DOCSLIB.ORG

LESSON-6 the Early States Resources:- 1

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
LESSON-6 the Early States Resources:- 1 LESSON-6 The Early States Resources:- 1. Text Book 2. Pictures 3. Board 4. Real Life Situation Learning Objectives • To enable students understand how civilizations grew from initial towns to kingdoms. • To help understand the formation of society, elementary governance and management of social divisions. Video Link Part- 1 https://youtu.be/y8VH-vt9LYk Part- 2 https://youtu.be/bJAuopawBM4 Part - 3 https://youtu.be/qRkOPa5_rHU Part - 4 https://youtu.be/ydpprXllgQQ THE MAHĀJANAPADAS The Mahājanapadas (Sanskrit: महाजनपद, lit. 'great realm', from maha, "great", and janapada "foothold of a people") were sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in Northern ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE during the second urbanisation period.[2] The 6th–5th centuries BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history; during this period India's first large cities arose after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was also the time of the rise of sramana movements (including Buddhism and Jainism), which challenged the religious orthodoxy of the Vedic Period. Two of the Mahājanapadas were most probably ganatantras (oligarchic republics) and others had forms of monarchy. Ancient Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya[3] make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics which had developed and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. They included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region,[4] and all had developed prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.[5] Archaeologically, this period has been identified as corresponding in part to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. FORTIFICATION OF MAHAJANAPADAS Capital cities of 'mahajanapadas' were mostly fortified by building huge walls of wood, brick or stone around them. There were various reasons for building forts. They were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection. Some rulers probably built forts to make their cities impressive and to show how rich and powerful they were. Moreover, by making forts, controlling the fortified area became easier for the kings.Buildings forts required a great-deal of planning. Thousands of bricks or stones had to be prepared. Enormous amount of labour and resources were required. Answer By THE EXPANSION OF TERRITORIES MAGADH MAHAJANPADA Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom in southern Bihar, and was counted as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, 'Great Countries' of ancient India. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated in Magadha. The Mauryan Empire and Gupta Empire, both of which originated in Magadha, saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Golden Age of India. The Magadh kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajkumar. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. HOMEWORK 1. On an Outline Map Of India locate Magadh, Kosala, Awanti and Vasta.( Please see page no. 45) EXCERCISES A. Choose the correct option. 1. 16 2. Shakyas 3. 1/6th 4. Ayurveda 5. Kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru 6. Pataliputra 7. Nanda Dynasty 8. 8 clans to form a confederation B. Fill in the blanks. 1. Vish 2. Capital 3. Avanti 4. Ploughs 5. Ajatshatru 6. Vaishali C. State whether true or false. 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. True 6. False D. Answer the following questions briefly. 1. Over a period of time Janapadas grew in stature as a strong political entity by acquiring more territory and came to be known as Mahajanapadas. 2. • Capital cities were fortified for 2 reasons. • To show power and prosperity. • To provide a safe environment to people against the threat of raids. 3. Kings wanted to acquire area under their control for 2 reasons. (a) To get more land to grow more food for increasing population. (b) To show their power to other kings. 4. Taxes were imposed to maintain large armies and to maintain other expenditures like making roads, streets, forts etc. 5. Crafts persons gave the part of their service free of charge to the raja. 6. Vaishali, Ayodhya and Mathura became important trading centres. 7. The extraction of chemicals out of herbs by exploiting the teachings of Atharvaveda helped progress medicinal science of Ayurveda. 8. Iron was used to make tools and implements. It was used to make weapons like swords, daggers, spears and arrows. E. Answer the following questions in detail. 1. In the republican form of governance the elected group of people formulated the policies by majority decision system whereas in monarchical system the king used to be the most powerful and used to have a hereditary system. 2. Ashwamedha Yajana was performed to capture more territories. Method: • In this system, the rajas performing the Yajana used to send a horse with his emblem to roam freely in the neighbouring territories. • The area from where the horse managed to pass through unopposed was considered as captured. • Any Raja who stopped the horse was expected to fight the Raja performing the Yajana. 3. Taxes • Farmers paid 1/6th of their produce as tax. • Crafts persons gave the part of their services free of charge to the king. • Traders paid a tax. • Herders & hunters used to provide a portion of their produce as a tax. 4. (a) Use of Iron Implements like ploughs–This helped to plough dense clay soils as compared to the wooden ploughs. (b) Growing of paddy sapplings at one place and then transplanting it in the fields. 5. Division of society into water tight compartments led to discrimination and prevented the shudras from gaining education. Marriages between different classes became unacceptable. People could not change their occupation and Brahmins started to dominate the society. 6. Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada due to the following reasons: (a) Land was fertile. (b) It had large deposits of iron-ore which helped in making of weapons. (c) Rivers helped in transportation. (d) Forests provided timber for making chariots and it also provided animals like elephants which could be used in war. .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Historical View of the Relationship Between Koutilya and Mourya Empire
    Vol-6 Issue-5 2020 IJARIIE-ISSN(O)-2395-4396 THE HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KOUTILYA AND MOURYA EMPIRE. PROF.PRAHALLADA.G. M.A., M.PHIL. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY IDSG GOVERNMENT FIRST GRADE COLLEGE CHIKAMAGALUR-577102 ABSTRACT Chanakya dedicated his life to forming the Maurya Empire and guiding its pioneer Chandragupta Maurya and his son, Bindusara. He was the royal advisor, economist and philosopher during their reign. Born in 371 BC, Chanakya has been traditionally identified as Kautilya or Vishnugupta. Vishnugupta was actually a redactor of Kautilya’s original work, which suggests that Kautilya and Vishnugupta are different people. Chandragupta was an eminent ruler of the Maurya Empire. He successfully conquered most of the Indian subcontinent and is believed to be the first king who unified India. He was well revered and accepted by other kings. The Teacher And The Student Chanakya and Chandragupta shared a relationship based on reverence and trust. Chanakya was not just a teacher to Chandragupta; he was also his prime minister, friend, well-wisher and advisor. Chanakya was the person and power behind Chandragupta's early rise to power. It was Chandragupta Maurya who founded the great Maurya Empire but he couldn't have done it without Chanakya's guidance. Chanakya met Chandragupta by chance but the moment they met, Keywords-Chanukya, Chandragupta, mourya, Amathya, empire, Arthashastra, Pataliputra. INTRODUCTION Chanakya dedicated his life to forming the Maurya Empire and guiding its pioneer Chandragupta Maurya and his son, Bindusara. He was the royal advisor, economist and philosopher during their reign. Born in 371 BC, Chanakya has been traditionally identified as Kautilya or Vishnugupta.
    [Show full text]
  • Afghanistan in the Historical Perspective
    Global Political Review (GPR) URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.31703/gpr.2017(II-I).05 Afghanistan in the Historical Perspective Huma Qayum* † Zahir Shah Abstract Afghanistan is having a very long historical ‡ background. It dates back to 1500 BC when Islam Jan Alam was far away from this region. Different dynasties established their foundations and were ruined away. The paper brings into light • Vol. II, No. I (2017) major common factors among Pakistan and Afghanistan. It l highlights the past of Afghanistan before the Islamic period and after • Pages: 46 – 53 the arrival of Islam in this region. Especially the historical • DOI: 10.31703/gpr.2017(II-I).05 background which is totally the same among the two states. Similarly, rulers consolidated their empire from Afghanistan to • p- ISSN: 2521-2982 India. The paper also elaborates different dynasties and how • ISSN-L: 2521-2982 residents of the concerned area faced such aggressions with though resistance. Who never surrendered against any foreign rule and gained independence as a sovereign state. It still survives to Key Words: face superpowers’ rivalry that affect the very foundations of Indo- Pre-Islamic period, Post-Islamic Afghan states. period, historical background, Muslim rulers Introduction The Kabul city established in (1500 BC-551) Aryans and the Medes rule. Rig Veda may have been created in Afghanistan around this period, as well as a sign of the initial wandering Iron age. Amid 2000-1200 BC, a group of tribes of Indo-European linguistic identified as Aryan started migration into this area. They split into three diverse groups Iranic peoples, Nuristani, and Indo-Aryans in the early phase, probably during 1500-1000 BC in what today is called Afghanistan (Dupree, 1977).
    [Show full text]
  • Ancient Civilizations ______P
    1 SOUTH ASIA FACULTY SUGGESTED EDITS TO CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK February 24, 2016 Grade Six – World History and Geography: Ancient Civilizations ______________________________________________________________________________ p. 182, line 179 instead of “Northern India” use “Indus Valley Civilization” _____________________________________________________________________________ p. 184, lines 216-217: "Sasanian Empires in Persia, the Kushan Empire in Central Asia, the Maurya Empire in India, and the kingdom of Kush in the upper Nile River valley" is OK because even the contemporary Seleucid Greeks called the Mauryas an Indian Empire (India/Indika being Greek terms). ______________________________________________________________________________ p. 191 line 381 add Pakistan to read “Indus Valley River in India and Pakistan.” The Indus valley is largely in present day Pakistan. _____________________________________________________________________________ On p. 201, line 567: "Arabian Peninsula, India and equatorial Africa" should be changed to "Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Ocean littoral and equatorial Africa". This is more accurate because of the evidence of trading connections between ports of the Red Sea and ports along the Arabian Sea in present day Pakistan and India ______________________________________________________________________________ p. 209, lines 756-760: In the sentence: "The following two centuries are known as the Hellenistic period. “Hellenistic” refers to the influence of Greek cultural forms in regions far beyond the Aegean, though in fact a lively interchange of products and ideas took place in the broad region from the Mediterranean to India", it would be more accurate to change India here to "the Indian subcontinent." ____________________________________________________________________________ p. 210 line 744 While “The Early civilization of India” is standard, we recommend changing to ‘Early Civilization of South Asia?” so that teachers are able to convey to students that the Indus civilization is shared between modern day Pakistan and India.
    [Show full text]
  • Mauryan Culture
    By Surendra Kumar, Head Dept. of History, Patna University The Maurya Empire displayed many attributes that are common or indicative of several empires throughout world history. Perhaps the most important feature is when the government unifies several different groups under a single ideology, which was Buddhism in the case of the Mauryans. Ashoka’s personal conversion to Buddhism and the ways he promoted Buddhist ideas were important, but the king also molded some aspects of Buddhist theology to fit with his religiously pluralistic kingdom. All branches of Buddhism and all practicing Buddhists recognize the Four Noble Truths as the core tenets of the religion. The Four Noble Truths are as follows: to live is to suffer; suffering comes from desire; it is truthful to eliminate suffering; and the elimination of suffering comes from following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold Path involves these thoughts and actions: right view, right thought, right speech, right actions, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. When one examines the theology espoused in Ashoka’s rock and pillar edicts, it becomes clear that the king did not promote a traditional form of Buddhism, but one- that was more in line with older Indian religions. Neither the Four Noble Truths nor the Noble Eightfold Path are mentioned in any of the edicts. With that said, the policies that Ashoka promoted in his edicts did coincide with the general idea of ahisma, which was shared by Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas, and traditional followers of the Vedic religion alike. One crucial aspect in which Buddhism differed from its Vedic parent religion was the recognition of the caste system.
    [Show full text]
  • A Theory for Formation of Large Empires*
    Journal of Global History (2009) 4, pp. 191–217 ª London School of Economics and Political Science 2009 doi:10.1017/S174002280900312X A theory for formation of large empires* Peter Turchin Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06235, USA E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Between 3000 BCE and 1800 CE there were more than sixty ‘mega-empires’ that, at the peak, controlled an area of at least one million square kilometres. What were the forces that kept together such huge pre-industrial states? I propose a model for one route to mega-empire, motivated by imperial dynamics in eastern Asia, the world region with the highest concentra- tion of mega-empires. This ‘mirror-empires’ model proposes that antagonistic interactions between nomadic pastoralists and settled agriculturalists result in an autocatalytic process, which pressures both nomadic and farming polities to scale up polity size, and thus military power. The model suggests that location near a steppe frontier should correlate with the fre- quency of imperiogenesis. A worldwide survey supports this prediction: over 90% of mega- empires arose within or next to the Old World’s arid belt, running from the Sahara desert to the Gobi desert. Specific case studies are also plausibly explained by this model. There are, however, other possible mechanisms for generating empires, of which a few are discussed at the end of the article. Introduction Understanding the rise and fall of empires (large territorial states) is one of the most import- ant research directions in world history. Beginning with Gibbon,1 most theoretical efforts have been directed to the second part – the causes of imperial disintegration and fragmenta- tion.2 The first part of the question, however, is theoretically more challenging, because large territorial empires are a comparative rarity in the historical record before the Indus- trial Revolution.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 4 Section 4 Empires of Ancient India
    Section 4 Empires of Ancient India Chapter 4 Ancient India Objectives Learn about the rise of the Maurya Empire. Study Asoka’s leadership Investigate the Gupta Empire. Key Terms Maurya Empire Indian empire founded by Chandragupta, beginning with his kingdom in northeastern India and spreading to most of northern and central India. convert to change one’s believe; in particular, to change from one religion to another. tolerance freedom from prejudice Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta was born poor and sold into slavery. Chandragupta became king. He is often seen in a golden chair with jeweled elephants The Rise of the Maurya Empire India’s many city-states were constantly at war with one another. Absolute Rule Chandragupta received the book, Arthasastra It urged kings to maintain control of people by establishing an army of spies. Army Thousands of foot soldiers and 9,000 elephants During this empire, there was a lot of economic success! Wealth from farming And trading with Greece, Rome, and China. Afraid of poison Made servants taste food Slept in a different room every night, fear of murder Some say he left throne and became a monk in southern India, starving himself to death. Chandragupta’s Legacy Did not gain wealth for himself Used wealth to improve empire Irrigation systems improve farming More food produced Government promoted crafts and mining Roads easy for trade Order and Peace to India Reading Check What kind of ruler was Chandragupta? Chandragupta was an absolute ruler who kept control over people using a large army. Though his rule was harsh, he used his wealth to improve the empire.
    [Show full text]
  • Rewinding the Ancient Past: Social Condition During Mauryan Empire Saptarshi Sengupta M
    International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) A Peer-Reviewed Bi-monthly Bi-lingual Research Journal ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-III, Issue-II, September 2016, Page No. 257-264 Published by Scholar Publications, Karimganj, Assam, India, 788711 Website: http://www.ijhsss.com Rewinding the Ancient past: Social condition during Mauryan Empire Saptarshi Sengupta M. Phil Research Scholar, Jain University, Bangalore, India Abstract Mauryan Empire is one of the most remarkable and earliest empires in the history of Ancient India. After the decline of Nanda dynasty and the invasion of Alexander the Great during 323-24 B.C, Chandragupta Maurya became the first ruler of Mauryan Empire during 324 BC. He was the first historical ruler of ancient India. Bindusara was the next important ruler of Mauryan Empire. Asoka, son of Bindusara ‘Amitraghata’, ascended the throne in 273 B.C. Social condition is one of the most debatable issues in the area of Ancient Indian history. So, the main object of this topic is to highlight on the social condition of Mauryan Empire. The caste division theories of Megasthenes, writings of other historians, Kautilya’s Arthashastra are the main evidences related to this topic. We also came to know about these conditions with the help of inscriptions and many foreign accounts. This paper focuses on the socio condition of Indian people from Chandragupta Maurya to Asoka’s reign with the help of primary and secondary sources. Key Words: Mauryan Empire, Social condition, Division of caste, Condition of women, Slavery, Megasthenes’s Indica. Introduction: There are three major historical sources to know about the history of Mauryan Empire.
    [Show full text]
  • Maurya Empire
    • Focus – The Mauryas and Guptas created powerful empires that united most of India. After their rise and height, common factors contributed to their fall. The Maurya Empire • India was hard to unite because of diverse geography • May rival kingdoms existed across the northern plains • Chandragupta Maurya – Used his army to conquer northern India – United N. India under his rule • Maurya Empire • Maurya Empire • Had a well-organized government – Strong central government – Collected taxes – Built roads and harbors to increase trade • Chandragupta crushed any opposition to his rule – Feared assassination by his enemies – Secret police to report on dissention in his empire Maurya Empire • Ashoka (asoka) – Grandson of Chandragupta – Becomes emperor – Converts to Buddhism after bloody battle to conquer the Deccan Plateau • Horrified by the brutality of war • Stops attempts to expand the empire Maurya Empire • Asoka’s rule – Rejects violence – Sets up pillars inscribed with the empire’s laws • Influenced by Buddhist teaching – Tolerant of other beliefs – Built Buddhist Stupas – Sent Buddhist missionaries out to spread faith • Effects – India was united – Peace and prosperity – Spread of Buddhism He was a strong leader and ran the empire well Maurya Decline • Leadership issues: Empire began to decline after the death of Asoka. His sons and grandsons that ruled after him were weaker leaders and could not hold the empire together. • Empire divided into separate kingdoms. • It was too large and could not remain functioning under the rule of a weak king. If the king was good, the empire was successful. Other Causes for the Decline of the Mauryan Empire • Economic issues: – crisis follows death of Ashoka – High costs of bureaucracy, not enough tax money to pay the military – Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries (inflation, money not worth as much) – Rulers after Asoka charged heavy taxes and seized large portions of crops grown by peasants Maurya Decline • Military issues: – The north west frontier of India was always exposed.
    [Show full text]
  • Mauyran Civilization
    Mauyran Civilization The Mauyran empire emerged as a civilization in 321 B.C and ended in 183 B.C By: Chloe Lew and Natalie Gazzo Geographic Impact on Society ● The Geographic features of the land affected the way it is occupied by water, animal life, and vegetation ● The geography changes the demographic distribution, the pattern of states, distribution of natural resources, land utilization, production centres, transportation and trade. Political System and Impact on Society ● The Mauryan Empire was an autocracy. ● A king was head of state and controlled the military, ● A large bureaucracy was employed by the king. They had a large network and retained a large army. ● The Mauyrans had a separate departments infantry,calvalry, navy, chariots. Chariots,elephants and logistics. Economic System and Impact on Society ● The royal revenue came from sources of taxes and war booty. ● Agriculture was taxed as farmers made up the vast majority of the population ● Tolls were taken upon crossing rivers and roads ● Land revenue was a major source of income for the government as India had established great source of agriculture. ● The development of the taxation system gave the government the ability to expand and develop the kingdom. Beliefs and Religious Impact on Culture ● Ashoka embraced Buddhism and constituted dharma as the state ideology. ● We know much about the reign of this emperor from the edicts inscribed on stone pillars that were placed throughout the realm. ● The emperor sent many Buddhist emissaries throughout Asia. ● The population of the civilization was mainly Hindu, Jain and Buddhist however some groups were atheists or agnostics Rise of Civilization ● The Seleucid-Mauyran war expanded the empire, leading to the gain of 5 territories in exchange for 500 war elephants.
    [Show full text]
  • Afghanistan in Historical Updated
    Global Political Review (GPR) Afghanistan in the Historical Perspective Vol. I, No. I (2016) | !"#$%& !"– 43 p- ISSN: 2521-2982 | ISSN-L: 2521-2982 :;<= > =?;<@ Abstract Afghanistan is having a very long historical background. It dates back to 1500 BC when Islam was far away from this region. Different dynasties established their foundations and were ruined away. The paper brings into light major common factors among Pakistan and Afghanistan. It l highlights the past of Afghanistan before the Islamic period and after the arrival of Islam in this region. Especially the historical background which is totally the same among the two states. Similarly, rulers consolidated their empire from Afghanistan to India. The paper also elaborates different dynasties and how residents of the concerned area faced such aggressions with though resistance. Who never surrendered against any foreign rule and gained independence as a sovereign state. It still survives to face superpowers’ rivalry that affect the very foundations of Indo-Afghan states. Key Words: Pre-Islamic period, Post-Islamic period, historical background, Muslim rulers. Introduction The Kabul city established in (1500 BC-551) Aryans and the Medes rule. Rig Veda may have been created in Afghanistan around this period, as well as a sign of the initial wandering Iron age. Amid 2000-1200 BC, a group of tribes of Indo-European linguistic identified as Aryan started migration into this area. They split into three diverse groups Iranic peoples, Nuristani, and Indo-Aryans in the early phase, probably during 1500-1000 BC in what today is called Afghanistan (Dupree, 1977). Origin of a new religion in Northern Afghanistan, the city of Bactria (Balkh) was home-based of Zarathustra founder of the Zoroastrian religion.
    [Show full text]
  • 6. Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
    6. Janapadas and Mahajanapadas Things to do Write the names of the sixteen mahajanapadas in the proper places on an outline map of India. Janapadas The period from about 1000 BC to 600 BC is considered to be the post-Vedic period. It is in this period that the janapadas came into existence. Janapadas were the many small States that spread from today’s Afghanistan which is to the northwest of the Indian subcontinent to Bengal and Odisha in the east and to Maharashtra in the south. The janapada called ‘Ashmak’ occupied a part of today’s Maharashtra. The names of these janapadas can be found in Sanskrit, Pali and Ardhamagadhi literature. One can also find information about them in the writings of Greek historians. Some of the janapadas were monarchies, while others were republics. Some janapadas had a gana-parishad of senior citizens. Members of the gana- parishad came together for discussions and made decisions regarding administrative issues. The place where these discussions took place was known as the santhagar. Gautam Buddha hailed from the Shakya Republic. Every janapada had its own coinage. Mahajanapadas Some janapadas gradually became stronger and expanded their geographical boundaries. Such janapadas came to be known as mahajanapadas. From the literature of that period, it is clear that up to the sixth century BCE, sixteen mahajanapadas had acquired special importance. Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti and Magadha among them became more powerful. Rise of the Magadha Empire Ajat shatru, the son of Bimbisara, continued with the policy of expansion of the Magadha Empire. He successfully conquered many republics of the east.
    [Show full text]
  • Administration System of the Mauryan Empire (C. 325 – 185 BC)
    Administration System of the Mauryan empire (c. 325 – 185 BC) • The Mauryas not only built a vast empire, covering practically in the entire sub- continent and extending beyond it in the north-west, but also integrated it by adopting a suitable administrative system. • The administrative set-up established by Chandragupta Maurya (c. 325 – 300 BC) , the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, continued under his successors and no change was felt necessary except that Ashoka tried to liberalise it further and elaborated the public duties of the state officials. The basic principles of Mauryan administration remained the same till the weaker Mauryas lost their hold over the administration. • Three major sources viz., Kautilya’s Arthashastra , Megasthenes’ Indica and Ashokan inscriptions provide necessary information on Mauryan administration. • On the basis of the Arthashastra and the Indica many scholars put forwarded the idea of a highly centralised and uniform structure of Mauryan administration. This idea was prevailed for a long time but now scholars like Romila Thapar, Gerard Fussman have modified this view. • In general Mauryan state was a monarchy with a powerful king at the centre of the political system. The Mauryan kings were guided by the Council of Ministers and followed the advice of the Arthashastra. They regarded the welfare and interests of their subjects more important than their own interests (Yoga-khema). Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions that all his subjects were like his children and he was most anxious to promote their spiritual and temporal well-being. It indicates that the idea of paternal kingship became popular during the reign of Ashoka.
    [Show full text]