© Kamla-Raj 2019 Ethno Med, 13(2): 83-93 (2019) PRINT: ISSN 0973-5070 ONLINE: ISSN 2456-6772 DOI: 10.31901/24566772.2019/13.02.590 Food Taboos and Codes of Conduct for Pregnant Women at Mount Sindoro, Wonosobo District, Central Java, Indonesia
Atik Triratnawati
Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jogjakarta, Indonesia E-mail:
KEYWORDS Food Taboo. Prohibition. Culture. Pregnant Women. Maternal Nutrition
ABSTRACT Undernourishment is a serious global health issue, threatening 165 million toddlers - ninety percent of them in Asia and Africa - with stunting. Indonesia has one of the highest levels of stunting prevalence, ranking fifth in the world. The people of Mount Sindoro, Central Java, have some of the highest stunting rates. This is caused by many factors, foremost of which is the undernourishment of pregnant women and toddlers. In that context, this paper discusses the food and conduct taboos for pregnant women in the area, as well as the beliefs in the Dieng region. The ethnographic study was conducted between July and October 2017. Data was collected through observation and interviews with 21 informants, including pregnant women, mothers of toddler, health providers, TBA’s, cadre and local leaders. Food and conduct taboos for pregnant women are passed from generation to generation. These taboos are linked to labor complications. Food taboos are linked to the consumption of fried rice, durians, jackfruits, pineapples, and sugarcane. Codes of conduct, meanwhile, include carrying dlingo bengle (Acorus calamus, Zingiber montanum) when going out, eating from big plates, and smearing the bedroom door with oil, as well as prohibitions against napping, working in the fields, eating spicy foods, grilling food, throwing away garbage, thinking about disabled people, killing animals, and taking newborns outside the house before they are 40 days old. Violation of such taboos and codes of conduct are believed to negatively affect the labor process. The well-established traditions and local culture, as well as the fear of labor complications, influences pregnant women to obey these taboos and codes of conduct.
INTRODUCTION 2015). The factor of stunting among the school children in West Sumatra, Indonesia is correlat- Undernourishment is a serious global health ed with nutritional status. Meanwhile the moth- issue. There are 67 million children and 18 mil- er’s formal education and economic grade are lion babies experienced low birth weight, while influences of stunting also (Sulastri 2012). more than 200 million toddlers in developing It is ironic that Indonesia, with its rich natu- countries die or are dying from undernourish- ral resources, stability, and security, has a high ment (Kariuki et al. 2002). These numbers are prevalence of stunting. Despite the implementa- increasing daily. tion of the 2015 Millennium Development Goals, Undernourishment threatens 165 million tod- Indonesia still faces problems of undernourish- dlers with stunting, ninety percent of them in ment, especially among children. As such, of Asia and Africa. The global target is to reduce the Sustainable Development Goals nutrition the prevalence of stunting to forty percent by remains apriority, particularly the two: no pover- 2025, a rate of 3.9 percent per year. Indonesia is ty and zero hunger, both of which can be factors one country with a high prevalence of stunting; in undernourishment. with a stunting prevalence of thirty to thirty- Undernourishment does not only affect ba- nine percent, it ranks fifth globally (Trihono et bies, toddlers, and children; pregnant women al. 2015). In 2014, Indonesia rank first in South- also face the same problem. The prevalence of east Asia in stunting prevalence (Solahuddin undernourishment (chronic energy deficiency) in pregnant women in Indonesia is 24.2 percent Address for correspondence: (Ministry of Health 2013). Stunting cases do not Atik Triratnawati occur suddenly; they involve a long process, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya, from the would-be mother’s adolescence until Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jalan Sosio Humaniora 1, pregnancy. According to WHO, there are about Sleman, Jogjakarta 55281, Indonesia 450 million women in developing countries, in- Telephone: +62-0274-550451 cluding Indonesia, who live with growth prob- 84 ATIK TRIRATNAWATI lems that are caused by childhood undernour- Wonosobo Regency, has seen cases of stunt- ishment as a result of poverty. Even in wealthier ing. The village is home to 22 stunted children. families, culture dictates that husbands and sons Sigedang Village, on the slopes of Mount Sin- receive bigger and better portions of food, while doro, near Dieng plateau is known to have high mothers only eat the remainder. This remains prevalence of stunting among the villagesof true even though women, who undergo men- Kejajar District. struation, actually need more nutrition - includ- Stunting is caused by many factors, includ- ing iron and iodine intake - than men (Devi 2010; ing maternal nutrition, anemia. During pregnan- Irianto 2015). cy, an unborn child receives its nutrition from its The majority of stunting cases occur in poor mother. Although pregnancy is the most crucial and food insecure societies, but it is a global period in the child’s brain growth, Javanese tra- problem. It is, simply, an impaired growth pro- ditional culture still dictates several food taboos cess in children. According to WHO, one is con- and sets certain codes of conduct for pregnant sidered stunted if one’s height is less than -2 women. Some fruits, fishes, meats or chicken standard deviation from WHO growth standard. eggs, palm sugar, ice cubes are avoided among The national prevalence of chronic undernour- Javanese pregnant women in the village (Hartini ishment (stunting) among children aged 6-12 et al. 2005). According to women, eating fruits, years in Indonesia, according to the Indonesia fishes, meat or chicken eggs will cause difficulty Basic Health Research 2010, is 35.6 percent (Min- during delivery because the foetus would be istry of Health Republic of Indonesia 2011). East upside down in the womb, while eating eggs will Nusa Tenggara province has the highest preva- make them behave like chicken during delivery lence of stunting in Indonesia, reaching 58.4 and would make delivery last longer (Oni and percent (Picauly and Toy 2013). Tukur 2012). Food taboos whether scientifically Other data, taken from Trihono et al. (2015), correct or not are often meant to protect the hu- shows Indonesia’s historical stunting prevalence man individual. The observation, for example, that in childrenas thirty-two percent (2001), thirty per- certain allergies and depression are associated cent (2004), 33.4 percent (2007) and 37.2 percent with each other could have led to declaring food (2013). Stunting is a strong indicator of human items taboo that were identified as causal agents resource quality, and marks a nation’s decreased for allergies such as egg (Meyer-Rochow 2009). productivity in the future. It signifies future pov- Cultural belief and food taboo for pregnant wom- erty, poor health, susceptibility to non-communi- en contributes to the incidence of anaemia in many cable diseases, and a lack of education. countries (Widyawati et al. 2015). The Indonesian government has made a According to Rahman, there are many food strong commitment to overcome the problem of taboos in Bangladesh also among pregnant wom- undernourishment by including it in the Long- en, related to pineapple and milk. He said:” Eval- term National Plan, 2005-2025. Efforts to over- uation of the toxicity related to clinical signs, he- come stunting have included, for instance, mass matological and biochemical parameters, gross media publication. In one public service an- and microscopic findings propose that taking pine- nouncement, the Ministry of Health used Indo- apple and milk at the time is not toxic”. So this nesia’s Vice-President Jusuf Kalla and the slo- food taboo in Bangladesh is wrong (Rahman 2017). gan “Overcome stunting, because it matters”. Food and drink taboos, as well as prohibi- However, the strategy developed to overcome tions of certain behaviors among pregnant wom- stunting has not been not evidence-based. It is en and their husbands, are still common in necessary to ensure valid mapping of the spread Sigedang.These food taboos and codes of con- of stunting in affected regions and to identify duct are integrated, of equal importance, and the proper course of action for each region. equally binding to pregnant women. It is believed In western Indonesia, the prevalence of that violations of them will equally affect preg- stunting has decreased. However, in Java, espe- nant women.Even though modern healthcare ex- cially Central Java, stunting is still found in moun- ists in the region, local culture still strongly af- tain communities such as those in Wonosobo fects the taboos and codes of conduct experi- Regency. In Sigedang Village, Kejajar District, enced by pregnant women.
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People of certain ages are more vulnerable women are not allowed to consume certain foods to undernourishment, as a result of which they and expected to follow certain codes of conduct can easily suffer health problems. People in these during pregnancy. This is done to prevent un- age groups are primarily in the developing years wanted accidents in pregnancy, such as miscar- of their lives, and thus require more nutrition. riage or labor complications. These include infants, toddlers, pregnant wom- The existence of such rules is supported by en, and lactating women. Infants and toddlers the social environment. In Javanese village cul- are still growing rapidly, and thus require more ture, the sources and strategies of countermea- protein, iron, calcium, and vitamins. Pregnant sures and social network support are important women, meanwhile, require more nutrition to pro- (White 2011). Immediate or extended family can mote the growth of the fetus and the smooth be protectors, or they can be the ones that mar- operation of organs involved in the pregnancy ginalize. The role of family and neighborhood, process. They also require more food as a source including healthcare providers, can be very im- of calories (Irianto 2014). portant for marginalized groups, as they are usu- Village communities establish several social ally powerless in their communities. values that should be followed by pregnant Many people in rural Javanese villages are women, whom they consider vulnerable to out- unaware when a family member is undernour- side influences. Pregnant women are perceived ished. They just ignore a situation and hope as physically and mentally weak, and thus vul- that problems can fix themselves. This occurs nerable to diseases or other problems. There- even when undernourishment occurs as a result fore, village communities consider it necessary of existing conditions, such as poverty, improp- for them to determine a code of conduct for preg- er parenting, disease (from lack of hygiene or nant women. This code of conduct is enforced sanitation), or limited knowledge about nutri- by husbands, mothers, and mothers-in-law, all tion (Ngaisyah 2015). The last of these can be of whom are authoritative household figures. seen in the taboos and codes of conduct ap- Pregnant women must observe several prohibi- plied to women during pregnancy. Traditional tions of things deemed dangerous to the growth food taboos, for example, are usually related to of her fetus. They are promised that, by obeying sources of animal protein. these rules, they will have a delivery process Taboos and codes of conduct are not only that is easy and free from complications. enforced on pregnant women, but also on their Within such a social structure, infants, tod- husbands. Pregnant women are expected to dlers, and pregnant women are vulnerable to un- avoid eating prohibited foods because eating dernourishment. They are marginalized and expe- them is considered dangerous in supernatural rience discrimination, and thus cannot access way. Therefore, food taboos may be given su- proper healthcare. Their health needs are not the pernatural explanations. Indeed, food taboos are same as those of other members of society as usually categorized based on stages of life and they require more nutrients. However, they are the spiritual meaning behind them. forbidden from consuming certain foods/drinks; According to Warta Medika.com (Fimela these prohibitions are perceived as protecting 2017), several food taboos are commonly ap- them from diseases or other health hazards. plied to pregnant women: unripe pineapples, Two factors affect undernourishment: genet- cooked unripe jackfruits, seafood, foods with ics and environment (Fikawati et al. 2015). It is artificial sweeteners, high-fat foods, and salty thus important to conduct a study of the envi- food. These are considered dangerous to fetal ronment factors that influence undernourishment development because they can trigger miscar- among pregnant women. Genetics factors can riage, contain high doses of mercury, disturb be traced from previous generations. Under- the growth of nerves, or increase bad cholester- nourishment among pregnant women will affect ol and blood pressure (which can increase the the fetus. Environmental factors, meanwhile, can risk of preeclampsia). be traced further, to the period of pregnancy. In Similarly, in Javanese tradition there are 15 many communities, such as Sigedang, pregnant taboo behaviors still applied to pregnant wom-
Ethno Med, 13(2): 83-93 (2019) 86 ATIK TRIRATNAWATI en in village communities: sitting too long; bad- METHODOLOGY mouthing disabled people; sitting in the middle of the door; killing or tying animals; taking a Study Area bath at midnight; tying a towel around the neck; eating alates; cursing; eating banana blossoms; Ethnographic research was conducted in eating catfish; eating twin bananas; eating 2017 at Sigedang village, Wonosobo Regency, shrimp and crab; eating kweni mangoes and Central Java. This village was chosen because it is durians; closing a hole; and stepping on animal in Dieng plateau region, which produces many waste (Retno 2015). agricultural products, especially vegetables. Al- Eradicating undernourishment requires prop- though there is no lack of food, based on the infor- er programs or policies, which must be compre- mation from the village chief, cases of undernour- hensively planned, as well as are intersectoral ishment are still common among the population. or interdepartmental. As such, practices related to food taboos and codes of conduct for preg- Interviews and Observations nant women must be studied anthropologically, especially as related to local beliefs. Mapping Data collection involved observations as well the food taboos for pregnant women in Indone- as interviews with 21 informants: mothers of tod- sia is important, as is applied research and mul- dlers; mothers of stunted children; pregnant tidisciplinary policies; all of these may have a women and their husbands; mothers-in-law, and medical impact on the prevalence of undernour- lactating mothers. These people were asked ishment in infants or pregnant women. Mean- about their understanding of local healthcare while, it must be recognized that food taboos traditions. Additional information was collected may have certain social purposes, and thus they from local healthcare providers, village adminis- may continually be practiced. According to trators, local leaders, traditional birth attendant, Ayuningtyas (2014), applied research is needed cadre, and midwives, as well as obstetricians from in policy analysis so that system and informa- Wonosobo Maternity and Children Hospital. tion elements can be communicated and used Observations focused on informant’sdaily activ- by policymakers to understand pertinent issues ities, including how they practiced food taboos and find alternative solutions. and codes from the start of their pregnancy, dur- Studies of food in a cultural context refer to ing pregnancy and after labor. practical issues such as beliefs and medical prac- tices among local communities. Nutritional an- Data Collection thropology is used to see the evolution of hu- man history and culture, as well as its adapta- Data collection was done between July and tion of nutritional variables in diverse environ- October 2017. The researcher stayed at the com- ments. Culture determines the food consumed munity for several weeks. Interviews with infor- by people. Therefore, food is not just an organic mants were conducted at their homes, several product with a biochemical quality used for sur- times. This method was used to ensure the con- vival, but also formed by culture (Foster and sistency of answers. Meeting informants was not Anderson 2000). easy, because most of them worked in the potato This study examines why food taboos and fields from the morning until the afternoon. Infor- codes of conduct are still practiced by pregnant mants with infants were easy to meet because women on Mount Sindoro? What are the beliefs they chose not to work, instead seeking to take related to these taboos, prohibitions, and codes care of their child until it was old enough to be of conduct? Anthropology becomes relevant in left at home. probing the local wisdom related to food taboos and codes of conduct for pregnant women, as Data Analysis well as the logic behind them. Local beliefs relat- ed to these topics can be understood through Data from participation, observation and in- local knowledge. depth interview was analyzed manually using
Ethno Med, 13(2): 83-93 (2019) NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE AND HEALTH STATUS OF PCA PATIENTS 87 selecting, extracting, atttaching and similarity of Of the many stages of women’s lives, preg- the theme. Perspective of medical anthropology nancy is the one governed by the most rules. is used for interpreting the data. Pregnant women in Sigedang said that they must be careful in their behavior and consumption. Ethic and Participants Consent Certain food taboos must be obeyed, starting from pregnancy and until labor. These food ta- District health officer and also village head- boos may be applied for a first child or for any men gave permission for the study to be under- child. Taboos are mentioned by mothers to their taken in Sigedang village. Besides that midwife pregnant daughters, or by mothers-in-law to and local cadres also gave some help and sup- their pregnant daughters-in-law. Grandmothers port for the research. All of the participants gave and neighbors also play an important role in verbal consent since some of the participants teaching pregnant women about taboos and have low level of education. codes of conduct, as they are often involved immediately with the pregnant women. Here are RESULTS several food taboos known to locals. All of the women interviewed said that the The residents of Sigedang, who have worked prohibition against eating fried rice is the main as vegetable farmers for the last 30 years, have taboo for pregnant women. This taboo must be improved their financial situation because of followed as soon as they learn of their pregnan- yield improvement. By planting potatoes, cab- cy, as it is considered the main taboo. They said bages, and carrots, their earning share increased that they do not know the logic behind this ta- from IDR 2.6 million in 1988 to IDR 24.8 million boo, only that it has been practiced for a long per year in 2017 (Sigedang Village Monograph time. The mothers, mothers-in-law, and neigh- 2017). Although their economic situation has im- bors of pregnant women always remind them proved, the number of poor has not decreased; that they may face dangerous situations if this the village is still home to 327 poor families. taboo is violated. According to some informants, Sigedang village used to be isolated, lacking this taboo is practiced as fried rice is perceived access to transportation. This condition has as causing difficult labor; a mother may lose changed; as their finances have improved, many consciousness, a mother may become lazy, or a residents have purchased automobiles, and child may be unhealthy. many options are available for transporting The recipe for fried rice used by the resi- dents of Sigedang, as well as residents of Mount crops. Almost all residents own motorcycles for Sindoro, usually includes several kinds of vege- their daily activities, either in the village or in tables, including chilies, stink beans, lettuce, and town. Renting an automobile to travel from cabbage, as well as protein sources such as Sigedang to Wonosobo District Hospital, a dis- eggs, meatballs, and chicken. This taboo is fol- tance of only 18 km, is still too expensive, upto lowed by all residents, regardless of social class IDR 300,000. In emergencies, such as when or education. One mother, pregnant with her first someone falls ill or enters labor, neighbors who child, R (26 years old, college graduate) said: own cars bring them to the hospital without “Since I live with my mother-in-law, she told charge. Such mutual help remains intact. me not to eat fried rice, after learning that I was The healthcare facilities in Sigedang, with pregnant. I follow this taboo because I am population of 3,121 inhabitants, are as follows: afraid that something bad will happen.” Village Health Care Unit (Poskesdes), Neighbor- RM (30 years old, primary school graduate), hood Healthcare Unit (Posyandu), Kejajar Sub- pregnant with her second child, said the same district Community Health Center, midwives, tra- thing: ditional birth attendant, and shamans. More “Now I live in my own house, but I lived comprehensive health facilities are located in with my in-laws for two years, when I was car- Wonosobo, Temanggung, Solo, or Yogyakarta, rying my first child. My mother-in-law told me the latter of which are quite far from the village. not to eat fried rice when I was pregnant. After
Ethno Med, 13(2): 83-93 (2019) 88 ATIK TRIRATNAWATI moving here, I have still followed this taboo Residents of Sigedang believe that spices with my second pregnancy. I am even more care- such as dlingo (Acorus calamus) and bengle ful with this pregnancy to obey the advice of my (Zingiber montanum) can ward off danger from mother-in-law.” evil spirits such as ghosts. People with poor Based on the information collected from in- health - including, in local definition, pregnant/ formants, it can be seen that this taboo is gener- lactating women and infants - are believed to be ally obeyed, regardless of social or economic susceptible to disturbance from these spirits. class. Women with college education are equal- They are physically and mentally weak because ly as likely to obey local taboos as women with they are expected to or have undergone labor. lower education. As such, pregnant/lactating women should al- Pregnant women are also prohibited from ways carry dlingo and bengle when they leave eating chili peppers, as this habit may cause the house, which will ward off ghosts and other stomach ache and may lead to diarrhea. This spirits. taboo is followed by the pregnant women, be- cause they feel the consequences of eating spicy “When I go out, I always carry dlingo and food. When they want to eat spicy food, they bengle, in the baby wrap. I have done this since use only a little chili, to avoid the food becom- I was pregnant with my first child, and contin- ing too spicy. ued until now with my second child” (RM, 30 Pregnant women in Sigedang are not allowed years old). to eat several kinds of fruit: durians, jackfruits, pine- From the beginning of pregnancy, woman’s apples, and sugarcane. These fruits are not com- mothersand mothers-in-law will tell them not to mon in Sigedang, as the soil in the village is more nap during the middle of the day. Mothers-to- suitable for planting potatoes, cabbages, and car- be, it is feared, may become lazy or inactive, and rots. Rather, these fruits are supplied by other re- this will affect the unborn child. This prohibi- gencies, such as Magelang and Banjarnegara. tion is in effect until after childbirth. Even when All of these fruits are believed to increase the they are physically weak, they are not allowed body temperature and thereby affect the fetus to nap. After childbirth, mothers must still do inside the mother’s womb, potentially causing small activities to keep their bodies active. It is miscarriage. Sugarcane also is believed to poten- considered important not to take naps, and to tially cause ngangkat kidang, a condition when focus on doing other activities. a mother in labor bleeds continuously and experi- In Sigedang, it is a tradition for women to ences extreme pain. One traditional birth atten- breastfeed their children until they reach the age dant, Y (50 years old, no formal education), said: of 2 to 3 years. When breast feeding, most wom- “Pregnant women are not allowed to eat en choose not to work in the fields, but to focus sugarcane. It will cause ngangkat kidang. It is on child rearing. Some mothers with children always like that.” choose not to work in the fields until their chil- This statement confirms that residents of dren are in kindergarten. Many children ask their Sigedang, or more specifically pregnant women, mothers to accompany them to kindergarten, and do not eat sugarcane because they are afraid of indeed taking children to kindergarten is viewed ngangkat kidang. The pregnant women of as a mother’s task. The prohibition against work- Sigedang need not only observe food taboos, ing in the fields is optional. Mrs. U (47 years old, but also follow certain rules of conduct. Certain high school graduate) said: codes of conduct should be followed, and preg- “I gave birth to three children. After two nant women should behave in certain ways. These weeks, I went back to work in the fields. I don’t codes of conduct, as prescribed by tradition, feel well if I don’t work.” should be followed blindly, without inquiring the While Mrs. A chose to work in the field until logic behind them. They obey tradition because her child was big enough to take care himself. they are told to do so by their mothers or moth- She said that carrying a child to the field can ers-in-law. Here are several behaviors expected disturb the work, since the child is difficult to of pregnant women in Sigedang village. manage and might destroy the crops.
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A woman will replace the plate she uses for Pregnant women in Sigedang village are for- eating with a bigger one as soon as she is preg- bidden from grilling food, including satay, corn, nant. In old times, they used large earthenware and cassava. They are also prohibited from burn- bowls, but nowadays this has been replaced with ing garbage and other items. Such burning activ- big plates made of glassware or melamine. The ities are feared to have adverse effects on unborn use of larger plates is intended to encourage children. As such, all baking, grilling, and burn- women to eat more, because they also need to ing activities are done by their husbands. eat for their unborn children. Should a mother The prohibition is also extended to burning use a small plate, the mother would eat smaller pants, including unused pants. It is believed that portions. Therefore, women are expected to eat burning pants will make an unborn child ill. As from bigger plates. told by Mrs. N (42 years old, fourth pregnancy), The door, as with the entire bedroom, is im- pregnant women are not allowed to burn the portant for women during pregnancy. The bed- pants of children or of other adults. She said room is the main place where they do their daily that, if this is done, the baby will be ill, and some activities, including resting. There exists a tradi- sort of pus would be secreted from its ears. tion of pregnant women smearing the bedroom However, pregnant women are allowed to door with oil before they go to sleep. By doing cook in the kitchen, including with a wooden so, they promote an “oily” birthing process, and fire. Indeed, they are only allowed to cook in thus an easy delivery. this manner, because the food is not heated di- Not all pregnant women practice this tradi- rectly by the fire. Pregnant women are also ex- tion. Some have a different tradition that has the pected to maintain cleanliness. They must clean same purpose. Mrs. AR, for example, smeared all cooking utensils immediately after cooking. oil on one of her bedposts and wished for an The kitchen should also be kept clean. easy delivery process. Not all women observe Also related to cleanliness, pregnant wom- this practice. It depends on whether they be- en are not allowed to throw garbage in a landfill. lieve in the tradition or not. Mrs. I (23 years old), As such, this task must be completed by anoth- who has a stunted child, told her story. er family member, such as a husband or mother- “I never follow the tradition of smearing oil in-law. This prohibition is intended to keep preg- on the door. I only held a ceremony in my 4th and 7th months of pregnancy.” nant women from unclean environments that will Mrs. I showed that she did not believe in the affect their health and their child’s health. tradition of smearing oil on the door to ensure The husbands of pregnant women are also subject to prohibitions. These include, for ex- easy delivery. Although she has a child with ample, prohibitions against killing animals, be it bowed legs, she believed that this was not big or small. According to local tradition, it is caused by her failure to observe the tradition, feared that, if the husband of a pregnant woman but caused by genetics. She said that she had kills an animal without a proper reason, the child an easy delivery process. Meanwhile, from the will have visage resembling that of the killed experience of women who observed the practice animal. of smearing oil on the door, they followed the Therefore, when a woman is pregnant, the practice based on their belief. If they believed in residents of Sigedang will warn husbands not the tradition, they believed that they would have to kill animals. If, for some reason, a husband an easy delivery. If they did not believe, even must kill an animal that can harm his family, he when they had a child with abnormalities, they will ask someone else to do so. did not believe that it was caused by their not Women are also prohibited from saying bad observing tradition, but because of genetics. things or even having bad thoughts about the Pregnant women are also prohibited from disabled or stunted people around them. This is tying knots. When, in their daily activities, they intended to prevent children from being born need to tie something, they will ask another fam- with disabilities. If a mother has a bad thought, ily member for help. They are forbidden from ty- this will become a reality for her child; it will be ing knots because it is believed that this will cause born either disabled or ugly. the baby to be born in a “tied” condition. As a In Sigedang, for generations it has been com- precaution, they therefore avoid tying knots. mon practice to open doors and windows wide-
Ethno Med, 13(2): 83-93 (2019) 90 ATIK TRIRATNAWATI ly when a mother feels her first contraction. Al- the prohibition expires. As such, the ceremony though doors and windows in the houses of is usually held between 35 and 41 days after the Sigedang are usually closed owing to the cold child’s birth. climate, when the first contraction is felt, one must Sawan is a condition that negatively affects open the doors and windows. It is believed that, the inflicted. There are four types of sawan: by opening the doors and windows, the labor sawan bayi, sawan manten, sawan dalan, and process would be made easy. Another purpose sawan mayit. Sawan can strike anyone, from of opening the doors and windows is to ensure babies to adults. In children, symptoms include that fresh air enters the house. In Sigedang, labor nausea, fever, restlessness, crying, and the in- often occurs inside the house, and the mother is ability to sleep. In such cases, children should helped by a midwife. only be held by their mothers. Sawan is believed For generations, there has been no change to be caused by spirits near the house who dis- in the traditional care of mothers after labor. In turb children who are physically and mentally the past, when the village faced economic diffi- weak. In addition to the cold climate, when chil- culties and had little access to transportation, dren play too long outside the house they will healthcare, and information, lactating mothers be negatively affected. Sawan bayi occurs when were prohibited from leaving the house before an adult visits an infant and brings another in- the newborn child reached 40 days of age. Moth- fant or child, and the mother does not ask for ers were thus confined inside the house for this baby powder. Baby powder is viewed as a charm period, unable to attend funerals, weddings, or that prevents sawan bayi, as something that other social or religious events. This prohibi- ensures visiting infants or children are not in- tion was intended to ensure mothers and chil- flicted with sawan. Sawan mayit occurs when a dren avoided the cold temperature, which is funeral procession passes by the house and the feared to cause sickness among infants. Even infant is not hidden. Symptoms include the in- though this taboo applies to all mothers, not all fant suffering a fever in the evening and not of them observe it. When desperately neces- wanting to eat or drink. Sawan manten occurs sary, mothers will still go outside before their when someone attends a wedding while bring- children reach the age of 40 days, either for work ing an infant. This infant might become afflict- or for other activities. As told by Mrs. A.: ed, particularly when they are not fit. As said by “The day after giving birth to my second Y (TBA’s, 50 years old): child in the Community Health Center (Puskes- “Sawan may it, sawan dalan, sawan bayi mas), I was bleeding and felt very weak. Final- and sawan manten can affect anyone who is ly I was taken to the doctor to be treated com- not fit. Sawan can spread to other people. You prehensively at the Maternity and Children’s will not feel well, or not have an appetite. A Hospital in Wonosobo.” prayer and a glass of water can cure sawan, In her case, Mrs. A had to be taken outside but for sawan bayi you need to ask for a little the house to Wonosobo to treat a condition that bit of baby powder and put it on the baby. For threatened her life. She was hospitalized at the sawan dalan, you have to take a bath with le- hospital for one day, and thus violated the pro- son flower water, ¼ handful of dirt, and 1,000 hibition against going outside the house. rupiah.” The prohibition against going outside the People believe in food taboos or codes of house applies to both mothers and infants. Even conduct because they fear it might negatively when a mother gives birth outside the house, affect the labor process. The mother and child for example at a health center, she is still prohib- might become weak. In their view, food taboos ited from leaving for 40 days. The prohibition and codes of conduct do not cause undernour- differs slightly for sons and daughters. If a child ishment or disabilities. is a boy, the prohibition lasts 41 days. If a child Interviews with informants show that they is a girl, the prohibition lasts 35 days. believe that stunting is not caused by food ta- Given the prohibition against going outside boos during pregnancy. Pregnant women who for children, the thanksgiving ceremony (slamet- obey the traditional taboos and prohibition do an) for the child’s successful birth is held after not worry that violations would affect their baby.
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They only worry about difficulties in labor, or a cial for pregnant women, since they must be care- child being born with the appearance of an ani- ful with food and behavior. Food taboos include mal killed by her husband. They believe that not eating foods that increase body tempera- food taboos and codes of conduct are not linked ture, such as chilies, durians, pineapples, jack- to undernourishment or abnormality. They are fruits, etc. Certain codes of conduct are also seen as different things, and as not influencing found, such as smearing oil on the door. This each other. practice is meant to ease the labor process, as the oil will “grease” the way for the baby. Preg- DISCUSSION nant women carry dlingo bengle when going out, which is expected to ward off the danger Sigedang can be categorized as a collective and evil spirits. In general, all of these taboos society, which still follows traditional rigid rules. and codes of conduct are intended to promote They always help each other generously. Ow- the safety of the mother and infant. The impor- ing to its lengthy isolation, the village has had tance of cleanliness during pregnancy can be little access to information, including about seen from the prohibition against going to the health issues. landfill; because garbage is considered dirty. Although the local economy has improved When a mother collects it, other family members due to potato farming, they are still dominated should bring it to the landfill. by local knowledge. There has been little change Association and symbolism are apparent in in their mindset, as shown by the continued ex- food taboos and codes of conduct. The prohibi- istence of taboos and prohibitions for pregnant tion against tying knots is associated with labor women. Traditional health practices are still problems, which will leave them in “knots”. strong, and dominated by the magico-religious Therefore, this prohibition is intended to pro- model (Ann-Galanti 2008), even today. Traditional mote easy labor and avoid becoming tied like a health treatment is still widespread. Many local knot. A similar association is evident in the pro- people choose to go to traditional healers, espe- hibition against killing animals, as symbolized in cially when they believe that their ailments are the visage. If a husband kills an animal without caused by supernatural forces. In contrast, ac- reason, the child’s face will resemble that of the cording to Maliwichi-Nyirendra and Maliwichi animal. (2016) traditional belief and ignorance are also Taboos and codes of conduct are applied to believed to be some of the contributing factors pregnant women regardless of their social class. of pregnancy related cases.Among pregnant It can be seen that primary school graduates are women in Sigedang it seems that food and be- observant of traditions, as they are controlled havior taboo is not related to medical effect but by others in their environments, such as their could be socially positive, for example not in- mothers, mothers-in-law, husbands, or neighbors. sulting people with disabilities, keeping the kitch- They usually simply follow the local customs en clean etc. Avoiding eggs, catfish for some because they are afraid of the consequences. pregnant women means medically relevant be- Women followed the traditional beliefs (posi- cause of allergic factor. Another example is avoid- tive motivation) and feared not following the ing chili, it could be medically irrelevant for some tradition (Agus et al. 2012) . Meanwhile, women pregnant women, but people in Sigedang be- who graduated from high school and who do lieve that chili is not good for pregnant women not live with their mothers-in-law are usually less because it may cause diarrhoea. In contrast, preg- obedient, meaning that they sometimes violate nant women tend to eat cold food, such as veg- the taboos or codes of conduct. etables and instant noddles. Mothers-in-law have direct power over their In some cases food taboos are result of daughters-in-law. They are akin to supervisors. health considerations or other practical reasons In this case, usually pregnant women cannot (Maduforo et al. 2013). Local traditions concern- make decisions for themselves, because their ing taboos and codes of conduct for pregnant mothers-in-law will intervene. Mothers-in-law will women are well-preserved. They believe that handle matters in their sons’ households, espe- these taboos and codes of conduct are benefi- cially during a first pregnancy, as mothers-to-be
Ethno Med, 13(2): 83-93 (2019) 92 ATIK TRIRATNAWATI have no experience dealing with pregnancy, la- people in Sigedang believe that stunting is bor, or breastfeeding. As told by Mrs. S (39 years caused by maternal nutrition, they do not disre- old, mother-in-law of R27, years old): gard the possibility that environmental factors, “As long as she stays with me, she has to including socio-cultural factors, might play a role obey my rules regarding her pregnancy. If she in the health of mothers and children. does not stay with me, it is up to her, but as long as she lives here, I will decide for her.” CONCLUSION This pretext is used to pressure her daugh- ter-in-law to observe the taboos during preg- In the past, Sigedang has had difficulty ac- nancy. In this case, women are agents of cultur- cessing transportation and information, and as al preservation, especially related to health tra- such the community mindset has not changed ditions regarding pregnancy. Moreover, when with economic improvement. The traditional mind- supernatural danger is involved, pregnant wom- set remains strongly held by the local communi- en are afraid of not obeying the rules. They be- ty, especially where it relates to taboos for preg- nant women. For them, food taboos and codes of lieve that older people, such as their mothers conduct during pregnancy do not affect under- and mothers-in-law, will provide direct guidance nourishment or stunting. However, the food ta- regarding tradition. The experiences of others boos limit the dietary choices of pregnant wom- are also used to prove that something bad will en, and thus in the long term may affect the diet happen when taboos are violated. This condi- and health of the fetus. As such, the culture pro- tion discourages people from violating taboos hibiting pregnant women from consuming cer- and codes of conduct. tain foods should be abolished in the future, or Strong beliefs in taboos usually make wom- transformed into another tradition that supports en unwilling to violate them. The taboo against better nutrition intake for pregnant women. eating fried rice is simple, but has hidden mean- ing. Fried rice is usually made from left-over rice, RECOMMENDATIONS then given chilies and eggs (considered high cholesterol), as well as vegetables such as cab- Although there are strong cultural beliefs that bages that are believed to have bad effect on lead to food taboos among pregnant women in pregnant women. The hidden spiritual meaning rural Java, but there is a need to research the food behind the taboo and prohibition is that a moth- choices that a pregnant women makes. Another er, in her pregnancy, should be aware of her research is also important to make sure whether speech, thoughts, and actions. If she is not care- food taboos have a significant affect on mater- ful, bad things will happen to her or her child. nal nutrition or the rates of stunted growth in The delivery process will also be affected by children. But it is important for local leader, reli- mothers’ behavior during pregnancy. gious leader, local women movement to come up Food taboos also include elements of bal- with strategies that will ensure that education ance inside the human body. It is believed that related to maternal nutrition should encourage elements of soil, air, fire, and water may enter a food taboos that do not compromise communi- state of imbalance, and illness occurs where heat ty health. Education for all including girls, hus- and cold meet. Taboos are thus preserved to band, wife, mother-in law and neighborhood maintain the condition of the body. The body about maternal nutrition during pregnancy is must not be too hot or too cold, and thus food important, especially male participation in fami- taboos are meant to prevent illness. ly health. Multidisiplinary studies are also needed Many of the food taboos apply only to wom- for indepth data not only in the village but also en. This implies that, culturally, gender plays a in another remote areas where belief in food ta- role in food taboos, especially those related to boos exist. pregnancy and maternity (Bonvillain 1995). Food taboos are not direct factors in stunting, but ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS interference factors, meaning that taboos might lead to undernourishment and this undernour- The researcher is grateful to Faculty of Cul- ishment might lead to stunting. Although the tural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada for the
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