JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. Throughout the 13th century, the order had enjoyed papal er, claimed that since an individual is composed of body protection, which brought about, inter alia, the nomina- and soul, his final reward is deferred until their reunion tion of a special coordinator between the order and the at the resurrection on the Day of Judgment. The Universi- Holy See, as well as papal formal ownership of Francis- ty of Paris condemned these theories in the autumn of can wealth as a means of safeguarding the order’s alle- 1333, and it was supported by most theologians whom giance to evangelical poverty. Still, the many conflicts the pope consulted. On his deathbed, John retreated to within the ranks of the order between the Spirituals, who some degree, acknowledging that the souls of the blessed favored strict adherence to St. Francis’s rule of poverty, see God and the divine essence face to face as clearly as and the Conventuals, who held to a broader interpreta- their condition permits. He stated that his former position tion, led to continuous papal intervention. Shortly after was only a personal opinion. The pope’s capitulation to his accession, John took action against the Spirituals and the theological tenets of the university can be regarded imprisoned their delegates at Avignon. In a series of de- as a reflection of the changing balance of power in Chris- crees, the pope ordered them to resume obedience to their tendom on the eve of the Conciliar Movement. superiors (Quorundam exigit, Oct. 7, 1317). He con- John set up foreign missions and established bishop- demned the most extreme champions of evangelical pov- rics in Anatolia, Armenia, Iran, and India. A patron of erty, such as the FRATICELLI and BEGUINES (Sancta learning, he founded the papal library at Avignon (see VAT- Romana, Dec. 30, 1317), and the Tuscan Spirituals, who ICAN LIBRARY) and the University of Cahors. had taken refuge in Sicily (Gloriosam ecclesiam, Jan. 23, 1318). Twenty-five Spirituals were handed over to the IN- Bibliography: Lettres de Jean XXII, ed. A. FAYEN, 2 v. in 3 (Rome 1908–12); Lettres secrètes et curiales de Pape Jean XXII QUISITION, which put four of them to the stake. In order ... , ed. A. L. COULON and S. CLÉMENCET (Paris 1906– ); Lettres to undermine their ideological foundations, John con- communes . , ed. G. MOLLAT and G. DE LESQUES, 16 v. in 15 demned the Postilla super Apocalypsim, a treatise written (Bibl. des Écoles franç. ser. 3; Paris 1904–47). G. MOLLAT, The by the undisputed leader of the Spirituals, PETER JOHN Popes at Avignon, tr. J. LOVE (New York 1963). J. E. WEAKLAND, ‘‘Administration and Fiscal Centralization under Pope John XXII, OLIVI. Up to this point, the pope had confronted the tenets 1316–1334,’’ Catholic Historical Review 54 (1968) 39–54, and way of life of the most radical Franciscans. Two 285–310; ‘‘Pope John XXII and the Beatific Vision Controversy,’’ years later, however, he began a frontal attack against the Annuale Mediaevale 9 (1968) 76–84. M. D. LAMBERT, ‘‘The Fran- order as a whole, condemning the Franciscan doctrine of ciscan Crisis under John XXII,’’ Franciscan Studies 10 (1972) evangelical poverty, (Ad conditorem canonum, Dec. 8, 123–143. K. E. SPIERS, ‘‘Pope John XXII and Marsilius of Padua on Medioevo 1322) and made it heretical to assert that Christ and the the Universal Dominion of Christ,’’ 6 (1980) 471–478. S. MENACHE, ‘‘The Failure of John XXII’s Policy toward France Apostles had not owned goods (Cum inter nonnullos, and England,’’ Church History 55:4 (1986) 423–437. R. LAMBER- Nov. 12, 1323) (see POVERTY CONTROVERSY). The pope TINI, ‘‘Usus and usura: Poverty and Usury in the Franciscans’ Re- later deposed and excommunicated the minister-general, sponses to John XXII’s Quia vir reprobus,’’ Franciscan Studies 54 MICHAEL OF CESENA (Quia vir reprobus, Nov. 16, 1329), (1994)185–210. S. KINSELLA, ‘‘The Poverty of Christ in the Medi- eval Debates between the Papacy and the Franciscans,’’ Lauren- who, together with the proctor of the order, BONAGRATIA tianum 36:3 (1995) 477–509. M. DYKMANS, ‘‘Nouveaux textes de OF BERGAMO, and William Ockham, had fled from Avi- Jean XXII sur la vision beatifique,’’ Revue d’histoire ecclesiastique gnon and joined forces with the emperor. John eventually 66:2 (1971) 401–417. C. TROTTMAN, ‘‘Vision béatifique et intuition succeeded in submitting the Franciscan Order to apostol- d’un objet absent: des sources franciscaines du nominalisme aux ic obedience. The Perpignan Chapter chose Gerald defenseurs scotiste de l’opinion de Jean XXII sur la vision dif- férée,’’ Studi Medievali ser. 3, 34:2 (1994) 653–715. Odonis as minister-general in place of Cesena, thus facili- tating a reconciliation with the papal curia (1331). [S. MENACHE] The protracted conflict with the Franciscans exposed John to criticism, but it did not challenge his status as Vicar of God on Earth and ultimate speaker of Catholic JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. orthodoxy. The controversy over the BEATIFIC VISION, Pontificate, Oct. 28, 1958, to June 3, 1963; Angelo however, threatened the theological foundations of the Giuseppe Roncalli, b. Sotto il Monte, Bergamo, Italy, papacy, for criticism came no longer from members of Nov. 25, 1881; d. Rome, Italy, June 3, 1963. a monastic order suspected of a biased approach, but from the masters of the faculty of theology in Paris. Dur- ing the winter of 1331–32, John XXII preached four ser- Prepapal Career mons on the beatific vision. Although not yet defined as He was the third of 13 children, the first son, of pious dogma, traditional doctrine maintained that the souls of peasants, Giovanni Battista and Marianna Giulia (Maz- the saints, who were in paradise, enjoyed the full vision zola) Roncalli, who rented land as sharecroppers (mezza- of God immediately after their deaths. The pope, howev- dri). Besides working in the fields, Angelo attended the 932 NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. elementary school in the town, took lessons from a priest in the neighboring town of Carvico, went to a ‘‘college’’ in Celana, and at 12 entered the diocesan minor seminary at Bergamo. There he came under the influence of the progressive leaders of the Italian Catholic social move- ment, especially of Bp. Camillo Guindani of Bergamo and two zealous laymen, Count Stanislao Medolago- Albani and Niccolò Rezzara. A scholarship of the Cera- soli Foundation in 1901 enabled Roncalli to become a student at the Roman Seminary (Apollinare), where Um- berto Benigni deepened his knowledge of church history. He interrupted his education for a year to serve as a vol- unteer in the 73d Infantry Regiment of the Italian Army, thereby shortening the period of compulsory military training. After taking the doctorate in theology, he was ordained on Aug. 10, 1904, in the church of S. Maria in Monte Santo. Early Priesthood. As he was beginning graduate studies in Canon Law, he was appointed secretary of the new bishop of Bergamo, Count Giacomo Radini- Tedeschi, a far-sighted, social-minded prelate, whom Roncalli served faithfully for more than nine years, gain- ing experience in all forms of Catholic action and an un- derstanding of the problems of the working class. At the same time he taught apologetics and ecclesiastical histo- Pope John XXIII. (©Bettmann/CORBIS.) ry, and later also patrology, at the diocesan seminary. In that era of violent reaction against MODERNISM he was falsely accused of such errors by some integralists; actu- seminary, and at his own expense, opened a hostel and ally, in his teaching he tended to avoid controversial clubhouse for young men studying in Bergamo (Casa questions. He published several brief monographs—one dello Studente). At the request of Bp. Luigi Marelli, he in commemoration of the great Church historian Baroni- established the Opera di Sant’Alessandro to coordinate us, Il card. Cesare Baronio, per il centenario della sua the various educational activities of the diocese. morte (Monza 1908; repub. Rome 1961), and two on In 1920 he helped to organize the first national Eu- local history, Gli inizi del seminario di Bergamo e S. charistic Congress to be held in Italy after the war. A year Carlo Borromeo (1910; rev. Bergamo 1939) and La ‘Mis- later he was invited to Rome by Benedict XV, named di- ericordia Maggiore’ di Bergamo e le altre istituzioni di rector of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith in beneficenza amministrate dalla Congregazione di Carità (Bergamo 1912). As diocesan assistant to the Women’s Italy, and given the task of centralizing the administration Catholic Action and a member of various diocesan com- of the society first on the national level and then on the mittees, he became concerned also in political problems international. He collaborated in the writing of the motu and favored Catholic involvement in national affairs. proprio Romanorum Pontificum (May 3, 1922) by which Pius XI raised the society to papal status, transferred its In 1915, when Italy entered World War I, Roncalli headquarters from Lyons to Rome, and placed it under was recalled to the army and was assigned to military the Congregation for the PROPAGATION OF THE FAITH. hospitals in Bergamo first as a sergeant in the medical Roncalli was a member of the General High Council, corps and then as a lieutenant in the chaplains’ corps; he which coordinated the work of this association with that also ministered to the soldiers on the battlefields of the of other bodies supporting the missions. Piave and to the sick during the epidemic of Spanish in- fluenza. In his leisure time he wrote In Memoria di Mon- Diplomat in the Near East.