CHAPTER III

AVATAMSAKA , THE DEVELOPMENTAL PEAK OF PRATlTYA-SAMUTPADA THEORY Chapter III

AVATAMSAKA SUTRA, THE DEVELOPMENTAL PEAK OF PRATlTYA-SAMUTPADA THEORY

HLl. : HISTORICAL SKETCH As known to many people, is a doctrine on human life, a great religion for man’s sake in mankind history. The Buddhist doctrine is the practical teachings that can help one get rid of all afflictions and sufferings so as to achieve the real happiness. Therefore, what is considered here is that how we can realize and apply significantly what the Buddha taught into our daily life. In accordance with this tendency, the Buddha’s teaching, generally speaking, reclassified into two vehicles or Yanas, that is, HTnaydna and Mahdydna. Those who follow HTnaydna Buddhism try their best to observe and practice exactly the Buddha’s teaching in all activities of their daily life, so they do want nothing to be changed significantly according to time and circumstance. While, those who embrace Mahdydna Buddhism can be considered as followers of developing Buddhism; those who observe and practice properly what the Buddha taught, apply intelligently and skillfully with a little bit change in accordance 6 0 with the developments of the human society; however they never divert from the essentials of Buddhism. Actually, there is no any vehicle in Buddhism. But since it depends on circumstance, time and condition as well as faculty of people who are observing or listening to Buddha’s teaching that is understood and practiced differently. For this reason, there is the discrimination or division of the two vehicles as mention above. In a sense, the system of Mahdydna Buddhist scriptures, as HTnaydna has done, has presented numerous useful methods that can be well worth considering and practicing. Among them, Avatamsaka Sutra with its wonderful thought can make us open our insight of themselves and the universe in which we live. The Avatamsaka Sutra, the full name of which is Buddhdvatamsaka- mahavaipulya-sutra as mentioned in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, is a text revealed by the Buddha, after attaining enlightenment at the site of the bodhi-tvQQ and elsewhere, through the agency of , and M aiyusri and many other great . Here he speaks of the causative deeds of a Buddha and their resulting merits, very much like a garland of miscellaneous flowers.* That is why the Avatamsaka Sutra has been translated into English under the names such as ‘The Garland Scripture’ or

‘The Flower Ornament Scripture’. Here the term 'Avatamsa' means a ring shaped ornament. It literally indicates that all the virtues that the Buddha has accumulated by the time He attains

G. P. Malalasekera, Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. II, p. 435. 61 enlightenment, very much like a beautiful garland of flowers that adorns Him. While the 'Vaipulya' is a title given to a Sutra, it propounds the vast, perfect, inexhaustible tenets of the Sutra.

However, with the rise of Mahdydna Buddhism the Buddha is no longer simply as a historical one, He is personalized and philosophized as the spiritual existence of the Dharmakdya (the Body of ), one of the conceptions of Triple body of the

Tathdgata or Trikdya developed by Mahdydnists. The Dharmakdya is a reality and tantamount to Suchness or knowledge of Suchness, while two other forms of the Tathdgata {Nirmdnakdya, the Body of Transformation and Sambhogakdya, the Body of Bliss) are provisional existences.* In this sense, the term ‘‘avatarnsa' symbolically indicates all existences which are conditionally chained each other like “a garland of flowers” - and is the expression of the eternal spirit which could not perish with vicissitudes of corporeal existence. The Avatamsaka sutra therefore is another way of expounding pratitya-samutpdda theory revealed by the Buddha. It includes all the Buddhist teachings in a harmonious, multifaceted array as themost profound and important philosophy of Buddhism.

Unfortunately, the whole Avatamsaka sutra has not been preserved in Sanskrit, but two very important chapters of the text are extant as the Dasabhumika and the . Both these chapters broke off from the parent text and became independent

D. T. Suzuki, Outline of Mahdydna Buddhism, pp. 253-59. 6 2

texts. The Dasabhumika is a work on the ten stages of ,

while the Gandavyuha is a work relating the wandering of in search of enlightenment, and constituting the concluding portion of the Avatamsaka sutra. It could be noted that the Gandavyuha is another way of saying ''Avatamsaka sutra' which is represented in Chinese called Hua-yen-ching. Here, it does find the similarities in the various titles of the Siitra.

As we know, the Gandavyuha and the Avatamsaka have been more or less indiscriminately used for the Chinese Hua-yen. Ganda means Hua or flower, i.e., ordinary flower, tsa-hua; and vyuha means yen, i.e., chuang-yen or ornament, array. According to Fa-tsang’s commentary on the Hua-yen Siitra, its original Sanskrit title is given as chien-na-p ’iao-ho, which stands as nearly as the Chinese phonetics for the transliteration of Gandavyuha. Then chien-na is understood as ‘common flower’ and p ’iao-ho as ‘decoration’. Avatamsaka, as explained above, means ‘garland’, or ‘flower decoration’, and may be regarded as an equivalent to hua- yen}

Nevertheless, there is a Mahdydna Siitra bearing the specific title Gandavyuha as one of Nine Principal Buddhist in Nepal, which can make confusion. This belongs to the group of the Mahdydna SUtras known in Chinese as belonging to the Hua- yen-ching, and in fact is the final chapter of the Hua-yen-ching both of sixty and eighty fascicles, and corresponds to the Hua-yen-

D.T. Suzuki, Essay in Buddhism, Vol. Ill, p. 70. 63 ching translated into Chinese by Prajnd in forty fascicles. This final chapter is called in Chinese, and in Tibetan, the “Chapter on Entering into the Dharmadhdtu’' (Sanskrit, Dharmadhdtupravesay To avoid confusion it may be better to apply the Sanskrit title Avatamsaka to the entire group of the Hua-yen and Gandavyuha to the forty fascicles Hua-yen only. Hence, the Avatamsaka w ill include the Gandavyuha, which latter in spite of Fa-tsang’s authority, is specifically the name reserved for the “Chapter on Entry into the Realm of Reality”

III.2. COMPILATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SUTRA

Historically speaking, the Avatamsaka Sutra, a masterpiece o f Mahdydna Buddhist Scriptures formed the basis of Chinese Hua-yen and Japanese . Based on this text, the Chinese Hua-yen school was founded by Tu-shun (557- 640) and organized by Fa-tsang (643-712). The Kegon School was imported to during the Nara Period (710-794) of its history.^ It is such events that there is little certainly regarding the composition of Avatamsaka sutra. Research indicates that much of the text may have been composed in central Asia or perhaps even in China. It was presumably translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Buddhabhadra around 420 C.E.^ Therefore, in order to have a

' Ibid, p. 71. " Junjiro Takakusu, The Essential of Buddhism Philosophy, p. 112-117. ^ Charles S. Prebish, Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, p. 61. 6 4 certain proper knowledge of the developmental history of the Hua- yen Sutra. Here, it would be necessary for us to have a glance into some accounts concerning the first introduction of Buddhism in china before the Avatamsaka Sutra appeared. Natural and silent as the rising sun, the history based on Buddhist propagation often accompanies with nonviolence and it is mainly based on the principle of winning the hearts, so it is very difficult to determine exactly the date of the introduction of Buddhism into a certain country in the ancient time. The introduction of Buddhism in China is not an exception. Therefore, various legends were forged in order explain the first appearance of Buddhism in this vast continent. Here we can pick up some typical one. The first legend concerning the introduction of Buddhism in China is the arrival of group of Buddhist monks, headed by the sramana Shih-li-fang with a number of sutras at the capital of Ch’in Shih-huang-ti (221-208 B.C.E). The first Emperor, unwilling to accept the doctrine, immediately had them put in jail. But at night the prison was broken open by a Golden Man, sixteen feet high, who released them. Moved by this miracle, the emperor bowed his head to the ground and excused himself.'

Next, Wei shou (506-572 C.E), the compiler of Wei-shu, the history of the T ’o-pa Wei, states in the chapter on Buddhism and Taoism of this work that the famous explorer Chang ch’ien, who

E. Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest o f China, pp. 19-20. 65 in 138 B.C.E was sent to the country of the Yueh-chih and “opened up the west”, after his return to China reported on Buddhism in India, “and then the Chinese for the first time heard about Buddhism”. The same tradition in an even more apodictic form is repeated by Tao-hsuan in his Kuang hung-ming chi of 664 C.E. The story is certainly apocryphal - as we shall see, the compiler of the Hou-Han shu, the history of the Later Han (hence before 446 C.E), even stresses the fact that Chang ch ’ien in his reports on the Western regions never mentioned Buddhism.* Another account tells us that the famous golden statue of the Hun king which in 120 B.C.E was capture by the Han general Ho

C h ’u-ping in the region of Kara-nor, and which in the earliest sources is named “the golden man (used by) the king of the Hsiu- ch ’u in sacrificing to heaven”, has sometime been regarded as a Buddhist image. This no doubt erroneous interpretation does not seem to be of Buddhist origin. From the account mentioned above, we may conclude that Buddhism was introduced into China not in the Early Han Dynasty, but latter on. Among various accounts, the most remarkable story that occurs persistently in Buddhist records is the dream of Emperor Ming (58-75 C.E). It took place in the second half of the first century C.E, i.e., under Emperor Ming of the later Han dynastj^. The story runs generally as follows:^

' Ibid, pp. 20-21. ^ Ibid, p.21.

^ Kenneth K.S. C h’en, Buddhism in China, pp. 29-30. 66

One night in a dream Emperor Ming saw a golden deity flying in from of his palace. On the morrow he asked his ministers to explain the identity of this deity. One of them, Fu Yi, replied that he heard there was a sage in India who had attained salvation and was designated the Buddha. He went on to say that the deity seen in the dream was this Buddha. The king accepted his explanation and dispatched envoys abroad to learn more bout this sage and his teachings. The envoys returned bringing back with them two foreign monks Kasyapa Mdtanga and Dharmaratna^ along with some Buddhist Sutras and images on a white horse, which was received by the Emperor and built for them a temple outside the wall of the capital, Lo-yang, known as White Horse Temple. Like other legends, this dream cannot be accepted as authentic and reliable because it lacks firm historical basis. But it also shows that Buddhism, in fact, was already introduced into the country at the time of the purported dream. Though Buddhism could appear in china in the second half of the first century C.E as just mentioned above, the work of translating the Avatamsaka into Chinese apparently began in the second century C.E^ and continued for the better part of a thousand years. During this time more than thirty translations and retranslations of various books and selections from the scripture

' Dharmaratna may be Chu Fa-lan, according to E.Zurcher, Buddhist Conquest o f China, p. 22. ^ Thomas Cleary, Flower Ornament Scripture, Vol. I, p. 2. 6 7

was produced. Comprehensive renditions of the scripture were finally made in the early the fifth and seventh centuries. The original texts for these both of monumental translations were brought to China from Khotan in central Asia. Khotan is now a part of the Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Uighur, an autonomous region of China. According to the Chinese sources, there were six different Avatamsaka Sutras, the longest of which contained 100,000 verses and the shortest 36,000. Among them, there are three following versions available in Chinese.'

1. An Indian monk named Buddhabhadra (359-429 C.E) who arrived in China in 406 C.E, and his colleagues translated the first comprehensive version within two years (418-420 C.E). This version contains 60 fascicles including 34 chapters. 2. The second version was translated under direction of a Khotanese monk named Sikshdnanda (652-710 C.E) during the time of four years (695-699 C.E). This version contains 80 fascicles including 39 chapters with 45,000 verses. It was based on a more complete text imported from Khotan at the request of the Empress of China, Wu

T se-t’ien. It is somewhat 10% longer than the Buddhabhadra's translation.

Sangaharakshita, The Eternal Legacy, p. 222. 68

3. The third translation consisting of 40 fascicles was

carried out in 196-191 C.E by an Indian monk named Prajna who was assisted by a group of ten monks including Yuan-chao and Ch ’eng-kuan - two of the most eminent scholars of the day. This version as aforementioned, is the shortest of the three corresponding to the Sanskrit Gandavyuha, comprises about one fourth of the known works with 36,000 verses in total.

Long before the first translation of Hua-yen by Buddhabhadra appeared, one of the first Buddhist missionaries from India is recorded as having rendered what appears to be the Sanskrit Dasabhumika into the in eight fascicles in the years C.E 70. Unfortunately, this translation is lost. About ninety years later (C.E 167), Chi Lou-chia-ch ’an came from Yueh- chih and translated into Chinese the Tushdra Sutra, which is also part of the Hua-yen Sutra. The Tushdra Sutra corresponds to the ‘Chapter on the Names of the Tathdgata’. Still later, C hih-ch’ien, Dharmaraksha, Nieh Ch ’eng-yuan and his son Tao-chen, Chu Fo- nien and others produced a number of sutras belonging to Hua-yen group. Until the time when, in C.E 420, Buddahabhadra finished his great sixty- fascicle sutra in which these separate sutras, as well as many others, were included as belonging to one comprehensive Hua-yen-ching {Avatamsaka)}

D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, Vol. Ill, pp. 71-2. 69

From this fact, we can believe that some of the chapters in the Hua-yen-ching were originally independent sutras, and that the

compiler or compiliers of the larger sutra thought it appropriate to put them all together under one title so as to have them arranged systematically. The Dasabhumika or (Dasabhumisvara) and Gandavyuha or (Dharmadhdtupravesa) Sutra for this reason they still keep their independence. The Tibetan Avatamsaka is just as inclusive as the Chinese eighty or sixty-fascicle Hua-yen.

The Sanskrit text of Dasabhumika Sutra is still extant, and is available in Tibetan and Chinese translations. Among the latter, the earliest is made by Dharmarakhsa in 297 C.E, which enables us to fix an upper lim it for the composition of this work, at least in its original form. Subsequent versions were made by KumdrajTva

(406 C.E), Bodhiruci (500-516 C.E), and Siladharma (789 C.E), the last two being now lost. To what extent the translations agree among themselves, or with the Sanskrit original as now extant, is uncertain. According to one modem authority, the Dasabhumisvara is the title of a recension augmented by Prakrit verse, Unlike the Gandavyuha, which is composed in mixed prose and verse, the Dasabhumika is entirely in prose, containing an admixture of Sanskrit verse only in Chapter one.*

Sangharakshita, The Eternal Legacy, pp. 233-4. 70

III.3. THE STRUCTURE OF TYIE AVATAMSAKA SUTRA

The entire Hua-yen scripture (or Avatamsaka) no longer exists in Sanskrit, and some scholars believe that it may never have existed. There are many partial translations in Chinese and two extensive translations which, compared with what else exists, may be called full or comprehensive translations. The first full translation, in sixty scrolls, was made by Buddhabhadra (359-429 C.E); an even more thorough version, comprising eighty scrolls, was made from another text at the end of the seventh century by Sikshdnanda (652-710 C.E). For convenience these two versions are often referred to respectively as the sixty and eighty-scroll

Hua-yen.

To present the structure of the Hua-yen scripture while at the same time tracing its introduction into China, we shall base our analysis on the eighty-scroll version, noting alternative translations of portions or book of the scripture where they exist, and then review the main intent or contents of each book. In each case the lead entry refers to Sikshdnanda's version and the number

60 stands for Buddhabhadra's. Here, based on the translation made by Sikshdnanda in 80 fascicles, the structure of Avatamsaka sUtra (or Hua-yen scripture) was systematically divided into 39 books as seen below.

In the first book of the scripture, entitled ''The wonderful

Adornments o f the leaders o f the Worlds', it describes a symbolic assembly of various groups of beings at the site of Buddha’s 71 enlightenment. The title of this book refers to the representatives of various realms of being who appear on the scene, but it can also be read Wonderful Adornments of the leader of the worlds, referring specifically to the Buddha, the various states of being seen as adornments of the Buddha, their realizations representing aspects of Buddha’s total enlightenment. In accordance with Buddhabhadra"s translation, this book entitles 'P u re Eyes o f the Worlds which represents the total universal awareness of the Buddha. In this opening book, a general picture of the nature of and the general principles and scope of the teaching is built up through the various beings’ eulogies and descriptions of the liberation they have realized. What is stressed is the universality and comprehensiveness of Buddhahood, which is described as both physically and metaphysically coextensive with the cosmos itself. It emphasizes that Buddha expounds the truth by various means and teaches innumerable practices for the benefit of all beings: here Buddha’’’ refers to reality itself, and to people who are awake to reality. The various kinds of beings that appear in this book do not in this case represent their mundane aspects as such, but rather depict various facets of the Buddha's enlightenment, while also representing the potential for enlightenment inherent in all conscious beings, a fundamental theme of universalistic Buddhism.

The second book, entitled 'Appearance o f the Buddha', tells about characteristics of Buddhahood, stressing the infinity and 72 eternity of Buddha in the cosmic sense of being reality itself The epithet of Buddha used in the title is Tathagata, which is understood in to mean “ One who comes from Thusness,” the term “Thusness” referring to being -as-it-is, unpredicted reality or Dharma. The human Buddha is considered in one sense as someone who is aware of fundamental continuity and identity with Dharma. In Avatamsaka sutra the term ''Buddha ” is commonly used for thusness or reality itself; in this book it is pointed out that Buddha, reality, appears everywhere to all beings, but it is seen in accord with their perceptive capacities. It conveys the parallel messages that all experience reality according to their faculties and predilections, and that correlative to this; enlightened guides present various teachings to people in accord with their needs, potentials, and conditions. This accounts for the wide variety of doctrines in Buddhism. Some of which may on the surface seem so different as to be even mutually opposed; underlying this variety is the fact that diverse aspects of a situation or levels of truth may be discussed separately, and that different ways of seeing, thinking, and acting may be recommended to different people, depending on the time and circumstances. This principle of adaptation and specific prescription is known as “skill in means” and is so basic and pervasive that it is impossible to understand Buddhism without a thorough appreciation of its premises, its purpose and implications. 73

The third book, 'The Meditation of Boddhisattva Samantabhadra, also called 'The Enlightening Being Universally G o o d ’ exposes the metaphysic of the Bodhisattva or “enlightening being,” the worker for the universal enlightenment. The practical aspect o f Bodhisattva is here and throughout the scripture typified by a symbolic being called Universally Good or Universal Good {Sdmantabhadra).ThQ interrelatedness of all beings and awareness of that interrelatedness on the part of Bodhisattvas are graphically represented in this book. By being in direct contact with “thusness” or “suchness” without the distorting influence of preconceptions and partiality, Bodhisattavas are, according to this book, aware of each other through being equally focused on reality. The unity of their purpose - universal liberation and enlightenment - which underlies diversity of method is emphasized strongly here. Again, it is made clear that Bodhisattvas may appear in virtually any form and employ a wide variety of means, according to what is useful for the liberation of people in given conditions. Universal Good (Sdmantavhadra), representing the enlightening work as a whole, extending throughout all places and times, therefore symbolizes a central concept of this scripture.

The fourth book, 'The Formation of the World’, presents visionary descriptions of worlds as representing the consequences of aspirations and actions. Emphasized here is the relativity of the world and mind, how the features of the world depend on the 74 states of mind and corresponding deeds of the inhabitants. A considerable portion of the contents of this and the following book consists of a series of litanies of concentration formulae, intended to convey certain impressions to the mind and to encapsulate certain aspects of the teaching to focus attention on them. It is through transformation of the vision of the world as well as the attitudes and actions connected with that vision that the world itself is transformed. This point also is an important part of the message of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

The fifth book is entitled "The Flower Bank World’. The so- called ‘Flower Bank World’ is also referred to as the ocean of worlds arrayed by flower bank, and may be translated as the world adorned by treasuries of flowers. This “world” is in the Scripture represented as an “ocean of World”, and is said to be our universe. In this scripture “flowers” generally represent practices or deeds, which produce fruits and seeds of consequent states. This book presents a visionary cosmology describing this world system or universe as purified by the vows and deeds of Buddha, the glorified or cosmic aspect of historical Buddha. It represents the world system as resting on an ocean of fragrant water, which symbolizes what is called the “repository consciousness,” which is the mental repository or “storehouse” in which all experiential impressions are stored. It is from these impressions that images of the world develop. These images of the world are represented in the scripture as features of the world system. The land masses in 75 the world system also contain seas of fragrant water, which symbolize virtuous qualities or adornment are described, symbolizing not only virtues but also purely aesthetic views of the world without the contamination of emotional judgments.

The sixth Book, 'Vairocana’, recounts illustrative tales of the development of the Buddha Vairocana in remote antiquity. The name Vairocana is interpreted in two senses, universal illuminator and specific illuminator, embodying both holistic and differentiating awareness. As noted, Vairocana is understood as another name for Sdkyamuni in the cosmic, metaphysical sense, and also in the sense of the qualities or verities of Buddhahood that are common to all Buddhas. This book describes a variety of realization and attainments of Vairocana in the causal state, using meditation formulae representing basic principles and customs of Buddhist teachings. These are suggested in terms of various spells, trances, psychic powers, knowledge, lights, activities perspectives, and so on.

The seventh book, called ‘‘Names o f the Buddha’, again emphasizes that Buddhas, enlightened people, develop profound insight into mentalities and potentials, and teach people in accord with their capacities and needs. Thus, it is that all see Buddha differently, according to their faculties and to the teachings, which have been adapted to their situations. This book recites names and epithets of Buddhas to represent different perceptions or different facets of the qualities of enlightenment. Sometime from the 7 6

viewpoint of effect; sometime they are explicit, sometimes they are veiled in metaphor.

The eighth book, ‘ The Four Holy Truths or The ’, is based on the same principle as the foregoing book, representing Buddhist teaching in myriad different ways to accommodate various mentalities and understandings. Following the lead of the seventh book. The Four Holy Truths gives various names and capsule descriptions of four points that are believed to have one of the original teaching frames of the historical Buddha. Basically, these four truths refer to the fact of suffering, the origin of suffering, the extinction of suffering, and ways to the extinction of suffering. Here again the representations of these points may be put it terms of cause or of effect. Sometime the mundane truths - suffering and its origin - are put in terms not of conventional reality but of ultimate reality - inherent emptiness - to show a path of transition to the world-transcending truths within the mundane itself.

In book nine, entitled '‘Awakening by Light\ is an expanding vision unfolding within light issuing from Buddha’s feet: the light progressively illumines greater and greater numbers of worlds as it travels further and further into space, radiating in all directions, revealing similar structures and parallel events in each world. In every world are immense numbers of Buddhas who attract ten great enlightening beings, one from each of ten directions, who in turn are each accompanied by countless enlightening being. When 77 the assemblies have all been arrayed, one of each group of ten great enlightening beings chants descriptive eulogies of the Buddha, alluding to the acts and realities of Buddhahood. Here again is emphasized the identity of Buddha with truth and ultimate reality, the transcendental nature of the essence of Buddha.

The tenth book, called ''An Enlightening Being Asks fo r Clarification', follows up on the ninth, with the same interlocutors. This book goes explicitly into metaphysics, explaining the principle of the naturelessness or essencelessness of all phenomena. This means that things have no individual nature, no inherent identity or essence of their own; because they are interdependent and only exist due to causes and conditions. For this reason, it is repeatedly stated that the nature of things is natureless, that they have no being of their own. It points out that the seeming existence of things as separate independent entities is in fact conceptual, a description projected by the mind on the flux of sense data; the real nature of things, it maintains, is insubstantial, and they die out instant to instant. In this book, it is restated that realms or conditions of being are consequences of action, but it goes on to say that action is fundamentally baseless or lacking in ultimate reality - it is the mind’s attachment to its own constructs that provides the sense of continuity. This book also emphasizes that the teachings of Buddhas may be manifold and different according to specific circumstances, but the essential truth is one and the various teachings and practices are all parts of 78 a total effort. To clarify this points further, the different mental conditions for which particular aspects of the diverse and approaches of Buddhism. This book also stresses the critical importance of actual application of the teachings, without which the mere description of techniques is useless.

The eleventh book called 'Purifying Practice’ which was translated several times, as early as the third century.' It is a litany of prayers concentrating on the development of outlook and mentality of the Bodhisattva. It particularly focuses on the interconnectedness of all beings and the training of this awareness. It details an elaborate scheme of thought-cultivation in which consciousness of daily activities is directed to specific wishes for universal well-being and liberation. In tern of format, much of it is based on entry into monastic life, and some of the specific action and events on which the contemplations are based are of monastic life, but many others make no necessary distinction between lay and monastic life.

The twelfth book, called '"Chief in Goodness’, eulogizes the aspiration or will for enlightenment, the monumental spiritual

conversion by which an ordinary person becomes a Bodhisattva whose life and action is based on and guided by the determination for the enlightenment and liberation of all beings. The inspiration of the genuine will for enlightenment is in a sense itself transcendence of the world, as universal enlightenment become

Thomas Cleary, The Flower Ornament Scripture, Vol. 1, p. 35. 79 the reason for being, and life itself is transformed into a vehicle of enlightenment. Following this, faith is praised for its instrumental value as a means of directing the mind and focusing effort. Then the book goes on to describe practices and their results, in terms of both self-cultivation and assistance-to-others. Again, adaptability is emphasized, and Bodhisattvas are symbolically described as presenting all sorts of displays and teachings to apply edifying and liberating influences on people.

Book thirteen, entitled 'Ascent to the Peak of Mount Sum eru’, describes this mountain as the abode of Indra (or Shakra), the mythical king of the gods of the thirty-threefold heaven. Mount Sumeru is also pictured as thirty-three celestial palaces on the peaks surrounding the summit of Sumeru. This book is a brief visionary welcome of the Buddha into the palace of

Indra.

Book fourteen, 'Eulogies on Mount Sumeru emphasizes the metaphysical aspect of Buddha, as being absolute truth. The force of this approach is to counter preoccupation with forms. Buddha is said to be the very absence of inherent existence or intrinsic nature of all conditioned things. Conventional reality is called a description consisting of habitual conceptions and views. Defining the world through verbal and conceptual representations is by its very nature limiting, restricting awareness, so this chapter stresses the need to see through, see beyond conventional reality in order to become enlightened. When the nature of perceptual and 80

conceptual organization hardens into an exclusive view, the mind has lost its freedom. The dependence of views on social, cultural, and psychological factors attests to their non-absoluteness; the concern of and meditation is to see through such conditioning and restore the mind to openness and flexibility. This book states that the basis of delusion and falsehood is reality, meaning that delusion and falsehoods, being themselves conditioned, do not have any inherent reality or inevitability - this very emptiness of inherent reality is what is called absolute reality or truth. What is intended by this insight is not nihilistic extinction, but seeing delusion for what it is: the term “extinction” used in this connection essentially means the extinction of conditioned views. Here the scripture says that having no views is true seeing, which sees everything because it is seeing without the restriction of predispositions of ingrained mental habits. This philosophy of the relativity of mind and world is provided as a rational basis for dissolving clinging to views and freeing the mind from the enclosure of inflexible, set ways of seeing and thinking about things.

The fifteenth book, called 'Ten Abodes’, is a brief description of ten stations of Bodhisattvas. The first abode is that of initial determination, setting the mind on omniscience, to broaden its horizons. Second is preparing the ground, or cultivation; here the development of universal compassion is emphasized. Also involved is learning, from people and situations 81

as well as from formal study. Third is the abode of practice, to clarify knowledge; here various aspects of emptiness are emphasized. Fourth is the abode of “noble birth,” which means from the enlightening teachings; here knowledge - of beings, phenomena, causality, and so on - is emphasized, as well as the knowledge, practice, and realization of the teachings of Buddhas of all times, with awareness of the essence of Buddhahood, which is equal in all times. Fifth, the abode of skill in means, involves further development of knowledge and means of conveying knowledge, and working for universal salvation without attachments. Sixth, the abode of the correct state of mind, involves developing a mind that does not waver in face of apparently contradictory aspects of things; here again the inherent emptiness of things is emphasized. Seventh, the abode of non­ regression means not regressing regardless of what one may hear in regard to different aspects of things, and learning the principles of reunion of oppositions through relativity. Eight, the abode of youthful nature, involves development of perfection, of psychic freedom, and vast extension of the range of study and application of the teachings. Ninth, the abode of prince of the teaching is stage of development of discursive knowledge and the particular sciences of teacherhood. Tenth is the stage of coronation or anointment, referring to the accomplishment of knowledge of all sciences and means of liberation and the development of a sphere of Buddhahood. 82

Book sixteen, entitled 'Religious Practice’, describes detailed analytic investigations, which eventually arrive at ungraspability, systematically removing the mind from fixations, destroying the structure of a formal religious world in order to embrace formless truth. After this book goes on to bring up the special powers of knowledge of Buddhas as realms o f deep study, and concludes with exhortations to integrate compassion with the understanding of illusoriness

The seventeenth book is called ''The of the Initial Determination for Enlightenment'. This book describes in grandiose terms the virtues of the aspiration for enlightenment. It stresses the sense of this determination transcending all limited aspirations, being directed toward omniscience and universal liberation and enlightenment. Many points or fields of knowledge are specifically mentioned in this cormection, including the “mutual containment” or mutual immanence of different quanta of being and time, referring to the interdependence of definitions, and the interrelation of elements and structural sets. Other prominent spheres of knowledge are those involved in the study of mentalities and mental phenomena, this kind of knowledge being essential to the science of nation for complete universal enlightenment reflects its importance as the essence of the whole endeavor of Bodhisattvas, who do not seek enlightenment for their own personal ends. The correct orientation at the outset is deemed essential to truly transcend the limitation of self; without this 83 transcendent resolve, the power of spiritual exercises exaggerates

and strengthens the affliction of self-seeking and can lead to

harmful aberrations.

Book eighteen, entitled ‘‘Clarifying Method’, present a series

o f lists o f elements o f the Bodhisattva’s path o f enlightening beings. First, it stresses the development o f the determination for

omniscience, which means knowledge of all things pertinent to

liberation. Then it goes on to work on non-indulgence or , in terms o f ten items; these lead to ten kinds of purity. Following this it brings up twenty things which are congenial to enlightenment, ten things whereby enlightening beings can rapidly enter the stages of enlightenment, ten things which purity their practices, ten results o f purity o f practice, ten vows, ten ways o f fulfilling vows, and ten spiritual “treasuries” attained as a result of fulfilling vows. This book also talks about means o f purifying the ten essential ways of transcendence, or perfections of enlightening beings, and about specific cures of spiritual ills.

Book nineteen, 'Ascent to the Palace of the Suyama

Heaven is much like book thirteen; here the Buddha is welcomed into the heaven called Suyama, without, however, leaving the foot the enlightenment tree and the peak o f the polar mountain Sumeru.

This introduces the following book, in which the all - pervasiveness of Buddha is stressed. 84

The twentieth book is called 'Eulogies in the Palace o f the

Suyama Heaven’. This book emphasizes the universality of Buddha in terms o f metaphysical essence and in terms o f practice. The spiritual body of Buddha is seen here as the cultivation of enlightenment potential inherent in all conscious beings in all times. The nature o f Buddha, beings, and phenomena is spoken of in these terms: “Sentient and consentient beings both have no true reality. Such is the nature of all things - in reality they are not existent. Also, analyzing matter and mind, their nature is fundamentally void; because they are void, they cannot be destroyed - this is the meaning of “birthlessness”. Since sentient being are thus, so are Buddhas - Buddhas and Buddhas” teachings in essence have no existence.” In addition “The body is not

Buddha, Buddha is not the body - only reality is Buddha's body”, if this fact is realized, all things are understood. Those who can see the Buddha-hoAy pure as the essence of things will have no doubt about Buddha's teaching. If you see that the fundamental nature of all things is like , this is seeing Buddha, ultimately without abode”

Book twenty-one is entitled 'Ten Practices'. These ten practices, though under different names, correspond to the ten perfections (Pdramitds), or ways o f transcendence, upon which the path of Bodhisattvas or enlightening beings is based: giving, ethical conduct, forbearance, energy, concentration, wisdom, expedient methodology, power, commitment, and knowledge. I'he 8!) accomplishment o f these is based on the relativity = emptiness equation; the first six are especially based on emptiness within relative existence, while the last four are based on relative existence within emptiness.

The twenty-second book, 'Ten Inexhaustible Treasuries', deals with ten sources of the development and activity of enlightening beings (Bodhisattvas): faith, ethics, shame, conscience, learning, giving, wisdom, remembrance, preservation of enlightening teachings, and elocution. Various items from these

“treasuries” are explained in detail. The section on faith deals with the object o f faith, mostly expressed in terms o f absolute truth, as well as states o f mind caused by faith. The section on ethics deals with general ethical principles and orientation as well as specific articles o f ethical conduct. Shame refers to being ashamed o f past wrongs; conscience refers to resolve not to continue to act unwisely. The section on learning deals with specifics of interdependent origination of conditioned states, and with analytic knowledge. Giving involves “giving up” in the sense of intellectual and emotional relinquishment, such as nonattachment to past and future, as well as the act of giving itself and the frame o f mind o f generosity. Giving is often put in hyperbolic or symbolic terms, and has the general sense o f contributing one’s resources-including one’s very being - to the common happiness rather than to purely private aims. The section on wisdom deals with both phenomena and principles, with discursive knowledge 86 being described as leading to insight into emptiness and independent understanding. The treasury o f recollection involves recollection o f very moment o f awareness - represented as countless ages due to the density o f experience - including changes undergone as well as contents of what has been learned.

Preservation means preservation of Buddha - teachings and the sciences involved therein. Elocution refers to explanation and teaching.

Book twenty-three, entitled ‘‘Ascent to the Palace of the

Tusita Heaven', describes in great detail the arrays o f ornaments set out to welcome Buddha to this heaven. This is on a vaster scale than the other heavens, which Buddha visits in this scripture, because the Tusita heaven, the heaven o f happiness or satisfaction, represents the abode o f a Buddha-to-bQ just before manifesting complete enlightenment in the world. The assembly of enlightening beings (Bodhisattvas) there is also depicted in terms of the practices and qualities that developed them. After this is an elaborate description of the spiritual qualities of Buddha.

Book twenty-four called 'Eulogies in The Tusita Palace', resembles the other-comparable books o f the scripture, eulogizing the universality o f the awareness and metaphysical reality of

Buddha, reconciling multiplicity and unity, emphasizing the relativity of the manifestation of Buddha to the minds of the perceivers. 87

The twenty-fifth book, called ‘‘Ten Dedications', is one the longest book o f the scripture; indicative o f the great importance of dedication in the life of enlightening beings {Bodhisattvas).

Dedication particularly reflects two essential principles of enlightening beings’ practice; giving, or relinquishment; and vowing or commitment. The basic orientation of dedication is the fijll development, liberation, and enlightenment of all beings. The scope o f the ten dedications is beyond the capacity o f an individual to fulfill personally; it is through dedication that the individual Bodhisattva merges with the total effort o f all Bodhisattvas. This book again emphasizes the integration of wisdom and compassion, acting purposeftilly even while knowing the ultimately unreal nature o f conditional existence. This skill of acting without attachment, without compulsion, without grasping or rejecting existence or emptiness, is presented as the essence of dedication and fundamental to the path o f Bodhisattvas}

Book twenty-six is the famous book on 'The Ten Stages of

Enlightenment'. The teaching of the ten stages is presented as the foundation of all Buddhist teachings. Of the various modes of teaching - sudden and gradual, explicit and implicit - it is the gradual and explicit that overtly dominates in The Ten Stages, thus making it one o f clearest and most straightforward o f the book of the scripture. This book is of such significance that it was translated into Chinese no fewer than five times, three times as an

' Thomas Cleary, The Flow er Ornament Scripture, Vol. I, pp. 2-11 (from book 1 to book 25). individual scripture over a period of five hundred years; it also exists in Sanskrit as an individual scripture.

The Ten Stages include phases o f practice such as are usually associated with the so-called lesser vehicles o f individual salvation, but the Bodhisattva does not take the annihilation or liberation from worldly concerns made available by these methods as the final realization. In the high stage wherein effortlessness and cessation of mental and physical action tale place, it is external inspiration that motivates the practitioner to rise even beyond this stage o f personal peace. In the highest stage the cosmic awareness whose perspective pervades the whole scripture ultimately opens up explicitly, showing the “one-in-all, all-in-one” vision o f Dharmadhdtu.

An important theme in The Ten Stages, one that appears here and there throughout the Sutra in various appearances, is the cultivation of both mundane and transmundane welfare. A most important concept mentioned early in this book is that of the “Six

Characteristics”, as it was known in the Hua-yen school of Buddhism in East Asia. Not explicitly developed in the Sutra but rather illustrated throughout, this idea was singled out by the founders o f the Hua-yen School in China as a major element of their philosophy. The six Characteristics are totality, distinction, sameness, difference, formation, and disintegration. In the context of stages of enlightenment, or practices, this means that all together from a single totality, while each are distinct elements of 89 that totality, all are the same insofar as they complement each other and work together to produce the total effect, while individually they have different functions within the whole work; as elements in the same one totality, they form the whole and in it reach their individual accomplishment, while separately they not only do not form a whole but also are not individually perfected without the others.

The twenty-seventh book, "The Ten Concentrations’’ speaks of enlightening beings breaking through the barriers of the familiar relative world - barriers o f space, time, multiplicity, and solidity - by mental concentration. One aspect of this practice is the entry and exit of concentration in different domains. “Entry” is interpreted as concentration, or absolution, and “exit” as insight, or knowledge; through concentration in one domain, insight into another is awakened. This is done through numerous different mediums of concentration and is connected with the development of the H ua-yen vision of the interpretation of principles and phenomena and the interpenetration of phenomena.

The Flower Ornament Scripture {Hua-yen Ching) is like a hologram; the whole concentrated in all the parts, this very structure reflecting a fundamental doctrine o f the scripture, that this is what the cosmos itself is like, everything interrelating, the one and the many interpenetrating. In the book on The Ten Stages this is illustrated with the gradual mode of teaching predominant; in the book on The Ten Concentrations this is shown with the 90 sudden or all-at-once mode coming strongly to the fore, paralleling the step-by-step format.

A n essential theme of The Ten Concentrations is the purpose of knowledge in the context of the life of enlightening beings

(Boddhisattvas)', especially, understanding the processes of development o f civilizations and mentalities, and how the cycles o f teaching operate in the context of these processes and their various elements.

Book twenty-eight, called "The Ten Superknowledges\ describes higher faculties, function developed through the concentrations, said to be inconceivable to any m ind except those of the fully awakened and the awakening who have attained them.

The twenty-nine book, entitled ""The Ten Acceptances’, deals with entry into non-conventional aspects o f reality. The boundaries of conventional mental construction are penetrated but not destroyed because their ultimately illusory nature is realized.

Transcendental and mundane levels o f truth are both accepted: the immanence of the absolute in the relative is experienced as all- pervasive, spiritual phenomena and mundane phenomena being found to have the same phantasmagorical nature; thus the ultimate tolerance is attained whereby the mind is freed.

The book thirty, called 'The Incalculable’, develops the immense numbers used in the scripture. The higher numbers far exceed present estimations of the number of atoms in the universe; they are more closely approached by the numbers of potential 91 brain operations. The H ua-yen (Flower Ornament) method of calculation includes in the dimension of time as well as space, and follows the principles expounded in the scripture - for example, since everything is a series of moments, continually passing away and being renewed, each moment therefore is new universe; also, the content o f each passing moment of awareness is a universe.

Furthermore, all existences are what they are in relation to all other existences; thus, in terms o f the "'Indra's Net” view o f H ua- yen (the Flower Ornament), the facets o f existence are incalculable, interrelating and infinitum. This is illustrated by the progression o f squares by which the incalculable numbers are developed in this book. The book concludes with a verse declaring that the cosmos is unutterably infinite, and hence so is the total scope and detail of knowledge and activity of enlightenment.

''Life Span'' is the title of the thirty book, presents a similar progressive generation o f time frames in different “worlds” culminating in the frame o f reference o f the prototype of

Bodhisattvas (enlightening beings), in which “a day and a night” is an inconceivably immense span o f time ordinary worldly terms, yet is still within time. Here again is illustrated the interpenetration o f cosmic and mundane planes in the perspective of enlightening beings.

The thirty-two book is called 'Dwelling Places of

Enlightening Beings', names centers of spiritual activity, some of which can be located in India, Kashmir, Pakistan, Afghanistan, 92 and Central and East Asian China. Whatever the historical facts behind this book may be, commentary takes it to represent the manifestation of the timeless and placeless “reality-body” within time and place.

The book thirty-three, entitled '"Inconceivable Qualities of

Buddha deals with Buddha in the state of effect or realization, the universal attributes o f Buddhas. Here the Buddhas’’’’ represent harmony to the cosmic Buddha, the “reality-body”. The former chapter alluded to the causal stated, which is there to promote effect; the present book shows how the state o f effect then extends forward into cause. Thus, the Flower Ornament doctrine of cause and effect - cause producing effect, effect producing cause - is illustrated; this is one meaning of representing the Dharma or Buddha’’5 teaching as a wheel that continually moves forward.

Book thirty- four contains a long series of visualizations.

Called ‘'"The Ocean of Physical Marks of the Ten Bodies of

Buddha,'' it also presents the state o f effect or realization, in terms o f comprehensive awareness, represented by multitudes of pervasive lights revealing the phenomena of the material and spiritual world.

The thirty-fifth book, called "The Quantities o f the Buddha’s

Embellishments and Lights', presented as spoken by Sdkyamuni- Vairocana Buddha in person, referring to the causal state; that is, to the Buddha as a Bodhisattva, illustrating the light of awakening 93

penetration, breaking tiirough, and the veils of the realm of

ignorance.

The book thirty-sixth, entitled "The Practice of

Samantabhadra\ again presents the cycle o f cause to effect. Samanatabhadra Bodhisattva is described as the prototype and

representation of the whole body of the practical acts of

Bodhisattvas.

The thirty-seventh book is called 'Manifestation o f Buddha

in which Samanatabhadra goes on at length describing the myriad facets o f the manifestation o f Buddha and how it is to be perceived.

'Detachment from the World' is the title o f book thirty-eight dealing with the development of Bodhisattva. This book which commentary point out has the meaning of transcendence while in the very midst o f the world, is a series o f two thousand answers to two hundred questions about various aspects o f the evolution of

Bodhisattvas into Buddha.

The book thirty-ninth, entitled "Entry into the Realm of

Reality or Entry into the Dharmadhdtu\ is the longest book of the SHtra and well known as an individual SUtra by the Sanskrit title

Gandavyiiha. This book concerns with the cultivation and development of Bodhisattva. In the text, a undertaken by the youth Sudhana to visit fifty-three worthies, religious and secular, is described. The object o f the pilgrimage is to realize the principle of Dharmadhdtu. Through Sudhana"s pilgrimage, almost 94 whole of the profound meaning of the Sutra is uncovered; i.e., the principle of Dharmadhdtu, the ideal o f Bodhisattva and the thought o f all things are manifestation o f mind. This is essential philosophy of the Siitra that can be analyzed carefully in the following chapters.

Let us now take a glance at the history o f development of

Hua-yen school which derived from Hua-yen Ching (Sanskrit Avatamsaka siitra) as well as its essential tenets which are considered as the pivot of the Buddha’s teachings, and also the core o f Buddhist philosophy.

III.4. THE HUA-YEN SCHOOL

The origin and development as well as the general structure o f the Hua-yen Siitra along with its context are mentioned, next is the history o f the Hua-yen School by which the philosophy of the

Sutra is revealed.

In India the Avatamsaka School, as an independent school is unknown. However, the story of Sudhana’s pilgrimage is minutely told in the Divya-avaddna, and his journey is depicted in detailed sculptures in Java.

In the Siitra it is stated that Bodhisattva MafijusrT is living on the Ch’ingliang Mountain in China, and is proclaiming the law all times. This Ch’ingliang Mountain is identified with the W u’ai

Mountain o f China. The great Avatamsaka Monastery o f that 95 mountain is the shrine sacred to that Bodhisattva. Such a belief in

India as well as in China seems to go back to the fifth century

C.E.'

Though the translation of Hua~yen Sutra began from the second century A.D, until the fifth century A .D it has been systematized by Buddhabhadra (359-429) and after that by Sikshdnanda (652-710). It was the period when Buddhism has become strong and got wide influence in the lives and thoughts of

Chinese people. And it was also the golden age that all Buddhist

Schools or Sects have flourished in this vast continent. At that time, the Buddha’s teaching was explained, preached and interpreted into different ways by Indian as well as Chinese monks. It is believed that one master could preach a certain sutra such as Saddharmapundanka, Vajracchedikd, Sukhdvativyuha or Avatamsaka Sutra, etc., which contained particular meaning or the final truth. Moreover, his disciples often traveled from place to place, teaching the same doctrine that they practiced and learned from their master. It can be the reason that revealed the way

Buddhist School in China to be established. In China, there were so many Schools and every School has its own doctrine. However, here we only list 12 prominent ones in general, which emerged during the T’ang Dynasty (618-907).

1, Kosa School with its basic text Kosa

Junjir5 Takakusu, The Essentials o f Buddhist Philosophy, p. 113. 96

2. Ching-t’u () School with Amitdbha or

Sukhdvativyuha Sutra

3. T’ien t’ai School with Lotus or Saddharmapundarlka

Sutra.

4. Hua-yen School (Kegon School in Japan) with Hua-

yen-ching or Avatamsaka Sutra

5. Ch ’an School with Lankdvatdra and Vajracchedikd Sutra

6 . Fa-xiang School with Vijnaptimdtratasiddhi Sdstra

7. San-lun School with Mddhayamika Sdstra

8 . Ti-lun School with Dasabhumik Sdstra

9. School with Dharmagupta Vinaya

10. She-lun School with Mahdydnasamgraha Sdstra

11. Tantric School with Mahdvairocana Sutra

12. Nirvdna School with Mahdparinirvdna

O f them, there were four Schools that are most well known,

i.e., Ch ’an and Pure land Schools for practice, T ’ien t ’ai and Hua- yen Schools for theory or thought. Since the philosophy of Hua- yen Sutra is the foundation of Hua-yen School, it is necessary to

examine generally the history of the latter with its masters and

doctrine as well. It is due to Hua-yen masters who make the mystery and profound philosophy of Hua-yen Sutra become popular and easy to understand. Hua-yen School has also come 97 into existence in Japan as well as . There has been no such school in India so far. Though most of Chinese Buddhist Schools reached full bloom during the T’ang Dynasty (618-907), their roots went back to developments in North China under the Northern Dynasties. Therefore, the Hua-yen School can be traced back to the Ti-lun group who were active during the Northern Ch’i (550-577) and Northern Chou (557-581) Dynasties. Ti-lun School with its doctrine is based on Dasabhumik Sdstra, which is the commentary on the chapter describing the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva, found in book S of Buddhabhadra's translation or book 26 of Sikshdnanda’s translation of the Avatamsaka. It can be said that the Hua-yen School is the product of the Chinese response to Buddhism, and indicates how the Chinese mind takes over certain basic Buddhist principle and reshapes them to suit the Chinese temperament. Therefore, it is no longer Indian systems introduced into China, but is really the school of Chinese Buddhism. ‘

Hua-yen tradition usually maintains that Fa-shun (557-640) was the first patriarch of the school in China. His religious name was Fa-shun, but his family name was Tu, people generally called him Tu-shun. When he presented his teachings, the followers of

Ti-lun School flocked to him. Alternatively, we can say at best the Ti-lun School was finally united with the new rising school of the Hua-yen philosophy. He was famous as a miracle worker because

Kenneth K. S. C h’en, Buddhism in China, p.297. 98 numerous miracles were said to have attended his movements. Therefore, he was called the Tun-huang Bodhisattva} Moreover, his teachings proved to be so attractive that Emperor T ’ai-tsung o f T’ang Dynasty (618-907),^ conferred on him the honorary title Venerable Imperial Heart. The second in line of the transmission was chih-yen (602- 668)^ also called Yun-hua because he often used the Yun-hua temple as the meeting place to preach the Hua-yen Sutra. He was an able disciple of Fa-shun, receiving from the latter all the culture of contemplation. He wrote several important works on the basic of his master’s instructions. Among Chih-yen’s disciples the most distinguishing was Fa- tsang (643-712)'*. He was the third patriarch and usually considered as real founder of the Hua-yen school, because it was he who systematized perfectly its doctrine. His activity was not only in literary work but also in translation and lectures. He was also known as the master Hsien-show, therefore, the Hua-yen

School is also referred to as the Hsien-shou School. When he was young, he was a member o f the Hsuan-tsang's translation bureau.

After that he left Hsuan-tsang because he disagreed with the latter’s view that only certain beings possessed the Buddha-nature, and that a beginner must pass through various stages gradually to

' Ibid, p. 314. ^ Junjiro Takakusu, The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy, p. 115 (Emperor Wen of the Sui (581-618 Dynasty, Kenneth K.S. Ch’en, Buddhiam in China, p. 314). ^ Kenneth. K.S. C h’en, Buddhism in China, p.314. ^ Ibid, p. 314. 99 attain the final goal of salvation. Then he also took part in the translation activities of I-tsing (635-713).' Now that he lived in the golden age of Buddhist schools adding with his talent, he was familiar with Buddhabhadra's translation of the Avatamsaka. Hence, Empress Wu Tse-t’ien requested him to assist Sikshananda when the latter was working on his eight-fascicle version of the Avatamsaka. During his lifetime he served as preceptor for four rulers and his written works number over a hundred fascicles.

Ch ’eng-kuan was considered as the fourth patriarch of the Hua-yen School. He was born in 739 (variant 737), and came into studying Buddhist sutras when he was a child. He left his worldly life at the age of eleven, but he did not become an ordained monk until he was twenty. Though his main concentration was on the Hua-yen Sutra, he became acquainted with the VimalakTrti, Mahaparinirvdna, and Mahdydnasddhotpdda (The Awakening of Faith in the Mahdydna), secular literature, , Indian languages, etc. Finally, Emperor Te-tsung summoned him to Ch’ang-an to participate in the translation of the forty-fascicle Avatamsaka by Prajfid. He was granted such titles as master of the Purple Robe, National Preceptor, Professor Monk, and Chief of Monks, and was acknowledged as master of the law by a succession of emperors from 780 to death in 838 (variant 820). His commentaries on the Avatamsaka number over four hundred fascicles. Later generations of Hua-yen followers admired and

Junjiro Takakusu, The Essentials of Buddhist philosophy, p. 116. 100 looked upon him as an incarnation of ManjusrT, and called him the

Hua-yen Bodhisattva}

C h’eng-kuan was succeeded by Tsung-mi (780-841), the fifth patriarch of Hua-yen School. He first studied the Confucian classic and when he met a Ch’an master Tao-yuan, who impressed him so much that he decided to lead a monastic life and became a monk. He first followed the practices of Ch’an School, but after reading a commentary on the Hua-yen Sutra by Ch’eng-kuan, he embraced the Hua-yen doctrine. His reputation as a Hua-yen master became so great that he was invited by the emperor to lecture on the Sutra in the palace. After that, he was granted the title Master of the Purple Robe, and was designated as a Great Virtuous Monk. His writing included not only commentaries on the Hua-yen but also on such Mahdydna Sutra as the Diamond Cutter and the Awakening of Faith.^ ' \i 3>'2> ^ Shortly after Tsung-mVs death, the H u i-c h ’ang suppression of Buddhism set in (845), and this was followed by the Period of the Five Dynasties with its attendant confusion. Under such circumstances no more Hua-yen masters arose and the school declined.

' Kenneth K.S Ch’en, Buddhism in China, p. 315. - Ibid, p. 316. 101

III.5 THE MAIN TENETS OF THE SCHOOL As we have known, each Buddhist school has its own doctrines. The Hua-yen school is no exception. The essential doctrines of Hua-yen School are known as the Five Doctrines, the Causation theory by Dharmadhdtu, the Six Characteristics, and the Ten Mysterious Gates. Because it is the theoretical foundation that can express properly and perfectly the Hua-yen philosophy, and it can help avoiding confusion for those who want to understand, to practice and cultivate the doctrine of Hua-yen School. Firstly, according to the critical classification of the Buddhist teaching set forth by this school, there are five Aspects of teaching which are subdivided further into ten doctrines as follows,

1. The Doctrine of the Small Vehicle {Hmaydna).

2. The Elementary Doctrine of the Great Vehicle () 3. The Final Doctrine of the Great Vehicle 4. The Abrupt Doctrine of the Great Vehicle 5. The Round Doctrine of the Great Vehicle Secondly, it is not exaggerated when we can say that only Buddhist teaching can give a logical and scientific explanation about the truth of the man and world in which he lives. This explanation is based neither on any God nor on Creator, but it 102 centers on the factor of man and of surrounding environment as well as of the law of cause-effect. Therefore, in order to expound that all things or cannot exist independently, the Hua-yen School has presented the causation theory by Dharmadhdtu, which is nothing new but it is something potential in everything, everywhere and at all times as well. For that reason, it is systematically displayed for all of us to learn and experience as follows,^

The totalistic principle (i^ E S) of the Hua-yen School is designated the theory of universal causation of # E), the Realm of Principle or Element of Elements. The term

Dharmadhdtu can be translation into English as “The Realm of Reality” or sometimes used as a synonym of the ultimate truth. Therefore, the translation “the Element of the Element” is quite fitting. Nevertheless, at other times it means the universe, “the Realm of A ll Elements”. The double meaning, the universe and the universal principle, must always be borne in mind whenever we use the term. Either meaning w ill serve as the name of the causation theory.

The theory of causation by Dharmadhdtu is the climax of all the causation theories; it is actually the conclusion of the theory of causal origination, as it is the universal causation and is already within the theory of universal immanence, pansophism.

Junjiro Takakusu, The Essential of Buddhist Philosophy, pp. 117-9. 103

Cosmotheism, or whatever it may be called. The causation theory, as we know, is divided into four folds and explained by: 1. The causation theory by action-influence. 2. But as action originates in ideation, we have the theory of

causation by ideation-store. (Pf ^ IP ^ B.). 3. Since the ideation-store as the repository of seed-energy must originate from something else, we have, the causation theory explained by the expression “Matrix of the Thus-come” {Tathdgata-garbha) or Thusness mB). 4. Thusness pervades all beings, or better all beings are in the state of Thusness. Here, as the fourth stage, the causation theory by Dharmadhatu is set forth ^ ^).

Thirdly, the Dharmadhatu is again divided into four states. It is one of the profound doctrines established by the Hua-yen School, viz., the Fourfold universe peculiar or Fourfold Dharmadhatu, which roughly corresponds to the five critical divisions of the Buddha’s teaching. This is the great effort o iH u a - yen masters to express the relationship between phenomena or the world of shih (form) and noumenon or the world of li (principle).

The Universe or Dharmadhatu is fourfold as follows: 104

1. The Dharmadhdtu o f Shih (®) is the world of reality (phenomena), or the factual, practical world. It represents the Realistic Doctrine (HTnaydna).

2. The Dharmadhdtu o f L i (S) is the world of principle (noumenon) or theoretical world. It is represented by the Mddhyamika and Fa-xiang School, which teach that principle is separate from facts.

3. The Dharmadhdtu of Non-obstruction of L i against Shih (li shih wu S > ^ li) is the world of principle or li and reality or shih united, or the ideal world realized. It represents the doctrine of the Awakening of Faith and the T ’ien t ’ai doctrine, which teach the identity of fact and principle.

4. The Dharmadhdtu of Non-obstruction shih against shih

(Shih Shih wu aiMMU M.) is the world of all realities or practical facts interwoven or identified in perfect harmony. It is represented by the Hua-yen School, which teaches that all distinct facts or realities will, and ought to, form a harmonious whole by mutual penetration and mutual identification so as to realize the ideal world of One-true. Such an ideal world is called “the fact and fact world perfectly harmonized.” 105

Fourthly, in order to illustrate the possibility of such an ideal world, the “Ten Profound Theories” or “Ten Mysterious Gates” are set forth. Fifthly, we have the Sixfold Specific Nature of all Dharmas or the Six Characteristics (A ffi). They are as follows: 1. Universality (II) 2. Particularity or Specialty as to character itself (gij). 3. Identity or Similarity (1^) 4. Difference or Diversity as to the relation of beings (^) 5. Integration (^) 6. Disintegration or Differentiation as to the state of becoming («). The Six Characteristics indicate that no elements or dharmas have single and independent existence, each possessing the Sixfold Characteristics immanent in itself. The theory of the Sixfold Characteristics is thus necessary for the proper understanding of the Ten Profound Theories (+ t. P^). The principle “one-in-all and all-in-one” (mutual penetration) is based on function, action, energy or efficiency, while the principle “one-is-all and all-is-one” (mutual identification) is expounded according to beings or things themselves or according to their own characteristics (svalaksana). 106

The Ten Profound Theories interdependently cause the manifestation of the ideal world, and such a causation theory is called the “Causation by Ten Theories” (+ £ B). The theory of causation is otherwise called, as we have seen above, the Causation theory by Dharmadhdtu (Element of the Elements). These causations are, after all, the causation of mere mind that is pure idealism. The causation theories peculiar to this school mean general interdependence. Universal relativity, causes and effects being interwoven everywhere. Thus it makes from the beginning one perfect whole without any single independent thing-all- comprehensive (circle) and the Cycle of Permanent Ware illumined throughout by the Great compassionate Sun-Buddha

{Vairocand)} The essential thought of Hua-tan Sutra and major doctrine of Hua-yan School are presented generally in this chapter. However, in order to gain an insight into the profound thought of the

Avatamsaka Sutra, it would be necessary to go through its central philosophy of Pratitya-samutpdda Dharmadhdtu (Causation by the universal principle) which will be mentioned in the next chapters with the analysis and explanation in detail.

Ibid, pp. 128-9