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Review Article a Brief Observational History of the Black-Hole Spacetimes Hindawi Publishing Corporation Advances in Mathematical Physics Volume 2015, Article ID 617128, 4 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/617128 Review Article A Brief Observational History of the Black-Hole Spacetimes Wolfgang Kundt Argelander Institute of Bonn University, Auf dem Hugel¨ 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany Correspondence should be addressed to Wolfgang Kundt; [email protected] Received 24 October 2014; Revised 17 December 2014; Accepted 18 December 2014 Academic Editor: Seyed H. Hendi Copyright © 2015 Wolfgang Kundt. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In this year (2015), black holes (BHs) celebrate their 100th birthday, if their birth is taken to be triggered by a handwritten letter from Martin Schwarzschild to Albert Einstein, in connection with his newly found spherically symmetric vacuum solution. 1. Introduction 2. Birth and Growth of the Black Hole Idea Black holes are brainchildren of Einstein-Hilbert’s General It was the problem of unhalted gravitational collapse of Relativity Theory (GRT). They arose naturally as the non- large masses under their own weight, which emerged freshly singular solutions describing the axially symmetric vacuum with Einstein’s GRT—in generalisation of Newton’s Theory— far fields of the gravitational collapse of a sufficiently massive because, in GRT, pressure has weight (like mass or energy), (rotating) burnt-out star under its own weight and were and beyond certain (high) mass densities, pressures can no subsequently likewise taken seriously on superstellar mass longer halt a collapse. The most massive neutron stars are scales—at the centers of galaxies—as well as on distinctly close in density to the instability limit; they realise an extreme substellar mass scales, as evaporating mountain-sized objects stellar population. What happens when additional matter is (in mass) formed during earlier cosmic epochs. The (more) transferred to a heavy neutron star? This question opened the general possibility of a (slightly) nonsymmetrical gravita- doors to BH favouritism. tional collapse without a regular event horizon—known This question is serious, but it is not fatal. Stars can underthenameof“nakedsingularity”—waseliminatedfrom lose mass through centrifugal ejection, through their winds, consideration by Penrose’s postulate of “cosmic censorship” through their radiation, and through nuclear detonations, as (CC, [1]), with the plausible expectation that collapsing bod- novae—also through supernova explosions—and within the ies would always remove their nonfitting higher multipole large set of known neutron stars, none so far is close in mass moments via gravitational radiation—strongly suggested by to its stability limit of 3⊙;theyallhavemasses≲2⊙.We the heroic work of Price [2]—an expectation which has realise that there are hurdles to BH formation. meanwhilebeenprovenunjustified[3, 4]: BH spacetimes BHresearchhasnotbeeneasy,asitrequired,among form a subset of measure zero within the class of all collapse others, explicit analytic solutions of the GRT equations and scenarios. their complete analytic extensions from local to global ones; Should we worry? I do not think so. Observations have see the careful survey by Heusler [5] and also Kundt [6–9] shownthatweliveinsideacomparativelyyoung(partof and Thorne [10]. For a few years after their discovery, all of the) Universe, with a significant fraction of its primordial usworldwidewerereadytobelievethatBHsmightturnout hydrogen yet unburnt (towards chemical elements of higher to be standard building blocks of the Universe. But it was nuclear binding energy). No BH has been reliably detected in equally clear to us, individually as well as in international our cosmic neighbourhood. Quite likely, all we have to do to discussion groups, for several years, that their detection in save our regular physical description of this world is to replace theskywouldbefarfromeasy.Becauseeventheirradiation Penrose’s CC hypothesis by the slightly more restrictive one cannot escape from them; they cannot emit signals, or blow of AUC (avoidance of unhalted collapse). winds, or (even) eject jets; they can only swallow, not spit, 2 Advances in Mathematical Physics and only absorb, not emit. Their detections would have to point, Hawking [24, 25]tooktheworld’slead,byopening be rather indirect, by carefully watching their surroundings the chapter “BH Thermodynamics,” at the seventh Texas at the right moments, at low signal strengths, because of Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics in Dallas, a few days escaping from near the bottom of a deep potential well. As before Christmas 1974. He proposed a (mass-independent) concerns jets from BHs, supportive claims have been made in marriage of GR and quantum mechanics, by assigning a de recent years, without proof and without reference to a proof, Broglie wavelength of the order of its horizon length to a basedonlyonimaginationandspeculation.Established BH of mass and with it a temperature :=ℏ/,suchthat −7 jet engines are among the most sophisticated machines of aBHofmass has a temperature () ≈ 10 K ⊙/. the inorganic Universe; they involve strong, heavy rotating Obviously, this quantum temperature is ignorably small for magnets and stable de Laval nozzles [11, 12]. For years, our BHs of stellar mass or bigger but could lead to detectable best candidate for BH detection has been Cyg X-1, an X-ray cosmic explosions for mountain-sized BHs, when they shrink binary blowing jet intermittently containing a bright primary down by evaporation to the Hawking mass = ℏ/ = 15 star and an unseen, heavy companion [13–16]: quite likely, the 10 g(with := mass of the pion). unseen companion is a neutron star surrounded by a massive Instead of the hundreds of publications in this wide accretion disk [17]. None of the rich classes of stellar-mass BH theoretical field, may I just list the names of a few of its leading candidates has ultimately turned out to contain a BH [18]; our authors. Beyond those already quoted, they are Brandon searchhadbeeninvain. Carter, Werner Israel, Ted Newman, David Robinson, Jim Another class of BH candidates was already proposed in Bardeen, Martin Rees, Jim Hartle, Jacob Bekenstein, and [19] by Lynden-Bell, through the fear that supermassive black Robert Wald. Their considerations have led to a classification holes, SMBHs, could form near the massive center of the deep of all possible BHs into mini, midi,andmaxi ones, each 20 potential well of a large galaxy. How can such accumulated class ranging in mass through a factor of √ℏ/2 ≈10 , matter be ejected again to large distances of lower gravity? A starting at the bottom with the Planck mass := √ℏ/ = special conference at Bad Honnef in 1995, cochaired by Peter −5 Pl Scheuer, gave a tentative answer to this puzzle: the central 10 g—whose Compton wavelength equals its Hawking wavelength—and extending up to the mass of the observable galactic disks may well be supported by ordinary plasma 2 3 55 pressure (perpendicular to disk plane) combined—in radial universe, = (ℏ/) / =10 g. As concerns their direction—with centrifugal forces, and their nuclear-burning detection, midi BHs have only been considered seriously matter may well be reejected into the CGM in the shape once in 1974, as a possible explanation for the 1908 Tunguska of fountains of galactic scale, observed as an active galaxy’s catastrophe, even though no mechanism for their formation burning disk (BD), broad-line region (BLR), NLR, ELR, and hadeverbeenproposed.TheywererefutedbyBeasleyand 2 EER, out to 10 Kpc from its center and beyond, with the Tinsley [26], based on an absence of tsunamis in the Pacific required power supplied by nuclear burning, in combination duringthedaysofthatevent(whichwouldhavebeenraised with conserved angular momentum from the past spiral- by the midi BH during its exit from the ocean, after having in motion through the disk [20]. This interpretation has crossed the Earth). Note that in my understanding, the meanwhile been corroborated by the SDSS plot of the core Tunguska event has not been an infall event from outside, masses of ≲15000 galaxies [21], whose masses decrease with rather an ejection event from inside, a kimberlite [27]. 9.5 cosmic time, from some 10 ⊙ at ≈ 4.5,downtosome Next, explosions of mini BHs have been ruled out by Joe 6.5 Taylor by a large margin, via an absence of detected radio 10 ⊙ at present, as well as by the two halo-sized -ray lobes of our Milky Way mapped by the FERMI mission, bursts of the implied kind. And I have never been shown ∗ which are fed in the vicinity of Sgr A , the hard point source convincing evidence of a maxi BH either, throughout the at our galactic center [12]. Already Ambartsumian noted in decades since their proposition [12]. Note that yet another [22] that galactic centers are observed to eject, rather than to class of BHs has been taken seriously in 2012, when CERN’s ∗ swallow. And in [23]IarguethatalltheactivitiesnearSgrA LargeHadronColliderwasassignedtosearchfortheHiggs are satisfactorily described by a BD, whilst they are multiply particle, quantum mini BHs, much lighter than the Planck inconsistent with a SMBH in its place. mass, whose growth was feared to possibly swallow the whole city of Geneva. Fortunately for our home planet Earth, this most dangerous class of BHs has not shown up either. 3. Black Hole Thermodynamics and BHs have
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