JOHN XXIII, , BL.

Throughout the 13th century, the order had enjoyed papal er, claimed that since an individual is composed of body protection, which brought about, inter alia, the nomina- and soul, his final reward is deferred until their reunion tion of a special coordinator between the order and the at the resurrection on the Day of Judgment. The Universi- , as well as papal formal ownership of Francis- ty of Paris condemned these theories in the autumn of can wealth as a means of safeguarding the order’s alle- 1333, and it was supported by most theologians whom giance to evangelical poverty. Still, the many conflicts the pope consulted. On his deathbed, John retreated to within the ranks of the order between the Spirituals, who some degree, acknowledging that the souls of the blessed favored strict adherence to St. Francis’s rule of poverty, see God and the divine essence face to face as clearly as and the Conventuals, who held to a broader interpreta- their condition permits. He stated that his former position tion, led to continuous papal intervention. Shortly after was only a personal opinion. The pope’s capitulation to his accession, John took action against the Spirituals and the theological tenets of the university can be regarded imprisoned their delegates at Avignon. In a series of de- as a reflection of the changing balance of power in Chris- crees, the pope ordered them to resume obedience to their tendom on the eve of the Conciliar Movement. superiors (Quorundam exigit, Oct. 7, 1317). He con- John set up foreign missions and established bishop- demned the most extreme champions of evangelical pov- rics in Anatolia, Armenia, Iran, and India. A patron of erty, such as the FRATICELLI and BEGUINES (Sancta learning, he founded the papal library at Avignon (see VAT- Romana, Dec. 30, 1317), and the Tuscan Spirituals, who ICAN LIBRARY) and the University of Cahors. had taken refuge in Sicily (Gloriosam ecclesiam, Jan. 23, 1318). Twenty-five Spirituals were handed over to the IN- Bibliography: Lettres de Jean XXII, ed. A. FAYEN, 2 v. in 3 ( 1908–12); Lettres secrètes et curiales de Pape Jean XXII QUISITION, which put four of them to the stake. In order ... , ed. A. L. COULON and S. CLÉMENCET (Paris 1906– ); Lettres to undermine their ideological foundations, John con- communes . . . , ed. G. MOLLAT and G. DE LESQUES, 16 v. in 15 demned the Postilla super Apocalypsim, a treatise written (Bibl. des Écoles franç. ser. 3; Paris 1904–47). G. MOLLAT, The by the undisputed leader of the Spirituals, PETER JOHN at Avignon, tr. J. LOVE (New York 1963). J. E. WEAKLAND, ‘‘Administration and Fiscal Centralization under Pope John XXII, OLIVI. Up to this point, the pope had confronted the tenets 1316–1334,’’ Historical Review 54 (1968) 39–54, and way of life of the most radical Franciscans. Two 285–310; ‘‘Pope John XXII and the Beatific Vision Controversy,’’ years later, however, he began a frontal attack against the Annuale Mediaevale 9 (1968) 76–84. M. D. LAMBERT, ‘‘The Fran- order as a whole, condemning the Franciscan doctrine of ciscan Crisis under John XXII,’’ Franciscan Studies 10 (1972) evangelical poverty, (Ad conditorem canonum, Dec. 8, 123–143. K. E. SPIERS, ‘‘Pope John XXII and Marsilius of Padua on Medioevo 1322) and made it heretical to assert that Christ and the the Universal Dominion of Christ,’’ 6 (1980) 471–478. S. MENACHE, ‘‘The Failure of John XXII’s Policy toward Apostles had not owned goods (Cum inter nonnullos, and England,’’ Church History 55:4 (1986) 423–437. R. LAMBER- Nov. 12, 1323) (see POVERTY CONTROVERSY). The pope TINI, ‘‘Usus and usura: Poverty and Usury in the Franciscans’ Re- later deposed and excommunicated the minister-general, sponses to John XXII’s Quia vir reprobus,’’ Franciscan Studies 54 OF CESENA (Quia vir reprobus, Nov. 16, 1329), (1994)185–210. S. KINSELLA, ‘‘The Poverty of Christ in the Medi- eval Debates between the Papacy and the Franciscans,’’ Lauren- who, together with the proctor of the order, BONAGRATIA tianum 36:3 (1995) 477–509. M. DYKMANS, ‘‘Nouveaux textes de OF BERGAMO, and William Ockham, had fled from Avi- Jean XXII sur la vision beatifique,’’ Revue d’histoire ecclesiastique gnon and joined forces with the emperor. John eventually 66:2 (1971) 401–417. C. TROTTMAN, ‘‘Vision béatifique et intuition succeeded in submitting the Franciscan Order to apostol- d’un objet absent: des sources franciscaines du nominalisme aux ic obedience. The Perpignan Chapter chose Gerald defenseurs scotiste de l’opinion de Jean XXII sur la vision dif- férée,’’ Studi Medievali ser. 3, 34:2 (1994) 653–715. Odonis as minister-general in place of Cesena, thus facili- tating a reconciliation with the papal (1331). [S. MENACHE] The protracted conflict with the Franciscans exposed John to criticism, but it did not challenge his status as Vicar of God on Earth and ultimate speaker of Catholic JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. orthodoxy. The controversy over the BEATIFIC VISION, Pontificate, Oct. 28, 1958, to June 3, 1963; Angelo however, threatened the theological foundations of the Giuseppe Roncalli, b. Sotto il Monte, Bergamo, , papacy, for criticism came no longer from members of Nov. 25, 1881; d. Rome, Italy, June 3, 1963. a monastic order suspected of a biased approach, but from the masters of the of theology in Paris. Dur- ing the winter of 1331–32, John XXII preached four ser- Prepapal Career mons on the beatific vision. Although not yet defined as He was the third of 13 children, the first son, of pious dogma, traditional doctrine maintained that the souls of peasants, Giovanni Battista and Marianna Giulia (Maz- the , who were in paradise, enjoyed the full vision zola) Roncalli, who rented land as sharecroppers (mezza- of God immediately after their deaths. The pope, howev- dri). Besides working in the fields, Angelo attended the

932 NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. elementary school in the town, took lessons from a in the neighboring town of Carvico, went to a ‘‘college’’ in Celana, and at 12 entered the diocesan minor seminary at Bergamo. There he came under the influence of the progressive leaders of the Italian Catholic social move- ment, especially of Bp. Camillo Guindani of Bergamo and two zealous laymen, Count Stanislao Medolago- Albani and Niccolò Rezzara. A scholarship of the Cera- soli Foundation in 1901 enabled Roncalli to become a student at the Roman Seminary (Apollinare), where Um- berto Benigni deepened his knowledge of church history. He interrupted his education for a year to serve as a vol- unteer in the 73d Infantry Regiment of the Italian Army, thereby shortening the period of compulsory military training. After taking the doctorate in theology, he was ordained on Aug. 10, 1904, in the church of S. Maria in Monte Santo. Early Priesthood. As he was beginning graduate studies in Law, he was appointed secretary of the new bishop of Bergamo, Count Giacomo Radini- Tedeschi, a far-sighted, social-minded prelate, whom Roncalli served faithfully for more than nine years, gain- ing experience in all forms of Catholic action and an un- derstanding of the problems of the working class. At the same time he taught apologetics and ecclesiastical histo- Pope John XXIII. (©Bettmann/CORBIS.) ry, and later also patrology, at the diocesan seminary. In that era of violent reaction against MODERNISM he was falsely accused of such errors by some integralists; actu- seminary, and at his own expense, opened a hostel and ally, in his teaching he tended to avoid controversial clubhouse for young men studying in Bergamo (Casa questions. He published several brief monographs—one dello Studente). At the request of Bp. Luigi Marelli, he in of the historian Baroni- established the Opera di Sant’Alessandro to coordinate us, Il card. Cesare Baronio, per il centenario della sua the various educational activities of the . morte (Monza 1908; repub. Rome 1961), and two on In 1920 he helped to organize the first national Eu- local history, Gli inizi del seminario di Bergamo e S. charistic Congress to be held in Italy after the war. A year Carlo Borromeo (1910; rev. Bergamo 1939) and La ‘Mis- later he was invited to Rome by Benedict XV, named di- ericordia Maggiore’ di Bergamo e le altre istituzioni di rector of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith in beneficenza amministrate dalla Congregazione di Carità (Bergamo 1912). As diocesan assistant to the Women’s Italy, and given the task of centralizing the administration Catholic Action and a member of various diocesan com- of the society first on the national level and then on the mittees, he became concerned also in political problems international. He collaborated in the writing of the motu and favored Catholic involvement in national affairs. proprio Romanorum Pontificum (May 3, 1922) by which Pius XI raised the society to papal status, transferred its In 1915, when Italy entered World War I, Roncalli headquarters from Lyons to Rome, and placed it under was recalled to the army and was assigned to military the Congregation for the PROPAGATION OF THE FAITH. hospitals in Bergamo first as a sergeant in the medical Roncalli was a member of the General High Council, corps and then as a lieutenant in the chaplains’ corps; he which coordinated the work of this association with that also ministered to the soldiers on the battlefields of the of other bodies supporting the missions. Piave and to the sick during the epidemic of Spanish in- fluenza. In his leisure time he wrote In Memoria di Mon- Diplomat in the Near East. In 1925 Roncalli was signore Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, vescovo di Bergamo appointed titular archbishop of Areopolis and apostolic (Bergamo 1916), a laudatory and cautious biography. visitator to Bulgaria and was consecrated on March 19 in After the war he resumed the duties of spiritual adviser the church of SS. and Charles (San Carlo al to the Union of Catholic Women and the Union of Catho- Corso) in Rome. Accompanied by a Belgian Benedictine, lic Youth, was appointed spiritual director of the diocesan Constantine Bosschaerts, he promptly took up residence

NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA 933 JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. in the politically troubled capital, Sofia, and concerned During World War II, when Istanbul became a center of himself with the problems of the Eastern-rite Catholics, international espionage and intrigue, Roncalli provided who constituted a small, scattered minority of about the Holy See with much valuable information that he ob- 4,000 among the predominantly Orthodox population. He tained from diplomats as well as public sources. Among visited the remote and impoverished communities of ref- the former he cultivated a useful friendship with the Ger- ugees from Macedonia and Thrace and selected a young man ambassador to Turkey Franz von Papen, who was native priest, Kyril Kurteff, as apostolic administrator a Catholic. He made every effort to pacify the French of (later ). He had fewer anxieties over the 40,000 his flock, who bitterly resented Italian participation in the Catholics of the rite, who were better organized but disastrous war against their fatherland, and he helped were unfortunately dependent on the political and eccle- many persecuted fleeing from central and eastern siastical support of France. He introduced retreats for iso- Europe. lated , presided over the first congress of Bulgarian In Greece, where he was confronted with the confu- Catholics at Yambol, and personally assisted the victims sion existing among the 50,000 Catholics of the country, of the earthquake of 1928 with money from Rome. Since he eventually succeeded in bringing about greater unity the state church was Orthodox, he was watched with sus- of action among the bishops of the Latin, BYZANTINE, and picion by its ecclesiastical leaders. When the king or czar, ARMENIAN CHURCHES. He was never able, however, to Boris III, contrary to his promises, had his marriage with achieve the desired modus vivendi with the Greek gov- Giovanna di Savoia, Catholic daughter of King Victor ernment, which, under the pressure of the Orthodox Emmanuel III of Italy, repeated according to the Ortho- churchmen, enacted anti-Catholic legislation concerning dox rite in 1930 and had their first child baptized by the marriages, conversions, and publications, and obstructed Orthodox metropolitan in 1933, Roncalli protested to no his efforts to found a seminary for Latin Catholics. Dur- avail. He was successful, however, in securing the gov- ing the war he was impeded in his relations with the ernment’s consent to the establishment of an apostolic Greeks by having the same nationality as the army of oc- delegation in 1931. cupation, but he kept aloof from political disputes and On Nov. 24, 1934, Roncalli was named apostolic tried to act as a mediator between the opposing parties. delegate to Turkey and Greece, and on the 30th he was He aided the starving regardless of their religion, and he transferred from the titular see of Areopolis to that of went to Rome to urge the Holy See to persuade the Brit- Mesembria (in Bulgaria). He succeeded in closing the ish to relax the blockade of Greek ports in order that des- breach that existed between the delegation and the local perately needed food supplies and medicines might be clergy of the Latin rite. As administrator of the Vicariate imported. Upon his return he negotiated with the repre- sentatives of the Axis for the required guarantees; he also Apostolic of ISTANBUL, Roncalli had immediate jurisdic- tion over the approximately 10,000 Catholics of the Latin intervened frequently to prevent or repair injustices. He visited both the occupying and the captured troops, and rite, who were for the most part foreigners and were de- he set up in Istanbul an office for the location of prisoners creasing in number. Amid trying circumstances he fos- of war and missing persons. After August 1942, he was tered harmony among the different national colonies in unable to maintain further contact with the Catholics of the city. Not only was his presence as apostolic delegate Greece because of the military operations. officially ignored and barely tolerated by the Turkish government, but he had to contend with the antireligious in Paris. Meanwhile in France Charles de reforms of Kemal Atatürk’s secular and nationalistic re- Gaulle’s provisional government at Paris requested the public and to witness the closing of many Catholic Holy See to recall the nuncio Valerio Valeri, who had schools, the cessation of Catholic publications, and the been accredited to Henri Pétain’s government at Vichy. laying aside of clerical garb and religious habits in public. Pius XII chose Roncalli for the difficult post, and the - With characteristic optimism he took a benevolent view cio, appointed on Nov. 22, 1944, arrived in Paris on De- of the new constitution and tried to demonstrate to the cember 30. Unobtrusively he labored to repair the Turkish rulers the purely spiritual and supranational na- spiritual divisions that had been embittered by the war ture of the Church’s activity. To show his respect for the and its consequences. When the leaders of the Resistance government and people of Turkey, he introduced the use accused at least half of the French bishops of collabora- of the Turkish language into divine worship and official tion with the Nazis and when the government called for documents. Eventually he won the personal esteem of the removal of 33, the nuncio investigated and in the end some of the highest Turkish statesmen. One of his many advised only three bishops to resign. He also obtained the conciliatory gestures toward the Orthodox was the visit government’s consent to 27 episcopal nominations with- that he paid to the Ecumenical Benjamin, in the in his first three years, and in 1945 he successfully recom- Phanar on May 27, 1939; he was courteously received. mended to the pope three archbishops for the cardinalate.

934 NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL.

He pleaded for the humane treatment and prompt repatri- During his five years in , he wrote brief, frequent ation of the German prisoners of war who were detained circular letters on topics of current importance; visited all in France for several years, and he arranged for the trans- the parishes and showed his concern for the working fer of several hundred theological students among them class; established 30 new parishes and built a new minor to one camp at Le Caudrey (near Chartres), where their seminary; and developed various forms of Catholic ac- preparation for the priesthood could be continued. tion. Concerned about moral laxity in the city, he prevent- ed the projected transfer of the gambling casino from the Throughout the continual succession of unstable Lido to the center of town, and he forbade the clergy to governments that followed De Gaulle’s withdrawal from visit the biennial festival of art in 1954 because of some public life, Roncalli remained on friendly terms with improper pictures exhibited there; two years later he was whatever politicians came to power. He won the admira- able to revoke the prohibition and even to attend the exhi- tion of the Socialist Vincent Auriol, president of the Re- bition himself. As president of the Tri-Venetian Episco- public, and of the radical Édouard Herriot, president of pal Conference, he compelled the left-wing faction of the the National Assembly, and he enjoyed the confidence of Christian Democrats to suspend publication of their Catholics such as Georges Bidault and Robert Schuman; weekly, Il Popolo Veneto; in a letter dated Christmas but he never attempted to become intimate with the mem- 1955, the denounced the proposed bers of the Mouvement Républicain Populaire. When the ‘‘opening to the Left.’’ On Aug. 16, 1956, Roncalli is- government grant to private schools, begun under the sued a pastoral letter in which he rebuked those who per- Vichy régime, was suspended in 1945, he cooperated sisted in advocating this policy at any cost. Nevertheless with the French episcopate in presenting the Church’s when the Italian Socialist party held its national conven- claim to a fair share of the funds; eventually (1951) his tion at Venice in February 1957, he exhorted his flock to efforts were rewarded to some extent by the concession welcome the delegates, who appeared to him to desire to of a small annual subsidy for each pupil. To his regular promote the ideals of social peace and justice; some of duties, he added those of first permanent observer of the the right-wing Christian Democrats then protested his ac- Holy See at the United Nations Educational, Scientific, tion. In 1958 he completed the fifth and last volume of and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for 19 months, Gli Atti della Visita Apostolica di S. Carlo Borromeo a and he addressed the sixth and seventh general assem- Bergamo (1575), the collection of historical documents blies in 1951 and 1952. that he had been editing since 1909 (with the collabora- tion of a Bergamask priest, Pietro Forno, for v.1 and 2) Roncalli traveled widely, made a pilgrimage to and had published at intervals (, 1936, 1937, LOURDES almost every year, and in 1950 made a journey 1938, 1946, 1958) in the series ‘‘Fontes Ambrosiani.’’ to Algeria and other parts of North Africa. In his dealings with the French bishops, he was not hasty in judging new experiments in the apostolate and he was tolerant of dis- Pontificate cussion in the intellectual sphere and patient with innova- tions in the pastoral ministry. Thus he viewed Cardinal After PIUS XII’S death (Oct. 9, 1958), Roncalli was Emanuel SUHARD’S novel plan to evangelize the dechris- summoned to the conclave, which opened October 25 and tianized masses (Mission de France) hopefully, and he at- was attended by 51 cardinals (of whom 17 were Italian); Roncalli was elected on October 28 and crowned on No- tentively observed the activities of the WORKER-PRIESTS among the proletariat; this movement was severely re- vember 4. He kept as his private secretary Loris Capovil- stricted by the Holy See several months after his final de- la, who bad served him in that capacity at Venice, and he parture from France. After he became pope, it was appointed pro-secretary (soon cardi- completely suppressed by a of the Holy Office nal secretary) of state; this office had been vacant since dated July 3, 1959. 1944. After Tardini died on July 30, 1961, the pope ap- pointed Cardinal Amleto Cicognani his successor. With . Roncalli was made a cardinal only 52 members in the , including priest (Jan. 12, 1953), and given the titular church of 12 more than 80 years old, Pope John held his first consis- Santa Prisca on the Aventine. He received the red biretta tory on Dec. 15, 1958, at which, annulling in part the reg- (and the of the Legion of Honor) from Presi- ulation of Sixtus V (1586) and Canon 231 of the Code dent Auriol in the Elysée Palace on January 15. Although of by which a maximum of 70 members was he had at first been destined for a position in the Roman fixed, he created 23 new cardinals. In the second consis- CURIA, he was offered the of VENICE after the tory (Dec. 14, 1959) he added eight more; the third death of the incumbent, and he gladly accepted. Appoint- (March 28, 1960) announced the of ten prelates, ed on January 15, he arrived in the city on March 15, of whom seven were named and three were reserved in where he soon won the affection of his clergy and people. pectore. In the fourth consistory (Jan. 16, 1961), four new

NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA 935 JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. cardinals were created, and in the last (March 19, 1962), ation of a pontifical commission on March 28, 1963. ten. The total was then the highest in history—87 (plus Earlier modifications of ecclesiastical law had been intro- the three never revealed)—and the representation the duced by his Suburbicariis sedibus (April most international. 11, 1962), removing all power of jurisdiction over the In another consistory (Jan. 25, 1959) the pope pro- SUBURBICARIAN sees from the cardinal bishops who bear posed to the cardinals three major undertakings: a dioce- their tides and entrusting the government of these dio- san synod for Rome, an ecumenical council for the ceses to the bishops of the place; thus he freed the cardi- nals of distracting responsibilities and enabled them to universal Church, and a revision of the Code of CANON devote their undivided attention to curial affairs. Four LAW (preceded by the of the Code of Orien- tal Law). The synod, the first in the history of Rome, was days later by the motu proprio Cum gravissima he de- solemnly opened by the pope in the Basilica of St. John creed that the episcopal dignity would henceforth be con- Lateran on Jan. 24, 1960; he addressed it at St. Peter’s ferred on all cardinals, regardless of their rank within the on the following three days and closed it there on January College. Moreover, by the motu proprio Summi Pontificis 31. Its , promulgated by the electio (Sept. 5, 1962) he modified Pius XII’s disposi- Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, were designed to reme- tions regarding the vacancy of the Holy See. He also dy the ills of the Church in a city that had grown from made the of the Eastern churches who were not 400,000 inhabitants in 1900 to more than two million in cardinals adjunct members of the Congregation for the 1960 and that had only 220 secular and 360 religious ORIENTAL CHURCH. Finally, he added another office to priests. the by elevating to that rank, by the motu proprio Boni Pastoris (Feb. 22, 1959), the papal commis- Vatican Council II. The ecumenical council, which sion for cinema, radio, and television; he laid down new he decided to call the , is un- rules for its functioning and put Abp. Martin J. doubtedly the major achievement of John’s pontificate, O’Connor, rector of the NORTH AMERICAN COLLEGE in although it was not completed before his death (see VATI- Rome, at its head. CAN COUNCIL II). Attributing the idea of convoking such an assembly to a sudden inspiration from the Holy Ghost, John manifested his determination to enhance the sa- he prescribed as its immediate task the renewal of the re- cred liturgy by the motu proprio Rubricarum instructum ligious life of Catholics and the bringing up to date of the (July 25, 1960), approving a new code of rubrics for the teaching, discipline, and organization of the Church, with and . He also permitted the distribution the ultimate goal being the unity of Christians. At the sol- of Holy to the sick in the afternoon (Oct. 21, emn opening of the council on Oct. 11, 1962, he deliv- 1961). Several times he warned against exaggerations ered a memorable discourse, and on the next two days he and excesses in the worship of the saints. He chose the received the members of the 86 extraordinary missions schema on the liturgy as the first topic to be treated by sent by governments and international bodies and the 39 Vatican Council II, and he ordered that the name of St. non-Catholic observers and guests who had accepted in- be inserted in the Canon of the after that of vitations to the council. Although he did not attend the the Blessed Mary (Nov. 13, 1962). Finally, in re- general congregations or normally interfere with the de- sponse to the direct appeal of the Greek Melkite patriarch liberations, he intervened on November 21 at a critical Maximos IV Sayegh, he rescinded (April 5, 1960) the de- point by deciding that the schema on revelation, which cision of the Holy Office forbidding the use of the vernac- had been rejected on the preceding day by somewhat less ular in the Byzantine rite (specifically, the use of English than the required majority of two-thirds, should not be in Birmingham, Alabama). discussed further but should be revised by a special Letters. John issued seven encyclical let- mixed commission. This encouraged the majority who ters: Ad Petri cathedram (June 29, 1959), treating the tri- were in favor of change; hence it was a turning point in ple theme of truth, unity, and peace, which are to be the first session. He closed the first period of the council acquired and developed under the inspiration of charity; on December 8 with an allocution in which he announced Sacerdotii Nostri primordia (July 31, 1959) on the cente- the creation of a new commission, charged with follow- nary of the death of St. Jean Marie Baptiste VIANNEY, ing and directing the conciliar activities during the nine- Curé d’Ars, with regard to all aspects of the contempo- month recess. On Jan. 6, 1963, he sent to each father of rary life of priests; Princeps Pastorum (Nov. 28, 1959) the council a letter, Mirabilis ille, in which he gave direc- on the 40th anniversary of the apostolic letter Maximum tives for the continuation of the work during the interval illud on the missions (development of a native hierarchy and recommended local collaboration. and clergy, collaboration of other countries, education of Law and Liturgy. John took the first step toward re- the clergy, apostolate of the laity, etc.); MATER ET vision of the Code of Canon Law by announcing the cre- MAGISTRA (dated May 15, 1961, pub. July 15) on recent

936 NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA JOHN XXIII, POPE, BL. developments of the social question in the light of Chris- Mindszenty, archbishop of Esztergom, ended in failure. tian doctrine; Aeterna Dei (Nov. 11, 1961) on the 15th John’s efforts for world peace included an appeal to the centenary of the death of St. Leo the Great; Paenitentiam heads of the governments involved (Sept. 10, 1961) when agere (July 1, 1962) on the necessity of penance to ensure international tension was rapidly mounting over the Ber- the success of Vatican Council II; and PACEM IN TERRIS lin Crisis; he appealed to the French and to the revolu- (April 11, 1963), addressed to all men of good will, on tionaries on June 3, 1962, during the civil war in Algeria; peace among all nations based on truth, justice, charity, and he appealed again to the rulers of the most powerful and liberty and on the right organization of society for the countries on Oct. 25, 1962, begging them to continue to attainment of this end. He also issued an encyclical epis- treat with each other in regard to Cuba. The International tle, Grata recordatio (Sept. 29, 1959), on the recitation Balzan Foundation awarded him its Peace Prize for 1962; of the rosary. the four Soviet members of the foundation’s general council concurred in this decision, and Nikita Khru- . John canonized the following saints: shchev approved of their action. Carlo da Sezze and Joaquina de VEDRUNA Y DE MAS (April 12, 1959), Gregory BARBARIGO (May 26, 1960), Other Accomplishments. As bishop of Rome, John Juan de Ribera (June 12, 1960), Maria Bertilla BOS- XXIII displayed unremitting care of his diocese; he made CARDIN (May 11, 1961), Martin de PORRES (May 6, frequent appearances in the parishes, hospitals, and edu- 1962), Pierre Julien EYMARD, Antonio Maria Pucci, and cational and charitable institutions of the city. He also FRANCESCO MARIA OF CAMPOROSSO (Dec. 9, 1962), and traveled farther than any pope since Pius IX, going by au- Vincent PALLOTTI (Jan. 20, 1963). He declared the fol- tomobile to the summer villa of the Roman Seminary at lowing to be blessed: Elena GUERRA (April 26, 1959), Roccantica (Sept. 10, 1960) and by train to Loreto and Marguerite d’ Youville (May 3, 1959), Innocenzo of Assisi (Oct. 4, 1962) to pray for the forthcoming ecumen- Berzo (Nov. 12, 1961), Elizabeth SETON (March 17, ical council. To improve the education of candidates for 1963), and Luigi Maria Palazzolo (March 19, 1963). He the priesthood, he elevated the Lateran Athenaeum to the also declared St. to be a doctor status of a pontifical university on May 17, 1959; on of the Church (March 19, 1959). March 7, 1963, he did the same for the Athenaeum An- gelicum, now known as the Pontifical University of St. Ecumenism and Diplomacy. During John’s pontifi- . In order to promote the study of Latin cate notable advances were made in ecumenical relations among seminarians and other students, he issued the ap- (see ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT). Catholic theologians con- ostolic constitution Veterum sapientia (Feb. 22, 1962). ferred with the Orthodox at Rhodes in August 1959, He sought means to strengthen the Church in Latin Amer- when the executive committee of the WORLD COUNCIL OF ica and frequently expressed his concern for the ‘‘Church CHURCHES met there. The Secretariat for Promoting of Silence’’ in eastern Europe and eastern Asia. He also CHRISTIAN UNITY was instituted by the motu proprio Sup- fostered the growth of the missions; besides writing the erno Dei nutu (June 5, 1960) and Cardinal A. Bea was encyclical Princeps Pastorum, he consecrated 14 bishops appointed president. Two papal envoys were sent to the for Africa, Asia, and Oceania in St. Peter’s on May 8, patriarch of Constantinople, Athanagoras, on June 27, 1960, and 14 more on May 21, 1961. 1961. For the first time the was repre- sented at an assembly of the World Council of Churches, Pope John appeared in public for the last time at his when in November 1961 five official observers designat- window in the Vatican on May 22, 1963. Shortly thereaf- ed by Bea’s secretariat went to New Delhi. In consider- ter he began to succumb to a gastric cancer from which ation of the Jews the pope commanded that the epithets he had suffered for about a year. Having endured a pro- ‘‘perfidis (Judaeis)’’ and ‘‘(judaicam) perfidiam’’ in the longed agony, he died on June 3 ( Monday). As Roman liturgy of Good Friday be deleted. the world mourned, his body was buried in a simple tomb in the crypt of St. Peter’s. On Nov. 18, 1965, Paul VI an- During his pontificate a very large number of states- nounced initiation of procedures looking to the beatifica- men were received in audience. The pope’s visit to Pres. tion and ultimate of his two immediate Antonio Segni (May 11, 1963) was the first made by a predecessors, John XXIII and Pius XII. pope to the Quirinal since the establishment of the Re- public of ITALY. negotiations with the Soviet Character. A man of evangelical simplicity and un- Union resulted in the release of Josyf Slipyi, Ukrainian affected humility, John XXIII was never ashamed of his metropolitan of Lvov, who had been confined in Siberia lowly origins and always remained closely attached to his and who arrived in Rome on Feb. 9, 1963. Attempts to native soil and his rustic family. His diary, Journey of a procure the liberation of other Catholic prelates impris- Soul [tr. by D. White (New York 1965)], published post- oned behind the Iron Curtain, especially Cardinal József humously, reveals a profound interior life and an unwa-

NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA 937 JOHN XXIII, ANTIPOPE vering trust in Divine Providence. One of his favorite at Bologna and entered the papal curia of Boniface IX apothegms was Voluntas Dei, nostra. He was a high- (1389–1404). Cossa became archdeacon of Bologna in ly cultured man, versed in history, archeology, and archi- 1396, and in 1402 Boniface named him cardinal tecture, fond of literature (especially Manzoni), art, and of St. Eustachio and appointed him legate to Bologna and music; he could speak French, Bulgarian, Russian, Turk- Romagna. From 1403 to 1408 he lived in Bologna, where ish, and modern Greek, in addition to Italian and Latin. his administrative and financial abilities brought that re- Gifted with an agreeable disposition and a ready wit, he gion of Italy back under the control of the Papal States. was characteristically open and affable, understanding During the Great SCHISM, Cossa was one of the cardinals and compassionate, jovial and calm, familiar in audi- who broke with GREGORY XII (1406–15) in May 1408, ences, hospitable, and a lively conversationalist. when the latter showed that he had no intention of ending the Schism (Gregory named four new cardinals, thus sig- Throughout his life he valued the care of souls above naling his desire to continue his line of the papacy). any other occupation. He disliked the bureaucracy of the Cossa went to Pisa where he and most of Gregory’s and Roman Curia, demythologized the papacy, and dimin- antipope Benedict XIII’s cardinals called for a council to ished the cult of the pontifical personality. He allowed as end the Schism. Together with Peter of Candia, he took much freedom of thought and action as possible to others the leading role in organizing the Council of Pisa and was and recognized the limitations of his own knowledge and largely responsible for engineering Peter’s election as ability. He perceived the need of reform and his pontifi- Antipope Alexander V (1409–10). After Alexander’ cate is regarded as a turning point in the history of the death in the following year, and in spite of rumors (now Catholic Church. Considered by some, because of his ad- largely considered false) that Cossa had poisoned him, vanced age and ambiguous reputation at the time of his the Pisan cardinals met at Bologna and unanimously election, to be merely a transitional pontiff, John XXIII elected Cossa to be Alexander’s successor. He took the instead initiated a new age. As part of the Jubilee Year name John XXIII. 2000 events, he was beatified by Pope John Paul II on September 3 together with Pope Pius IX. John’s election did little to change the nature of the Schism; there were still three active claimants to the pa- Bibliography: Scritti e discorsi, 1953–1958, 4 v. (Rome pacy: John, Benedict XIII (1394–1417), and Gregory 1959–62); Discorsi, messaggi, colloqui del Santo Padre Giovanni XXIII, 5 v. ( 1961–64). Souvenirs d’un nonce: Cahiers XII. While John had by far the widest political support de France, 1944–1953 (Paris 1963); of Pope John (England, France, and many Italian and German states), XXIII (Washington 1965). Acta et documenta Concilio oecumenico he was still politically vulnerable, especially in Italy. He Vaticano II apparando, ser.2, v.1 Acta summi pontificis Ioannis had also acquired the reputation of being a worldly, un- XXIII (Vatican City 1964). Wit and Wisdom of Good Pope John, scrupulous, and ambitious man of questionable moral comp. H. FESQUET, tr. S. ATTANASIO (New York 1964). U. GROPPI and J. S. LOMBARDI, Above All a Shepherd: Pope John XXIII (New character (he was considered tyrannical as papal legate York 1959). A. LAZZARINI, Pope John XXIII, tr. M. HATWELL (New in Bologna, and was rumored to have had numerous ro- York 1959). F. X. MURPHY, John XXIII Comes to the Vatican (New mantic liaisons). In Italy, King Ladislaus of Durazzo- York 1959). R. ROUQUETTE, ‘‘Le Mystère Roncalli,’’ Études 318 Naples (1386–1414) continued to press his claim to much (1963) 4–18, Eng. tr. Catholic Mind 62 (Apr. 1964) 4–12. E. E. of the Papal States, and John depended on Louis II of HATES, Pope John and His Revolution (London 1965). V. BRANCA and S. ROSSO-MAZZINGHI, ed. Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli: dal patr- Anjou for protection. After Louis defeated Ladislaus at iarcato di Venezia alla cattedra di San Pietro (Florence 1984). G. Roccasecca (May 19, 1411), John entered Rome on April ALBERIGO, ed. Giovanni XXIII: transizione del papato e della Chie- 12, 1411. Here John called a council (April 29, sa (Rome 1988). P. HEBBLETHWAITE, Pope John XXIII, Shepherd 1412–March 1413), ostensibly to continue church re- of the Modern World (Garden City, NY 1985). form, but it only managed to condemn (Feb. 10, 1413) [R. TRISCO] the writings of the English reformer John Wycliff (ca. 1325–84). John also created several new cardinals, among whom were Francisco Zarabella, Pierre d’Ailly, Guillaume Fillastre, and Robert Hallam. In August 1412, JOHN XXIII, ANTIPOPE John excommunicated the Bohemian reformer Jan Hus (ca. 1369–1415) because he was preaching against the Pontificate (Pisan obedience): May 17, 1410 to May antipope’s pseudo-crusade against Ladislaus (John grant- 29, 1415. Born Baldassare Cossa into an impoverished ed to all who contributed money to the family of Neapolitan aristocrats (ca. 1370), he died in cause). Florence on either June 23, 1419 or (see Esch) on Decem- ber 27. There are few reliable facts concerning Cossa’s Soon John was forced to come to terms with Ladis- early life, though there is a tradition that he left a military laus because his protector, Louis of Anjou, had returned career in favor of church service. He studied canon law to France. For a brief time the two were allies, but in May

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