DOCSLIB.ORG

Mitteilungen S Journal of the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt 2012

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Mitteilungen S Journal of the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt 2012 MITTEILUNGEN S JOURNAL OF THE PHYSIKALISCH-TECHNISCHE BUNDESANSTALT 2012 SPECIAL ISSUE The System of Units MITTEILUNGEN TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF THE PHYSIKALISCH-TECHNISCHE BUNDESANSTALT Special Journal for the Economy and Science Official Information Bulletin of the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt Braunschweig and Berlin Special issue from: 122nd volume, issue 1, March 2012 Contents The System of Units • Ernst O. Göbel: A Short Introduction to the International System of Units 3 • Harald Schnatz: Length – The SI Base Unit “Metre” 7 • Andreas Bauch: Time – The SI Base Unit “Second” 23 • Peter Becker, Michael Borys, Michael Gläser, Bernd Güttler und Detlef Schiel: Mass and Amount of Substance – The SI Base Units “Kilogram” and “Mole” 37 • Franz Josef Ahlers und Uwe Siegner: Electric Current – The SI Base Unit “Ampere” 59 • Joachim Fischer und Jörg Hollandt: Temperature – The SI Base Unit “Kelvin” 69 • Armin Sperling und Georg Sauter: Luminous Intensity – the SI Base Unit “Candela” 83 • Jörn Stenger und Bernd R. L. Siebert: Fundamental Constants and the “New SI” 93 Cover picture The definitions of the base units referring to the SI system are on the brink of a fundamental change. In future, they are to be related to defined fundamental constants – the kilogram, for example, to Planck’s constant (in the picture: a SI sphere of the Avogadro Project). Impressum The PTB-Mitteilungen are the metrological specialist journal and official information bulletin of the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Braunschweig and Berlin. As a specialist journal, the PTB-Mitteilungen publishes scientific articles on metrological subjects from PTB’s fields of activity. As an official information bulletin, the journal stands in a long tradition which goes back to the beginnings of the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsan- stalt (founded in 1887). Publisher Advertising Wirtschaftsverlag NW Karin Drewes Verlag für neue Wissenschaft GmbH Tel.: +49 471 945 44-21 Bürgermeister-Smidt-Str. 74–76, Fax: +49 471 945 44-77 D-27568 Bremerhaven E-mail: [email protected] Postfach 10 11 10, D-27511 Bremerhaven Internet: www.nw-verlag.de Frequency of publication and prices E-mail: [email protected] The PTB-Mitteilungen are published four times each year. An annual subscription costs Euro Editor 39.00, one issue costs Euro 12.00, plus postage Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), costs. The journal can be obtained from bookshops Braunschweig und Berlin or from the publisher. Postal address: Cancellations of orders must be made to the pub- Postfach 33 45, D-38023 Braunschweig lisher in writing at least three months Delivery address: before the end of a calendar year. Bundesallee 100, D-38116 Braunschweig © Wirtschaftsverlag NW, Verlag für neue Wissen- Editorial Staff/Layout schaft GmbH, Bremerhaven, 2009 Press and Information Office, PTB Dr. Dr. Jens Simon All rights reserved. No part of this journal may Imke Frischmuth be reproduced or distributed without the written Gisela Link permission of the publisher. Under this prohibition, in particular, comes the commercial reproduction by Translation copying, the entering into electronic databases and PTB-Sprachendienst (PTB Translation Office) the reproduction on CD-ROM and all other elec- Undine Baier-Blott tronic media. Cécile Charvieux Gabriele Froetel Alice Graumann Ella Jones Kathleen Spalinger Reader and subscription service Karin Drewes Tel.: +49 471 945 44-61 Fax: +49 471 945 44-88 E-mail: [email protected] Printed in Germany ISSN 0030-834X THE SYSTEM OF UNITS A Short Introduction to the International System of Units Ernst O. Göbel* Metrologists are currently facing big scientific discussed for the standard of length: the seconds challenges: They want to free the base units of pendulum and the length of a meridian of the their definitional inadequacies – you just have to Earth. Because of the dependence of the oscillation think of the unit of mass and its embodiment by period of a pendulum on the local acceleration due a certain metal cylinder in a safe near Paris – and to gravity, this option was not pursued. Instead, the place them instead on an unshakable foundation, two astronomers Jean-Baptiste Joseph Delambre as has already been done for the metre, whose and Pierre Méchain were commissioned to deter- definition now is based on the speed of light. If mine the length of a meridian of the Earth through metrologists can master this challenge, then in triangulation of the distance of the meridian arc future no longer will the International System of between Dunkerque and Barcelona. They were to Units rest on seven base units, but in contrast, on a define the unit of length, the metre, from this as the set of fixed fundamental constants. 40 millionth part of a meridian. As an embodied standard, this original metre was made of platinum A brief history of the SI and was placed in the Archives de France in 1799 (Mètre des Archives). Since time immemorial, agreed units of measure- The unit of mass was derived from the unit of ment for quantities such as length, weight and length as the mass of one cube of 1 dm edge length volume have been needed for fair trade of goods. of pure distilled water at its greatest density (i. e. at We know that the great cultures and states of old 3.98 °C) and was called the kilogram. This event had a highly developed measurement system. can be described as the birth of the metric system, Some impressive examples of this are the Nippur which, however, was only accepted in Europe – cubit dating from the third millennium BC, which even in France – very hesitantly at first. It, thus, was found in the remains of an ancient Mesopo- took until 1875 for the metric measurands to be tamian temple and is now kept in the Archaeo- introduced with the foundation of the Metre Con- logical Museum in Istanbul; the renowned royal vention by a treaty which was signed by 17 nations cubit of the Egyptians, which was used as the basic at that time. Today 55 states have signed the Metre measure for building the Egyptian pyramids; or Convention, in addition to a further 33 countries the oldest sundial in Europe, found in Oropos in and organizations which are associated members. Greece and dated to about 350 BC. The first General Conference2 of the Metre Con- With the emerging feudalism of the Middle Ages, vention took place in 1889. During the conference, * Prof. however, the high metrological1 culture was lost, the new prototypes of the metre and the kilogram Dr. Ernst O. Göbel, President of the Phy- and, thus, in Germany around 300 years ago there made of a platinum-iridium alloy were officially sikalisch-Technische were more than 50 different standards for mass sanctioned as the international standards. The Bundesanstalt and over 30 different length standards. This made copies of these international prototypes – which e-mail: ernst.o.goebel@ trade more difficult and encouraged misuse and were produced at the same time – were distrib- ptb.de fraud, until about 300 years ago, a development was uted among the Member States by drawing lots. started to put an end to this metrological “Tower of The German Empire received the prototypes with 1 Metrology: the sci- Babel”. France led the way, and even at the height the numbers 18 (for the metre) and 22 (for the ence and application of the French Revolution, the French Academy of kilogram). Shortly before, in 1887, the Physika- of precise measure- ment Sciences was requested to develop stable standards lisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (Imperial Physical 2 Conférence Géné- for mass and weight based on rational principles Technical Institute – PTR) had been founded in rale des Poids et and “for all men and all times”. Two options were Berlin through the driving force of Werner von Mesures, CGPM 3 n The System of Units Siemens and Hermann von Helmholtz. Among Although today's SI system largely fulfils the other things it was to support industry and science current requirements of science and technology, through making measuring standards available it is far from being the ideal “for all men and all and improving them. The Physikalisch-Technische times”. Hence, tracing back the SI units as far as Bundesanstalt (PTB), founded in 1951 as the possible to fundamental constants – as is already successor to PTR, has taken on this mandate and the case for the second and the metre – is a task set is, hence, the National Metrology Institute of the by the Metre Convention for its member institu- Federal Republic of Germany. tions. In the foreseeable future, completing this At the early General Conferences, which nowa- task for the ampere, the kilogram, the mole and days take place every four years, the system of the the kelvin seems possible. international units of measurement was continu- The general approach is the same for all meas- ously extended and improved. Some important urement units. In order to avoid a scale jump in milestones for the development of the SI system the envisaged redefinition of a unit on the basis are simultaneously linked to many of the General of a fundamental constant, first of all the value of Conferences. At the 10th CGPM in 1954, the units this constant3 must be determined consistently, for length, mass, time, electric current, thermo- with the highest possible accuracy, in the existing dynamic temperature and luminous intensity system of units. For practical reasons, minimum were designated and defined as the base units of requirements may be prescribed. In the next the so-called practical system of units. At the 11th step, this value is permanently assigned to the CGPM (1960), the metre was redefined in terms respective fundamental constant, i.e. exactly. The of the wavelength of light, specifically a yellow- redefinition can then be carried out on this basis.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The International System of Units (SI)
    NAT'L INST. OF STAND & TECH NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology Technology Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce NIST Special Publication 330 2001 Edition The International System of Units (SI) 4. Barry N. Taylor, Editor r A o o L57 330 2oOI rhe National Institute of Standards and Technology was established in 1988 by Congress to "assist industry in the development of technology . needed to improve product quality, to modernize manufacturing processes, to ensure product reliability . and to facilitate rapid commercialization ... of products based on new scientific discoveries." NIST, originally founded as the National Bureau of Standards in 1901, works to strengthen U.S. industry's competitiveness; advance science and engineering; and improve public health, safety, and the environment. One of the agency's basic functions is to develop, maintain, and retain custody of the national standards of measurement, and provide the means and methods for comparing standards used in science, engineering, manufacturing, commerce, industry, and education with the standards adopted or recognized by the Federal Government. As an agency of the U.S. Commerce Department's Technology Administration, NIST conducts basic and applied research in the physical sciences and engineering, and develops measurement techniques, test methods, standards, and related services. The Institute does generic and precompetitive work on new and advanced technologies. NIST's research facilities are located at Gaithersburg, MD 20899, and at Boulder, CO 80303.
    [Show full text]
  • Weights and Measures Standards of the United States—A Brief History (1963), by Lewis V
    WEIGHTS and MEASURES STANDARDS OF THE UMIT a brief history U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS NBS Special Publication 447 WEIGHTS and MEASURES STANDARDS OF THE TP ii 2ri\ ii iEa <2 ^r/V C II llinCAM NBS Special Publication 447 Originally Issued October 1963 Updated March 1976 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Wash., D.C. 20402. Price $1; (Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing). Stock No. 003-003-01654-3 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 76-600055 Foreword "Weights and Measures," said John Quincy Adams in 1821, "may be ranked among the necessaries of life to every individual of human society." That sentiment, so appropriate to the agrarian past, is even more appropriate to the technology and commerce of today. The order that we enjoy, the confidence we place in weighing and measuring, is in large part due to the measure- ment standards that have been established. This publication, a reprinting and updating of an earlier publication, provides detailed information on the origin of our standards for mass and length. Ernest Ambler Acting Director iii Preface to 1976 Edition Two publications of the National Bureau of Standards, now out of print, that deal with weights and measures have had widespread use and are still in demand. The publications are NBS Circular 593, The Federal Basis for Weights and Measures (1958), by Ralph W. Smith, and NBS Miscellaneous Publication 247, Weights and Measures Standards of the United States—a Brief History (1963), by Lewis V.
    [Show full text]
  • The International System of Units (SI)
    The International System of Units (SI) m kg s cd SI mol K A NIST Special Publication 330 2008 Edition Barry N. Taylor and Ambler Thompson, Editors NIST SPECIAL PUBLICATION 330 2008 EDITION THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) Editors: Barry N. Taylor Physics Laboratory Ambler Thompson Technology Services National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, MD 20899 United States version of the English text of the eighth edition (2006) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication Le Système International d’ Unités (SI) (Supersedes NIST Special Publication 330, 2001 Edition) Issued March 2008 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY, James Turner, Acting Director National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 330, 2008 Edition Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Pub. 330, 2008 Ed., 96 pages (March 2008) CODEN: NSPUE2 WASHINGTON 2008 Foreword The International System of Units, universally abbreviated SI (from the French Le Système International d’Unités), is the modern metric system of measurement. Long the dominant system used in science, the SI is rapidly becoming the dominant measurement system used in international commerce. In recognition of this fact and the increasing global nature of the marketplace, the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, which changed the name of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and gave to NIST the added task of helping U.S. industry increase its competitiveness, designates “the metric system of measurement as the preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce.” The definitive international reference on the SI is a booklet published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) and often referred to as the BIPM SI Brochure.
    [Show full text]
  • The International System of Units (SI), the Unit of This Activity Is the Second to the Power of Minus One (S~'),*
    A111D3 3flfiD33 REFERENCE o NBS SPECIAL PUBLICATION 330 1986 EDITION NIST i PUBLICATIONS U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / National Bureau of Standards THE UNTERNAllOMAL SYSTEM OF UMTS (SD . K he National Bureau of Standards' was established by an act of Congress on March 3, 1901. The Jy Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the nation's science and technology and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts research and provides: (1) a basis for the nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, (3) a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety. The Bureau's technical work is performed by the National Measurement Laboratory, the National Engineering Laboratory, the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology, and the Institute for Materials Science and Engineering The National Measurement Laboratory Provides the national system of physical and chemical measurement; • Basic Standards^ coordinates the system with measurement systems of other nations and • Radiation Research furnishes essential services leading to accurate and uniform physical and • Chemical Physics chemical measurement throughout the Nation's scientific community, in- • Analytical Chemistry dustry, and commerce; provides advisory and research services to other Government agencies; conducts physical and chemical research; develops, produces, and distributes Standard Reference Materials; and provides calibration
    [Show full text]
  • CIMM::Arrayvalue
    1 2 Document Identifier: DSP0004 3 Date: 2014-08-30 4 Version: 3.0.1 5 Common Information Model (CIM) Metamodel 6 Document Type: Specification 7 Document Status: DMTF Standard 8 Document Language: en-US Common Information Model (CIM) Metamodel DSP0004 9 Copyright Notice 10 Copyright © 1997, 1999, 2003, 2005, 2009-2012, 2014 Distributed Management Task Force, Inc. 11 (DMTF). All rights reserved. 12 DMTF is a not-for-profit association of industry members dedicated to promoting enterprise and systems 13 management and interoperability. Members and non-members may reproduce DMTF specifications and 14 documents, provided that correct attribution is given. As DMTF specifications may be revised from time to 15 time, the particular version and release date should always be noted. 16 Implementation of certain elements of this standard or proposed standard may be subject to third party 17 patent rights, including provisional patent rights (herein "patent rights"). DMTF makes no representations 18 to users of the standard as to the existence of such rights, and is not responsible to recognize, disclose, 19 or identify any or all such third party patent right, owners or claimants, nor for any incomplete or 20 inaccurate identification or disclosure of such rights, owners or claimants. DMTF shall have no liability to 21 any party, in any manner or circumstance, under any legal theory whatsoever, for failure to recognize, 22 disclose, or identify any such third party patent rights, or for such party’s reliance on the standard or 23 incorporation thereof in its product, protocols or testing procedures. DMTF shall have no liability to any 24 party implementing such standard, whether such implementation is foreseeable or not, nor to any patent 25 owner or claimant, and shall have no liability or responsibility for costs or losses incurred if a standard is 26 withdrawn or modified after publication, and shall be indemnified and held harmless by any party 27 implementing the standard from any and all claims of infringement by a patent owner for such 28 implementations.
    [Show full text]
  • The International System of Units (SI)
    NIST Special PublicationUnited 330 States Department of Commerce 2001 Edition National Institute of Standards and Technology The International System of Units (SI) Barry N. Taylor, Editor RN STEM MODE METRIC SYSTEM MOD TEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM M SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODER ERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MOD YSYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM M M MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODEDERN ODODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN MMETRIC SYSTEM MO CSC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEMTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEMSYS EERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRETRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SY MMETRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEMSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METR RRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEMYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRICMETR SYSYSTEM MOMODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERNRN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRM IC SYSTEM MODERNRN METRICME SYSTEM C SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEMTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODEMODERN METRIC SYSSTEM MODERN METRIC SYST ODODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRICTRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEMS MODERNN METRICMET SYSTEM MODERN SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERMODE N METRIC SYSTEMTEM MODERM N METRIC SYSTE TRTRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRMETRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRICETR SYSTEM MODERN M MMETRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERN METRIC SYSTEM MODERRN METRME IC SYSTEMEM MODERN METRIC SYSTE IC SYS
    [Show full text]
  • The International System of Units (SI)
    —————————————————————————— Bureau International des Poids et Mesures The International System of Units (SI) 9th edition 2019 ———————————————— v1.08 Copyright statement The SI Brochure is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The BIPM and the Metre Convention • 117 The BIPM and the Metre Convention The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) was set up by the Metre As of 20 May 2019 there Convention signed in Paris on 20 May 1875 by seventeen States during the final session of were fifty nine Member States: Argentina, Australia, the diplomatic Conference of the Metre. This Convention was amended in 1921. Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, 2 The BIPM has its headquarters near Paris, in the grounds (43 520 m ) of the Pavillon de China, Colombia, Croatia, Breteuil (Parc de Saint-Cloud) placed at its disposal by the French Government; its upkeep Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, is financed jointly by the Member States of the Metre Convention. Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic The task of the BIPM is to ensure worldwide unification of measurements; its objectives are Rep. of), Iraq, Ireland, Israel, to: Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Korea (Republic of),
    [Show full text]
  • The International System of Units (SI)
    teferenc© A111D1 7flDflt,S a TECH R.I.C. « C.1 NBS-PUB-R JBLICATIONS NBS SPECIAL PUBLICATION 330 1977 Edition U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Bureau of Standards —QC 100 • U57 No. 330 1977 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 1 The National Bureau of Standards was established by an act of Congress March 3, 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, (3) a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to pro- mote public safety. The Bureau consists of the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research, the Institute .."or Applied Technology, die Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology, the Office for Information Programs, and the 3ffice of Experimental Technology Incentives Program. fHE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the United States of a complete and consist- ent system of physical measurement; coordinates that system with measurement systems of other nations; and furnishes essen- tial services leading to accurate and uniform physical measurements . throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry, and commerce. The Institute consists of the Office of Measurement Services, and the following center and divisions: Applied Mathematics — Electricity — Mechanics —
    [Show full text]
  • The International System of Units (SI)
    A111D3 b331bl I United States Department of Commerce In # I National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST PUBLICATIONS NIST Special Publication 330 1991 Edition The International System of Units (SI) 4 &//# Oo^ w * <r 4^ A 5 vO r <9 ^ ^ </ QC— V^' ^ .<£ ^ 100 w 4> ** 0 S U57 ^ M m & o9 //330 1991 NIST SPECIAL PUBLICATION 330 1991 EDITION THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) United States of America Editor: Barry N. Taylor National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, MD 20899 Approved translation of the sixth edition (1991) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication Le Systeme International d'Unites (SI) (Supersedes NBS Special Publication 330 1986 Edition) Issued August 1991 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Robert A. Mosbacher, Secretary NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY, John W. Lyons, Director National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 330, 1991 Edition Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 330, 1991 Edition, 62 pages (Aug. 1991) CODEN: NSPUE2 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1991 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325 Foreword This booklet is the United States of America edition of the English-language translation of the sixth edition of Le Systeme International d'Unites (SI), the definitive reference on the SI published in 1991 by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in the French language. This USA edition conforms in substance with the English-language translation that follows the French- language text in the BIPM publication. That translation was a joint effort of the BIPM, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the United States, and the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in the United Kingdom.
    [Show full text]
  • Appendix a Unit Conversion Table
    Appendix A Unit Conversion Table The units used throughout the book are based on the U.S. customary units. This appendix provides a set of conversions from U.S. customary units to SI units (International System of Units, also known as the metric system) (Table A1). Table A1 Table of conversion factors for U.S. customary units To convert the unit in this Multiply Column 1 by this To obtain the unit in this column (Column 1) conversion factor column (Column 2) acres (ac) 0.4047 hectares (ha) acres (ac) 43,560 square feet (ft2) Btu 0.0002931 kilowater-hour (kWh) Btu/hour (Btu/h) 0.2931 watts (W) centimeters (cm) 0.3937 inches (in.) centimeters (cm) 0.03281 feet (ft) cubic feet (ft3) 0.0283 cubic meters (m3) cubic feet/second (cfs) 448.8 gallons/minute (gal/min) cubic meters (m3) 35.314 cubic feet (ft3) cubic meters (m3) 1.3079 cubic yards cubic yards (yd3) 0.7646 cubic meters (m3) feet (ft) 0.305 meter (m) feet/second (fps) 0.6818 miles/hour (mph) gallon (U.S.) (gal) 3.785 liter (L) gallon (U.S.) (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3) gallon (U.S.) (gal) 0.1334 cubic foot (ft3) gallons/minute (gal/min) 3.785 liters per minute (L/min) (continued) © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 867 R.L. Siegrist, Decentralized Water Reclamation Engineering, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-40472-1 868 Unit Conversion Table Table A1 (continued) To convert the unit in this Multiply Column 1 by this To obtain the unit in this column (Column 1) conversion factor column (Column 2) hectares (ha) 10,000 square meters (m2) hectares (ha) 2.47 acres (ac) kilograms (kg) 2.205
    [Show full text]
  • Cradle to Grave Lifecycle Analysis of US Light Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways
    Erratum to Accompany C2G Report (ANL/ESD-16/7) September 14, 2016 The calculation of the per-mile fuel cost for FUTURE TECHNOLOGY HEVs in the first release of this report (Section 9) mistakenly used an older estimate of fuel economy for this vehicle technology. This error also affected the subsequent calculation of the cost of avoided carbon emissions in Section 10 for FUTURE TECHNOLOGY HEVs. The on-road fuel economy for FUTURE TECHNOLOGY HEV used in the first release of this report was 48.2 mi/gge, whereas the fuel economy from Autonomie simulations for this vehicle technology (see Section 6) was 53.5 mi/gge. Using the 53.5 mi/gge fuel economy for FUTURE TECHNOLOGY HEV in the calculation of per-mile fuel cost of FUTURE TECHNOLOGY HEVs resulted in updates to the following figures and tables of the report: Figures ES- 3 and ES-5 in the Executive Summary; Figures 23, 25, and 27 in Section 9; Figures 34 and 36, and Tables 55 and 56 in Section 10; and Figures F.2 and F.4 (as well as the repeated Figures 23 and 34) in Appendix F. It is noted that the GHG emissions calculations in the first release of the report correctly used the 53.5 mi/gge for FUTURE TECHNOLOGY HEV. Thus no changes are made to the GHG emissions charts in the report. Updated version of the report is published as ANL/ESD-16/7 Rev. 1 CONTENTS Notation ....................................................................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... xvii Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. xviii 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Climate and Policy Context .......................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Units to Measure Mass Teacher Information: Understanding Mass
    Units to Measure Mass Teacher Information: understanding mass & weight For generations, we learned to talk about weight , which was measured in pounds, ounces and so on. Since the adoption of metric units, we now correctly refer to an object’s mass , measured in units based on the kilogram. • The mass of an object does not change with its location, and is a constant measure of the mat- ter that makes it up. • Weight , on the other hand, varies with the force of gravitational attraction, and is a measure of this force. Astronauts in space may have a weight that is zero, yet their masses will be un- changed. Older students may like to research “weightlessness” and its effects on travellers in space. Intended Learning Outcomes: At the conclusion of this activity, students will have • Correctly chosen metric units for measuring mass, appropriate for the measuring context and purpose • Recorded the results of measuring in appropriate detail and language • Estimated masses in their environment in appropriate metric units, to an acceptable level of accuracy Familiarity with International Metric Units 1. Discuss with students the correct term for “heaviness”, which is now “mass”, rather than “weight” 2. Ask students to say the names of units for measuring mass. Encourage them to think of as many as possible. List the units on a board, poster or computer, separating them into two unlabelled columns. When no more units can be added, ask students if they can figure out why you have separated the units into the two lists: List A List B rs we • gram g ns • ounce oz e a • kilogram kg ibl • pound lb ss • tonne t po • stone st me • milligram mg So • hundredweight Cwt • ton T For lists of other metric and Imperial/US customary units, see Wikipedia: • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_customary_units 3.
    [Show full text]