘the world’, which is to say the horizontally and imperium Romanum, until every stone was overturned, – until even slowly, or downwards: – it knows that it is high up.—*12–14 the Germans and other thugs could rule over it...”7 The concept of mercy is central in moral philosophy, just like pity. As a stunningly young professor of ancient Greek language at the Thus, Johan Rawls formulates his famous second principle of justice: University of Basel, Nietzsche praised Greek culture until he later to give priority to less well–off (maximin).Compassion is at the basis too aversion against the couple Socrates–Plato, developing into a of the modern theory of liberal egalitarianism, where equality among phobia with Nietzsche. He said positive things about the Pre–Socrates men and women has the same value as freedom. Equality is said to (Heracleitos) and sometimes also the Post–Socrates (the Eleats). But result from an impartial consideration of life opportunities for all his greates admiration was for the force of the Roman Emprire: people. Impartiality is justice, declares philosopher Brian Barry. “The imperiuschem Romanum that we know, that we are coming But Nietzsche is partial in favour of those on the top: to know better through the history of the Roman provinces, this most “Genius and the ideal state in conflict–The Socialists demand a remarkable artwork in the great style was a beginning, its design comfortable life for the greatest possible number. If the lasting house was calculated to prove itself over the millennia, –, nothing like it of this life of comfort, the perfect State, had really been attained, then has been built to this day, nobody has even dreamed of building on this life of comfort would have destroyed the ground out of which this scale, sub specie aeternity–This organization was stable enough grow the great intellect and the mighty individual generally, I mean to hold up under bad emperors: the accident of personalities cannot powerful energy. Were this State reached, mankind would have grown make any difference with things like this,–first principle of all great too weary to be still capable of producing genius. Must we not hence architecture.”7–8 wish that life should retain its forcible character, and that wild forces The resentiment idea of Nietzsche is his hatred of ideas arguing and energies should continue to be called forth afresh? But warm against moral superiority, with the Romans or with elites threated by and sympathetic hearts desire precisely the removal of that wild and social revolution: forcible character, and the warmest hearts we can imagine desire it the most passionately of all, whilst all the time its passion derived its fire, +…Judea once again triumphed over the classical ideal with the its warmth, its very existence precisely from that wild and forcible French Revolution: the last political nobility in Europe, that of the character; the warmest heart, therefore, desires the removal of its own French seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, collapsed under the foundation, the destruction of itself,—that is, it desires something ressentiment–instincts of the rabble,– the world had never heard illogical, it is not intelligent.”7–8 greater rejoicing and more uproarious enthusiasm! True, the most dreadful and unexpected thing happened in the middle: the ancient Nietzsche succeeds in this passage to reject both classical ideal itself appeared bodily and with unheard–of splendour before liberalism (Bentham’s formula “Greatest happiness principle”) and the eye and conscience of mankind, and once again, stronger, simpler socialism that focuses upon the state. Both these ideologies are self– and more penetrating than ever, in answer to the old, mendacious destructive. ressentiment slogan of priority for the majority, of man’s will to Elitism instead of liberalism or socialism baseness, abasement, levelling, decline and decay....”8–17 For Nietzsche, the state has other objectives than the overall welfare Modern democracy coming during Nietzsche’s life time is

Citation: Jan–Erik L. Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners. Art Human Open Acc J. 2018;2(5):264‒271. DOI: 10.15406/ahoaj.2018.02.00068 Copyright: Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners ©2018 Lane 270 interpreted as also with resentiment hypothesis, stemming historically their anticipation of existentialism with its micro focus on personal ultimately from Christianity and Buddhism. responsibility. Here, they are forerunner of individual psychology, in order to unravel the real forces that drive humans. Admiration of violence: Roman Empire Yet, the difference between Kierkegaard and Nietzsche remain Nietzsche was well aware of Greek superiority over the Romans in large, as the former emphasized the freedom of the will and individual certain important domains of culture. We read: decision–making, whereas Nietzsche could not free himself from “Rather they quickly replaced them with what was contemporary historicism in the form of Christianity (negative) and Roman valour and Roman. They seem to ask us: ‘Should we not make new for (positive). ourselves what is old and put ourselves into it? Should we not be allowed to breathe our soul into their dead body? Acknowledgements For None. it is dead, after all: how ugly everything dead is!’ They did not know the Conflict of interest pleasure of a sense for history; what was past and alien was Author declares there is no conflict of interest. embarrassing to them; and as Romans, they saw it as an incentive for a Roman References conquest. In faet at that time one conquered by translating – not merely 1. Anderson R Lanier. “Friedrich Nietzsche”, The Stanford Encyclopaedia by leaving out the historical, but also by adding allusions to the of Philosophy. Edward N Zalta, editor. 2017. present 2. Dutta P. 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Citation: Jan–Erik L. Kiergegaard and Nietzsche: anticipators and forerunners. Art Human Open Acc J. 2018;2(5):264‒271. DOI: 10.15406/ahoaj.2018.02.00068