The Implementation of the Human Right to Water in Argentina and Colombia La Justiciabilidad Del Derecho Humano Al Agua En Argentina Y Colombia

The Implementation of the Human Right to Water in Argentina and Colombia La justiciabilidad del derecho humano al agua en Argentina y Colombia

M. Belén Olmos Giupponi* Martha C. Paz**

SUMARIO: I. Introduction. II. The International Recognition of the Ac- cess to Water as a Human Right. III. Right to Water and Climate Change. IV. Justiciability of the Right toWater in Argentina and Colombia. V. Con- cluding Remarks. VI. Bibliography.

* Doctor Cum Laude, Carlos III University, Madrid. Master in Human Fundamental Rights, University Carlos III, Madrid. Assistant Professor and Director of the Master in En- vironmental Policy and Governance at Stirling University, Scotland (United Kingdom). Con- sultant in Environmental Law and Human Rights. Author of books and more than 15 peer- reviewed articles. Visiting scholar at the Latin American Studies Institute (Berlin). ** Master in Human Fundamental Rights, University Carlos III, Madrid. Clerk at the Co- lombian Constitutional Court. Adjunct Professor Universidad del Rosario (Bogotá). Author of different journals and book articles. Visiting scholar at different universities. Artículo recibido el 10 de julio de 2014 Aprobado para publicación el 24 de septiembre de 2014

D. R. © 2015. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas. Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 México, D. F., ISSN 1870-4654 324 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ R del Medio Ambiente, CambioClimático. Palabras clave: del cambioclimático. humanoalaguaylosdesafíosparalaprotecciónen lajusticiabilidaddelderecho enelcontexto argentinos.dictadas portribunales lasautorassubrayan obstáculos Enelartículo losprincipales Constitucionalcolombiana ydiferentes sentencias de recientes fallosemitidosporlaCorte cionando nuevos alaguaalaluz elementosdejuicioacercalajusticiabilidad delderecho la prácticaen Argentina yColombia. Elensayo humanoalaguapropor- exploraelderecho jurídicosinternacionales, ofreciendo comparativa unaperspectiva instrumentos diversos de A ment, climatique. changement Mots-clés: climatique.tection danslecontexteduchangement obstaclesdelajusticiabilitèdudroit del’hommeàl’eauetlesdéfispourlapro-principaux argentins.jugements prononcés soulignentles pardestribunaux lesauteurs Danscetarticle des nouveaux élémentssurlajusticiabilitè dudroit àl’eaulasuitederécentesfournissant de lapratique en Argentine etenColombie. Letravail explore ledroit del’homme àl’eauen enoffrantuneperspective comparative internationaux juridiques instruments dans plusieurs Key words: climate change. foritsprotection towater inthecontextof andthechallenges forcement ofthehumanright by underlinemainobstaclesintheen- Argentine courts. Intheanalysisfurther theauthors anddifferent judgements issuedby of recent theColombianConstitutional Court rulings insights abouttheenforceability(referred toas towater“justiciability”) oftheright inlight Argentina andColombia. The essay towater explores thehumanright providing withnew acomparative offering from perspective thepracticein legalinstruments ous international R mate Change. ESUMEN BSTRACT ÉSUMÉ : : L’article abordelareconnaissance del’accèsàl’eaucommeundroit del’homme : El artículo abordaelreconocimiento del El artículo The article dealswiththerecognition invari- ofaccesstowater asahumanright The article droit right towater,right law, International Humanrights, Environmental Protection, Cli-

derecho alagua,derecho internacional,humanos, derecho derechos laprotección à l’eau, droit international, droits del’homme, protection del’environne- acceso al agua como derecho humanoen acceso alaguacomoderecho A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 , domestic uses”. safe, acceptable, physically accessible andaffordable and water forpersonal ofeveryone towater astheright (CESCR) setouttheright “to sufficient, No. 15oftheUNcommitteeonEconomic, SocialandCulturalRights distribution ofwaterdistribution isexacerbating existingpoverty”. sanitation. adequatelacked water supply andseveral accesstoadequate billionlacked vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A onthe basis ofwealth, andpeoplewithincountries divide countries gender velopment. highlights thatThis Report “the deepinequalitiesinlifechances poverty andtheglobalwater crisis” oftheUnitedNations forDe- Program lined inthe2006HumanDevelopment Report “Beyond scarcity: Power, developing anddeveloped countries. findmanytional guaranteeswhich obstaclesforitseffectiveness bothin their accesstowater. Indeed, towater isoneoftheconstitu- theright ages. water scarcity, andanother 1.6billionpeoplefaceeconomicwater short- According totheUnitedNations around 1.2billionpeoplelive inareas of effective measures torealize, withoutdiscrimination, towater”. theright right recognized atright theuniversallevel. H 2002/11. Availableat: Transnational Environmental Law shtml. nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The difficulties of ensuring theeffectiveThe difficultiesofensuring implementation are alsounder- Nevertheless peoplearound theglobefaceupsignificantdifficultiesin . General CommentNo. 15. WHO, Idem. Ibidem, p. 2 General CommentNo. 15(2002), EconomicandSocial Council, 20.01.2003, E/C.12/ Brown Weiss, E., “The Coming Water Crisis: ofHumankind”,A CommonConcern United Nations, Water Scarcity 1 Inthiscontext, accesstowater hasrecently emergedasahuman 7KH*OREDO:DWHU6XSSO\DQG6DQLWDWLRQ$VVHVVPHQW 6 Besides, “the continuingcontamination, depletionandunequal 3 According totheGeneralComment, States “have toadopt KWWSZZZXQKFKUFKWEVGRFQVIDGGEEGIFFF , 1:1, 2012, pp. 153-168. , . Availableat: I. I NTRODUCTION 5 In2000, over 1,000millionpeople http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity. 2 In2002, theGeneralComment , Geneva, 2000, p.1. 7

4 325 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 326 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ reflects theauthors’ conclusions. andtheColombianConstitutionalCourt. national courts The finalsection section isdevoted tothereview ofthemostrelevant caselaw of Argentina’s onwatertial impactofclimate change resources inLatin America. The third The secondsectiondiscussestheproblems ofaccesstowater andthepoten- identifying key controversial issuesinvolved intherecognition oftheright. water from atransnational asahumanright environmental law perspective, issueoftheenforceabilityright.the thorny tionships amongdifferent environmental systems, theattention to turning to water. The paperpresents evidence that highlightstheinterlinked rela- intheConstitution, haveis notenshrined national courts upheldtheright are beingoperated.changes towater theright inwhich Even incountries is reflected alsoinnational courts. result, trend toward theinternational towater therecognition oftheright ronmental law isshapingnational environmental systemsandcaselaw. As a forredresslegal mechanisms iscritical. Inthisregard, transnational envi- ofscarcity,In afuture scenario theavailability andnational ofinternational and other markers fordeprivation”. and othermarkers issue which has been raised by prominent scholarship over hasbeenraisedbyissue which prominent scholarship thepastyears. general, ofEconomic, CulturalandSocialRights(ECSR)isatransnational and sanitation iscrucial. to water or, inotherwords, theeffective accessofcitizenstosafewater ability willworsen situation. thecurrent the transnational environmental onwater effectsofclimate change avail- Har +'5FRPSOHWHSGI Content?”, available at pdf section 4.2. Introduction andconclusions have beenjointly written. of the rights recognised inthePresentof therights Covenant”. maximum ofitsavailable resources withaview progressively toachieving thefullrealisation 8 11 11 10 9 . “ The first sectionpresents anoverviewThe first oftherecognition oftheaccessto Latin represents toverify howAmerica aninteresting scenario these Taking into accountallthesecircumstances, thejusticiabilityofright v. L. Rev. 1067(2007), available at Human Development 2006, Report at 27, available at Chapple, Ellen&Leitch, Frances, “The Rightto Water: DoesitExistandisJusticiable What price for the priceless?: Implementing the justiciability of the right towater”, forthepriceless?:What Implementingthejusticiabilityofright price 120 Dr B. thesections2.3. OlmosGiupponi has written and4.1, M. Paz to hascontributed The IESCR article 20 underlines the obligation of each party 20underlinestheobligation party “to take ofeach steps...The IESCRarticle tothe . http://law.anu.edu.au/coast/events/environment/papers/chapple&leitch. 9 towater and,The enforceabilityoftheright in http://hlr.rubystudio.com/media/pdf/note.pdf 11 8 To make thingseven more complex, A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/ vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 . 10 ,

sustain life, development andtheenvironment”. one that states “fresh water isafiniteandvulnerable resource, essentialto ter andtheEnvironment established different the principles, amongwhich ments adoptedinearlierdecadescontainreferencestowater. totheright vious groundwork, itshouldbenotedthat instru- different international people around theworld. as agoaltoensure accesstosafewater forbetween 600and800million water Decadeofdrinking andsanitation 1981-1990,International setting Conference on Water (MardelPlata, the 1977)andsubsequently launched regulations.object ofvarious Inthisvein, theUNconvened theFirst World Indeed, the need toensure equitable accesstowater resources hasbeen mestic uses: accessibility, affordability, accessible andnon-discrimination. anddo- tobemetintheaccesswater forpersonal fines theparameters vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A towater.15 ontheright man right. Among themtheabove mentioned2002GeneralCommentNo. in bindingandsoftlaw that recognize accesstowater instruments asahu- towater isratherThe recognition recent. ofhumanright assuch ment”, January 1992. Conference on Water andtheEnvironment (ICWE), Dublin, Ireland, organizedon 26-31 on water related problems that took placeonthe31stofJanuary 1992at theInternational thedeclar vironmental Sustainability”, available at: Preparatory Meetingofthe - First World onJustice, Congress Governance andLaw forEn- pp. 337-361. Brunée andHey (eds.),Brunée Hague, Kluwer, 2001. nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 17 17 16 15 14 13 12 At UN level the efforts undertaken by bodieshaveAt UNlevel undertaken humanrights resulted theefforts II. General CommentNo. 15(2002), para. 2. Freestone, David andSalman, M. A., “Ocean andFreshwater Resources”, inBodanszy, The Dublin Statement on Water andSustainable Development ameetingofexperts UN DocE/C.12/2002/11. Attila, T. and Arcari, M., See, amongothers: A. Boyle, “Human RightsandtheEnvironment: A Reassessment

J. Int. Dev. 19, 2007, pp. 511-526. ationhumanrights.pdf T HE I NTERNATIONAL The Oxford Environmental HandbookofInternational Law . Anand, P. B., “Right towater andaccesstowater: an assess- 16 , The UNConvention ontheLaw ofInternational Watercourses, The Even iftheCommenthasasoftlaw nature, itde- 14 AS In 1992 the International Conference on In1992theInternational Wa- R

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327 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 328 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ access forpeoplewithdisabilitiestocleanwater services”. ties in 28.2.a)setsouttheobligation ofStatesArticle to “ensure equal water”. “through theprovision foodsandcleandrinking- ofadequate nutritious of tocombat 24requires diseasesand malnutrition States parties Article Furthermore, theConvention 2(c) ontheRightsof theChildinparagraph to water. treaties other humanrights doincludeanexplicitrecognition oftheright Civil andPolitical Rightsdoesnotexpressly towater, recognize theright sion, theobligation tofulfilimpliesanactive dimension. Whereas theobligations torespect andprotect involve anegative dimen- createsThe right anobligation torespect, protect andfulfilby theStates. the scopeandnature oftheright. eral Assembly on towater‘The human right andsanitation’, underlined adequate livingconditions, inrelation particularly to... water supply”. 2(h)that States shallensuregraph Parties towomen to theright “enjoy against of Discrimination Women (CEDAW) provides in 14para- Article pressed through thefavourable votes ontheresolution. direction andrepresents community ex- theconsensusofinternational Available at http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml inNew organizationsintegration at UnitedNations Headquarters York 2007. on30March The Convention anditsOptionalProtocol openedforsignature by allStates andby regional sessionoftheGeneral thesixty-first 2006 during Assembly by resolution A/RES/61/106. water. See HR_to_Water.pdf 2010, available at womenwatch/daw/cedaw/ (CEDAW), adoptedin1979by theUNGeneral Assembly, available at 122 votes infavour, noneagainstand41abstentions. www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm lution 44/25of20November 1989. intoforce2September1990, Entry available at: 18 18 23 22 21 20 19 As for the binding instruments, while the International CovenantAs forthebindinginstruments, whiletheInternational on In thisevolution towater, oftheright the2010resolution oftheGen- Various organizations have advocated convention foraninternational to ontheright The Convention ontheRightsofPersons withDisabilitieswas adoptedon13December The Convention ontheElimination of against All FormsofDiscrimination Women This resolution was by ofUNMemberStates. backed themajority Itwas adoptedby Resolution A/64/L.63/Rev.1. towaterThe humanright andsanitation, ofJuly 26, Adopted andopenedforsignature, ratification andaccessionby General Assembly reso- 20 Similarly, theConvention ontheRightsofPersons withDisabili- http://www.watertreaty.org/ 18 Inthisregard, theConvention ontheElimination of All Forms . http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/documents/intldocs/UNGA_Resolution_ . . . 22 This resolution isastepintheright A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 23 vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 . 21 http://www.un.org/ http:// 19 ,

of India. toliferecognizedbroader in contextofright 21oftheConstitution Article rights. sential resource forlife” andthat “access towater andsanitation” are human America, Uruguay’s Constitutionin 47,Article states that “water isanes- palities. withinthepowersgions, whileinSpainitisenshrined assignedtomunici- vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A burg, that theSouth theneces- determined ConstitutionalCourt African andhealthneeds.fy basicsurvival InthecaseMazibuko v. CityofJohannes- consensusonhowinternational many litres per day needstosatis- aperson inlightofthepractice.must bedetermined As forthequantity, there isno ity) andaffordability. towater theright These requirements concerning ferent ways, namely: physical accessibility(appropriatequantityandqual- equal accesstosufficientwater. Accessibility needstobeguaranteedindif- ofeveryonethe right to “access tosufficientwater”. towater.to respect theright Inparticular, 27(1)(b)establishes Article tion ofSouth embodiestheobligationAfrica ofnatural andlegal persons innational constitutions.shrined andguaranteesasen- towater from humanrights basis fortheright arises ognition. of Gambia, India, Venezuela, provide Spainand Belgium foranindirect rec- towater,uador andUruguay encompasstheright whereas theconstitutions for instance, theconstitutionsofSouth Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Bolivia, Ec- nized directly orindirectly indifferent national constitutions, amongthem, KWWSSGEDJHRUJHWRZQHGX&RQVWLWXWLRQV8UXJXD\XUXJXD\KWPO and 149.1.22. KWWSZZZLHOUFRUJFRQWHQWISGI 1997. Availableat nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 29 28 27 26 25 24 In sum, ofindividualstohave towater astheright theright hasarisen One ofthemostadvanced constitutionsinthematter, theConstitu- hu In additiontotheseinternational General CommentNo. 15(2002), para3. Constitution ofSouth promulgatedAfrica 18December1996, inforcesince4February See C. Armeni, towater inBelgium”,“The right Constitution ofUruguay, 47. article 1949 ConstitutionofIndia, 21. liberty. article Protection oflifeandpersonal 1967 ConstitutionofUruguay (lastamended2004), 47,Article available (inSpanish)at: 27 InEurope, towater recognizes inthethree theright Belgium re- 28 29 InIndia, several have towater theright inthe courts endorsed 25 KWWSZZZLQIRJRY]DGRFXPHQWVFRQVWLWXWLRQDSGI , . Seealso1978SpanishConstitution, 148.1.10 articles 24 towater hasbeenrecog-Thus theright man rights instruments, thelegal man rights ,(/5%ULHÀQJ3DSHU . Author’stranslation. 26 Similarly, inLatin , available at . 329 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 330 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ ment mechanisms designedtoprotect theright. ment mechanisms water, involves which enforce- theactivityofjudicialbodiesandvarious protection. at nationalthe enforcementofright level,granting aneffective judicial per month. quantitywas perdaysary 25litres perperson or6kilolitres perhousehold sures toensure effective accesstosafewater andsanitation. more debatable. be appliedtonon-state actors, asmultinational seems such corporations oftheState.the part The questionwhetherornottheseobligations should towaterright creates theobligations torespect, protect andfulfilon must bedefinedbytours courts. Ontheotherhand, asseenbefore, the hand, national legalsystemshave accommodated anew right, but itscon- right, whoissupposedtoguaranteeitandhaslegalstanding. Ontheone inthisregard. instrument no bindinginternational tohavethe recognition right equalaccesstowater, becausethere is partly remain open. ofall, First there are amongStates still disagreements upon the implementation oftheright. Finally, must berespected andaccesstoinformation in non-discrimination an economicviewpoint, i.e. shouldnotbeexcessively water tariffs applied. that constitute athreat to aperson’s health. Water must beaccessible from free from micro-organisms, hazards substancesandradiological chemical nal of International Lawnal ofInternational andPolicy (2004), pp. 1181. of the right towater”,of theright supra de amparo. Latin these America “writs” have asacción detutela, different namessuch oacción recurso andincommonlawcan doctrine in general, they are equivalent to In ofcertiorari”. “writ Information Institute.Information Available at 28; 2010(3)BCLR239(CC); 2010(4)SA1(CC)(8October2009). Southern Legal African 34 33 32 31 30 The third question concerns theimplementation ortheadoptionofmea- The thirdquestionconcerns Secondly, casewhoisentitledtothe ineach todetermine itisnecessary Yet there are questionsregarding which theimplementation oftheright Letnar Cernic, J., obligations towater”,“Corporate underthehumanright Pejan, R., “The Rightto Water: theRoadtoJusticiability”, 36Geo. Wash. Int’l L. Rev. See Mazibuko vCityofJohannesburg (CCT39/09)[2009]ZACC andOthers andOthers These mechanism provide atThese mechanism stake. forarapiddefence ofthehumanright Inthe Ameri- Harvard Law Review 33 30 This leadstothequestionof “justiciability” to oftheright With regard tothequalitywater must besafe, inotherwords 31 at 14. , forthepriceless?:“What Implementingthejusticiability price , Band39Nr. 2, 2011. March KWWSZZZVDÁLLRUJ]DFDVHV=$&&SGI A 34 nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario

Where the right towa-Where theright vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 32 This requires This Denver Jour- . , of thepopulation willbeaffectedby water shortages. OHCHR Report underlinedthenegative on impactofclimate OHCHR Report change vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A regions. to water incertain forecasts, future willproduce climate negative change effectsonaccess According totheIntergovernmental Pa case ofviolation. ensure that itisrespected orSupreme in Courts) Constitutional Courts ter isexplicitly recognized intheConstitution, (especially national courts tion protecting the right tion protecting theright in theConstitution, provide national courts anauthoritative interpreta- namely tolifeorahealthy theright environment. in thefuture. water orcoastalareas) andlargecitieswilllack resources asdeserts (such “Combating climate change: inadividedworld”. Humansolidarity (2009)andtheHumanDevelopment 2007/08UNDP,man rights Report Rights —OHCHR—ontherelationship between andhu- climate change oftheOfficeHighCommissioner forHumanchange”, thereport the HumanRightsCouncilResolution7/23 andclimate “Human rights in thecontextofclimate change. Inthisregard itisworthmentioning cies have stressed theneedtoguaranteeaccesssafewater andsanitation book of International Environmentalbook ofInternational Law national Environmental Law available at the relationship between andhumanrights, climate change A/HRC/10/6, 15January 2009 at at df? OpenElement WLRQV$B+5&B5(6BBSGI nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Water/Climate_Change_Right_Water_Sanitation.pdf 39 38 37 36 35 As fortherelations between towater andclimate theright change, the Report oftheOfficeUnitedNations HighCommissionerforHumanRightson Report Marauhn, Th., RoleoftheState”,“Changing inBodansky Brown Weiss, E., “The comingwater crisis: ofhumankind”,A commonconcern UNFCCC, Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation inDeveloping Countries Climate ChangeandtheHumanRightsto Water andSanitation, Position Paper available KWWSGDFFHVVGGVQ\XQRUJGRF81'2&*(1*3')*S . The Resolutionisavailable at 37 III. In Latin In itisexpectedthat asignificantproportion America 35 towaterWhere theright isnotexplicitly recognized R IGHT , 1:1, 2012, pp. 153-168. .

to water through therecognition ofotherrights, , TO W 36 , pp. 727-748, at 735. Inparticular, areas especially vulnerable ATER

AND http://ap nel onClimate Change(IPCC)’s C LIMATE .ohchr.org/documents/E/HRC/resolu C et al. HANGE 38 Different UNagen- (eds), , 2007. The Oxford Hand- 39

Trans- . 331 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 332 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ (2005). mission declared that thecausalitylink itwas notpossible todetermine and omissionsoftheUnitedStates, however, Com- theInter-American sought relief from violations causedby resulting from globalwarming acts tion totheInter Commissionofhumanrights,American theInuitpeople bation ofthespread ofdiseases. that result inwater scarcity, contam floods anddroughts, inprecipitation changes andextreme temperatures already does, impactonpeople’s towater rights andsanitation by causing which havewhich beenincreased dramatically over thepastyears. anddamagescausedby anddiminishingtherisks tropical storms structure Court, claimingfortheState’s responsibility inbuilding infra- appropriate to negative were impactofclimate change submittedbefore theSupreme ple oftheseobstacles. Recently inCostaRica, different complaintsrelating crimination, andaccountability”. management ofwater resources, withemphasisonparticipation, notdis- noted basedon integrated approach “the needtopromote ahumanrights and HumanRights Water andSanitation (2010)theindependentexpert the accesstowater. lems ofcausalityandburden oftheproof. towater violations.right ashumanrights There are theadditional prob- of environmental damage. the difficultyofdemonstrating thecausallinkandabsenceofevidence at: preme Court. San José. 009595-0007-CO/Res. Nº 2011012282 (09/09/2011). ConstitutionalChamberoftheSu- of Climate Change”, Development Report: FightingClimate Change: inaDivided HumanSolidarity World. lined thenegative ontheaccesstowater. impactofclimate change UNDP2007/08Human —OHCHR— ontherelationship between (2009), and humanrights climate change under- 45 44 43 42 41 40 One particular aspect concernsclimate change negative change effectsonthe aspectconcernsclimate One particular http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Water/Climate_Change_Right_Water_Sanitation.pdf Idem. Spain, A., “Beyond Adjudication: ResourceDisputes inanEra ResolvingInternational Climate ChangeandtheHumanRightsto Water andSanitation. Position paper, available Translations from SpanishtoEnglishare madeby unlessotherwisenoted. theauthors The Report oftheOfficeUnitedNations HighCommissioner forHumanRights The Report See Exp.10-016575-0007-CO/Res. Nº2011005052(15/04/2011) andExp.11- 45

The complaints submitted at internal levelThe complaintssubmittedat internal have failedbecauseof Stanford Environmental Law Journal 40 According tothisreport, will, climate change and 41 42 Besides, Climate Change inthereport

ination of drinking waterination andexacer- ofdrinking 43 Some cases give aclearexam- Somecasesgive , vol. 30, no. 2, 2011, pp. 343-390. A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 44 Intheirpeti- . , tating consequences, willbeworsening iftheforecasts which take place. ticularly inCentral andtheeffectsElNiñoprovokeAmerica) have devas- water, aswell aslakes andriver pollution. (par- Furthermore, hurricanes diseases. There are problems ofover-exploitation andpollutionofground- water received by thepoorwas worse, alsomuch increasing thedangerof using collectionmethodsthat are highly vulnerable todroughts. resources (surfaceandgroundwater) rely andmany others onrainwater, in theregion. Also, communities many dependonlimitedfreshwater rural The unequalaccesstowater isrelated alsotothebroader issueofequity vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A more fortheirwater thannon-poorfamilies. in 2000, statistics show that poorpeoplepaidbetween 1.5and2.8times ity andpollution. There isalargewater inequality, pricing forinstance table water, 63%ofthispopulation areas. (45millionpeople)live inrural of thepopulation ofLatin accesstopo- (71.5millionpeople)lack America watersame problems withchronic shortages. ascountries Nearly 13.9% Therefore, aconsiderable numberofLatin facethe countries American reasons forthissituation isthedeficientmanagementofwater resources. 20% ofthepopulation hasaccesstoadequate sanitation). Oneofthemain centage ofthepopulation hasnoaccesstosafewater andsanitation (only timated tohave 35%offreshwater around theworld) asignificantper- early 2050. between 12and 81millioninthe2020s, andfrom 79to178millioninthe water stress thenumberofpeopleexperiencing willrepresentAmerica mand forwater anddomesticuses, supply forirrigation duetopopulation willincrease due to thenegativeAmerica effectcausedby agrowing de- ZZF1HZV::&B1HZVZDWHUBSUREOHPVBSGI Problems inLatin America’ (2004). Available at KWWSZZZLSFFFKSXEOLFDWLRQVBDQGBGDWDDUZJHQFKV ing Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. 13.4.3 Water resources. Available at nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 50 49 48 47 46 The mainproblems are difficultphysical access, economicaffordabil- In Latin America, whilewater resources are abundantises- (theregion In the future scenario ofclimateIn thefuture change, scenario itisestimated that inLatin Ibid. Idem. IPCC Fourth IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Climate Change 2007: Work- World Water Council(4 IPCC, 2007-BID, 2004. 50 inmany ofLatin regions vulnerabilitiesobserved The current th , World Water Forum)-Comision Nacional del Agua, ‘Water KWWSZZZZRUOGZDWHUFRXQFLORUJÀOHDGPLQ . 48 Besides, thequalityof KWPO . 47 49 46

333 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 334 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ of judicialandarbitration landmark rulings. bodieswithvarious asthoseofGuatemala, such recognition oftheright Chileand Venezuela. hydroelectric damintheChileanPatagonia, theprivatization ofwater and these caseshave beenhighly controversial, ofa astheconstruction such growth anddrought conditionsinseveral hydrological basins. Uruguay (2004). towaterright like inMéxico(2012),Bolivia(2009), Ecuador(2008)and explicitly theirconstitutiontoenshrine the reformed countries American and theprotection ofconstitutionalrights. Inthelastyears, someLatin In Latin towater theright iscloselyAmerica linked towater management future scenarios of shortages intheirnational adaptation plans. ofshortages future scenarios pacts ofclimate change, andadoptingappropriate preventive measures for towater,the right takingintoaccounttheforecasts aboutthenegative im- can countries, consistsinthedefinitionofaclearstrategy implementing access inthefuture. inLatin Oneofthemajordifficultiesobserved Ameri- of accesstowater formostofthepopulation andthemeanstoensure such increases. With respect totheaffordability, willprovoke climate change water tariffs impact onwater andsanitation infrastructure, increasing pollutioncases. water, ofaccesstodrinking As forthelack willhave climate change an problems related towater accesswillbeaccentuated withclimate change. HGX&RQVWLWXWLRQV(FXDGRUHQJOLVKKWPO limitations, immune from seizure andessential forlife”, available at national assetforuseby strategic thepublic anditisunalienable, notsubjecttoastatute of “Ar at Handbook of International EnvironmentalHandbook ofInternational Law 53 52 51 KWWSSGEDJHRUJHWRZQHGX&RQVWLWXWLRQV%ROLYLDEROLYLDKWPO Different casesrelating totheaccesswater have inthecaselaw arisen Given thesechallenges, themainissuesare thoseregarding theextension ticle 12. towater isessentialandcannotbewaived.The humanright Water constitutesa Idem. Constitution ofBolivia, 16.“Article I. Everyone towater...”, hastheright available Romano, C., Dispute Settlement”, andHey“International (eds.), inBrunée IV. J 52 OtherLatin constitutionsincludeanindirect American USTICIABILITY IN A RGENTINA . ConstitutionofUruguay, see

OF , Oxford, 2009, pp. 1036-1056.

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A TO nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario W . ConstitutionofEcuador, ATER http://pdba.georgetown. vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 supra

note 27. 51 53

Thus, the Someof The Oxford , ditionally, under 75inc.Article 22oftheConstitution, themaininterna- a healthy environment, protected int 41oftheConstitution. Article explicit recognition. However, to oftheright isenvisaged thisright aspart andwaterinfrastructure management. amongthedifferent provincesdisparities ofappropriate and districts, lack water andsanitation, theaccesstosafedrinking cerning asinternal such vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A potable water inthecountry. estimated that 11percentofthepopulation stilldoesnothave accessto According totheenvironmental organization Green Cross Argentina, is 1. TheJusticiability oftheRightto Water in Argentina’s National Jurisdiction to theevolution oftransnational environmental law are alsohighlighted. the findingsmake tothecaselaw inthisfield. Issuesofbroader importance followed by ofthemainsubstantive asummary points andthecontribution towater inthesetwoof theright are analysed. countries The remarks are cessfully madejusticiable. like countries towaterArgentina andColombiawhere was theright suc- standing, have towater. courts upheldtheright includes This secondgroup intheConstitutions, isnotenshrined theright notwith- In othercountries tected intheConstitutions, beingdirectly enforceable before thecourts. different “models”. towaterThere where are ispro- theright countries andtransnational levelsinternational converge towater. toprotect theright show how innational, commonenvironmental andnorms legalprinciples water rates (Argentina)ortheBabadamproject inEcuador. These cases (Bolivia), increased inCochabamba water andrising prices economiccrisis Legal Stud. 565(2009), pp. 565-584. titucion/english.php in Argentina), available at nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 56 55 54 In Argentina, towater hasno thehumanright andsanitation assuch In thefollowing sections, relating tothejusticiability landmarkrulings towaterAs forthejusticiabilityofright inLatin America, there are Green Cross Argentina, Panorama Generalenla Argentina (Water: aGeneralOverview Article 41.See Article Argentine Constitutionavailable at http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/cons Bodansky, D., “Is EnvironmentalThere anInternational Constitution?”, 16 Ind. J. Global . http://www.greencross.org.ar/downloads/LibroAguaaimprirweb.pdf , 55 Besides, there are con- different challenges 56 Ad- . 54 335 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 336 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ internal lawsinternal andregulatory frameworks forpublic services. tional human rights treatiestional humanrights enjoy constitutionalhierarchy. rights instruments. rights to water isimplicitly recognized through human universalandregional priate monitoring procedures bodies. monitoring beforepriate international guardian andtheConstitution’s and, finalinterpreter also, through appro- as andtheSupremeedies (accióndeamparo) Court before national courts water in Argentine courts’ case-law. to sections discussthemajormilestonesinjusticiabilityofright have accesstopublic available services’, at 11/16/99, 11(1) article ‘[e]very shallhave tolive theright inahealthy environment andto July 1978, available at Conference onHumanRights, SanJosé, CostaRica, 22November 1969, inforcesince18 ic htm. www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/constitucion/english.php or laws, orillegality”. withopenarbitrariness See Argentine Constitutionavailable at age, limit, modify orthreaten andguaranteesrecognized by rights thisConstitution, treaties currently orimminently orindividualswhich or omissionofthepublic may authorities dam- regarding constitutionalguarantees, provided there isnootherlegalremedy, againstany act Rethinking Development andInequality Vol. 3(2014). onstitucion/english.php Constitution... See Argentine Constitutionavailable at sions, they have constitutionalhierarchy, donorepeal ofthis anyPart sectionoftheFirst or Punishments; theConvention ontheRightsofChild; inthefullforceoftheirprovi- Woman; theConvention against Torture andotherCruel, InhumanorDegrading Treatments Discrimination; theConvention ontheElimination against ofallFormsDiscrimination ment ofGenocide; Convention theInternational ontheElimination ofRacial ofallForms Political Rightsanditsempowering Protocol; theConvention onthePrevention andPunish- Pactternational onEconomic, SocialandCulturalRights; Pact theInternational onCiviland DeclarationUniversal ofHumanRights; the ConventionAmerican onHumanRights; theIn- table Water intheprovince andSewage Services ofBuenos Aires (Ley 26.221-13/02/2007). , socialandculturalrights “Protocol ofSanSalvador”, adopted11/17/88andinforcesince 61 61 60 59 58 57 The right towaterThe right ismadejusticiable through andespecialrem- ordinary Additional Protocol tothe ConventionAmerican inthearea of econom- onhumanrights This is a revised version of the part oftheanalysisThis isarevised that hasbeenpublished version ofthepart onlinein For instance, theRegulatoryFramework Provision ofPo- oftheConcessionServices American ConventionAmerican onHumanRights, Specialized adoptedat theInter-American Article 75,Article inc. 22... The Declaration oftheRightsandDutiesMan;American the According to 43,Article any individualcouldfile “a prompt proceeding andsummary . KWWSZZZFLGKRDVRUJEDVLFRVHQJOLVKEDVLFDPHULFDQFRQYHQWLRQ 58

Moreover, guaranteedin towater theright isfurther http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/sigs/a-52.html 61 . http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/c A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 57 60 Thus, theright

The following 59

http:// . , unjustified andasaviolation ofconstitutionalrights. ment, acircuitjudgeadoptedprotective thecuts measure considering protection to the human right towater.protection tothehumanright The claimwas madetosafeguard effectiveof theProvince ofgranting ofNeuquénstressed theimportance cess towater ofKaxipayiñ Paynemil Communities (1999), several courts sanitation systems...”. included waterwhich “the expansionofthedrinking supply... sewage and ity’s obligation basin’s tomeetastrict comprehensive sanitation program vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A right. In recent there years have beenlawsuits ontheaccesstowater asahuman the environment. stressing theneedtodefendcollective “common andindivisible use” of Buenos Aires andtheprotection (Matanza-Riachuelo) oftheenvironment, (2008), referred towater in pollutioninaspecificwatershed the Court del JuzgadodePaz de Moreno. y consumidores c/ endefensadesusderechos Aguas delGranBuenos Aires” (21/08/2002) (21/03/2005) delJuzgadoContencioso-administrativo N°1deLaPlata yelcaso “Usuarios de JusticialaProvincia delNeuquén; elcaso María “Urriza, Teresa c/ ABSA s/amparo” Ejecutivo Municipal” (“Colonia Valentina Rural”)(02/03/1999)del Norte Tribunal Superior la Ciudad Autónoma deBuenos Aires, SalaI; loscasos “Defensoría deMenores Nº3c. Poder (18/07/2007) delaCámara Apelaciones enloContencioso Administrativo y Tributario de Riachuelo. “Asociación CivilporlaIgualdadyJusticia(ACIJ) c. CiudaddeBuenos Aires” InstanciaenloCivilyComercialN51, de2001.tuto dePrimera 8deabril CasoMatanza Quevedo, Miguel Angel yOtros c/ Aguas CordobesasS.A. Amparo, Córdoba, JuezSusti- Expte. 46/99, Acuerdo delSuperior Tribunal deJusticiaNeuquén, 2demarzo1999. tina Norte, DefensoríadeMenores N3c/Poder Ejecutivo Municipals/acción deamparo, Sala Civil, Cámarade Apelaciones enloCivil, Neuquén, 19demayo de1997; Colonia Valen- Sustituto de Primera InstanciaenloCivil yComercialN51,Sustituto dePrimera 8 2001. April 331:1622. damages (damagesresulting from pollutionofthe River Matanza -Riachuelo)” (08/07/2008) Fallos 331:1622. CausaMendoza, fs. 75/76. delacontaminaciónambientaldelRíoMatanza(daños derivados -Riachuelo)” (8/7/2008), nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 65 64 63 62 The caseQuevedo See, forinstance: Menores Comunidad Paynemil s/accióndeamparo, Expte111-CA- CSJN, “Mendoza, Silviayotros Beatriz c/EstadoNacionalyotros s/dañosyperjuicios Quevedo, Miguel Angel yOtros c/ Aguas CordobesasS.A. Amparo, Córdoba, Juez Supreme Court, “Mendoza, etal/ National SilviaBeatriz Government andother s/ A. Accessto Water asaHumanRight 62 Inaleadingcasebefore theSupreme Court, Matanza-Riachuelo 63 established author- thewatershed The Supreme Court 64 et al. , (2001)dealingwithwater cutsfornon-pay- 65 Inthecaseofac- 337 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 338 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ government’s responsibility inadoptingappropriate measures. stake andthevulnerabilityofaffectedgroup, the inordertodetermine ered theseverity ofthesituation, at inprotecting therights theurgency employed. 2001, duetothedifficultsituation facedby theapplicantswhowere un- in theeconomicemergency economic difficultiestopay during thetariff contaminated by hydrocarbons. protection whodrankwater tochildren granted quén, theCourt in which ofJusticetheProvince (1999)before theHighCourt ofNeu- Norte adequate water. Also, mentioning thecaseColonia itisworth Valentina stake becauseofapollutionincident, requesting immediate provision of from tohealthofchildren indigenouscommunities whowerethe right at of water quality, itisworthnotingthat theFood Code watersion ofdrinking were alsoanalysed by Argentine courts. Interms The qualitative andquantitative that must parameters bemetintheprovi- it impossible orextremely difficult. the equalaccesswheneconomicobstaclesorpoorlivingconditionsmade Several judgementshave dealtwitheffective accesstowater, guaranteeing users”. conditions,and uniform beingtheprovision mandatory andenforceable by need that cannotbeinterrupted... must beprovidedThe service inequal chemical characteristics of drinking water. ofdrinking characteristics chemical overcome theprotection. theobstaclestogrant vention onthe RightsoftheChild. basedargumentsontheConstitutionandUnitedNations Con- Neuquen›s HighCourt 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 Decree-Law n°18284, published onJuly 28, 1969. Idem.

According totheNational Food Code(Law 18,248), section 982: “With thenamesof The effective action of the Minors PublicThe effective Prosecutor actionoftheMinors to address anissuehighly technical In theCaseofQuevedo (2001)thedifficultypresented was economic. Idem.

Case “Defensoría deMenores Nº3c. Poder Ejecutivo Municipal” (02/03/1999). C. QualityandQuantityofDrinking Water B. 69

Equitable Access to Water andSanitation In thecaseofKaxipayiñ Paynemil Communities, consid- thecourt 68 The judgeunderlinedthat accesstowater is “... acollective 66

The caseQuevedo focusedonsocio- 72 With respect tothequantity, A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 71

determines the determines 70

, est members couldstore waterest members safely. member ofthefamilieslivingincolony andtoguaranteethat thepoor- thestaterequiring toprovide water ofdrinking perday 100liters toeach upheldthedecisionofcircuitappellatetina Norte, court, theHighCourt and adopt the necessary measuresand adoptthenecessary tostopthepollution. whether there was contamination; make healthtreatments thenecessary to:authorities provide ofwater 250liters daily percapita; determine taminated by leadandmercury. The state’s ordered theprovince’s court for water suppliers. requirements, theregulatory frameworks have includeddirect obligations vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A andIudica(2009), the caseBoragina litres”. supply toaround 80litres perday, despitebeingentitledtoreduce itto50 powers undertheregulatory framework..., proceeded water torestrict less oftheabilitytopay posses”. theperson amount ofwater (between perday) 50and100litres perperson regard- have providers ordered thegovernment toprovide andservice aminimum highlightedin2004 as theUNSpecialRapporteur “in Argentina, courts the date... therespondent, ofwater supply, incharge continuestoprovide water tohealth,of drinking andtheprotection oftheright stated: “up to tion, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2004/20, 14July 2004. waternomic, todrinking andsanita- andthepromotion ofthe right socialandculturalrights the water from apublic supply ofawell orothersource, ortankshome”. located inreservoirs and bealmostcolourless, odourless, clearandtransparent. water forhomeuseis Drinking that makeganic orradioactivesuch itdangerous tohealth. tenors You must submittastenice for foodandhomeuseshallnotcontainsubstancesorbodiesstrangebiological, organic, inor- waterpublic drinking supply water anddrinking forhomeuse, that issuitable itisunderstood Levels ofService”. referred to the cited articles .referred tothecitedarticles 8inc. a. and33ofdec. 878/2003. decree 3289/2004(BOP: 14-I-2005), ithasthesanctionofminimum quality parameters ever, althoughtheorganization oftheStandingCommittee onStandardsofpotabilitythrough nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 78 77 76 75 74 73 The caseKaxipayiñ Paynemil involved theconsumptionofwater con- In Quevedo, thejudgefoundthat theconcessionaire “... inexercise of Judgement Comunidades... V For example, intheprovince ofBuenos Aires, through regulation ofthe “Appropriate Judgement Colonia Valentina Norte. V Final Report of the Special Rapporteur onrelationship between oftheSpecialRapporteur theenjoymentFinal Report ofeco- The different Argentine provinces have joinedthisbody of law, ourlaw 13,230. How- Judgement Quevedo yotros. V 77

Similarly, oftheProvince theSupreme Court ofBuenos Aires in 74

, éase supra éase supra éase supra . . 78 76 referring to the quality parameters tothequalityparameters referring . 73

In ordertocomply withthese 75

In Colonia Valen- 339 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 340 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ access towater insufficientquantityandappropriate qualityconditions. ofappeal’sheld thecourt decision, pointingthestate’s dutytoprovide extermination”. sistance, were inastate ofsilent, progressive, systematic andinexorable bycurred thedefendantstoprovide andsocialas- adequate humanitarian of indigenouspeoplethat... due torepeated andsystematic omissionsin- government, toproceed urgently to livingconditions “modify thecurrent to initiate aprotective actionagainsttheprovince ofChacoandthefederal cinogens a lower qualitythanexpected... themselves inavulnerable situation. access tosafewater to was granted Toba indigenouspeoplewhofound preme Court, ´'HIHQVRUGHO3XHEORGHOD1DFLyQF(VWDGR1DFLRQDO\RWUDµ equate accesstosafewater andsanitation. Inanothercasebefore theSu- vicious circlebetween waste pollution, ofresources anddenialofad- lack Riachuelo, citizenswere urbanarea, located inamarginal resulting ina provide water drinking andappropriate medicalcare. InthecaseMatanza- situation.precarious As aprotective measure thejudgeordered state to indigenous community livingina totheMapuche belonging to children In thecaseKaxipayiñ Paynemil Communities, theprotection was granted sanitation. aimed toimproving livingconditionsincludingaccesstosafewater and Juan Ignacioc/MunicipalidaddeLaPlata s/ Amparo”. Office. del Derecho Comparado):del Derecho for theStudy andDissemination ofComparative Law (FundaciónparaelEstudioyDifusión Fallos: 330:4134.Thejudgementisavailable electronically onthewebsite oftheFoundation Fallos: 330:4134. Norte Rural”)(02/03/1999). Norte 79 83 82 81 80 Ibidem. fromThe quotation theopinionof marksare excerpts General’sAttorney CSJN, “Defensor delPueblo delaNaciónc. EstadoNacionalyotra” (18/09/2007), Case “Defensoría deMenores Nº 3c. Poder Ejecutivo Municipal” (“Colonia Valentina SCBA, C89298S15-7-2009, “Boragina, JuanCarlos; Miano, Marcelo Fabián yIudica, CSJN, “Defensor delPueblo de laNaciónc. EstadoNacionalyotra” (18/09/2007), D. D. Circumstances Right to Water and Access toJustice for Communitiesin Vulnerable cannot 82

Also, inthecaseColonia Valentina up- Norte, theHighCourt bepostponedindefinitely”. 81 decidedtoadoptdifferent measuresThe Supreme Court http://www.derecho-comparado.org/sentencias/argTobas.htm the compliancewithlegallimitsoncar- 80 The Ombudsman’s Officedecided 79 A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 . 83 ,

Aguas del Aconquija, S.p.A Impregilo andSuez/Vivendi. investmentcompliance withcore international standards, inthecases such in mostofthecasesarbitration awards condemned Argentina fornon- tions undertherespective bilateral investment treaties. Notwithstanding, obligations towaterrights undertheright shouldprevail over itsobliga- termination ofconcessioncontracts. termination in several arbitration procedures international before theICSIDand government’s andexpropriation, decisiontofreeze tariffs resulted which in 2001-2002, water various supply companiesbrought claimsagainstthe vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A thedutiessetoutnotonly intheconcessioncontract,perform but also nies, was privatized. in themain Argentine cities, provided formerly by state-owned compa- watervide adequate drinking andsanitation. Inthenineties, water supply mental impactassessmentandenvironmental education programs. environmentalcomprising planning, control over humanactivities, environ- ernment, theprovince plan tosubmitanintegrated andthecityauthorities to water. InthecaseMatanza-Riachuelo, urgedthefederalgov- theCourt omissionofthestatearbitrary toactwithduediligenceprotect theright accesstosafewater andsanitationMost casesconcerning questionedthe bao Biskaia Ur Partzuergoa c/Repúblicabao BiskaiaUrPartzuergoa Argentina” (ARB/07/26). República Argentina” (ARB/03/23); “Urbaser SA yConsorciode Aguas BilbaoBiskania, Bil- S International A (EDFI), SAyLeónParticipaciones SaurInternational Argentinas SAc/ Argentina” (ARB/03/19); 7) “Anglian Water Limited(AWG) c/República Argentina; “EDF (Francia) ySociedadGeneralde Aguas deBarcelonaSA(AGBAR) (España)c/República Argentina” (ARB/03/17); “Aguas Argentinas SA(AA), Suez(Francia), Vivendi UniversalSA del Integrales BAR) (España)eInteraguaServicios Agua SA(Interagua)(España)c/República les deSantaFe SA(APSF), Suez(Francia), SociedadGeneralde Aguas deBarcelonaSA(AG- Aconquija SA& Vivendi Universalc/República Argentina” (ARB/97/03); “Aguas Provincia- lona SA(AGBAR) (España)c/República Argentina” (ARB/03/18); “Compañía de Aguas del tively. nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 86 85 84 Overall, ofwater private companiesincharge supply are required to Some cases alsoemphasizedtheconcessionaires’ responsibility topro- “Aguas CordobesasSA(AC), Suez(Francia) y SociedadGeneralde Aguas deBarce- ICSID CaseNo. ARB/07/17, june21 The type of contract used for public private partnerships was theconcession. The typeofcontractusedforpublic private partnerships E. to ProtecttheRight Water Privatizations andCompanies’ Responsibility 84 During the economic emergency theeconomicemergency During Argentina faced , th 2011andICSIDCaseNo. ARB/03/17, respec- 85

Argentina arguedthat itshuman 86 341 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 342 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ the Court. before planshouldincludepublicthat hearings thecompliancemonitoring and soil)preventing future damages. determined The Supreme Court vironmental reparation allthebasin’s comprising components (water, air encompassed: improving thequalityoflifebasin’s inhabitants, en- actions onthesoilandwater. The program’s three simultaneous objectives ment acomprehensive sanitation program, includingspecificrestorative dently liabilities. ofthecivilandcriminal underlying differentiated environmental obligations indepen- that arise tal protection isenforcedthrough prevention andcompensation measures, case,In theMatanza-Riachuelo stated that environmen- theSupreme Court asaresult oftheextraction ofhydrocarbons.they suffered intheirterritory munities filedanactionagainstthecompany Repsol-YPFforthedamages water.access todrinking InthecaseKaxipayiñ Paynemil, com- Mapuche private companieswere of heldliable ledtolack forwater pollutionwhich liters ofwaterliters daily, theregulatory framework. ignoring that theconcessionaire hadnotcompliedwiththeobligation toprovide 50 in regulatory frameworks. InQuevedo, forinstance, thejudgeestablished claim before theInter- CommissionofHumanRightsfollowingAmerican In theCommunities Kaxipayiñ Paynemi water contamination. children; andadoptionofappropriate measures toprevent future ground- oftheaffectedpopulation;survival diagnosisandtreatment ofaffected the provision water forthe ofdrinking inquantitiesandqualitynecessary points oftheprogram, includingthoserelating totheprovision water. ofdrinking implementation ofprojects duly presented, underlying regarding agrowing certain concern toevaluateCourt theprogress oftheexecution ofthejudgement, foundthedelay inthe 89 88 87 In thecaseofCommunity Kaxipayiñ Paynemil, ordered theCourt It should be noted that the hearing be held on March 16, beheldonMarch It shouldbenotedthat thehearing 2011before theSupreme Judgement Quevedo yotros. Judgement Mendoza, para. 7. F. F. G. Reparations for the Violation oftheRightto Water the HumanRighttoSafe Water Acess to International Protection toGuaranteeAcess toInternational 89 l case, theapplicantsbrought a 88 decidedtoimple- The Court A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 87

In othercases, , damental rights, in particular the right toadecentlife. theright damental rights, inparticular guaranteesfun- 79 andtheframework which andrule ofsocialdemocracy from thebroader toahealthy environment”“right inthe enshrined Article tematic interpretation. towaterThe implied(andjusticiable) right derives casesonthebasisofacomprehensive invarious upheld theright and sys- sions oftheColombianConstitution(1991), has theConstitutionalCourt towater isnotexplicitlyAlthough theright recognized undertheprovi- vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A oftheInter ofHuman onthejurisprudence Court primarily American water inColombiahave asprotected by theConstitutionalCourt relied 2. TheJusticiability oftheRightto Water before compliancewiththesentence. the partial protection measures. ofapotable water outtheconstruction plantandotherhealth and carried CommissionofHumanRightsfor asettlementbefore theInter-American tina, asa State responsible law, from thestandpointofinternational opted ordertoestablish water measuresobey ensuring supply. thecourt´s Argen- remedies,internal theaffectedcommunities sued Argentina foritsfailure to is unanimous and peaceful without internal dissenting opinions. is unanimousandpeacefulwithoutinternal towater.right Itcanbesaidthat theCourt’s towater positionontheright toasignificantcaselaw hasgiven rise relating countries) totheAmerican protection called “tutela” deamparo (orrecurso asknown inotherLatin tobeprovidedcategory ofpublic by service thestate. according to 366oftheConstitution,Article water supply belongstothe FUQHWRUJFDVHODZFDVHODZBVKRZKWP"GRFBLG in a period comprising since1994uptothepresent. comprising in aperiod nd.edu/admin/docs/colombia_const2.pdf Paynemil yKaxipayiñ, Neuquén, Argentina”. nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 93 92 91 90 the ColombianConstitutionalCourt The criteria of interpretation of the content and scope of the right to ofinterpretation ofthecontentandscoperight The criteria The Constitutional Court through theprocedure ofconstitutionalThe ConstitutionalCourt See Falaschi O., C. andOsés, N., “CIDH: LacausaN°12.010. Comunidades Mapuche There is a long list of cases in which the Constitutional Court hasdealtwithwater rights theConstitutionalCourt There isalonglistofcasesinwhich Constitution ofColombia, 79andPreamble,Article available at: Judgement Comunidades Paynemil yKaxipayiñ (Nº12.010), available at: 91 , . 90 . Thus, after theexhaustionof 92 At thesametime, KWWSFRQÀQGHUULFKPR http://www.es 93 343 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 344 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ partial ortotallossofinvestmentpartial ormanagement isduetothe oftherights whethertheinfringement judge must determine postponementofthefulfilmentobligations,perpetual theconstitutional debate, decisionandimplementation ofpublic policies. This cannotmeana in theGeneralCommentNo. 15. Itseffectiveness dependsmainly onthe of availability, accessibility, andqualitydefinedinnational regulations and the minimum contentoftheright, ofthecomponents but that are part violation immediately. The secondlevel totheaspectsthat refers gobeyond and theconstitutionaljudgeshouldtake measures thenecessary tostop the dards laiddown, itmust towater beconcludedthat theright was violated thequalityandquantityofwater minimum stan- fordetermining rameters eral CommentNumber15. Therefore, theabsenceofany oftheinitialpa- corresponding, asalready stated, withthecore obligations setoutinGen- T-760 (2008)there are minimum contentsthat towater, make uptheright al Court, enjoys constitutionalprotection indifferent ways. Sincedecision in theConstitution. are relevant enshrined themeaningoffundamentalrights whenclarifying treaties humanrights ratified tointerpret by bodies authorized thecountry andrecommendationsConstitutional Court, theobservations issuedby the Social andCulturalRights. Intheinterpretation madeby theColombian Rights andtheGeneralCommentNo. 15oftheCommitteeonEconomic, among others, which haveamong others, which beenincluded intheColombianConstitutionof assolidarity,such humility, “the polluter pays”, precaution andprevention, ofenvironmentalstitution, are law part which but alsototheprinciples source are subjectnotonly embodiedintheCon- tothegeneralprinciples well asits associated ecosystems, theactivitiesinvolving theuseofthisre- adopted, whilepromoting citizenparticipation. and must measures toensure take are that thedecisionsandorders such nal.gov.co panel ofthree justices. Casescitedinthis are availableArticle at: “SU” indicates asentenciadeunificacion, rather thana atuteladecisionby thefullCourt ion numbersignifiesatutelaaction andtheletter “C” signifiesan actionofunconstitutionality. erally are citedby numberandyear only, names. notby party The letter “T” before theopin- 95 94 The right towater,The right from oftheColombianConstitution- theperspective Due to the complexity of the protection and conservation of waterDue tothecomplexityofprotection andconservation as Decision T-760/08. Decisions SU-1116/01y T-207/95. Notethat theConstitutionalCourt’s opinionsgen- . 95 A 94 nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario withproven negligence http://www.corteconstitucio- vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 , vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A ciples todecidecasesofenvironmental controversies. resource, hasinvolved ofthejusticeprin- intheunderstanding achange towater isafundamentalhuman right,right but at thesame timeafinite avoided. effective measures tobetaken sothat environmental canbe degradation 1ofLaw innumeral6ofarticle 991993,corporated alsorequires which sures toprevent environmental degradation”. hasbeenin- This principle shallnotbeusedasareason forpostponingcost-effective mea- certainty there are orirreversible threats ofserious damage, offullscientific lack fects. Thus, 15oftheRioDeclaration, accordingtothePrinciple “... Where aboutitsef- development anduncertainties entailsrisks the technological that reducenologies theenvironmental activities. impactoftheindustrial pollution, but alsopromote thedesignofenvironmentally-friendly tech- sible, mitigate andreduce it. isintendednotonlyThis principle toreduce measuresshould bearthecostsfornecessary toprevent it–where pos- “the polluterpays”, responsible thosepersons forenvironmental pollution 58). (Article functionofproperty ecological According tothisprinciple, are valuable inthelightofConstitutionalCharter. hislivelihoodsand onwhich depend. Inthiscontext, bothmanandnature dominated, but asacomplexsystemwhere maninteractswithotheractors nature sothat nature can´tbeseensimply asasourceofresources man- other hand, that humanbeingsare dependenton compelsustounderstand basisforproductionmaterial activities”. ofhumility,The principle onthe and asabiological the limitsofcapacityecosystemsthat serve means that thepresent economicactivitiesshould which “... remain within with theprotection oftheenvironment forpresent andfuture generations, thedemandsofeconomicdevelopmentto which needtobereconciled tainable development 80), modelintheConstitution(Article according but inabroader context. future generations, andnotonly inconnectionwiththecitizensofaState, mental liabilityregarding notonly thepresent generations, but alsothe 1991. ofsolidarity,The principle requiresoftheenviron- understanding nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario The adoption of these principles andduties,The adoptionoftheseprinciples andtherecognition that the that impliesunderstanding The adoptionofthePrecautionaryPrinciple istheintroductionA manifestationoftheconcept ofthisprinciple istheadoptionofsus- One ofthemanifestations ofthisprinciple , 345 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 346 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ rights ofdisable people”. rights asthoserelating such tothehumandignity,stitutional principles lifeand be protected “in thosecasesclearl established,then theCourt specifically, towater that supply theright could integrity at stake.integrity plicant didnothave water supply at home, puttinghishealthandpersonal company had stoppedhalfway asewer; repairing asaconsequence, theap- the Decision406of1992. apublic service Itdealtwithacaseinwhich towater ontheright andsanitation was ing oftheConstitutionalCourt ofitswork from thebeginning in1991.Court Consequently, rul- thefirst The accesstowater represented fortheConstitutional anearly concern bian ConstitutionalCourt. towater oftheprotection oftheright inthecaselawthe art oftheColom- on thestreets oftheneighborhood, affectinglow-income people. mental right”, astheuncompletedsewer hadcausedthe overflow ofsewage Company hadcommitted the Public Service “a clearviolation ofafunda- reasons, becauseofthenegative impactithadontheireducation. shouldbeespeciallychildren protected, takingintoaccount, amongother decided inapplication ofthe occasion, the Court determined that there wasoccasion, determined theCourt “a real threat tothepeti- water supply, hadworsened. sincetheconditionsofservice Onthis andinadequate whohadpaid foranirregular ofneighbours ofagroup right In theCase T-539 decidedtoprotect the (1993)theConstitutionalCourt equate accesstowater quality. Decision T-481-1997 (MPFabio MorónDíaz). 99 98 97 96 The following selectedcasesare illustrative andaccountforthestate of Idem. T-406-1992 (MPCiro Barón,Angarita AV Galindo). José Hernández Gregorio The case dealt with the right of two groups of children attending schools lacking ad- oftwo lacking attendingThe casedealtwiththeright ofchildren schools groups Idem. A. Accessto Water asaFundamental Right B. and Continuity. andSporadic Intermittent Water Supply The RighttoHave Access to Water Supply withRegularity 96 Onthisoccasion, theConstitution 98

Similarly, intheCase T-481, 1997, theCourt pro infans y affecting rights andfundamentalcon- y affectingrights principle that the right towater that theright of principle A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario al Court decidedthat al Court vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 99 97 Since , ensure availability. ordered thecreation committeetotake finaldecisionsto ofa technical a community, demandedtheprovision theCourt of water and intankcars of public bodiesconducting work prevented thedomesticconsumptionby vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A by theresponsible company”. delivereddaily consumption(…)duetothenegligentandcareless service tioner’s fundamental rights” because water for ofsafedrinking “the lack only theday. afew minutesduring that duetoadamageinanaqueductsuppliedwater forshowers andtoilets tothepipesofaprison this rule, ordered repairs thenecessary theCourt towater. like theright ofotherfundamentalrights restriction Inapplying ofajudgementmay inpursuance notinvolveto liberty adisproportionate hasstated that oftheright in thecaseofprisons, therestriction theCourt asillpeople,special protection such pregnant women andchildren. Also, tohealth, andlifeofthesubjectsworthy risk of physicala serious integrity andsporadic,intermittent theCourt, emphasizedthat thissituation poses continuity ofwater supply. thewater Indifferent supply casesinwhich was water”of drinking thestudiesandworks andperform leading tothe use rather thanhumanconsumption. strated depletionofawater sourcedue, amongotherreasons, toadifferent towater andlife, tosafeguardtheright was necessary becauseofademon- uses, e.g. IntheCase agricultural. T-232 of1993, foundthat it theCourt ofpeopletowater,the right whenitisseverely affected, becauseofother tion. ofthoseindividualssubjecttospecialconstitutionalprotec- in particular ofwater supply towater violatedlonged andconstantinterruption theright In theCase T-091 heldthat asevere, (2010)theConstitutionalCourt pro- nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 100 100 104 104 103 102 101 102 C. Accessto Water and Vulnerable Groups Constitutional Court, decision T-232/1993 Caballero). (Alejandro Martínez T-1134/04, seeCase onthesituation ofprisons T-153/98. T-091-2010. T-381/09. Idem. ordered thewater companyThe Court to “optimize theprovision 104 , 100 Inasimilarvein, hasprotected theCourt 103 101

Finally, the action inacasewhich

347 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 348 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ and health. aslife, such is essentialtoensure otherfundamentalrights equality, dignity specialconstitutionalprotection and theservice fects peoplewhodeserve forceand,was unintentionalorduetoaninsurmountable inaddition, itaf- not possible tocutoff the water ofpayment supply ifthelack obligation ability tosuspendtheprovision ofwater service. stated that is The Court ordered anendtothesuspensionevenCourt inthecaseofnon-payment. for non-payment, becausesheneededtotreat thediseasesshesuffered. The life anddignityofawoman whohadsuffered cutoffs water andelectricity example, inCase T-270 tohealth, protected therights (2007)theCourt and doesnothave thefinancialresources topay forthepublic service. For ments, integrity whenheneedshealthcare hislifeandpersonal topreserve possible tosuspendthewater supply whoisbehindonpay- toaperson dispute. hasindicated that itisnot The ColombianConstitutionalCourt towater isbeyond tohealthandtheright The interdependenceoftheright aqueduct that would allow water. equitable accesstodrinking to comply withit. Therefore, ofan ordered theconstruction theCourt was anadministrative todestroy actordering thedam, itsowners refused duction ofwater available totherest ofthecommunity. Although there water asthat approved by theauthorities. This generated asignificantre- receivedsome individualsbuiltwhich areservoir ahigherpercentage of not have useofthesamesource. enoughliquidforpersonal Inthiscase, the quantityreceived by otherbeneficiaries, uptothepointthat they do in way that decreases noindividualcanaccessanamountofwater which The Decision T-294 (1994)stated that thesourcesofwater shouldbeused the necessary actionstoguarantee theaccesstowater the necessary afteranearthquake was oftheobligation abreach ofavailability, becausethecity hadnottaken 105 105 Another recent case before the Colombian Court regards alsothein- Another recent casebefore theColombianCourt Similarly, intheCase T-143 that there determined (2010)theCourt E. D. Decision T-546-2009 (MPMaría CalleCorrea). Victoria and theRighttoHealth Availability of Water Supply: Rightto Water, Emergency Conditions Non-Discrimination in the Distribution of intheDistribution Non-Discrimination Water 105 A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 , out the necessary workout thenecessary tofixthesewer. sewage cancausemalaria, typhoidfever andskindiseases; tocarry ordering the environment ofresidents andtourists. that irregular threatened considered aparticularly thehealth,which lifeand ter from thesewer systemofthecity, andforthetreatment ofsolidwastes, contamination inseveral ofwaste-wa- bays duetothedischarge inthenorth emphasized thissamepositioninthesentenceSU-442(1997)afterfinding vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A factorandaviola- unfit forhumanconsumptionby isarisk theauthorities conditions.cal andchemical For theCourt “the water foundpollutedand toreceive hasalsoprotected theright waterThe Court inacceptable physi- water. supplied pollutedwater by waste that was poured by oneneighbourintothe tolife,rights healthand sources, limitingaccess. Incaseslike T-523 protected the (1994)theCourt The protection isemphasizedincaseswhere peopledumpwaste onwater solution totheirsupply problems. supply shouldbeprovided tobothpeoplesuntilthey achieve apermanent to meettheirdaily consumptionneeds. According tothejudgement, the provide the affectedindigenouspeoples, thequantitiesofwater sufficient digenous peopleinhabiting. Inthiscase, themayor ofthearea ordered to that destroyed thewell the andburned “pump” that suppliedwater toin- to life”. constitutional right, whenintendedforhumanconsumption itisessential by apublic aqueduct. heldthat waterThe Court “drinking isafundamental community that consumedwater unfitforhumanconsumption, provided toa belonging ofpersons decidedtoprotect thefundamentalrights Court nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario 109 109 108 107 106 G. F. Idem. Decision T-410-2003 (MPJaime Córdoba Triviño). Decision SU-442-1997 (MP Hernando Herrera Herrera Decision SU-442-1997(MPHernando Vergara). Decision T-523-1994 (MP Caballero). Alejandro Martínez 106 109 Inadequate Sewer SystemsandHumanRightto Water InCase T-207 reiterated that thestagnation (1995)theCourt of prpit ae Conditions WaterAppropriate the toahealthy environment forpeoplewhowere , 107 laterA coupleofyears theCourt 108

In the Case T-410, 2003, the 349 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 350 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ vironment” ofacommunity. tolife,tion offundamentalrights humandignity, healthandahealthy en- The enforceability depends on the ability of the courts toguaranteethe The enforceabilitydependsontheabilityofcourts context,the international thejusticiabilityrelies onnational institutions. treaties. humanrights andregional international towater, theright enshrining there isan indirect recognition undervarious instrument humanrights if there isnospecific andbindinginternational stepinordertogive adequate andeffectivetutes thefirst protection. Even tive impactofclimate change, towater therecognition consti- oftheright In acontextofscarcityanddifficultaccesstowater, withthepossible nega- tion inColombia. major possible coverage tothewater oftheright oppositetothepopula- toachieve the inordertofixgoalsandjoinefforts political strategies as appropriation ofbudget, legislative processes, planningeconomicand, water, alsothere are othertypesofstate obligations, demandactions which tothe astheminimalcontentoffundamentalright can beunderstood villages andneighbourhoods. measureswaterthe necessary toensure supply drinking inmunicipalities, toadvance studies,authorities technical ortotake onaperemptory basis by thecompany. studies,when duetotechnical out plansandlicensesitcanonly becarried ter supply, allowing thecollectionandinstallation by except theusers these reasons, ordered the company inquestiontoprovide theCourt wa- costregarding thesocio-economicstatusdisproportionate ofpeople. For munity andappropriatewater accesstoanecessary service, orimposea oracom- donotguaranteeaperson towater whenthesuppliers the right 112 112 111 110 Since there are scarce or deficient mechanisms to enforce the right in Since there toenforcetheright are scarceordeficient mechanisms Finally, toindicate that thoughthementionedpreviously itisimportant See decisions T-381/09,See T-888/08, T-410/03, T-092/95,y T-539/93. T-1104/05. T-410/03. 112 V . C ONCLUDING 110 111 For thisreason, hasrequired the theCourt

It was alsoarguedthat thissituation violates R EMARKS A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 , B B vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 A A in thefuture from atransnational law perspective. towater dem right ing theright. Tough thisisearly days; theprogress madetoguaranteethe ofaccesstowater,the lack but provides withusefulinsightsforprotect- tutional protection. the right, inparticular, inthecaseofvulnerable peopleinneedofconsti- to everyone, removing may theobstacleswhich hindertheenjoyment of selves indifficultsituations. appropriate water supply, especially forthoseindividualswhofindthem- state andprivate companieshave beenheldresponsible forguaranteeingan toenvironmental intheright protection.enshrined Inthecaselaw both examples ofhow towater canbeeffectively theright implemented. towater.right The casessettledprovide community with theinternational havecourts aprocess fortotheprotection created ofthe andsetforth the national constitutions, withexplicitorimplicitrecognition. National right. As seenabove, there towater are different totheright in approaches A A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario OYLE ODANSKY TTILA RMENI NAND Watercourses 16 This judicialactivismdoesnotrepresent astraightforward solutionfor towaterIn Colombia, hasprotected theright theConstitutionalCourt In Argentina, have national towater courts upheldtheright asimplicitly Towardsthedeclarationhumanrights.pdf Sustainability Meeting ofthe World Congress onJustice, Governance andLaw for Environmental available J. Int. Dev. Ind. J. Global Legal Stud, 565, 2009. , , , A., , T. and P. B. (2007), “Right to Water and Access to Water: an Assessment”, C., “The Rightto Water inBelgium”, , Human RightsandtheEnvironment: A Reassessment-FirstPreparatory DWKWWSZZZLHOUFRUJFRQWHQWISGI 19. D., “Is EnvironmentalThere anInternational Constitution?”, , The Hague, Kluwer, 2001. , available at: A RCARI onstrates the further possibility forittobe consolidated onstrates the further , M., , VI. B The UNConvention ontheLaw ofInternational http://www.unep.org/dec/worldcongress/docs/ IBLIOGRAPHY . 2008-2,,(/5%ULHÀQJ3DSHU . 351 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER IN ARGENTINA AND COLOMBIA 352 M. BELÉN OLMOS GIUPPONI / MARTHA C. PAZ WHO, P S L Green Cross Argentina, Panorama Generalenla Argentina (Water: aGen- C M R F “What Price forthePriceless?:“What ImplementingtheJusticiability oftheRight Price U F PAIN REESTONE ALASCHI ETNAR EJAN OMANO HAPPLE NITED ARAUHN B 2009. (eds.), downloads/LibroAguaaimprirweb.pdf. in eral Overview Argentina), available at: Environmental Law ter”, 2011. Int’l L. Rev. vironment/papers/chapple&leitch.pdf. Justiciable Content?”, available at dio.com/media/pdf/note.pdf. to Water”,120 fedecade/scarcity.shtml nal, vol. 30, no. 2, 2011. putes inanEraofClimate Change”, StanfordEnvironmental Law Jour- The Oxford Environmental HandbookofInternational Law Mapuche PaynemilMapuche yKaxipayiñ, Neuquén, Argentina”. ODANSKY , , A., “Beyond Adjudication: ResourceDis- ResolvingInternational 7KH*OREDO:DWHU6XSSO\DQG6DQLWDWLRQ$VVHVVPHQW R., “The Rightto Water: theRoadtojusticiability”, 36 N Denver Law Journal ofInternational andPolicy

Cernic, J., Obligations“Corporate UndertheHumanRightto Wa- , , , The Oxford Environmental HandbookofInternational Law , ATIONS E. andL C. andO , C., DisputeSettlement”, andHey“International inBrunée Th., RoleoftheState”,“Changing in D. and , 2004. , and Brunée , Harv. L. Rev. Water Scarcity EITCH , Oxford, 2009. S SÉS ALMAN . , N., “CIDH: LacausaN°12.010. Comunidades , F., “The Rightto Water: doesitExistandis H , A., “Ocean andFreshwater Resources”, in EY 1067(2007), available at (eds.), TheOxford HandbookofInternational , available at: http://law.anu.edu.au/coast/events/en http://www.greencross.org.ar/ http://www.un.org/waterforli A nuario MexicanodeDerecho Internacional nuario B , Band 39Nr. 2, March ODANSKY . vol. XV, 2015, pp. 323-352 http://hlr.rubystu , Geneva, 2000.

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