President Carmichael's Failure to Commit
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PRESIDENT CARMICHAEL’S FAILURE TO COMMIT: CHALLENGES OF LEADERSHIP IN THE DESEGREGATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA by SARAH E. WEVER PHILO HUTCHESON, COMMITTEE CHAIR KARRI HOLLEY SAMORY PRUITT MEREDITH BAGLEY STEVEN D. MOBLEY, JR. A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Educational Leadership, Policy, and Technology Studies in the Graduate School of The University of Alabama TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA 2019 Copyright Sarah E. Wever 2019 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT Oliver Cromwell Carmichael, the University of Alabama’s 19th president, was president during a time of controversy. A native of Alabama, President Carmichael was aware that segregation was a deep-rooted tradition in the South, and, having worked in New York, he was aware of the progressive liberal ways of the North.1 President Carmichael found himself in the middle of these two groups, trying, but unable, to please both. On February 1st, 1956 the University of Alabama admitted its first African American student, Autherine Lucy. Within a week the University dismissed her because riots protesting her enrollment were increasingly violent. This would be the beginning of the University of Alabama becoming the symbol of Southern resistance to integration and defiance of the law.2 President Carmichael was a cultured, modern, and highly experienced educator and administrator in the world of higher education, yet he failed as president of the University of Alabama, and more important, he failed at desegregating the university when he was given an opportune chance. This study explored President Carmichael’s career in higher education and the leadership traits he did and did not possess. Using historical and archival research, the purpose of this study was to examine President Carmichael’s personality, relationships, professional behavior, and the context that surrounded his presidency at the University of Alabama in order to better understand the reasons behind the choices he made. 1 Jack Wheat. "Presidency EnDeD in Controversy." The Tuscaloosa News, April 12, 1981. 2 Jack Wheat. "Integration of UA Was Hard Fought." The Tuscaloosa News, April 12, 1981. ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Joshua Wever, and my parents, Matthew and Jeanne Green. They have always believed in and supported my determination to achieve my goals. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I came across this dissertation topic in my very first class of my PhD program. This class was History of Higher Education taught by Dr. Wayne Urban. In conversation with the class, Dr. Urban just happened to bring up President Carmichael and the first African American student to ever enroll at the University of Alabama, Autherine Lucy. Ever since he mentioned them on that first day of class I knew I wanted my dissertation to center around both Carmichael and Lucy and the failed desegregation of the University of Alabama. Dr. Wayne Urban played a large role in getting me started on this topic and fostering my passion for historical writing. His constant encouragement and faith in my abilities got me through my first year of the PhD program. He then introduced me to Dr. Philo Hutcheson, my dissertation chair. Dr. Hutcheson has supported me through this process for four years, and I am forever grateful for his mentorship and guidance. His honesty, availability, and wisdom were cherished and valued. I also want to thank my committee members, Dr. Pruitt, Dr. Bagley, Dr. Holley, and Dr. Mobley, for their influence on this work. Their contributions were helpful and thoughtful over the course of this dissertation. There are several fellow doctoral classmates that I would not have been able to get through this experience without. Larry Faulkner assisted me in the historical dissertation writing process and was readily available through email whenever I needed advice. Jessica Harrison and Megan Welborn, who have become my dear friends, were supporters and confidents from the beginning. I would especially like to thank my dearest classmate, my husband, Joshua Wever. He iv was and is my biggest fan. Going through this program with him has been a journey and experience that not many married couples get to go through. I cannot imagine having done it without him. His unwavering support and love are extraordinary. I am also appreciative of our two little chihuahua study buddies, Finn and Moose. Last, I want to thank my parents and siblings for always supporting this long journey I have taken them on! They constantly checked in and cheered on each little victory. Whether it was an A on a paper, a conference presentation, or passing comprehensive finals, they cheered on each moment as if they were monumental moments. It’s amazing what a difference a supportive family can make. v CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv PREFACE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF OLIVER CROMWELL CARMICHAEL ............................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER I: OLIVER CROMWELL CARMICHAEL BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA PRESIDENCY, 1891-1953 ...................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER II: OLIVER CROMWELL CARMICHAEL, THE UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA PRESIDENT, 1953-1957 ......................................................................................... 52 CHAPTER III: AUTHERINE LUCY’S BATTLE FOR ADMITTANCE TO THE UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA, 1952-1957 ................................................................................ 71 CHAPTER IV: AUTHERINE LUCY’S SUSPENSION AND EXPULSION, 1956-1957 .......... 92 CHAPTER V: SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY PRESIDENTS DEALING WITH DESEGREGATION .................................................................................................................... 128 CHAPTER VI: LEADERSHIP AND UNIVERSITY PRESIDENTS ........................................ 164 CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 180 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 198 vi PREFACE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF OLIVER CROMWELL CARMICHAEL Oliver Cromwell Carmichael was a Southern moderate who served as president of the University of Alabama during a time where the entire South was in conflict with the 1954 and 1955 U.S. Supreme Court decisions in Brown v. Board, one of the legal cornerstones of the Civil Rights Movement. A native of Alabama, President Carmichael was aware that segregation was a deep-rooted tradition in the South, and having worked in the state of New York for many years, he was aware of the somewhat progressive liberal ways of the North.1 President Carmichael found himself in the middle of these two groups, trying, but unable, to please both. In 1954 and 1955, when the Supreme Court ruled that desegregation of public schools was unconstitutional and to proceed with desegregation “with all deliberate speeD,” a new and important context for racism and segregation in the South was set. The University of Alabama was soon faced with controversy over the first African American student, Autherine Lucy, and her plans to attend the University of Alabama in February of 1956. Would the University follow the Supreme Court ruling or would the University defy it? Oliver Cromwell Carmichael, as the president and face of the university, was at the center of the controversy. When controversies happen under a university president’s watch, whether the president has control over the situation or not, they are the person everyone blames. The president often takes the fall for decisions and actions taken by the university administration. 1 Jack Wheat. "Presidency EnDeD in Controversy." The Tuscaloosa News, April 12, 1981. 1 President Carmichael had all eyes on him, waiting to see which move he would make and which side he would take. President Carmichael’s leadership and his failures at the University of Alabama specifically have never been studied in-depth. There have been several books and articles written about the attempted desegregation of the University of Alabama in 1956. President Carmichael’s role in the attempted desegregation is mentioned, but in totality there has never been an examination of his leadership and the impact it had on his career and the University of Alabama. President Carmichael’s story is a significant one for it explains partially why the University of Alabama remained desegregated until 1963, instead of desegregating in 1956 when it had the opportunity. It is also a significant example of how and why some presidents in the South failed at desegregating their university in the 1950s and 1960s. President Carmichael’s actions and decisions as a university president can also provide insight into how university presidents today often have to make a swift, yet well thought-out, reaction to unexpected controversial moments. In these moments, usually the entire university and surrounding public citizens are waiting and watching to see what the president says or does.