1 The Old Regime

FIND OUT ABOUT: • The nature of the Old Regime Monarchs and their palaces • The ideas of the Enlightenment In the 18th century, monarchs projected an image • Enlightened despotism of power and splendour, as well as cultural • The Bourbon reforms in Spain sophistication. Royal palaces were a symbol of the monarch's absolute power. They were monumental KNOW HOW TO: and richly decorated buildings, which were • Compare two Enlightenment intended to impress the monarch's subjects and texts foreign visitors. • Analyse scientific advances during the Age of Enlightenment

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N D T D N R A DENMARK L O E N I R N TA I R I B T A E R NETHERLANDS G H O LY R O E M A N E M P I R Versailles Louis XV of France (1715- 1774) F R A N C E SWISS CONFEDERATION

S A V N O A Y E C I N O PA S C I T N A I S L A N D S CORSICA L C R I T A E A L A B

WORK WITH THE IMAGE M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A • What palaces can you see on these

pages? Which countries are they in? A A I L G S E I • What do the palaces have in R I A N

common? Are they impressive? U T • What is the function of these palaces today? • Which monarchs are shown? When and where did they reign? Carlos III of Spain (1759-1788) Royal Palace of Stockholm Gustav III of Sweden (1771-1792) Winter Palace of Saint Petersburg Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-1796) N

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T I A R DENMARK K E O S R U S S C I A N I T L A B A S I R U S NETHERLANDS U R G P N B P O L D E A N N A D H R O B Potsdam LY R O E M A N E M P I R

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A SWISS V CONFEDERATION Y A R O S H U N G D A L V O O Y M Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam

I A C H WA L L A K S E A Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786) I A A C TUSCANY R B B L S E PAPAL O STATES T I A CORSICA T N O M E KINGDOM M A R OF NAPLES A N E SARDINIA M P I R E

M E HOW DO WE KNOW? D I T E R R A N E A N S E A SICILY Palaces are a valuable source of

A I information about royal figures and their

S I circles. The rooms, furniture, paintings

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U and decoration all provide a window into T the lives of past monarchs; they show the image that they wished to project. • If you have visited a royal palace, describe what most interested or Schonbrunn Palace in Vienna surprised you. Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) THE SOCIAL PYRAMID OF THE OLD REGIME 1 The Old Regime

nobility and clergy The Old Regime (also called the ‘Ancien Régime’) was the political, social and economic system that was found in many parts of Europe up to the 18th century. This type of society was based on estates commoners and an agrarian economy, and was ruled by an absolute monarch.

The society of estates Society was divided into three estates: the nobility, the clergy and the commoners. This society had two main characteristics: • Privilege. The clergy and the nobility were the privileged estates. They enjoyed major advantages over commoners; for example, they were judged by special laws, and they did not pay taxes. • Lack of mobility. Except for the clergy, a person's estate was determined at birth. In general, commoners did not move up, and nobles did not move down. The clergy was divided into high and low clergy: • The high clergy, such as archbishops and bishops, were often the younger sons of noble families. • Members of the low clergy, like priests and The cup of chocolate, by Jean Baptiste Charpentier. monks, were from commoner families. The nobility was also divided into high and low: • The high nobility owned vast lands, received WORK WITH THE IMAGES income from rents, and occupied all the high positions in the government and the military. 1 Analyse the social pyramid and answer the • The low nobility had less money, and sometimes questions. married into wealthy bourgeois families. a Which were the privileged estates? The commoners, or third estate, made up the b Where is the third estate on this pyramid? majority of the population. These were the 2 What impression does the painting give you bourgeoisie and peasants. about the lifestyle of the nobility? • The bourgeoisie was made up of merchants, doctors or artisans. Some were wealthy, but their political power was limited to city government. The bourgeoisie demanded greater participation in ACTIVITIES national government and equality before the law, but the privileged estates resisted these demands. 3 What were the differences between the high • The peasantry was the largest group, but had and low clergy, and between the high and little social influence. Most worked on the land of low nobility? nobles or the Church as tenants, day labourers or 4 Which people were considered commoners? serfs. They paid rent to noble landowners, taxes to Were there big differences between the king, and a tithe (10% of their crops) to the commoners? Explain your answer. Church. Serfs needed their lord's permission to leave the property.

14 The storm, by Louis-Joseph Watteau.

The agrarian sector THINK ABOUT IT Crop agriculture and livestock farming were the main economic In the 18th century, drought or activities in the 18th century. In most of Europe, peasants practised flooding caused crop failure, and subsistence farming, and they mainly grew grains using very basic people went hungry. Quite often tools. Crops depended on the climate, and they were lost in times of this caused riots. Today, adverse drought or flooding. When this happened, prices rose, food became weather phenomena can still scarce and there was widespread famine. increase the price of certain Most land belonged to the nobility and the clergy. A noble's land crops. However, in developed could not be divided because the law required the entire estate to be economies, these foods usually inherited by the eldest son. Moreover, part of the clergy's land was remain abundant in legally protected, and could not be sold. As a result, a lot of land was supermarkets. Why do you think not farmed productively. the situation has changed?

Artisanal activity and trade

Guilds controlled most artisanal activity. These were associations of ACTIVITIES artisans who worked in the same trade. Artisans worked in small workshops and used simple tools. Guilds regulated production, and 5 Explain why the agrarian this was an obstacle to innovation. sector was not very The domestic system was a new system of production in the textile productive in the 18th industry. A merchant provided cloth to peasants, who then made century. textile products in their own homes. The merchant collected the 6 Draw a schematic diagram finished products and sold them. that shows how triangular Royal factories belonged to the monarchy. They were very large trade worked and which workshops, where weapons and luxury goods were made. items were bought and sold.

Foreign trade grew due to increased exchange with America and 7 Investigate the Atlantic Asia. Some companies, like the English East India Company, were slave trade. Find out how granted trade monopolies in certain regions and imported products many people died, and like tea and cotton. The company owners and the Crown shared the when it ended. In what huge profits. ways should it be Triangular trade developed between Europe, Africa and America. commemorated today? European ships sailed to Africa, where they traded items of little value Share your viewpoint with for slaves. They took the slaves to America and sold them there. With the your classmates. profits, they brought products such as cotton and sugar back to Europe.

15 2 Systems of government

FRENCH ABSOLUTISM Absolutism Absolutism was the system of government in many POWERS OF THE MONARCH parts of 18th century Europe. Under absolutism, the monarchs held full legislative, executive and judicial powers. They governed, introduced and ratified laws, and named judges. According to the divine

LEGISLATIVE EXECUTIVE JUDICIAL right of kings, God was the source of a monarch's POWER POWER POWER power, and he was above the law. He decided laws He headed the He was the To exercise their powers, the monarchs made use of and applied administration highest judicial numerous officials and powerful armies. Some them through and led the authority. decrees. army. issues, such as new taxes, had to be approved by assemblies like the Estates General in France or las Cortes in Spain. These parliaments were made up of representatives of the three estates. However, the monarch rarely called them. The monarch held all the powers of state. The economic policies of absolute monarchs were based on mercantilism. According to this theory, there was only a fixed amount of trade in the world and a country's wealth was based on the amount of 750679_01_p01_absolutismo_frances gold and silver that it accumulated. Monarchs encouraged the growth of national industries, promoted exports and restricted imports. KEY HISTORICAL TEXTS

Absolutism Sovereign power resides in me alone […]. Your sceptre, symbol authority, which you exercise only in my name, of authority always stays in me. Legislative power belongs only to me – indivisibly, without question. It is by my authority that my court officials […] register, publish and execute laws. Public order comes from me […]. Speech by Louis XV to the Parliament of Paris, 3rd March 1766 crown, symbol of • What powers does Louis XV assign himself? royal power • What was the aim of this speech?

cape with the fleur de lis, symbol of the French monarchy

Louis XV of France. The symbols of his power.

16 English parliamentarism In the early 17th century, the kings of the Stuart dynasty tried to rule Britain as absolute monarchs. However, they were opposed by Parliament, which was controlled by the bourgeoisie. A series of conflicts between the king and Parliament culminated in the English Civil War (1642-1651), when the royalists were defeated and King Charles I was executed. Although the monarchy was restored in 1660, new attempts to create an absolute monarchy led to the Glorious Revolution (1688), when King James II was deposed. Under the new system of parliamentary monarchy, the monarch was not above the law, The House of Commons in session, by Peter Tillemans. and he could not rule on his own. The Bill of Rights of 1689 guaranteed certain rights and liberties, and established that the king could not pass laws, create new taxes or collect them without the approval of Parliament. With the separation of THE BRITISH PARLIAMENTARY MONARCHY powers, each branch of government had its own powers and responsibilities.

LEGISLATIVE EXECUTIVE JUDICIAL The Dutch Republic POWER POWER POWER In 1648, the independence of seven provinces in the northern Netherlands was officially recognised by PARLIAMENT KING JUDGES AND Spain. This was the Dutch Republic (also known as TRIBUNALS Independent of the Republic of the United Provinces). Through House names of Lords the other powers. trade, the Dutch bourgeoisie accumulated great They judge those who break the law. wealth, and they held most of the political power in House of GOVERNMENT They impose Commons the republic. sanctions and Each of the seven provinces had its own Parliament. punishments. Representatives of all the provinces assembled elect controls together at the Estates General, where joint decisions were taken.

VOTERS Census suffrage: only male citizens with a certain amount ACTIVITIES of wealth could vote.

1 Explain the following terms: • absolutism • the divine right of kings • mercantilism • the separation of powers 750679_01_p02_sistema_politico_ingles 2 Find out which European countries had absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies or republics in the 18th century. Draw and label WORK WITH THE ORGANIGRAMS a map of Europe.

3 Investigate the rise of the Dutch bourgeoisie by 4 Compare the organigrams and answer the questions. looking at paintings. Bring one Dutch portrait a Who held legislative power in France? And in England? painting and one scene of a bourgeois home b How was executive power different in France and England? into the classroom. Discuss in groups what we can learn from these artworks. c Where did judicial power reside in France? And in England?

17 3 The Enlightenment

KEY HISTORICAL TEXTS The Enlightenment The Enlightenment was a highly influential intellectual movement that The separation of powers spread across Europe and America. According to Enlightenment thought: When legislative and executive • Reason should be applied to all areas of life. Enlightenment powers lie with the same person or thinkers rejected practices that were not based on reason. They entity, there is no liberty. One can therefore criticised some aspects of absolutism, the privileges of the fear that such a person will make nobility and the clergy, and the strict rules of guilds. tyrannical laws, and execute them tyrannically. […] In a state in which a • Natural rights, such as individual liberty, belonged to all human single man or entity […] held the beings. The state could not arbitrarily suppress these rights. three powers, and had the ability to • Knowledge was the key to happiness, and people could achieve make laws, execute public resolutions knowledge through the use of reason. The Enlightenment placed and judge the crimes and disputes of great importance on education and the experimental sciences, individuals, all would be lost. which were considered vital for ongoing human progress.

Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, 1748 • Tolerance was the basis of coexistence. A famous compendium of human knowledge, the Encyclopaedia, was published in France by Diderot and D'Alembert. Enlightenment • What are the three powers that ideas were spread through the specialised academies of arts or Montesquieu refers to? sciences, elite social gatherings called salons, and through the press. • According to the author, what would Although the Enlightenment was not a revolutionary movement happen if one person or institution politically, many of its ideas challenged the foundations of held all three powers? the Old Regime. • What are the differences between Montesquieu's ideas and those of Enlightenment thinkers absolute monarchy? The ideas of the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) had a great influence on the Enlightenment. Locke argued that the state was the result of a social contract between the government and the people. This contract could be broken if the government was unjust. Three of the greatest Enlightenment thinkers (known as philosophes) were Baron Charles Montesquieu, François-Marie Arouet (famous as Voltaire), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

MAIN ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS

Montesquieu (1689-1755) Voltaire (1694-1778) Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Ideology. He defended the • Ideology. He defended a strong • Ideology. He defended freedom and separation of powers: legislative monarchy with respect for civil equality. He believed society corrupts power should be held by a liberties. He believed strongly in human beings, who are naturally representative Parliament, freedom of expression and good. Sovereignty should reside in executive power by the King, and rejected fanaticism and the people. For the benefit of the judicial power by independent intolerance. community, the people allow a higher judges. authority to govern in their name. • Major works. Candide (1759), • Major works. The Spirit of Laws Treatise on Tolerance (1763). • Major works. Émile (1762), (1748). The Social Contract (1762).

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Reading of Voltaire's tragedy The Orphan of China in the salon of Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin, by Lemonnier. A Rousseau. B Mademoiselle Clairon. C Bust of Voltaire. D Soufflot. E Diderot. F Duchess of Anville. G Montesquieu. H Count of Buffon. I D'Alembert. J Madame Geoffrin.

WORK WITH THE IMAGE Enlightened despotism Enlightened despotism (also known as enlightened absolutism) was 1 Which figures can you a form of absolutism influenced by Enlightenment ideas. Several 18th identify? Find out their century monarchs, such as Joseph II of Austria, Catherine the Great of contribution to Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia and Carlos III of Spain, Enlightenment thought. modernised their kingdoms by introducing educational, legal and 2 Find out who Marie Thérèse administrative reforms: Rodet Geoffrin was. Did • Education. They founded new educational institutions, such as other women play a similar universities and academies. They modified the curriculum to role in the 18th century? emphasise sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. • Government. They modernised their bureaucracies, strengthened the central administration, created new legal codes and required the privileged estates to pay taxes. ACTIVITIES • Land. To improve the economy, they expropriated unused lands. This means they took the land from Church or noble estates and 3 What was enlightened sold it. The goal was for the new owners to farm the land and make despotism? What were the it more productive. New farmland was cultivated, and roads and main objectives of irrigation systems were built. enlightened despots?

Some rulers privately believed in the Enlightenment ideas of reason 4 Summarise the main ideas and tolerance. Thus Frederick the Great invited Voltaire to his court of the Enlightenment. while Catherine the Great became a great patron of the arts. However, Which ones are still valid these enlightened despots did not want to destroy the Old Regime, today? Discuss your ideas which was the foundation of their own power. In fact, many of their with your classmates. reforms were designed to strengthen royal authority.

19 IN DEPTH

The role of the Encyclopaedia in spreading Enlightenment ideas

• Before you read, think about how you use encyclopaedias today. Which ones do you use? Are they printed books or online?

The nature of the Encyclopaedia

The Encyclopaedia was a huge compilation of human knowledge, published in 28 volumes between 1751 and 1772. (Seven extra volumes were published between 1776 and 1780.) Originally, its publishers had simply planned a translation of an English book, but under its main editors Denis Diderot and Jean D'Alembert it grew into a far more ambitious project. In accordance with Enlightenment ideas, the Encylopaedia classified knowledge on the basis of reason and scientific progress. As it challenged the authenticity Encyclopedia, or a Systematic of some parts of the Bible, there were attempts at censorship by the state Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and the church. It was aimed at the general public, and became one of the main and Crafts. ways that Enlightenment ideas reached a wide readership.

Who wrote for the Encyclopaedia?

A very wide variety of people contributed articles, including leading chemists, botanists, cartographers, mathematicians, architects, theologians, engineers, economists and poets. Diderot, d'Alembert, Montesquieu, Turgot, Quesnay and Buffon were among its many eminent contributors. The contributors expressed their ideas freely and sometimes disagreed with each other.

Denis Jean le Rond Charles Louis Diderot d'Alembert de Secondat, (1713-1784) (1717-1783) Baron of French French Montesquieu essayist and philosopher (1689-1755) philosopher. and scientist. French writer As well as writing several He wrote several articles for and philosopher. One of his articles for the Encylopaedia, he the Encyclopaedia about major works was Persian wrote satirical novels and plays mathematics. He also Letters. In this book, two that criticised French society, wrote the introduction fictional characters exchange such as Jacques the Fatalist and to the work: ‘Preliminary letters in which they criticise his Master. discourse’. the customs of the Old Regime.

Jacques François Georges-Louis Turgot Quesnay Leclerc, (1727-1781) (1694-1774) Count of French French Buffon economist economist, (1707-1788) and and one of French statesman. He introduced the founders of physiocracy. naturalist, and director of the potato farming in Limoges, This theory held that the wealth Jardine des Plantes in Paris. One where he was a leading of a nation resided in of his main works was Natural administrator. Later, he became agriculture, and that industry History, which compiled the Minister of Finance under and trade were not productive scientific knowledge of his time Louis XVI. activities. in different areas.

20 The Old Regime 1

An illustrated work

One of the novel aspects of the Encyclopaedia was the large number of illustrations it included: over 2,000. Many of the illustrations were related to craft activity. To make their illustrations as accurate as possible, the artists visited workshops where they observed and drew the rooms, tools and processes involved.

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llustrations from the Encyclopaedia. A The inside of a distillery and the tools used there. B Upholstering a chair. C Eyeglass workshop and types of lenses.

ACTIVITIES An 18th century best-seller

The Encyclopaedia was organised into 1 Look at the plates from the Encyclopaedia shown above. 17 volumes of articles and 11 volumes Describe them. Do you think they are realistic? of illustrations. Later, five supplements 2 and two indices were also published. Look for the Encyclopaedia in English on the Internet. (Use the keywords ‘University Michigan Encyclopaedia Diderot’.) The articles were arranged in alphabetical order, and differed in • Under ‘Browse plates’, click on English title. Look through length and quality. They reflected each the plates in different categories. Choose two that catch author's opinions, and some of them your interest and describe them. had typographical errors. They covered • Go back to the homepage and click on Simple Search. all areas of human knowledge and Select Search in: title. Type in different topics and read understanding, from optics to the the entries. concept of freedom. • Now, select Search in: author. Type in Quesnay. Click The Encyclopaedia was sold by on the article Farmers and read the first paragraph. subscription. In only thirty years, over What does Quesnay say about farmers? Which part 25,000 copies were sold. It also is fact and which part is opinion? reached other countries, and was 3 Why is the 18th century called the Age of Enlightenment? decisive in the spread of How did the Encyclopaedia spread Enlightenment thought? Enlightenment thought.

21 4 The War of the Spanish Succession

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) KEY HISTORICAL TEXTS The Habsburg King Carlos II died without children The Nueva Planta decrees in 1700, when there were two rival candidates to the Spanish throne. The candidate of the Bourbon Aragón and Valencia (1707). Considering that dynasty, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, was Louis the Kingdoms of Aragón and Valencia have lost XIV's grandson, and he was supported by France. […] – through their own rebellion – […] the Archduke Charles was the Habsburg candidate, charters, privileges, exemptions and liberties and he was supported by the Holy Roman Empire. that they previously enjoyed […], I have decided […] to abolish the charters, privileges and Carlos II named Philippe of Anjou as his successor, customs of those territories […], which will now but Archduke Charles did not accept this, and the fall under the law of Castile. War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701. Catalonia (1716). I have decided that in the This war was an international conflict. France and principality of Catalonia a higher judicial Spain opposed an alliance of European powers (the authority (Audiencia) will be formed, presided by Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic and Britain), the general of my army. All sessions will begin who were concerned about possible Bourbon with my order and continue in his name. In the supremacy. However, it was also a civil war: much of city of Barcelona there will be twenty-four Castile supported Philippe of Anjou, while the Crown councillors […], to be named by me […]. All of Aragón supported Archduke Charles. previous offices are cancelled […]. The war ended with a series of treaties in 1713 and The Nueva Planta decrees, 1707-1716 1714. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) recognised the Bourbon candidate Philippe, who became Felipe V, • How did Felipe V justify the elimination of the King of Spain. In exchange, Austria received Spanish rights and liberties of Aragón and Valencia? territory in Flanders and Italy. Britain received Gibraltar and Menorca, and was also granted some • What institutions did he impose in Catalonia? privileges in its trade with America. Within Spain, What became of the previous institutions? opposition to Felipe V ended when Barcelona was taken in 1714. future Luis I Isabel Early Bourbon rule Felipe V Farnese Felipe V (1700-1746) centralised administration in Spain, following the French model. Since the Crown of Aragón had opposed him in the war, he issued the Nueva Planta decrees. These abolished the charters and institutions of the Crown of Aragón. Felipe V imposed Castilian institutions throughout future future the country. In government, he did not use the old Infante Fernando VI Carlos III councils, but created a new figure instead: this was Felipe the secretary of state, or minister. Felipe's The family of Felipe V, by Jean Ranc. successor, Fernando VI (1746-1759), continued these reforms, and also strengthened the navy. The Catastro of Ensenada (1749) was a large scale census and geographical investigation. WORK WITH THE IMAGE In foreign policy, Felipe tried to recover the Italian 1 Find out why we can see three future kings territories lost at Utrecht. He made alliances with of Spain in a single painting. When did each the French Bourbons through ‘Family Pacts’, and king reign? participated in several wars. Spain recovered Naples and Sicily, as well as several Italian dukedoms.

22 KINGDOM 1 Flanders OF SWEDEN KINGDOM Acquisitions OF DENMARK 2 Duchy of Milan Austria

3 Luxembourg GREAT Savoy BRITAIN Great Britain PRUSSIA Holy Roman Empire boundary DUTCH REPUBLIC BRANDENBURG KINGDOM OF RUSSIA 1 POLAND 3 ATLANTIC OCEAN KINGDOM OF FRANCE SWISS HUNGARY AUSTRIA CONFEDERATION

2 V E N CI E SAVOY Black Sea Avignon GENOA PAPAL STATES O T T O M A N E M P IR E Corsica KINGDOM OF SPAIN KINGDOM Menorca (G.B.) KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL OF NAPLES Sardinia

Canary Islands Ceuta Gibraltar (G.B.) Sicily Melilla Mediterranean Sea

EUROPE AFTER THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION

750679_01_p03_tratado_utrecht

1700 1746 1759 1788

FELIPE V FERNANDO VI CARLOS III CARLOS IV

1701 1713 1733 1749 1766 1793 1808 The War of the Treaty First Family Beginning of the Esquilache War The War of Spanish Succession begins of Utrecht Pact Catastro of Ensenada Riots with France Independence begins

THE SPANISH BOURBONS IN THE 18TH CENTURY

ACTIVITIES WORK WITH THE MAP AND THE TIMELINE 761544_01_p17_Linea tiempo Borbones5 What caused the War of the Spanish 2 When did the War of the Spanish Succession begin? Succession? How long did it last? 6 Which countries formed alliances with 3 Study the map of Europe after the War of the each other? How did the war end? Spanish Succession. a Which European territories did Spain lose? 7 Spain has had a territorial dispute with Great Britain since 1714. What is it b Which countries gained those territories? about? c How important was their loss for Spain? 8 Spain became a more centralised 4 Compare this map to a map of Europe today. nation under Felipe V. In what ways a Which countries have fairly similar frontiers? has this affected later Spanish b Which regions are completely different? history?

23 5 Enlightened despotism in Spain

The enlightened despotism of Carlos III ACTIVITIES Carlos III (1759-1788) initiated a wide-ranging reform programme 1 Investigate the life and that made him Spain's greatest enlightened despot. work of Gaspar Melchor Early in his reign, Carlos III (who had previously been a Duke in Italy) de Jovellanos. named Italian ministers like the Marquis of Esquilache. The Marquis's • Write a brief biography. reforms were unpopular at all levels of society, and his attempt to Include his political modernise traditional Spanish clothing led to the Esquilache Riots activity, his main works, (1766). and any interesting After this uprising Esquilache was deposed, and Carlos appointed events that you Spanish ministers like Counts Aranda, Floridablanca and find out about. Campomanes. Their reforms attempted to modernise Spain: • The Church. The reformers considered that parts of the Church Gaspar Melchor were an obstacle to modernisation. The Jesuits were accused of de Jovellanos. provoking the Esquilache Riots and were expelled from Spain. The powers of the Inquisition were reduced. • Economic development. Spanish ports were allowed to develop free trade with America. In agriculture, new land was farmed, for example, in Sierra Morena, which was repopulated. The privileges of the Mesta were reduced, and sheep pastures were transformed into crop fields. Royal factories were created, like the Buen Retiro Porcelain Factory. • Education. New schools were built and primary education was expanded. Secondary and university curricula were renovated. • Economic Societies of Friends of the Country. These private associations of enlightened thinkers met to discuss a variety of subjects. Among other activities, they founded schools to train artisans and farmers. In foreign policy, Spain recovered Menorca, although the British continued to hold Gibraltar. Spain supported the Americans when they fought Britain for their independence in the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783).

THINK ABOUT IT

Satirical poems and songs were often distributed in the I, Leopold the First, ‘The Great’ 18th century. Do we have similar forms of protest today? Marquis of Esquilache, This poem about the Marquis of Esquilache was written Here in Spain, I annihilate – before the Esquilache Riots in 1766. Read it and answer Even King Carlos can't match me. the questions. I do as I like with king and nation, • What is the poem about? Why is Esquilache called And never say ‘Please’ or ‘Thank you’. ‘Leopold the First’, as if he were a king? I drive the people to desperation – • Why do you think the author of this poem disliked I leave them boiling in a stew. Esquilache so much? • Research the Esquilache Riots. What were their And meanwhile, Carlos my protégé, causes and consequences? Murmurs softly: ‘Do it your way’.

24 The Old Regime 1

Carlos IV and the end of reform ACTIVITIES Carlos IV became king in 1788. A year later the French Revolution began, and Carlos was worried that Enlightenment ideas could lead to 2 What measures did Carlos III a similar revolution in Spain. Enlightened ministers like the Count of introduce to strengthen Floridablanca and the Count of Aranda became less prominent, and the economy? were replaced by Manuel Godoy. Most reforms were stopped, and 3 increased censorship was introduced to prevent revolutionary ideas What were the Economic Societies from reaching Spain. of Friends of the Country? How did they contribute to the spread Spain joined other countries in a war against revolutionary France. of Enlightenment thought? However, after some French military victories, Spain agreed to make peace with France in 1795, when Spain lost its part of the island of Santo Domingo. The following year, Spain and France signed a military alliance with each other. This led to a naval conflict with Britain, which was still at war with France. In 1805, the powerful British navy destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar. In the face of difficulties at home and abroad, opposition grew towards WORK WITH Carlos IV and his minister Godoy. In 1808, Carlos IV abdicated in THE IMAGE favour of his son, Fernando VII. Francisco de Goya 4 Analyse the y Lucientes. painting. • Who are the people represented in this painting? • What image does this portrait give of the royal family? Do you think this was intentional? L F 5 Work in groups to research the life C I and work of Francisco de Goya. J D Prepare an album called: ‘Goya, E chronicler of his age’. • Begin the album with a brief biography of Francisco de Goya, one of the greatest Spanish M painters of all time. Include details about his birth, his career, where he died, and where he is buried. • Choose three areas in which Goya's work helps us to A understand the society of his time. B For example: a) portraits; b) scenes depicting popular customs; and c) events from wartime. • Write the three headings in your album. Find at least two or three K paintings for each area, and stick G H them in the album. • Provide information beneath each The familiy of Carlos IV, by Francisco de Goya (1800). A Infante Carlos María painting. For example, in the case Isidro. B Prince Fernando. C Francisco de Goya. D Infanta María Josefa, Carlos IV's of a portrait, identify the sitter (the sister. E Infanta María Isabel. F Queen María Luisa. G Infante Francisco de Paula. person in the portrait), and write a H King Carlos IV. I Infante Antonio Pascual, Carlos IV's brother. J Infanta Carlota sentence describing his or her Joaquina. K Infanta María Luisa. L Luis de Parma, Infanta María Luisa's husband. place in history. M Infanta María Luisa's son.

25 ACTIVITY ROUND-UP

1 Copy and complete the diagram.

THE OLD REGIME

Characteristics Enlightenment of the Old Regime

Society Economy Politics Main Enlightened Ideology thinkers despotism

measures organised the main foreign artisanal two …… …… into three sector was trade activity systems estates ……

…… ……

…… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……

…… …… …… …… the measures …… did not change

……

2 Write these events in chronological order, including 3 Listen to the recording. Then, write a short summary the date they occurred. Then, place them on a timeline of the historical significance of each of these like the one below. Enlightenment figures.

• Abdication of Carlos IV • Locke • Esquilache Riots • Montesquieu • Independence of the Dutch Republic • Diderot • Bill of Rights in England • Voltaire • The War of the Spanish Succession begins • Rousseau • The reign of Carlos III of Spain begins 4 Explain the following terms: • Battle of Trafalgar • Society of estates • Treaty of Utrecht • Royal Factory • French Revolution • Nueva Planta decrees • Economic Society of Friends of the Country

5 Explain the similarities and differences between the following: • Absolute monarchy and enlightened despotism 1648 1808 • Absolute monarchy and parliamentary monarchy

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750679_01_p05_Linea_tiempo_muda The Old Regime 1

6 Are these statements about 18th century Europe true 8 Read the following extract from the Spanish or false? Correct the false ones in your notebook. Constitution of 1978. In groups, discuss the influence a Under the Old Regime, one's estate was determined of Enlightenment ideas on it. by wealth. b The bourgeoisie was one of the privileged estates, 1. Spain is hereby established as a social and and played an important role in national government. democratic state, subject to the rule of law, c Droughts and floods often led to high food prices which advocates as the highest values of its and famine. legal order, liberty, justice, equality and d The slave trade was an important part of triangular trade. political pluralism. e Enlightenment thinkers believed passions should be 2. National sovereignty is vested in the applied to all areas of life. Spanish people, from whom emanate the f In the War of the Spanish Succession, Aragón powers of the state. and Catalonia supported Philippe, Duke of Anjou. 3. The political form of the Spanish state is that of a parliamentary monarchy. 7 Answer the questions. The Spanish Constitution, 1978 a Which events led to the rise of English parliamentarism? b What document reinforced this new system? c What principle of government requires each branch 9 What was the impact of the Enlightenment to have only limited authority? in Spain?

THE LEGACY OF THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

10 The legacy of the Age of In groups, investigate 18th century architecture and plan a route. Enlightenment is vast and • Find out which buildings in Madrid were built under Carlos III. diverse. • Prepare records of when and where they were built, how they were used • Enlightenment ideas. Many of in the 18th century and how they are used today. our ideas about the importance • Prepare a route through Madrid that will enable you to visit some of its of reason, tolerance and most important 18th century monuments. education were shaped by • Compare your route to those of the other groups. With the whole class, Enlightenment thinkers. choose the best route for visiting the Madrid of Carlos III. • Political life. Liberty, equality before the law and the separation of powers are the foundation of many modern political systems. • Parliamentary monarchy. This system emerged in England in the 17th century, and was consolidated in the 18th century. This type of monarchy still exists today. • Encyclopaedias. These works are compendiums of all the knowledge that humans have acquired throughout history. They are still published today The Royal Observatory, Madrid. This was founded by Carlos III, but it as printed books or online. was built in the reign of Carlos IV.

27 KNOW HOW TO… Key competences

TECHNIQUES. Compare two Enlightenment texts

Enlightenment thinkers introduced new ideas about concepts as important as equality, liberty and tolerance. You are going to analyse two of these ideas.

Tolerance To analyse the Enlightenment ideas you have just read about, follow these steps: It is no longer to men that I am • Situate each text in time and identify its author. talking, but to you, God of all beings, of all worlds and of all • Identify the main ideas as well as the secondary ages […]. You did not give us ideas in each text. Explain them and situate them in hearts to hate people, or hands their historical context. to kill each other. Make us help • Draw conclusions. Discuss the importance of these each other to bear the weight of a painful and ideas in their time. In addition, examine their validity transitory life. Make it so that the small in today's world. differences in the clothes that cover our frail bodies, in our insufficient languages, in our ridiculous customs, in our imperfect laws, in our senseless opinions, in all our conditions so 1 Who is the author of each text? Search for information disproportionate in our eyes, and so equal in about these thinkers on the Internet, and write a short yours – that all the little variations that biography of each. When were these works written? differentiate the atoms called men do not become signs of hatred and persecution. 2 What aspects of the Old Regime does Voltaire criticise? How does he define tolerance? What does intolerance Voltaire, Treatise on Tolerance, 1763 lead to?

3 Which two basic principles does Rousseau support? What link does he draw between them?

4 Compare Rousseau's ideas to those in the text below. Equality What differences do you notice? What type of society If we ask what the most valuable does Rousseau advocate? possession of all is, we find that everything can be reduced to two Any system that […] aims to establish equal main issues: liberty and equality, obligations among men, and to destroy the without which liberty cannot exist. necessary distinctions, will soon lead to To renounce liberty is to renounce chaos, which is an inevitable consequence of being human, to renounce the rights and absolute equality […]. obligations of humanity. Warning issued by the Parliament of Paris, True equality does not mean that everyone must 4th March 1776 have exactly the same amount of wealth. It means that no one is so wealthy that they can buy someone else, and that no one is so poor 5 Do you think the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau were that they are forced to sell themselves. Some generally well received by society at the time? Explain say that this type of equality cannot exist in your answer. practice. But if abuse is inevitable, does that mean we must give up trying to regulate it? 6 Are the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau still valid today? Precisely because natural forces tend to destroy Explain your answer. equality, we must make the force of legislation tend to maintain it. 7 Do you think liberty is safe in modern times? Is J. J. Rousseau, The Social Contract, 1762 tolerance always practised? Give reasons and examples.

28 The Old Regime 1

THINK LIKE AN HISTORIAN. Scientific development in the Age of Enlightenment

In the 18th century, people became very interested in science. Private collections of botany, zoology, mineralogy, etc., proliferated, and so did voyages of exploration. In some cases, scientific investigations were even financed by kings. Some of the discoveries and technical advances changed people's lives forever.

1700 1714 Fahrenheit invents the mercury thermometer

1752 1749 1742 1735 Franklin Buffon Celsius Linnaeus demonstrates begins publication invents a proposes that lightning is a of Natural History temperature a classi cation discharge of electricity scale in degrees system for plants centigrade

1768 1772-1773 James Cook The Jaquet-Droz makes his rst family builds automata voyage to the (mechanical dolls) Paci c Ocean

1800 1789 1785 1783 Volta Lavoisier Herschel The rst hot air balloon, builds the publishes Treatise on Chemistry, builds powerful designed by the rst electric where he explains the role telescopes and Montgol er brothers, battery of oxygen in combustion discovers Uranus takes ight

1 Which scientific discoveries or advances from the Age 4 James Cook made several voyages of exploration. of Enlightenment do you think are 750679_01_06_Lineamost important? tiempoWhat revolucion did he discover? cienti ca Use the Internet to find out. Explain your answers. 5 Do you think Enlightenment ideas promoted scientific 2 Which do you think had the biggest impact on the lives development? Explain your answer. of people living in the 18th century? Why? 6 Are we living in an era of rapid scientific development 3 Which do you think have had a lasting impact up to the today? Explain your answers. present day? Explain your answers.

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