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Home , Amy Holmes, Bhutan, Bhutanese literature, Bumthang Province, Dorji Wangmo, Druk Gyalpo

འབྲུག་དང་ཧི་捱་ལ་ཡ།

InternationalInternational Journal for Journal & Himalayan for Research Bhutan & Himalayan Research

Bhutan & Himalaya Research Center College of Language and Culture Studies Royal University of Bhutan P.O.Box 554, Taktse, , Bhutan Email: [email protected] Bhutan & Himalaya Research Centre College of Language and Culture Studies Royal University of Bhutan P.O.Box 554, Taktse, Trongsa, Bhutan Email: [email protected] Copyright©2020 Bhutan and Himalaya Research Centre, College of Language and Culture Studies, Royal University of Bhutan. All rights reserved.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the contributors and not necessarily of IJBHR.

No parts of this book be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without permission from the publisher.

Printed at Corporation Ltd., , Bhutan Articles

In celebration of His Majesty the Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck’s 40th birth anniversary and His Majesty the Fourth Gyalpo Jigme Singye Wangchuk’s 65th birth anniversary.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 i འབྲུག་དང་ཧི་捱་ལ་ཡ། International InternationalJournal for Journal for Bhutan & Himalayan Research BhutanGUEST EDITOR & Himalayan Holly Gayley UniversityResearch of Colorado Boulder, USA EDITORS

Sonam Nyenda and Tshering Om Tamang BHRC, CLCS

MANAGING EDITOR

Ngawang Jamtsho Dean of Research and Industrial Linkages, CLCS

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Bhutan & Himalaya Research Center Bhutan College of Language and Culture Studies Karma PhuntshoRoyal Loden University Foundation, of Bhutan Bhutan P.O.Box 554, Taktse, Trongsa, Bhutan Françoise PommaretEmail: [email protected] CNRS, France Ariana Maki University of Virginia, USA

Nepal Sara Shneidermann University of British Columbia, Rupak Shrestha University of Colorado Boulder, USA

Sikkim Kalzang Dorjee University of Alabama, USA Amy Holmes-Tagchungdarpa Oxy Occidental College, USA

Tibet Holly Gayley University of Colorado Boulder, USA Tenzin Dickyi Office of , NYC, USA

COPY EDITORS

Holly Gayley, Tshering Om Tamang and Anden Drolet

ii IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

འབྲུག་དང་ཧི་捱་ལ་ཡ།

International InternationalJournal for Journal for Bhutan & Himalayan Research Bhutan & Himalayan ResearchCONTENTS President’s Foreword v Letter from BHRC vi Preface: Why Matters vii Introduction to Special Issue xi

ARTICLES

One Journey, Three Poems; One Serf, Three Lords Literary compositions about ’s Peace Mission to , 1904 Sonam Kinga 1 Bhutan & Himalaya Research Center College of Language and Culture Studies Challenges toRoyal the University Development of Bhutan of Literature: P.O.Box 554, Taktse, Trongsa, Bhutan Email: [email protected] comparision of Namthar and Srung Sonam Nyenda 21

Exploring National Identity through Literature in Bhutanese National English Curriculum Tshering Om Tamang 34

Karma and Female Agency in Novels by Bhutanese Women Writers Holly Gayley 53

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 iii PERSPECTIVES

Perspectives on Contemporary Bhutanese Literature Chador Wangmo, Rinzin Rinzin and Namgyal Tshering 79

Contemporary Children’s Literature in Bhutan Ugyen Tshomo and Pema Wangdi 87

CONFERENCE REPORT

The Inaugural Conference of The International Society of Bhutan Studies Anden Drolet 99 BOOK REVIEW

Old Demons, New Deities: Twenty-One Short Stories from Tibet. Eben Yonnetti 103

iv IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

PRESIDENT’S FOREWORD

This year has been fraught with struggles against uncertainties arising from the COVID-19 pandemic. It has created a global crisis on a massive scale that even Bhutan, a tiny Himalayan kingdom, did not escape unscathed. However, Bhutan has fared well in terms of life and livelihood due to the selfless leadership of our beloved King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the Great Fourth , and our Prime Minister. Our toured the frontlines of the country with unwavering courage and relentless determination, giving the Bhutanese hope that we will emerge from this pandemic a more resilient and united nation.

As an academic institution, the year also brought about its own unprecedented challenges. The College of Language and Culture Studies (CLCS) and The Royal University of Bhutan (RUB) were faced with the challenge to keep students’ learning alive through the transition to remote learning. Lecturers and students alike struggled with what we have now started calling the ‘new normal’ and with the new phase of ‘online-learning’, especially in the Bhutanese context.

Despite the many challenges the college faced, we are delighted to bring out the inaugural issue of the International Journal for Bhutan and Himalayan Research, published by the Bhutan and Himalaya Research Centre in CLCS. The launch of this journal with ‘Contemporary Bhutanese Literature’ as this year’s theme is a proof that we are doing our job as an academic institution to a research-based knowledge and add to the repertoire of Bhutanese scholarship even amidst a pandemic!

Although the year 2020 started with much unease and uncertainty, I am glad to say, inspired by the compassionate leadership of His Majesty the king and the proactive response of the government, we have surpassed and even bettered these turbulences. Therefore, let us celebrate the year by engaging ourselves in recollecting, rewriting and revisioning contemporary Bhutanese literature.

Trashi-delek

Lungtaen Gyatso President College of Language and Culture Studies Royal University of Bhutan

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 v LETTER FROM BHRC

The idea for the International Journal of Bhutan & Himalayan Research (IJBHR) was conceived when we founded the Bhutan and Himalaya Research Centre (BHRC) in 2017 in order to create an interdisciplinary network of research, teaching and networking on Bhutan and Himalayan region. In 2018, Professor Holly Gayley, University of Colorado Boulder was invited to give the inaugural BHRC Lecture Series at Office of the Vice- Chancellor in Thimphu. Our conversations during her stay initiated the idea and work towards the journal’s launch. The President and Deans of the college supported the idea and approved the plans for the journal.

Our plan matured along the way when we convened a panel on Bhutan titled “Contemporary Bhutanese Literature” at the Association of Asian Studies conference in Denver, Colorado in March 2019. We are excited to finally launch this journal on the auspicious occasion of 65th birth anniversary of His Majesty the Fourth Druk Gyalpo and dedicate it to the on- going celebrations of the 40th birth anniversary of His Majesty the King.

IJBHR aims to advance research and scholarship in all fields pertaining to social, culture, religion and humanities relevant to Bhutan and Himalayan region. The journal expected to be an annual publication will include a wide range of papers in English and Dzongkha based on theoretical or empirical research, perspectives, conference reports and book reviews which can contribute to the scholarship on Bhutan and Himalayan studies.

BHRC is immensely grateful to Professor Holly Gayley for accepting to be the Guest Editor for this inaugural issue. Her continuous advice and support have been instrumental in making the publication of this journal possible. We extend our appreciation to the members of our Editorial Advisory Board and Dasho Sonam Kinga. President Lopen Lungtaen Gyatso and Lopen Ngawang Jamtsho, Dean of Research and Industrial Linkages deserve a special note of gratitude for believing in us and supporting our initiative.

We are optimistic that the launch of this journal will encourage interdisciplinary scholarship on Bhutan and Himalayan Studies.

Sonam Nyenda Coordinator Bhutan & Himalaya Research Centre College of Language & Culture Studies vi IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

PREFACE Why Bhutanese Literature Matters

A University does not just teach. Its role extends beyond the classroom, textbooks, exams and grades. It gives society new knowledge, fresh insights and options for bettering life.

By using the tools of inquiry and investigation for a rational understanding of phenomena, universities stimulate new ways of seeing reality. Through use of analytical methods and generation of evidence, it may propose alternative ways to organize life more efficiently or show different pathways to social progress and improvement.Bhutan, one of many homes to the Himalayan region’s rich civilization, is known for its pristine mountain ecology and , vast reservoir of social, cultural and religious knowledge and practice, sophisticated philosophical and liturgical Buddhist literature, poetry – both classical and pastoral, art and architecture, music, dance and festive expressions. Often humoured and made light-hearted by folklore, native wisdom and proverbs and intriguing shapes and colours evocative of life, causality and wholesome action, all of these continue to be inspired by the consummate teachings of the Buddha.

Bhutan has shown the a unique view of development - a mind-treasure revealed and proposed to humanity by the King His Majesty the Fourth Druk Gyalpo - that puts the collective wellbeing and of its people first. There is limitless opportunity for University teachers and researchers within Bhutan and beyond to explore these fascinating areas of knowledge of which I have mentioned a few here.

It is heartening indeed to see The Bhutan and Himalayan Research Centre at the College of Language and Culture Studies in Trongsa gear up to launch a brand-new journal - International Journal for Bhutan and Himalayan Research - on 11th , the birth anniversary of our beloved the Fourth King. I consider it a special opportunity to be associated with the launch of this edition of the journal whose thematic focus is on contemporary Bhutanese literature.

Bhutanese literature may be broadly classified into four categories. The first category covers the fairly extensive corpus of Buddhist literature comprising mostly of philosophical writings, treasure-texts, commentaries, history and biographical works, liturgical texts, poetry and praises, instruction and practice manuals, and occasional writings authored by generations of Buddhist teachers and scholars. Notable authors in this category include

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 vii Buddhist Masters and scholars such as Longchen Rabjam, Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel, Gyalse Tenzin Rabgay, successive Je of the past, Je Sherab Gyeltshen, Lopon Gangchen Zhenphen Rolpey Dorje, Chumed Drungpa Gembo Dorje, Tenpa Rinchen, Je Geshe Gedun Rinchen, Tshangkha Lopon Norbu Wangchuk, Je Ngawang Tenzin Doendrup, Lopon Pema Tshewang, and Kunzang Thekchog Yeshey Dorje, to name a few. These Masters laid the foundation for serious Bhutanese writing, research and scholarship. This genre of writing continues to this day.

The development of the second category of Bhutanese literary works consisting mainly of writings produced in Dzongkha or Choe-kyad by Bhutanese scholars may be traced to the 1960s when Dzongkha was adopted as the national language of Bhutan. The development of this genre has led to the growth of rich literature in the form of scholarly commentaries on the works of earlier scholars, biographies, elegant sayings, poetry and proverbs, short stories, music, dance and traditional songs, essays, and occasional writings, to name a few. Notable writers in this category include Gyaldoen Thinley, Lopon Pema Tshewang, Dasho Shingkhar Lam, Lam Nado, Lopon Dachoe Lhendup, Dasho Lam Sang-ngag, Dasho Phuntsho Wangdi, Dasho Tenzin Dorje, Lopon Gembo Tenzin, Phuntsho Tashi, Dasho Sherab Gyeltshen, Dasho Sangay Dorje, Lopon Kuenzang Thinley, and Lopon Pema Dendup, to name a few.

The third category of Bhutanese literature consist of works in English produced by university educated Bhutanese writers in the 1990s. Their writings have drawn for form and style on literature in Choe-kyad and Dzongkha by Bhutanese writers, and on creative prose fiction, prose non-fiction, folklore, and poetry in English from the West and South . In this category may be included different forms of Bhutanese oral literature sometimes known as ‘orature’. A number of writers (e.g. Azhi Kunzang Choden, Dasho Karma Ura, Dasho Sonam Kinga, and Gopilal Acharya) have translated fascinating pieces of orature into English. Bhutan’s rich oral heritage must be promoted through Dzongkha and English. Left on their own, these literatures are at high risk of becoming extinct. While English continues to grow rapidly and Dzongkha is promoted vigorously as the national language, the lingua franca of the country, Bhutan’s many oral languages and the rich literary and cultural heritage they embody will likely disappear if they are not written down and read especially by the younger generation.

As the noted African writer Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o rightly said, language “carries culture, and culture carries, particularly through orature and literature, the entire body of values

viii IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles by which we come to perceive ourselves and our place in the world” (1986). The efforts made by Bhutanese writers who have produced English translations of the rich funds of knowledge available in the oral form have helped to draw the literate society’s attention towards our own knowledge traditions. These efforts continue to this day. Going by current trends with regard to the third category of Bhutanese literature, it is likely that efforts to produce English translations of oral literature will continue.

Bhutanese writers of the past few decades who have translated oral literature into English have influenced the growth of a new generation of writers writing in English today. The fourth category of Bhutanese literature may be attributed to an influential group of writers that include Azhi Kunzang Choden, Dasho Karma Ura, Thakur S Powdyel, Dasho Sonam Kinga, and Dr , among others. Their works include both long and short prose fiction, prose non-fiction such as topical essays, dharma talks, scholarly commentaries on questions of general interest, exploratory writings on culture, history and heritage, personal reflections, poetry, and blogs.

A number of writers have talked about the need to preserve the oral traditions and the cultural value they represent and how their loss will to the gradual depletion of the depth and diversity of a society’s cultural character. For example, Skutnabb-Kangas in 2000 said that if genuine efforts are not made to preserve the world’s oral languages and the cultures they carried, “we may kill over 90 percent of the world’s oral languages in the next 100 years”. Similarly, noted linguist David Crystal warned in 1997 that “When a language dies, so much is lost … Oral testimony, in the form of sagas, folktales, songs, rituals, proverbs, and many other practices, provides us with a unique view of our world and a unique canon of literature … Once lost, it can never be recaptured. The argument is similar to that used in relation to the conservation of species and the environment”. These insights are useful to the discussion of contemporary Bhutanese literature especially with regard to the critical questions about its philosophical/cultural anchor, form, subject, and style.

I am both delighted and encouraged that the initiative to launch the International Journal for Bhutan and Himalayan Research holds great prospects for generating academic discourse in the critical areas of Bhutan and Himalayan studies generally. Works published in this journal can lend society fresh perspectives on the myriad knowledge treasures available in this part of the world. The need to study and contemplate upon the wisdom of the past and use it for a rational understanding of the present and of emerging realities is

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ix now more than ever before paramount.

I am excited to read the articles published in the inaugural edition of the journal and hope to gain fresh insights and perspectives from the works included in this issue. Paṇḍita Kunga Gyaltshan’s (1182-1251) words come to my mind:

མཁས་པ་讣མས་αིས་དཔྱད་་ཡི། 鍺ས་宱་鍺ས་ན་མཁས་པར་བலང་ཡི། བ་ལང་讒ན་གཞོན་དཔོད་པ་ལཡི། 害ུན་པོ་མཁས་ཀྱ་ཡོན་ཏན་ནཡི། ཡི།

bKra Shis bDe Legs (Trashi-delek)!

Dorji Thinley, PhD President, Paro College of Royal University of Bhutan

x IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

Editorial Introduction to Special Issue

“Our mountains have begun to rumble.” In this way, leading writers Chador Wangmo, Rinzin Rinzin, and Namgyal Tshering characterize the emergence of contemporary Bhutanese literature since the 1990s. Showcased in the annual Mountain Echoes literary festival, promoted by publishers in Thimphu, , and , and lauded with South Asian literary prizes, contemporary Bhutanese literature is coming of age.

This special inaugural issue of the International Journal for Bhutan & Himalayan Research explores the evolution of contemporary Bhutanese literature, including genres and works in Dzongkha and English. While Dzongkha is the national language of Bhutan, influenced in its written form by , English has served as the medium of classroom instruction in Bhutanese schools since the 1960s and connects Bhutanese writers to a broader South Asian literary world as well as an international audience.

The research articles gathered here treat distinct issues, genres, and moments in contemporary Bhutanese literature including styles of poetry from the early twentieth century as literary antecedents, the challenges faced in the development of Dzongkha literature since the 1970s, the role of Bhutanese works in English in forging a new national literature, and recent novels by Bhutanese women writers. Through these topics, this special issue delves into the relationship, transformations, and tensions between oral and literary forms, colonial and post-colonial influences, religious and secular themes, and national and international languages in the formation of a multilingual body of contemporary Bhutanese literature.

In “One Journey, Three Poems; One Serf, Three Lords: Literary compositions during Ugyen Wangchuck’s peace Mission to Lhasa, 1904,” Sonam Kinga discusses the styles of poetry used to commemorate Ugyen Wangchuck’s mission to Lhasa three years before he became the First King of Bhutan. The article is a masterful exploration of a single journey captured in distinct ways: erudite poetry (snyan ngag) by Zhabdrung Jigme in chokey or “dharma language” (chos skad, synonymous with classical Tibetan), an acrostic poem (ka rtsom) by Nyinzer Latshab in official Dzongkha, and a lyrical ballad in the vernacular by Tshewang Peldon, a female serf famous for her spontaneous oral compositions. Kinga’s fascinating and erudite account provides a glimpse into the literary world of Bhutan just prior to its consolidation as a kingdom under the Wangchuck .

In “Challenges to the Development of Dzongkha Literature: A Comparison of Namthar and

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 xi Srung,” Sonam Nyenda traces the systematization of Dzongkha as a written language in the 1970s and its subsequent literary production. In particular, he compares two narrative genres, rnam thar or religious biography heavily influenced by classical Tibetan and srung or contemporary stories and novels in Dzongkha which are now under pressure to compete with and conform to English literary models. In this way, Nyenda illustrates how Dzongkha literature is caught between two lingua franca in the region, classical Tibetan which connected Buddhists across Himalaya and Central Asia until the first part of the twentieth century and English which gained predominance in due to British colonial rule of neighboring and Burma and remains a prevalent medium for literary production across the linguistic diversity of South Asia.

In “Exploring National Identity through Literature in Bhutanese English Curriculum,” Tshering Om Tamang delves into the complex history of Bhutanese literature in English. Specifically, she focuses on the impact of curricular revisions in 2006 to the national syllabus, which included Bhutanese literary works in the English curriculum for the first time, such as The Lyrical Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi (1996), an eighteenth-century lyrical ballad translated from Dzongkha by Karma Ura and Dawa: The Story of a Stray Dog in Bhutan (2004), an Anglophone novel by Kunzang Choden. Tamang demonstrates that the inclusion of these and other works by Bhutanese authors in the English curriculum have played a significant role in shaping a new national literature, even as the useof English as a unifying language complicates the expression of indigenous Bhutanese culture and values.

My own contribution to this special issue, “Karma and Female Agency in Novels by Bhutanese Women Writers,” focuses on Anglophone novels by Bhutanese writers who unflinchingly confront gender issues, including sexual abuse and human trafficking, through the lived experiences of an array of female characters. In particular, I focus on the deployment of karma as a narrative device and its relationship to female agency in Kunzang Choden’s Circle of Karma (2005) and Chador Wangmo’s Kyetse (2017). These novels have in common that their protagonists must overcome significant hurdles to fulfill the aspiration to become a Buddhist nun. Yet being set in different eras, the vibrant of in the 1960s and Tashigang in the 1990s respectively, their coming of age stories provide the reader with a rich sense for distinct generational sensibilities and gendered challenges. As a result, these novels poignantly capture the lived experiences and struggles of women navigating the crossroads of tradition and change in contemporary Himalayan societies.

xii IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

These four research articles were originally presented at a panel on “Contemporary Bhutanese Literature” at the annual conference of the Association of Asian Studies held in March 2019 in Denver, Colorado, USA. Our thanks to the AAS and Tibet Himalaya Institute at the University of Colorado Boulder for providing support for the panel in the form of travel funds for presenters from Bhutan.

Also included in this special issue is the invaluable survey titled “Perspectives on Contemporary Bhutanese Literature” by Chador Wangmo, Rinzin Rinzin and Namgyal Tshering. These writers describe the profound transition from religious texts in chokey and oral storytelling in various dialects to the growth of Bhutanese literature in Dzongkha and English, first by setting down folktales and followed by a burgeoning of histories, novels, essays, and collections of poetry and short stories. In the process, the very idea of Bhutanese literature shifted from primarily composed and studied by monastics to include secular works in Dzongkha and English that have emerged since the 1990s.

As a second perspective featured in the journal, Ugyen Tshomo and Pema Wangdi share their views on “Contemporary Children’s Literature in Bhutan.” This essay discusses some of the standard features of children’s stories, illustrated with vibrant examples from Bhutanese children’s stories.

Two shorter pieces conclude this issue: a review by Eben Yonnetti of a recently published collection of Tibetan short stories, Old Demons, New Deities: Twenty-One Short Stories from Tibet (2017) edited by Tenzin Dickie, and a report by Anden Drolet on the inaugural International Society of Bhutan Studies Conference at Oxford University in 2019.

Please enjoy the resonant “rumble” from the mountains and that are echoed here in scholarly explorations of contemporary Bhutanese literature.

Holly Gayley Associate Professor of University of Colorado Boulder

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 xiii

Articles

One Journey, Three Poems; One Serf, Three Lords Literary compositions about Ugyen Wangchuck’s Peace Mission to Lhasa, 1904

Sonam Kinga Abstract

What has come to be known as the Younghusband Mission concerning the British Invasion of Tibet in 1904 was actually for Bhutan a Peace Mission led by the then governor () of Trongsa Ugyen Wangchuck. He was the principal mediator in the conflict. His successful role earned for him and Bhutan tremendous goodwill and respect by both the British and Tibetans. Three poetic compositions of different genres capture the historic moment as well as the national mood of Ugyen Wangchuck’s departure for Tibet, participation in the negotiations and successful return.

Zhabdrung Jigme Chogyal, the head of the Bhutanese state then, is deeply aggrieved by the destruction wrought by the invasion on a holy land and the painful decision to depute Ugyen Wangchuck. His half-brother, who was officiating as the of Nyinzergang in Wangdi Phodrang district, expresses anger and dismay in his poem about what he sees as the barbaric intent and behavior of the British and obstinacy of the Tibetans. Tshewang Peldon, a serf and a cow herder, is far more jubilant in her oral composition that chooses to celebrate the success of the mission.

Except for brief references to them in Bhutanese histories, these compositions have neither been studied in detail nor compared from a literary perspective. This paper draws attention to them, analyses their styles and structures, and reveal the diversity of indigenous literary genres, both written and oral. In the process, we gain an understanding about how the Bhutanese perceived the “Younghusband Mission” although the primary concern of the paper is more literary and less history.

Key words: Buddhist, composition, conflict, invasion, lozey, mediate, mission, serf, state

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 1 Introduction by the civil ruler, Ugyen Wangchuck had established himself as the de-facto leader Three years before his enthronement as of the country. The civil ruler and other the first hereditary monarch of Bhutan, members of the State Council were mostly Gongsar Ugyen Wangchuck joined the his appointees. The British rulers in India Younghusband Mission (see below) to also chose to engage with him directly for Lhasa, Tibet in 1904 to mediate between bilateral matters rather than the civil ruler the invading force of British India and the or prince-. Tibetan government. Kumar Sidkeong of have also His participation and success in the joined the mission as a mediator. In Lhasa, Younghusband Mission earned for him there were other mediators like Captain and Bhutan tremendous goodwill and Jit Bahadur of and the new Chinese respect from both the Tibetans and the Amban Youtai.1 But Ugyen Wangchuck British. His stature as a national leader, was the principal mediator right from the diplomat and statesman were further commencement of the mission. At the enhanced. Bhutanese historical records time, he was the governor or penlop (dpon of his participation in the mission as the slob) of the eastern province of Trongsa. principal mediator in British-Tibetan This position made him a member of conflict do not provide enough details for the State Council or lhengye tshok (lhan us to construct and understand the breadth rgyas tshogs) of the monastic government and scope of his engagement. The British which was first founded around 1626 by and Indian sources provide far greater Zhabdrung .2 The details. Since I have discussed them in other members of the State Council were detail elsewhere,5 my focus in this paper the governors of Dagana, Paro, Wangdi will be to analysis the three poems which Phodrang, and Thimphu,3 and were written in connection with Ugyen the chamberlain (gzim dpon) to the head of Wangchuck’s journey to Lhasa. I have state or prince-regent known as gyaltshab not come across any historical events in (rgyal tshab).4 The prince-regent was Bhutan, not even his coronation as the First theoretically the source of both political King, which saw the composition of such and religious authority. They were derived diversity of poems, oral or written. Before from him and exercised in his name by analysing different aspects of these poems, a civil ruler called desi (sde srid) and it is first important to briefly introduce the chief abbot or (Rje mkhan Younghusband Mission. po) of the state’s monastic community. Although the State Council was headed

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One Journey the Tibetans suspected British support for Nepal. As early as the 18th century, the British in India had been looking for a trade route Almost a hundred years later, in 1885, to Tibet. Access through Nepal had been the British government sanctioned a new closed. British missions sent to Nepal mission to Lhasa. The Tibetans objected; to negotiate an agreement did not yield the Chinese approved but the British any results. Nonetheless, an opportunity abandoned somehow. Instead, the Tibetans arose in 1773 when the British agreed to invaded Sikkim in 1886. Rather than go to a mediation by the of Tibet the defence of Sikkim as was obligated in their conflict with Bhutan. The British by a treaty, the British approached the came in support of (at its Chinese to ask the Tibetans to withdraw. request), who were fighting a war with the The Tibetans ignored the Chinese and Bhutanese. Although the Bhutanese lost, attacked Sikkim again. This time the the British agreed to return the captured British acted and removed the Tibetans. lands at the intercession of the Panchen The Chinese intervened and a treaty was Lama. , the Viceroy of signed at Calcutta in 1890. Amongst other India then sent to Bhutan matters, this treaty decided the borders and Tibet in 1774. An agreement was of Sikkim but the Tibetans, who were signed to permit transit of British goods not signatory to the treaty, rejected its through Bhutan. Thereafter, George provisions. Owing to the weakening of Bogle went to the , the Chinese could not to meet the Panchen Lama. Although they enforce implementation of the provisions. did discuss the matter of a trade route to Tibet and Panchen Lama even mentioned In 1889, Lord Curzon became the it to the Chinese emperor during his visit Viceroy of India. He resumed efforts to to , it never materialized as the communicate directly with the Tibetans. Panchen Lama died in Beijing. George But his letters sent to the 13th Bogle also died soon after. In 1782, either received poor responses or were Hastings sent another envoy, Captain returned, sometimes even unopened. The , to congratulate the Regent British anxiety increased when it learnt that of Tashi Lhunpo on the birth of the re- the Dalai Lama was instead befriending incarnation of the Panchen Lama. The who the British suspected of regent committed favourably to the issue invading India. Hence, a mission to Lhasa of trade. However, the Nepalese invasion was approved in 1903 to be led by Colonel of Tibet in 1792 put an end to the idea as Younghusband. It had to withdraw after a

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 3 few months due to the objections of the Namgyal and the last prince-regent. He Tibetans (Collister, 1996, p.138). was thus the head of the monastic state having been enthroned at a young age of All along, the British were uncertain seven years around 1869.6 By the time of whether Bhutan would support the the Younghusband Mission, he had served Tibetans. Not only did Tibet and Bhutan for almost thirty-five years as the prince- have close cultural and spiritual ties, they regent. He died in 1904 when Ugyen were neighbours and the mission to Tibet Wangchuck was in Tibet.7 would pass near Bhutanese borders. Hence, they approached Ugyen Wangchuck for The second poem was composed by a his intercession to negotiate with the lama called Nyinzer Latsab (Nyi zer Bla Tibetans. It was in this context that Ugyen tshab) who must have been officiating Wangchuck joined the British when the for the lama of Nyinzergang temple in mission resumed. He became the chief Wangdi Phodrang district. This temple mediator in the conflict. Tibetans would is the seat of successive incarnations of refuse to meet the British without Ugyen Ügpa Lingpa who first came to Bhutan Wangchuck. In Lhasa, he played a key role in the 13th century from Tibet and settled shuttling between the Tibetans and British. in Nyinzergang. The people of that He was instrumental in moderating British community were said to be suffering demands on Tibet. He came to be admired from certain afflictions, possibly epilepsy. by both sides earning tremendous respect Relying on his tutelary deity Rahula, Ügpa and goodwill. The Younghusband Mission Lingpa subdued the evil spirits who were returned in September 1904 after the believed to be causing the affliction. Even signing of a treaty. Ugyen Wangchuck today, the temple is popular for epileptic and Younghusband parted their ways from patients, who go to seek blessings and . cure. Nyinzer Latshab, who composed the poem, was the half-brother of Jigme Three poems Chogyal. His mother was the younger Poets and poetess, lords and serf sister of Jigme Chogyal’s mother. They had the same father.8 It is possible that he Poems in connection with the mission was installed as Nyinzer Latshab between were composed in Bhutan by authors the death and birth of a Nyinzer Trulku. A from different socio-economic and notable Nyinzer Trulku of recent times had political backgrounds. The first was by been the 67th Je Khenpo Thinley Lhendup Jigme Chogyal, who was the fifth mind who passed away in 2005. incarnation of Zhabdrung Ngawang

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In contrast to traditional scholarship Tshewang Peldon. including literary genres which were mostly written or composed by men, the Two, it has been customary in many parts third poem was composed by a of Bhutan to have names for particular called Tshewang Peldon. She is certainly households.10 These may belong to one of the very few known female literati in anyone, nobles as well as the laity. It is said the traditional world of Bhutanese writing, that Samdrup spent some time building his compositions and scholarship.9 She was and returned to Tashigang after the born in Gelekha, Wangdi Phodrang but completion. He was at a loss as to what his worked as a serf in the household of a new house should be called. On his way noble in Lokhachi. Her immediate lord back, the traditional highway took him was called Tshering Dendup although the through the village of Nobding which is house belonged to Samdrup, who once located opposite to Lokhachi across the served as the governor or dzongpon (rdzong Dangchu river. It is said that he was so dpon) of . The relationship impressed seeing how beautiful his house between Tshering Dendup and Samdrup is was even from that distance and hence, not known. Perhaps they were siblings, or decided to call it jachi (’Ja phyi) meaning they might have been close relatives. Her ‘beautiful.’ popular name was Jachi Tshewang Peldon. Two plausible explanations are given for Some maintain that rather than Jachi, the prefix Jachi to her personal name. Tshewang Peldon’s name was prefixed as Jam/Jamo, which meant a serf. She uses One, it was a name for a summer house this once in her composition. So does called jachi (‘Byar khyim). Many families Choki Dendup (1998) in his compendium in western Bhutan traditionally kept of lozey. Likewise, Aris (1994) refers two houses for summer and winter. The to her in a footnote as “Jami Tsewang summer houses were built in higher and Pedron” (p.112). However, Ap Daw cooler areas compared to winter houses Pentang, her great grandson, whom I in the low-lying sub-tropical valleys. interviewed in 2004, insisted that she was Especially after paddy planting in early called Jachi Tshewang Peldon. I must summer, most family members moved up qualify what I mean by ‘serf.’ There were to their summer houses along with their many landless and poor families who were cattle and came down during the time for bonded labour to aristocratic nobilities or harvest in autumn. It is said that Tshewang monastic estates. They and their children Peldon lived in one of those summer farmed the lands of these nobles or houses in Lokachi. Hence her name, Jachi , and were in return, fed and

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 5 clothed. Families were attached to these this was composed in 1904. The major nobilities and monasteries for generations. engagement of the British troops with While the term ‘serf’ is very generic, there the Tibetans in 1888 and 1889 took place were different categories of them. The two in Sikkim. Only towards the end of the widespread forms of were the zap conflict do they briefly venture to Yadong and drap. These categories of serfs were and Rinchengang on the Tibetan side of initially economic in character because the border. Nyinzer Latshab’s poem gives they did not own lands and hence, did not us an impression that the scale of invasion pay taxes to the state or state institutions. was not only huge but deep inside Tibet as However, they came to be ascribed with was the case with Younghusband Mission. social meanings later. Serfdom was His opening lines read, “By the order of abolished by the Third King of Bhutan in the British in Calcutta/ The barbarians had an unprecedented socio-economic reform filled the heavenly realm of the snowy in 1952.11 region.” The 23rd – 25th lines read thus, “As the Dharma is forced to the edge/ The noble Periods of composition and snowy region/ Is destroyed by those mutton-eaters.” The 26th line refers to the The three poems relate to different periods invading British troops as barbarians who of Ugyen Wangchuck’s participation in had come after crossing many mountains the mission. Nyinzer Latshab’s poem is a and valleys. It is thus more plausible denouncement of the conflict particularly that the poem was composed in 1904, of the British invasion. It appears that sometime before Jigme Chogyal wrote this was written at the initial movement his poems. The difference in timing of the of the British troops into Tibet and the composition of these two poems could not first confrontations at a place called Guru have been more than a few weeks. which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Tibetans. Padma Tshewang (1994) Jigme Chogyal’s poem is a painful thinks that this poem was composed reflection on the suffering caused by the after the 1888 British conflict with Tibet. British invasion and the decision that the He writes that Nyinzer Latshab wrote State Council had to take to send Ugyen the poem ‘during the dispute over trade Wangchuck as mediator. It is clear that he routes after the first arrival of British in wrote the poem soon after the departure Tibet in 1888 corresponding to the first of Ugyen Wangchuck and arrival in rabjung’ (p.533). Damchoe Lhendup , Tibet. There was apparently lots (2008) also tend to agree to this timing of communication between the Bhutanese of the composition (pp.145-146). I think government and negotiation team lead by

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Ugyen Wangchuck. His arrival in Gyantse Dzong which took place on 5 July (Kinga, must have been reported back to Punakha. 2004, p.39). Since then, I gained access The poem does not discuss subsequent to a recent publication of the biography developments concerning the advance of Jigme Chogyal. I then realized that the of the mission. The narrative begins by poem which I had translated in 2004 and a reflection on the conflict between the the other one reproduced by Damchoe British and Tibetans and the news of Lhendup in 2008 were not two different the mission’s march to Gyantse, which compositions. They were parts of one long hastens the need for Ugyen Wangchuck poem which appears to have been written to travel fast. The poem mentions about soon after the news of the destruction of Ugyen Wangchuck’s travel to Punakha Gyantse Dzong reached Punakha. from Trongsa, meeting with Jigme Chogyal, the decision and edict of the In contrast, Tshewang Peldon’s poem was State Council, his departure for Tibet and composed soon after the return of Ugyen the news of the destruction of Gyantse Wangchuck to Bhutan. The evidence of Dzong. From a reading of the chronology this comes from the concluding lines of her of events, it appears that the poem was poem. The news of Ugyen Wangchuck’s written sometime towards the end of success in the mission had preceded 1904, just before his death which his arrival. Hence, the State Council occurred on the 10th Day of the Seventh organized a huge and grand reception for Month (KMT Press, p.152). It does not him in Punakha (Lhendup, 2008, p. 170). make any reference to Ugyen Wangchuk’s The mission left Lhasa on 23 September. arrival in Lhasa and his accomplishment So, it is very likely that Ugyen Wangchuck as mediator. If Jigme Chogyal were still reached Punakha in the first or second alive then, it is impossible that he would week of October. The reception must have not have discussed it. been of such magnitude that even ordinary people like Tshewang Peldon were there The poem I have referred to above was to congratulate him. She talks about the the one I had read and translated in 2004. of a silver coin called ngultrum Later, I came across another of his poems (dngul kram) to Ugyen Wangchuck as a in relation to the mission (Lhendup, 2008, token of expressing her congratulations p.144). I assumed that the first part of the and of receiving reciprocal gifts. Hence, it poem which I had translated was written is possible that her poem was composed after Ugyen Wangchuck left for Tibet and around October. Although she was a serf the second poem was after hearing the and an illiterate, she was well-known for news about the destruction of Gyantse instant oral compositions. So gifted was

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 7 she that a euphemistic reference to her as of religious poetry to Buddhist canons. an ‘embodiment of wisdom’ (shes rab kyi “Religious works: The several poetical rang bzhin) was said to be very common works in Kanjur and the Tanjur, all of then. which are faithful translations from the Buddhist works of India, are in Forms: classical, official and the verses, consisting of two or four lines, vernacular each of seven, nine, eleven, thirteen, fifteen, seventeen, nineteen, or twenty-one Jigme Chogyal’s poem was written in ” (p.135). classical Tibetan or chokey (chos skad), which continues to be the primary medium Jigme Chogyal’s poem is a chapter by of scholarship in both state and non-state itself consisting of 125 lines. The first monastic bodies. His poem belongs to the stanza with four introductory lines and the particular category of nyen-ngag (snyan last concluding stanza of the same length ngag) or ornate poetry, which according were composed by Kuenga Dragpa, the to MacPherson (1998, p.6) is based on the author of the biography, who was Jigme Sanskrit poetic tradition called kavya that Chogyal’s brother. The first 17 lines ‘relies on recurring images or emblems introduce the conflict between British and complex metrical and semantic pattern India and Tibet and Jigme Chogyal’s sense to evoke one or more of the traditional of sadness at the events unfolding then. affect-states of Sanskrit aesthetics: charm, The next 20 lines are supplications to the heroism, disgust, merriment, wrath, fear, and tutelary deities to remember pity, wonderment and peace, through the the oath they took before Lord Buddha formal and verbal ornaments that help to to protect the teachings. He prays to them produce those states.” Trained in Tibetan not to abandon the Buddha Dharma, Buddhist tradition, Jigme Chogyal’s the Dharma-holders as well as sentient choice of the genre is understandable. beings during this difficult time. We have He uses the nine- metrical style. then another 24 lines which discusses the Chang (1956) attributes the odd syllable summoning of Ugyen Wangchuck by the metrical composition to religious poems. State Council and his departure for Tibet. “In general, the secular religious treatises In the next 18 lines, he discusses the usually contain an even number of conduct of prayers and rituals as the only syllables in each line; while the religious available means to pacify the situation, treatises usually contain an odd number of but this does not seem to have worked as syllables” (p.131). He traces the origins of the next 16 lines discuss the destruction of the odd syllable composition as attribute Gyantse Dzong. The final 30 lines are a

8 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles very painful rendition of prayers coupled usually thirty lines. Some writers chose with an expression of Jigme Chogyal’s to repeat the last two letters especially sense of helplessness and his illness from when they compose katsom with four- which he soon dies. line stanzas to make the total of thirty- two lines. Hence his is what is called the The poem is structured in such a way alphabet poetry or acrostic poem. “[I]t is a that a set of lines related to the conflict restrictive form but its alphabetical order and mission are followed by another set and acrostic can help memory retrieval” dedicated to supplication and prayers. (Penjore, 2009, p.12). There are thus six such sets of varying lengths. Thus, Jigme Chogyal appears to Alphabetical acrostic poems appear be liberal in structuring his poems without to be doing well even today as they adherence to any particular style except are noticeable in the literary sections for the nine-syllable metre. of the Dzongkha edition of Bhutanese newspapers. There were similar poems Contrary to the expectations of a lama composed in some vernacular languages. trained in the Buddhist tradition, Nyinzer Indeed, the nineteen different vernacular Latshab abandons classical Tibetan as do not have a the medium for his poetry. He writes in written script. So, composers borrow the what would constitute today the official/ Tibetan alphabet and use the phonetic to national language, Dzongkha. Perhaps he delve into vernacular oral compositions. was an official in the Wangdi Phodrang Penjore (2009) has recorded the first Dzong appointed as the officiating lama twelve lines of such vernacular acrostic since Nyinzergang temple falls under the poetry in Khengkha, while I have been jurisdiction of the monastic community able to record 14 lines in Sharchopkha and or rabdey (Rab sde) of Wangdi Phodrang. recently composed one anew12. He falls back upon a few words of chokey once in a while. That reflects everyday Jachi Tshewang Peldon’s poetry is both speech in Dzongkha which adds chokey oral and vernacular. For an ordinary particularly in the usage of honorific terms. Dzongkha speaker, her poem is not easily intelligible. Dzongkha combines colloquial The genre he chose is popularly known as Ngalongkha of western Bhutan with the katsom (ka rtsom) in which each line begins written chokey. Communities in western with the letter of the Tibetan alphabet in Bhutan, which speaks Ngalongkha, have sequential order. Since there are thirty their own dialects, pronunciation as well letters in the alphabet, every katsom has as semantic and phonetic peculiarities that

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 9 are not easily captured while transcribing programs (see below), which are very them in Dzongkha. Since Tshewang popular on FM radio stations. Besides, Peldon was from Wangdi Phodrang, which scholars from other parts of Bhutan who is traditionally known as Sha, it is the have mastered Dzongkha and chokey dialect of that region which is richly used have composed many lozey showing the in her composition. There is therefore, a increasing migration of this popular oral strong vernacular flavour to her poem genre to textual forms. not only in the use of language but also in idioms, imagery and symbolism. This Generally, lozey can be one of two types style of combining standard Dzongkha although other forms are not impossible. with the vernacular is specific to the genre There have been hardly any scholarly of oral compositions called lozey (blo ze), enquiry or independent research of lozey which flourished in western and south- tradition besides recording and translating western Bhutan. It hardly features in other them. The most popular ones have been forms of writing. oral compositions used for the purpose of poetic sparring between individuals Of the three poems discussed in this or groups. These sparring sessions paper, the lozey of Jachi Tshewang Peldon were spectacular pastimes witnessed by is the longest. It has 219 lines. When neighbours, friends and sometimes the Choki Dendup (1999) first attempted to entire community. Lozey are not read but record it, it had 199 lines. My subsequent recited from memory. The level of contest research and interviews revealed that he would be so intense and prolonged that it had missed the first opening stanzas. Since would continue throughout the night into this has been retrieved from oral sources, the following day when each side refused to it is highly possible that even my rendition admit defeat. The sessions would end when may be incomplete. some members of the audience volunteer as middle-men or mediators to bring about Lozey as a vernacular literary genre a resolution without declaring any side as the winner or loser (Thinely & Tshering, Lozey is a widespread literary genre 2009). There is no particular standard for in western and south-western Bhutan length. Each independent composition although its appeal and knowledge has would be memorized and recited aptly in now spread to other parts as well. This is response to what the other had spoken. clearly evident from the fact that young The choice of subject, context, metaphors men and women from other parts of and symbolisms had to match in order to Bhutan engage in robust lozey sparring provide an apt counter attack in case of

10 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles sparring or harmonization in case of more an ally of his master. Sumdar Tashi was benign and accommodating exchanges. a husband, father and a farmer who was Any mismatch would be pointed out forced to join the central monastic body critically both by the opponent as well as under a decree issued by the state in the the audience. The audience always had 18th century. His lozey recalls the painful members who are equally learned and moment of leaving his family and village, versatile, and came to play almost parallel his struggles as a novice and his roles to that of the Chorus in Greek and eventual decision to embrace the Buddha Roman plays. They constitute the third Dharma honestly when he shockingly . There are hundreds and thousands discovers that his beloved wife and son had of lozey although the authors are rarely abandoned his dying mother. Another such known. It is necessary to mention that such ballad is in Choki Dendup’s compendium. sparring also takes place with the singing It is about the deputation of a legendary of popular folk quatrains called tsangmo mail delivery man called Garp Lungi (gtsang ) between individual or groups Khorlo by the civil ruler in Punakha to of men and women. the three governors of Trongsa, Paro and Dagana asking one of them to go and serve The second type of lozey is the one where as the fort-governor of Daling in present- authors are not only identifiable but they day , which was then under engage with a particular subject which Bhutanese jurisdiction. The previous may be political, religious, militaristic or governor had been murdered by the British others. The other characteristic of this type and a replacement was being considered in of lozey is that they are comparatively very that very strategic area. This lozey has 304 long, and hence been regarded as lyrical lines. Such lozey continue to be written ballads or narrative poetry. The lozey of and published. An impressive work of Tshewang Peldon belongs to this type. recent times has been Gonpo Tshering’s Other notable examples have been the (2015) celebration of the successful reign lozey of Pemi Tshewang Tashi and Gelong of the Fourth King of Bhutan in 964 lines, Sumdar Tashi, which were recorded and which are grouped into 241 stanzas of four translated by Dasho Karma Ura (1995) lines each. This is one of the longest lozey and myself (1998) respectively. Pemi of this genre written thus far along with Tshewang Tashi was a chamberlain to the translations in English and published as governor of Wangdi Phodrang Dzongpon. a book. I have also composed a 160-line His lozey recounts his journey as a general lozey consisting of 40 stanzas narrating my and the subsequent battle in Trongsa, own experiences of De-suung Training13 which was fought against the enemy of which I underwent in 2014.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 11 Comparative analysis of the poems Temples are destroyed and scriptures (Kanjur and Tenjur) are strewn all over, It is possible to draw a comparative analysis Supports of body, speech and mind of these poems since they were written in of the Buddha as well as artefacts the same year (separated by a few weeks of sacred offerings are scattered like or months) sparked by one historical clouds in the sky, event, i.e. Ugyen Wangchuk’s journey to The monastic community, which is the Lhasa. There are also perspectives which foundation of Buddha Dharma are sometimes different and sometimes Are dispersed separately like guests shared. from a market place!

The katsom of Nyenzer Latshab and the Besides these poets, even historians have nyen-ngag of Jigme Chogyal primarily described the mission as attack against see the Younghusband Mission from a . Padma Tshewang writes Buddhist perspective. The British invasion “Trongsa Penlop Ugyen Wangchuck left is perceived as one that seeks to destroy to mediate the conflict between the British Buddhist temples and teachings. Take for and Tibetans unable to bear the thought example the last few lines of the katsom. of disappearance of Buddhist teachings in Tibet and the peace and happiness of As the Dharma is forced to the edge, sentient beings” (pp.536-537). Part of The noble and snowy region of Tibet, Jigme Chogyal’s poem and Tshewang Is destroyed by those mutton-eaters, Peldon’s lozey were composed from the Those who come crossing many perspective of Ugyen Wangchuck as mountains and valleys, mediator in the conflict. Including Nyinzer They are barbarians without kindness Latshab’s katsom, the three poems begin and compassion, with the mention of the conflict. Nyinzer They feel happy even to occupy a small Latshab writes, land, Those impudent and violent soldiers, An order was issued in Calcutta Are closer to destroying the sacred And the barbarians occupied the snowy teachings of Atisha. region of Tibet, Looking from everywhere and thinking Similarly, consider the last four lines of the about it evokes sadness. Jigme Chogyal’s poem which talks about the destruction of Gyantse Dzong and the He does not mention the conflict as directly killings of Tibetans. as Jigme Chogyal, who begins thus;

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In the evil year, when thunder clouds the English and the Bhutanese’ (Kinga, rolled, 2004, p.29). Obviously, Jigme Chogyal At the power of increasing vigour of would not have celebrated or rejoiced at degenerate times, the killing of hundreds of Tibetans. As The Dharma King of the government the however, he had to take of Tibet, positions that were of interest to Bhutan And the Viceroy of the holy land of politically. Thus, the conflict between the India, political role of Jigme Chogyal as the head At the end of exchanging many of state and his emotional and spiritual messages, state as the incarnation of an enlightened Their minds like fire and water, did not leader becomes clear when we read his harmonize. letters and poems together. All the disputes between India and Tibet, In contrast to the woeful perspective of Stole the peace and happiness of the the poems of Jigme Chogyal and Nyinzer people. Latshab, Tshewang Peldon writes from a joyful perspective because she is in a In denouncing the conflict, Jigme Chogyal celebratory mood. Her lozey was written and Nyinzer Latshab write from a woeful after Ugyen Wangchuck’s successful perspective as is evident in the last return to Bhutan. The focus of the former lines of the two extracts quoted above. two is on the conflict and the destruction This is understandable as they wrote of Tibet as the land of Buddha Dharma at the beginning of the conflict and the while hers is on Ugyen Wangchuck’s commencement of the invasion. The success as a mediator. Although she was sadness had to be concealed when matters an illiterate woman-serf, her poetry is far of the state were concerned. Jigme Chogyal richer in terms of the usage of metaphors, wrote to congratulate Younghusband after symbols, evocation of moods etc. Unlike hearing of the latter’s first military victory the two Buddhist scholar-, she uses in Tibet at a place called Guru where more an apt metaphor to describe the conflict. than five hundred Tibetans were killed. The letter said ‘that when he heard that his Then, a lady from India, friends had won a victory, he was greatly And a lady from Tibet rejoiced, for nowadays and Were said to be setting yarn for Bhutan had established firm friendship, weaving. and he hoped that there would always People wondered what they were be a firm faith and friendship between weaving!

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 13 It was a herder’s bag that could never Then the supreme abbot and assembly be washed clean! of , I and the Lord Desi, and all ministers These lines are packed with rich issued an edict, symbolism as well as deep irony. First, In order to save lives of Indians and setting yarn and weaving a bag from ’s Tibetans, fur are metaphors for the conflict. As it It was vital to go and mend the conflict! is, such bags are very thick, dark and not easy to wash and clean. This points to the Tshewang Peldon conveys the point complexity of the conflict. Second, her directly. usage of the metaphor of the herder’s bag is a reflection of her own place in society He befriended the British and Tibetans as a herder in the Jachi household. Thus, And then returned towards the south. she can relate to it very easily. Third, the Dharma King of Tibet (Dalai Lama) and Another comparative perspective between Viceroy of British India mentioned in Jigme Chogyal and Tshewang Peldon is Jigme Chogyal’s poem are referred to as the shared narrative at the beginning. Both a lady each from India and Tibet. Weaving introduce the conflict first, one directly is an art and skill associated with women. and the other metaphorically. Then, Since the metaphor for conflict she uses both makes mention of earlier attempts is the setting of yarn and weaving, she to mediate the conflict. Jigme Chogyal transforms the two primary actors in the refers to the exchange of letters between conflict into women. the British and Tibetans as well as British correspondences with Ugyen Wangchuck Despite the difference in mood of herlozey seeking his intervention. On the other and Jigme Chogyal’s nyen-ngag, both of hand, Tshewang Peldon mentions the them share a perspective. It is one of Ugyen efforts made by Kazi Ugyen , who is Wangchuck going to mediate between referred to as the of Pasakha. Ugyen the British and Tibetans to resolve the Dorji was the grandson of Pala Gyeltshen conflict. Jigme Chogyal mentions this in whereas Ugyen Wangchuck was the the beginning whereas Tshewang Peldon grandson of Pala’s brother Pila Gonpo mentions it in the end after the conflict Wangyal. The latter had appointed the is mediated and resolved. Jigme Chogyal former in 1900 as the government agent or writes in the second-half of the poem thus; kutshab (Sku tshab) for the administration of southern Bhutan stationed at the headquarters in Pasakha. Hence Tshewang

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Peldon’s reference to him as the Raja of Colonel Younghusband. In contrast, Pasakha. Tshewang Peldon’s lozey takes us further to Lhasa metaphorically describing Ugyen Thereafter, both Jigme Chogyal and Wangchuck’s mediatory role and success. Tshewang Peldon talk about Ugyen Her narrative brings us all the way back to Wangchuck’s journey to Tibet. Jigme Punakha with Ugyen Wangchuck’s return. Chogyal mentions about Ugyen Wangchuck’s visit to Punakha whereas Thus, Nyinzer Latshab only describes the Tshewang Peldon skips this part. Perhaps conflict between British India and Tibet she did not skip this part of the journey whereas Jigme Chogyal describes the to Punakha but was not recalled by conflict and talks about the deputation of those whom I interviewed to recount the Ugyen Wangchuck. On the other hand, lozey orally from memory. Tshewang Tshewang Peldon describes the conflict, Peldon talks about the raising of militia the journey of Ugyen Wangchuck as well by Ugyen Wangchuck as his guards and as his mediation and the successful return. attendants before he begins the journey. It is as if each of the three poems builds Jigme Chogyal only mentions that Ugyen upon where the former had left off. Wangchuck came surrounded by his attendants. We know from other sources Contemporary access to the three poems that there were 50 attendants and 200 soldiers in Ugyen Wangchuck’s entourage. All the poems were composed in 1904. The 115-years old poems are certainly In three lines, Jigme Chogyal summarizes not contemporary. So how do we think of Ugyen Wangchuck’s travel to Tibet. them in the present? In the first instance, it is important to know that these poets The supreme ruler, born of virtue and certainly must have written many other , poems of which we are not aware today. Took to the road on the auspicious day That includes Tshewang Peldon as well. of an evil month Most of her lozey are forgotten now. And gradually reached where Indians Owing to the spread of modern public and Tibetans had gathered. education and predominance of English as the medium, most Bhutanese are not able The Tibet he mentions must be the place to read and enjoy these poems. But their called Dromo Rinchengang, where historical and literary values continue to Ugyen Wangchuck stayed for a long be acknowledged and re-published and time before moving to Gyantse to meet made available to contemporary audience.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 15 Jigme Chogyal’s poem was partially re- Conclusion published in Padma Tshewang’s (pp.535-536). Damchoe The Younghusband Mission is known Lhendup’s biography of the First King and historicized as such from the British quotes two long stanzas of this poem perspective. In the eyes of the Bhutanese (p.144 and pp.155-156). KMT Press had however, the mission was really that of published the entire biography of . His role as the chief Chogyal in 2016. Both Padma Tshewang negotiator in the British-Tibetan conflict and Damchoe Lhendup have re-published occupies a central place in Bhutanese the katsom of Nyinzer Latshab. Although historical narrative. The Younghusband they have left out Tshewang Peldon’s lozey Mission became the framework to narrate because it was not available in textual and explain Ugyen Wangchuck’s own form, Choki Dendup had made the first journey. In a way, we have to think of two attempt by transcribing it and including it journeys which begin and end separately in his compendium. Aris (1994) wrote that but are undertaken jointly in the middle. “a minor verse epic recounting the whole story of his mediation is said to survive Nyinzer Latshab’s katsom does not in some people’s memories” (p.90). In specifically deal with the subject of the footnote to this sentence, he wrote, Ugyen Wangchuck’s journey. It is instead “It is attributed to one Jami Tsewang a reflection on the British invasion of Pedron but has never been committed to Tibet. It is a critique of the Younghusband writing” (p.112). Choki Dendup’s attempt Mission from the Buddhist perspective to commit to writing four years after Aris’s of an invasion bringing destruction to a observation is really the first effort. I went sacred land. On the other hand, Jigme back to Tshewang Peldon’s village in Chogyal first focusses on the historical 2004, interviewed her great grandson and context of the conflict that sets the ground others, recorded their oral narration of the for the decision by the State Council to lozey, transcribed them in Dzongkha and send Ugyen Wangchuck as a mediator. took a step further by translating it into Tshewang Peldon’s lozey focus largely on English for the first time. Likewise, I have Ugyen Wangchuck’s journey. The last part translated partially14 the poem of Jigme of Jigme Chogyal’s poem is more specific Chogyal and katsom of Nyinzer Latshab. to a particular incident in the overall Karma Phuntsho had also translated the mission. It is an expression of horror second half of Jigme Chogyal’s poem and and despair at the destruction of Gyantse included it in his History of Bhutan (2013, Dzong and the killing of Tibetan soldiers p.500-501). in the battle.

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In this despair is also the moral outrage of level of national engagement with the the head of a Buddhist state. The framing participation of Ugyen Wangchuck in of Jigme Chogyal’s nyen-ngag and the Younghusband Mission. They were Nyinzer Latshab’s katsom as reflections or composed around the same time in a reactions against the destruction wrought scholastic, official and vernacular media, by barbarians on Buddhist temples, written and oral, reflecting the diversity of teachings and holy land can be felt more poetic genres. Coincidentally, the katsom poignantly when we factor in shared written in Dzongkha bridges the gap spiritual and cultural affinity between Tibet between scholarly chokey of the monastic and Bhutan as well as similarity of their tradition and vernacular lozey of the political systems. Ugyen Wangchuck’s common folks as it employs the script and role is presented by Jigme Chogyal as one structure of the former and language of the to mediate differences and save the lives latter. of the Tibetans. The government of Gaden Phodrang (dga’ ldan pho brang) under the Today, lozey is becoming increasingly successive Dalai Lamas compare with the accessible through audio-visual recording, government of Palden Druk Zhung (dpal transcription using Dzongkha alphabets ldan ‘brug gzhung) under the successive and translating in English especially the of Zhabdrung Namgyal. lyrical ballads as I have done with that Both of them are regarded as emanation of of Tshewang Peldon and Sumdar Tashi. Avalokitesvara, Buddha of Compassion. Lyrical ballads continue to be written The geographic locale of the invasion may today. The folk character of this genre is be Tibet but the spiritual site is shared appropriated in the textual and scholarly between the Tibet and Bhutan as Buddhist tradition today. On the contrary, the countries. Hence the pain experienced by katsom style and structure does not see Bhutanese leaders. However, Bhutanese appropriation into the vernacular. Nyen- leaders had not allowed the spiritual affinity ngag continues to be written by those to overcome political considerations. schooled in the monastic tradition but many Bhutan benefitted politically from this Bhutanese struggle to understand them, expedition contrary to the incalculable let alone write and express in chokey due loss suffered by the Tibetans. to the predominance of English in public education. The fact that the Younghusband The composition of poems by a head Mission and Ugyen Wangchuck’s role in of state, who was disheartened at the it produced poetic compositions around unfolding events as well as one by a serf the same time in three different poetic in a celebratory mood truly reveals the genres by those occupying social positions

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 17 at extreme ends is indeed a significant the prince of Sikkim and died young. It is moment in the history of Bhutanese important to mention that not all mind and literature. speech incarnations served as prince-. Some served as civil rulers while a few served as chief abbots. When Jigme Chogyal was Endnotes enthroned, the fifth speech incarnation known 1 See Mckay, A, 2012, pp. 5-25. as Sungtrul Chogley Yeshi Ngedup was already into his 11th year as gyaltshab. He too was 2 Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, who is duly enthroned around 1854 when he was three revered and regarded as the founder of the years old. When Jigme Chogyal was enthroned, Bhutanese polity, declared the formation of he was thus about 15 years old. There was no this government called dpal ldan ’brug gzhung coup d’état of any sort to oust him in favour of from his monastic base at Chari in Thimphu the other. Rather, it appears to be in keeping around 1626. with traditional monastic convention which gave primacy to mind incarnations over the 3 While the governors of Dagana, Paro and speech ones when it concerned the matter of Trongsa were known as dpon slob, those of being the head of state. The mind incarnations Thimphu, Punakha and Wangdi Phodrang were directly linked to Zhabdrung Ngawang were known as rdzong dpon. The reasons for Namgyal while the speech incarnations were differences in were historical but they not. were of equal ranks. There were sub-regional governors who were also coincidentally called 7 Karma Phuntsho, p. 507. spon slob and rdzong dpon.

8 Karma Phuntsho, p. 506. 4 After the of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal in 1651, there came to be seventeen 9 We do not know of many Bhutanese women rgyal tshab before the establishment of litterateurs who were engaged in traditional . The reincarnations of Zhabdrung, Buddhist scholarship. But this does not mean his son Gyalsey Jampel Dorji and of another they did not write or compose. Perhaps their monk-ruler called Gyalsey Tenzin Rabgye writings or compositions have yet to come to served as rgyal tshab. our attention. For example, Ashi Wangmo, the daughter of King Ugyen Wangchuck, who 5 See Sonam Kinga, 2004, pp.2-53. became a nun was a prolific songwriter. In the world of oral poetry, we know of a few other 6 The enthronement of prince-regents at very women besides Tshewang Peldon, whose young ages were more a norm rather than an oral compositions span various themes. For exception. Except for four or five of them, example, in Choki Dendup’s compendium, all others were put on the throne before they there is a lozey by a lady called Yudrug attained their 10th birthdays. There were Zangmo. In it, she expresses her sadness at seven speech incarnations and six mind being forced to go and marry a person she incarnations of but does not like. Another short lozey discusses an only one body incarnation who was born as appeal made by a woman to the Chief Abbot

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called Shacha Lhendup. The woman is referred Chang, K. (1956). On Tibetan poetry. Central to as the mother of Sithub. The appeal concerns Asiatic Journal, Vol. 2 (2), 129-139. exempting her son from the required enrolment in the monastic body. Similarly, a woman from Collister, P. (1996). Bhutan and the British. : Laya is recorded as sparring in a lozey with a Serinda Publications and : UBS man called Dorji from Punakha. Publishers

10 See Sonam Kinga, 2002, for detailed Dendup, C.(1999). rdzong kha’i blo ze. Thimphu: discussions on the categories of serfdom. Dzongkha Development Commission.

11 See Sonam Kinga, 2009, p. 92. Kinga, S. (2002). Changes in Bhutanese social structure: Impact of fifty years of reforms 12 I posted my acrostic poetry on my Facebook (1952-2002). Thimphu: The Centre for page on 20 May 2020. It generated a lot of Bhutan Studies. interest, and in response, many such poems in Sharchop were composed and posted in Kinga, S. (2004). Ugyen Wangchuck and the comments section. Younghusband mission to Lhasa: Towards the founding of monarchy 100 years ago. 13 De-suung known as Guardians of Peace is Thimphu, Bhutan: Galing Printing and a voluntary corps established in 2011 by His Publishing. Majesty the King. De-suups volunteer to help in providing social services, fighting KMT Press. (2016). Zhabs drung ’jigs med chos fires, performing search and rescue operations rgyal gyi rnam thar. Thimphu: KMT Press. during natural disasters, protecting public facilities as well as helping secure international Lhendup, D. (2008). ‘brug brgyud ‘dzin gyi rgyal borders as is evident during the global mchog dang pa mi dbang o rgyan dbang pandemic of Covid-19. mchog gi rtogs brjod bzhugs so. Thimphu: The Centre for Bhutan Studies. 14 I had access to Jigme Chogyal’s biography only recently. I found out that my translation of his MacPherson, S. (1998). A genre to remember: Tibetan poem earlier was only partial and incomplete. popular poetry and son as remembrance. The complete translation will be included in University of Alberta: Department of my forthcoming publication bearing the same Secondary Education. Retrieved from title as this paper. http://citseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/ downloand?doi=10.1.1.1025.3636@ rep=rep1&type=pdf References Aris, M. (1994). The raven : The origins of Mckay, A. (2012). The British Invasion of Tibet, Buddhist monarchy in Bhutan. London, UK: 1903-04. Inner Asia, 14 (1), 5-25. Serindia Publications.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 19 Penjore, D. (2009). Dangphu dingphu: The origin of the Bhutanese folktales. Journal of Bhutan Sonam Kinga works at the Royal Studies, 21, 7-42. Research and Advisory Council. He teaches Bhutan’s Political History at Phuntsho, K. (2013). The History of Bhutan. Noida, the Royal Institute of Governance and India: Random House. Strategic Studies in . He was earlier a Visiting Professor at the Tashi, T. (2013). Gongzim : The king’s Graduate School of Asian and African aide and diplomat par excellence. Thimphu: Area Studies in Kyoto University, a The Centre for Bhutan and GNH Studies. Visiting Research Fellow at the Institute of Developing Economies (IDE) in Thinley, P. & Tshering, G. (2009). Blo ze. Thimphu, and a founding member and researcher Bhutan: Phurpa Thinley. at The Centre for Bhutan Studies.

Tshering, G. (2015). Melodies of the spring queen: His works include Changes in Bhutanese The wondrous deeds of the great fourth Druk Social Structure (2002), Polity Kingship Gyalpo. Thimphu: Gonpo Tshering and (2009) and Democratic Transition in Bhutan (2019) published by Tshewang, P. (1994). History of Bhutan. Thimphu, IDE, Bhutan’s Ministry of Education and Bhutan: National Library of Bhutan. Routledge respectively.

20 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

Challenges to the Development of Dzongkha Literature: A Comparison of Rnam thar and Srung

Sonam Nyenda Abstract

Traditionally, literary texts in Bhutan were written in chos skad, or “dharma language” which is synonymous with classical Tibetan. As such, they were greatly influenced by Buddhist doctrine and practices, including positive values and ethics about Buddhist life. These literary works were mostly composed by individuals of high status and accessible only to the monastic community or through oral transmission. However, with the adoption of Dzongkha, also known as Ngalongkha, as the national language of Bhutan and the advent of modern in the 1960s, a new crop of Bhutanese literary works and writing styles emerged, although the themes do not seem to have shifted significantly from Buddhist practice and cultural values. English was adopted as the medium of instruction in Bhutanese schools in large part in order to connect Bhutan to the rest of South Asia and increase global cooperation. Hence, English as a spoken and written language became quickly prevalent in the country. In addition, Anglophone literary works remain more popular than those composed in Dzongkha today. This article examines the significant challenges to the development of Dzongkha literature, given the predominance of two lingua franca in the region, namely classical Tibetan and English. The article focus on two narrative genres of contemporary literature: rnam thar (religious biography) which is heavily influenced by classical Tibetan andsrung , both short stories and novels, which are shaped by the standards of modern fiction in English. In comparing these genres, this article explore how modern education system and school curriculum has and can affect the development of Dzongkha literature.

Key words: srung, rnam thar, Dzongkha literature, writing, language

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 21 Introduction commission worked diligently to develop Dzongkha grammar and lexicon. However, In Bhutan, most traditional literary texts due to the dominance of English language are written in chos skad, or “dharma as the medium of instruction in Bhutanese language” which is synonymous with national curriculum and as a lingua classical Tibetan. As such, they were franca across South Asia and globally, the greatly influenced by Buddhist doctrine development of Dzongkha literature faces and practices, including positive values considerable challenges. In this article, and ethics about Buddhist life. Until I discuss three main challenges: (1) the recently, even official correspondence in continuing prevalence of chos skad in Bhutan was composed in chos skad. In The contemporary Bhutanese literature, (2) History of Bhutan, Karma Phuntsho states, the predominance of traditional topics in “All written communications in Bhutan Dzongkha literature, including folktales until the introduction of written Dzongkha and stories with Buddhist themes, and (3) in the second half of the twentieth century competition with English as the preferred were conducted in classical Tibetan and medium for secular fiction. In tracing these much of Bhutanese literature even today challenges with respect to chos skad and is composed in this medium” (2013, p.53). English, I focus on two narrative genres This is due in part to the fact that, up to of contemporary literature: rnam thar the early twentieth, Tibetan served as a which is heavily influenced by chos skad literary lingua franca among Buddhists and srung, both short stories and novels, in Himalaya and Central Asia. Therefore, which are being shaped by the standards traditionally, Bhutanese literature was not of modern fiction in English. very distinct from Tibetan literature. History of Writing in Bhutan With the adoption of Dzongkha as the national language in the 1960s and the To understand contemporary development development of Dzongkha grammar of and challenges to Dzongkha literature, in the 70s, written Dzongkha literature it is important to contextualize the issue started to grow in usage beyond official with reference to early literary works. communications. To enhance its growth To do so, Dorji Gyeltshen’s work, Early and development, Dzongkha Development Book Production and Printing in Bhutan Commission (DDC) was established in (2016), provides substantial information 1986. The DDC’s mandate is to preserve on the history of literary works in Bhutan. and promote the use of Dzongkha as According to Gyeltshen, written records the national language of Bhutan. The started from the 12th century, after the

22 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles arrival of Tibetan religious figures into called Spyi zhing bsam gtan chos gling in Bhutan. One of the earliest Tibetan figures Bhutan. Further, from seventeenth century to visited Bhutan was Gzi brjid dpal (1164- onward, there were numerous other 1224) popularly known as Lha snang pa, a block prints initiated or commanded by ’Bri gung bka’ rgyud follower. He visited Zhabs drung ngag bdang rnam rgyal, Mi Bhutan in 1194 and started a monastic ’gyur brtan pa, and Btan ’dzin rab rgyas institution in a place called Cal kha in (Gyeltshen, 2016). Paro. He gave Cakrasamvara teaching to more than 1700 students and wrote many All these examples of Buddhist literature commentaries while in Cal kha. One of were written in chos skad. Dzongkha his surviving works today is Bslab gsum was then not yet a written language. As a lam gyi them skas rin po che’i bang mdzod Buddhist kingdom, much of the literature (, 2004, p. 133). There are other and arts in Bhutan centered on Buddhism, religious figures who visited Bhutan after from festivals at village temples to him in the 13th century such as Lo ras pa scholastic study at monasteries. Dorji (1189-1250) and Pha jo ’brug sgom who Penjore laments about “the scholarship as taught extensively. In 1289 AD, son of Lha an exclusive domain of Buddhist lamas snang pa called Bde mchog (1179-1265), and monks, and Buddhism the only proper a Vajrakīla yogi who founded Sumthrang subject of academic and spiritual pursuit” temple wrote a commentary on Vajrakīla (2013, p.148). Artists and scholars then practice. The text titled Dpal gsang were mostly monastics and the topics brgyud gyi ’grel pa snyos ston bde mchog of scholarship focused around dharma, bdag gi khyad chos is still preserved with whether doctrine or narrative. Chos Sumthrang Choje in central Bhutan. skad maintained its importance for these categories of literature. Phuntsho (2013) Gyeltshen also mentions the production of mentions that even after the advent of wood blocks as important to the history of Dzongkha, much of Bhutanese literature literary production in Bhutan. Prominent even today is composed in chos skad. This examples include the autobiography will be discussed further in the later part and spiritual songs of ’Ba’ ra ba rgyal of the article. mtshan dpal bzang (1310-1391); Pad ma gling pa’s writings (Pad gling bka’ ’bum) Emergence of Dzongkha as the National produced under the supervision of Zla ba Language rgyal mtshan, and the autobiography and writings of Blo gro rab yangs (1474-1570), Dzongkha literally mean language (kha) who was the founder of Sa skya monastery spoken in dzongs (rdzong). It is a language

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 23 spoken in the Western districts of Haa, po which was distributed to schools. Paro, Thimphu, Phunakha, Wangdi Phodrang, Chukha, Gasa and Dagana. It Before Dzongkha was even recognized is also referred to as Ngalongkha (Sngon as the national language and standard kha) which would translate roughly orthographical and grammatical structure to “language of ancient settlement”. In were developed, Bhutanese were already Language Policy in Bhutan, George Van learning English as a medium of instruction Driem stated “The term Ngalong probably in schools, given its prominence across derives from Ngenlung ‘ancient region’, a South Asia due to British colonial rule term first recorded for the people of Shâ over neighboring India and Burma. and Paro by the Tibetan sage Künkhen According to Karma Ura (2010), the Longchen Ramjam (1308-1363) during first school was established in Bumthang his travels through central Bhutan” (1994, with 14 Bhutanese boys, following the p.88). As most political offices were based visit of the First King Ugyen Wangchuk in Western regions, Ngalongkha became to , India in 1911 to participate in a dominant medium for official purposes. the royal visit and Durbar of King George Gradually, it was used as the official V (1865-1936). In 1914, the king sent 45 language in administrative offices and boys to Dr. Graham’s Home School in monastic centres across Bhutan (Phuntsho, Kalimpong to study English. In the same 2013). As offices and centres were based year, another school was established in in rdzongs, Ngalongkha slowly became Haa where English and were taught. known as Dzongkha, the language of Decades later, yet another school with the Dzongs. Although it uses the Tibetan 14 boys was established in Bumthang in alphabet, Dzongkha has great difference in 1955. The government developed a formal its syntax and grammar. national education system in 1955, and in 1959 decided to provide free universal According to the late Dasho Sangay Dorji modern education (Penjore, 2013). By (1990, p. Ta), the first secretary of the 1961, with the start of the first five year DDC and the author of Rdzong kha’i brda plan, English had become the main gzhung, the development of a standard medium of instruction in the Bhutanese orthographic and grammatical structure in school system. Therefore, English was Dzongkha was only started in 1971. It was used in schools earlier than Dzongkha, as in that year that Lopen Pema Tshewang, the standard Dzongkha grammars were then Director of National Library, wrote only developed in 1971. a Dzongkha grammar book titled Rdzong kha’i sgra bshad rab gsal skya rengs dang Given the prominence of English as lingua

24 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles franca across South Asia, it became well- order to trace this development and some established in Bhutan while written of its challenges due to the influence of Dzongkha was newly developing, and chos skad and English. lacked lexical strength and grammatical sophistication to construct advanced There is a rich tradition of recording the literary works. Moreover, rapid life accounts of great Buddhist masters globalization and its effect on Bhutan in Bhutan and Himalayan culture. Such made it difficult for Dzongkha to compete life accounts are recorded in the forms with English, not only as a literary of histories, biographies, narratives, and language but also as an oral medium memoirs. Among all these genres, rnam through which international popular thar meaning “complete liberation” is culture could be accessed. For these traditionally the most common form reasons, Dzongkha faced new challenges of biographical writing. It refers to the in terms of the development of Dzongkha biography of renowned masters, most literature as well as the broad usage of often written by a devoted disciple or spoken Dzongkha, given the diversity of at times composed as autobiography at dialects across Bhutan. Phuntsho rightly the request of their disciples. Rnam thar emphasizes that while “Today, Dzongkha is said to inspire its readers and guide is taught in schools; most Bhutanese speak them on the path to enlightenment. Thus, Dzongkha imperfectly and only a few can Phuntsho (2017) notes that rnam thar, in write in Dzongkha with ease” (2013, p.53). general, neither gives a critical account of its subject nor the details of the worldly Genres of Rnam thar and Srung and profane aspects of their life. They generally present spiritual achievements The challenges facing the development of and positive qualities in hagiographic Dzongkha literature become more salient fashion in order to inspire readers in their when looking at Bhutanese publications soteriological practice. today. Most of the books written by established writers are written in chos Although there are quite a number of rnam skad or Dzongkha-Tibetan hybrid. Newer thars written in Bhutan, the language used, publications in Dzongkha have emerged is still mostly in chos skad. One recent since early 2000, but there is still room rnam thars on the life of Bla ma Bsod for improvement in the development of nams bzang po, a Bhutanese yogin who Dzongkha literature. Here, I focus on studied and practiced in Tibet and lived examples of narrative literature, both rnam and taught in Bhutan in 1970s and 1980s thar and srung, by Bhutanese writers in has been written by two different authors.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 25 The first written by Khenpo Phuntsho literature in Bhutan. For that reason, Tashi in 2013, is titled The Three Shinning Phuntsho remarked, “Dzongkha was a phal Stars of the East (Nyi ma shar gyi phyogs skad, a commoner’s vernacular opposed las shar ba’i skar ma rnam gsum: skyes bu to chos skad, the scriptural idiom” (2013, dam pa rnam gsum gyi rtogs brjod bsam p.53). It might be for the same reason why ’phel dbang gi rgyal po). The book actually the two authors choose to write in chos contains biographies of three masters: Bla skad, however, their writing styles differ ma Bsod nams bzang po, Bla ma Dkar po slightly. Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi narrates tshe dbang dpal ’byor, and Bar mtsams the spiritual life of Lama Sonam Zangpo bla ma Pad ma dbang chen. The purpose presenting the subject to be more divine in of the publication, highlighted on the first order to address faithful readers grounded page, is to help readers understand the path in a Buddhist worldview, whereas Lam of dharma as the ultimate root of peace Kezang offers a more historical account and happiness, and the secondary purpose based on factual information. For example, is to raise funds for Kharchu Dratsang of while describing the subject’s birth place, Namkhai Nyingpo. Another biography Phuntsho Tashi’s rnam thar (196 pages of Lama Sonam Zangpo, written the long) describes the historical and spiritual following year in 2014 by Lam Kezang, significance of the place, Rinchen Bumpa is titled Blessed Activities of Drupwang where the lama was born, describing Lama Sonam Zangpo, the Flow of Milky at length how it is not different from River (Sgrub dbang bla ma bsod nams -Colored Mountain, the abode of bzang po’i mdzad rnam byin rlabs ’o ma’i Guru . By contrast, Lam chu rgyun). Lam Kezang mentions in the Kezang’s rnam thar (340 pages long) just twelfth chapter that he wrote the biography mentions it as a sacred place of Rinchen at the request of Lama Thinley Namgyal, Bumpa in Kurtoe. Traditionally, a rnam one of the close students of Lama Sonam thar is generally written to spiritually Zangpo with the help of Lopen Kuenzang inspire faith in its readers, but according Thinley. Lopen Kuenzang Thinley is to Kurtis Schaeffer, it can also serve “to a writer and editor with KMT press in inspire yogins to practice, kings to offer Thimphu. Both authors used chos skad patronage, commoners to have faith, and to write the biographies, showing the heretics to convert” (2004, p.51). If we ongoing influence of classical Tibetan on consider Robinson’s typology with respect Bhutanese literature. to three ascending and mutually enriching ways of reading the accounts of Indian Chos skad is still the dominant language siddhas, namely as history, hagiography used in writing spiritual and religious and myth, the way Lam Kezang presents

26 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles the biography reads more like history provides a list of six features that should compared to Phuntsho Tashi’s, whose be present in a modern short story: setting, presentation is more hagiographic. characters, conflict, climax, resolution, and theme. Such efforts in the classroom By contrast, the genre of srung came will likely lift the standard of Dzongkha into being as a contemporary genre by story writing and literature. recording folk tales. Traditionally, Bhutan had a rich heritage of folk tales, and these The revision of the curriculum was done a were later collected and recorded for use decade ago and the impact is yet to be seen; in Bhutanese school. At first, when stories it will depend on whether or not future were printed as school textbooks, it was students choose to write in Dzongkha. mostly jātaka tales, ancient stories of the Nevertheless, there are a number of Buddha’s past lives from India, that were Dzongkha short stories and novels in the translated into chos skad. Then in the book stores today. The authors of these 1980s, Sherab Thaye collected local folk new books are mostly young writers stories and published them in Dzongkha in who graduated from modern education a series of “Dzongkha Short Stories: Book system even though the majority of them Three” (1987). Those stories were mostly did not study the aforementioned new local folk tales, such that the writing style Dzongkha curriculum. Nonetheless, these of ‘The Kind Crow’ and ‘Stories of the new writings attempt to offer newer ways Demon of Nyala,’ mimics oral narration. of story writing and show significant development of Dzongkha literature From 2007, the Ministry of Education within the broad genre of srung. started implementing a revised Dzongkha curriculum from classes PP-XII in different One prominent example of new Dzongkha phases (Sherab, Dorji, Lhendup, Tshering, literature that is developing could be a & Drukpa, 2020). Significant work went Dzongkha story book by Lopen Kinzang into this: the Dzongkha textbook for Wangdi, a high school Dzongkha teacher, class twelve was revised five times after called Longing to Meet Buddha (Sangs 2006 and the latest revision took place in rgyas mjal ba’i smon lam). He wrote the 2018 (Royal Education Council [REC], book while he was doing his Masters 2018). This textbook introduces students and published it after he completed to modern ways of writing stories in his studies in 2018 (Wangdi, personal Dzongkha, based on English literary communication, September 13, 2019). In models. The class twelve Dzongkha his acknowledgements, he mentions that textbook, Lhag rig dang rtsom rig (2018), he was provoked by a short Thai cartoon

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 27 to write this story and intended it as a way the childhood and helped you attend to share Buddhist values with Bhutanese the adulthood, brothers who are caring, high school youth (Wangdi, n.d). sisters who pleases you, and relatives and neighbors who would always Longing to Meet the Buddha tells the support you. It was like everybody has story of a poor beggar called Sudre Ta gathered together and the atmosphere is who struggles to meet Buddha. The story filled with happiness. (n.d., p.29) is divided into fifteen parts and in each, Wangdi introduces a new character to Again this depiction is more detailed and bring in conversation with Sudre Ta. As full compared to the descriptions one he does, another story is woven into the might find in a traditional folk tale or narrative. However, unlike traditional folk rnam thar in order to establish that the tales, Wangdi’s story begins by describing protagonist had a happy family. Of course, India as a country, providing a clear picture this alone does not make it modern. of its historical context. He lavishly takes Although Wangdi attempts to adapt to one and half pages to describe why India is newer forms of writing, his work still lacks called rgya dkar or rgya gar, based on its some of the characteristics and features of culture and religion and briefly recounts modern fiction. If the six features taught Buddha’s pursuit of enlightenment. in class twelve Dzongkha textbook are Only after that he introduces a small considered, although Wangdi’s story village called Nya dkar grong and the has minor conflict and resolution, the protagonist Sudre Ta. This rich description climax is not very dramatic. Moreover, an signals a new style of writing whereas important part of story writing, the rising in a traditional work the location might action and falling actions on either side of have been described in a single sentence. the climax, are also not clearly articulated. Consequently, in Wangdi’s fourth part, For this reason, his story might not grab Spyang lo las sgrib dag bcug pa’i bskor, the attention of young readers and instead he likewise describes the village setting cause them to lose interest in reading and family in detail in order to situate the Dzongkha literature. protagonist, the poor boy Sudre Ta who lives in a hut and encounters two rats. In To his credit, at certain sections of my translation of his description: Wangdi’s story, he creates philosophical conversations between his characters that Inside Su dre Ta’s hut, it wasn’t empty may help instill Buddhist values in youth. like before. It was like there was a For example, in the third part of the book, thankful parent who raised you from a conversation between Sudre Ta and

28 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles two rats is intriguing. Sudre Ta laments is a language of Bhutanese religion, about his low life and admits his wish to philosophy and culture”. Thus, although commit suicide. This is where Wangdi Wangdi could not articulate his story brings in Buddhist doctrine narrating how according to the modern story writing hard it is to accumulate merits to gain features, his story shares well indigenous a human body, in the form of the rats’ thoughts and values. Similarly, other advice to Sudre Ta. The rat says, “Do not Dzongkha books such as A Bowl Full of say that you are going to commit suicide. Cloth (Go la zangs gzhong gang, 2012) The treasure of human life that you have and Garden of Suffering (Sdug bsngal gyi accumulated with eight freedoms and ten ldum ra, 2013) written by Dawa Drukpa acquisitions is very difficult to achieve. and My Life as an Ox (Nye’i mi tshe glang The Rgyal sras dnyul chu gi lus rten, 2014) written by Lham Tshering thogs med1 and Rgyal sras zhi ba lha2 also instill similar cultural values. have explained that in three ways: cause, example, and counting…” (n.d., p. 24). In 1999, Rinchen, a graduate student at He then explains with an example of UNB, Fredericton wrote an article on blind turtle at the bottom of the ocean “Why do children fare better in English emerging into the middle of a golden yoke than Dzongkha (National Language) in at the surface. This is a popular example the schools of Bhutan in all grade levels?”. of how and precious human life is in He suggested nine main measures to help Buddhist literature. As the story is meant students learn Dzongkha and achieve the for high school students, such doctrinally- vision of preserving Bhutan’s culture and focused narrative makes for heavy reading tradition. Among those nine measures, and risks boring readers, even though it some of them are to “introduce more conveys important traditional knowledge. Bhutanese literature in Dzongkha, support the development of Dzongkha articles, In this way, we can see that Dzongkha novels, books and magazines, and make literature may be burdened by the teaching and learning of Dzongkha commitment to cultural preservation and relevant, challenging and interesting to instilling Buddhist values in the next the students” (Rinchen 1999, p.9). Today, generation. Lopen Lungtaen Gyatso two decades after his suggestions, a lot of (2004, p.237) in his “Difficulty in development has taken place not only for Teaching Dzongkha” posits that, “Every the development of Dzongkha language native language is the best medium but also in Dzongkha literature. According of communication to relay local and to a rough list of Dzongkha publications indigenous thoughts and values. Dzongkha acquired from Bhutan Communication and

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 29 Media Authority (BICMA) approximately medium of instruction in government 50 Dzongkha books were published from schools. Dzongkha grammar was 2018 to 2020, while English publication is structured only in 1971 and redeveloped in comparably higher with about more than 1990s. So while English had already taken 90 in the same timeframe. The question root, Dzongkha was still in the phase of is: Why? Do Dzongkha books grab the development. reader’s attention and gain widespread readership? If not, what are the reasons? And Dzongkha is still developing. For instance, debates about whether Dzongkha Some of the Dzongkha writers interviewed spellings should be aligned to chos skad on national television and others who spoke or whether it needs to be simplified still informally with me for this research have persist. Moreover, a frequent reworking complained about minimal readership and on Dzongkha language is confusing interest in Dzongkha books. This means Dzongkha users and audiences. A that there may be less reason for writers recent article published by Lopen Tashi to choose Dzongkha as their medium for Phuntsho in the Dzongkha Journal of storytelling. It would be a good subject for the College of Language and Culture future researchers to look at the quality Studies highlighted a good example of and standard of the Dzongkha writings and how inconsistent Dzongkha is in different how they cater to their intended audience. texts published by DDC. In his discussion about connective words for possessive Dzongkha literature is starting to grow, marker in Dzongkha, Tashi Phuntsho said, and at the same time faces challenges due “There are inconsistency in identifying to the influence of chos skad that makes connective words for possessive marker. Dzongkha grammar and spelling stilted There are different identifications in and the popularity of English with which different text. Some text has mentioned it competes for readers. Lopen Lungtaen just four, while others mention five or six Gyatso (2004, p.267) compared the and others goes to mention even nine” influence of chos skad to Dzongkha as (2020, p. 29). Phuntsho continues, “Some how Latin is to Roman languages, since even identifies main connective words and chos skad influenced the vocabulary of constituent connective words but there are spoken and written Dzongkha. Although no clear distinction between the two”. The Dzongkha was a spoken language recent Dzongkha curriculum evaluation traditionally, it was adopted as the national findings pointed out that “the existence language only in 1960s. By then Bhutanese of different spellings for a word has often were already steeped in English as the confused both teachers and students in

30 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles the schools” (Sherab, Dorji, Lhendup, Most blatant is the problem of inconsistent Tshering, & Drukpa, 2020). This problem changes to Dzongkha spelling and is faced by other Dzongkha readers and grammar that confuses audiences. But the writers too. deeper issue highlighted in this article is the influence of chos skad and English Although English is a second language, that have made it difficult for Dzongkha Bhutanese seems more comfortable in to articulate a full-fledged literature of its English compared to Dzongkha. Rinchen own. Synthesizing these, if the potential observes: readership for Dzongkha gets confused by changes, or does not find the plots English gained lots of popularity and of Dzongkha stories compelling, then was well-received by teachers, students especially younger audiences will opt for and administrators. They look at it like literature written in English. However, if a path finder and a means of livelihood. the government could encourage present Now as the English language is so set in high school students to cultivate interest in our educational system, and the interest Dzongkha, there might be some potential people develop for it, our national for developing Dzongkha literature in language is at the verge of extinction. In the next decades. If Dzongkha literature the school children are better in English slowly captures the reader’s attention, than Dzongkha (1999, p. 4). it might in the long run encourage more writers to publish in Dzongkha. The new Although Rinchen wrote this article in Dzongkha curriculum with its training 1999, the problems that he highlights in how to write modern fiction could still persist today. Moreover, even further help fulfil the dream of a thriving today roughly eighty to ninety percent Dzongkha literature. of teachings in Bhutanese schools are through English medium. This means a Endnotes smaller readership for Dzongkha literature 1 Rgyal sras dnyul chu thogs med (1297-1317) is the author of Thirty Seven Practices of the and little feedback or criticism that will Bodhasattvas. His text in thirty seven verses assist in its further development. provides instructions on how to follow the path. Conclusion 2 Rgyal sras zhi ba lha (Śāntideva) is an In conclusion, there are several issues eighth-century Indian philosopher at Nalanda that have posed significant challenges to University. He is renowned for his work Byang chub sems pa’i spyod pa la ‘jug pa the development of Dzongkha literature. (Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra)

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 31 References gling pa’i rnam thar ’od zer kun mdzes nor Cabezón, J. I. & Jackson, R. R. (1996). Tibetan bu’i phreng ba, n.p. literature: Studies in genre. : Snow Penjore, D. (2013). The State of Anthropology in lions. Bhutan. Asian and African Area Studies, 12 (2): 147-156. Chophel, K. (2014). sgrub dbang bla ma bsod nams bzang po’i mdzad rnam byin rlabs Phuntsho, K. (2013). The history of Bhutan. Noida: ’o ma’i chu rgyun. Thimphu: KMT. Random House India.

Dorji, S. (1990). The new Dzongkha grammar. Phuntsho, T. (2020). Bdag sgra dang ming mtha’i Thimphu: DDC. phrad la dpyad pa’i dbye byed gser gyi thur ma. Treasury of Wisdom, (6), 19-36. Drukpa, D. (2013). Sdug bsngal gyi ldum ra. Thimphu: Dawa Drukpa. REC. (2018). Lhag rig dang rtsom rig. Thimphu: Drukpa, D. (2012). Go la zangs gzhong gang. REC Publications Thimphu: DSB. Rinchen, S. (1999). Why Do Children Fare in Dzongkha Development Commission. (2012). English then Dzongkha (National ’brug gi kha rgyun srung sna phyogs bsdebs Language) in the Schools of Bhutan in All rna ba’i dga’ ston. Thimphu: DDC. Grade Levels?. US: ERIC.

George, V. D. (1994). Language Policy in Bhutan. In Robinson, J. B. (1996). The Lives of Indian Aris. Michael & Hutt. Michael (Ed.), Bhutan: Buddhist Saints: Biography, Hagiography Aspects of Culture and Development(87-105). and Myth. In Cabezón, J. I. & Jackson, R. R. Kiscadale Publications. (Ed.), Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre (56-69). Snow lions. Gyatso, L. (2004). Difficulty in Teaching Dzongkha. In K. Ura & S. Kinga (Ed.), The Spider and Schaeffer, K. R. (2004). Himalayan Hermitess: The the Piglet (264-293). CBS. Life of a Tibetan Buddhist Nun. New York: Oxford University Press. Gyeltshen, D.(2016). Early book production and printing in Bhutan. Tibetan Printing: Sherab. K, Dorji. T, Lhendup. K, Tshering. K., Comparison, Continuities, and Change. & Drukpa, P. (2020). School Dzongkha Brill. Curriculum Evaluation (PP-12). Paro: REC.

Jana Vajra. (2004). Rgyal ba gnyos lha nang pa’i Smyos ston bde mchog. (n.d). Dpal gsang rgyud kyi rnam thar rin chen phreng ba yon tan gsal ’grel pa smyos ston bdag gi khyad chos ba’I me long sa lam spungs pa, in the ’bri lags. gung bka’ brgyud chos m d z o d chen mo. Lhasa: s.n. Tashi, P. (2013). nyi ma shar gyi phyogs las shar ba’i skar ma rnam gsum: skyes bu Padma gling pa. (n.d). Bum thang gter ston padma dam pa rnam gsum gyi rtogs brjod bsam ’phel

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dbang gi rgyal po. Thimphu: Tshokey Dorji Foundation. Sonam Nyenda is an Associate Lecturer Tshering, L. (2014). Nye’i mi tshe glang gi lus rten. at the College of Language and Culture Thimphu: Lham Tshering. Studies and the coordinator of the Bhutan and Himalaya Research Centre. He Has Wangdi, K.. (n.d). Longing to meet the Buddha!. a Master in Religious Studies from the Thimphu: P.T. Printing & Publishing University of Colorado Boulder and BA House. in Language and Culture from ILCS, Semtokha. His interest in the field of Wangyel, J. (2014) bod kyi rtsom rig spyi bshad. study concerns the intersection of ritual, New Delhi: Norbu Ghar phigsi dpe skrun art, and text in Tantric Buddhism. He is khang. also interested in looking at the influence of traditional knowledge on Bhutanese Ura, K. (2010). Leadership of the wise: The Kings culture and its contribution to Bhutanese of Bhutan. Thimphu: Dasho Karma Ura. culture today.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 33 Exploring National Identity through Literature in Bhutanese English Curriculum

Tshering Om Tamang Abstract

This article offers an examination of the dense and complicated history of the development of Bhutanese literature in English, in an attempt to better understand its relationship with the national curriculum, and country’s national identity and literature as a whole. Until the last decade, the English curriculum placed in schools in Bhutan was heavily influenced by the curriculum in Indian institutions. An attempt to create a ‘nationalist’ syllabus meant a major revision of the English curriculum was conducted in 2006. One of the significant changes was the inclusion of Anglopone literature by Bhutanese writers. This article presents a close reading of the works included in the English syllabus, Dawa – The Story of a Stray Dog in Bhutan by Kunzang Choden and the autobiographical poem, The Lyrical Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi translated by Karma Ura as a means to examine the fulfillment of the country’s nationalistic goal. The study examines the themes and issues that are prevalent in these works, and posits that their inclusion exposes students to new hybrid English that appropriately expresses indigenous Bhutanese experiences, while at the same time, contributing to the establishment of the country’s ‘national’ literature in English.

Keywords: anglophone literature, Bhutanese literature, identity, national curriculum, English language, national literature.

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Introduction need to incorporate inherently Bhutanese themes? Or can a foreigner writing about This article examines the dense and Bhutanese issues be considered Bhutanese complicated history of the development literature? These are the same difficulties of Bhutanese literature in English, and Chinua Achebe (1994) bemoaned about its relationship with the national English African literature in “The African writers curriculum. Over the past decades, and the English language.” A definition the English curriculum in Bhutan has of Bhutanese literature has not been included the study of a mixture of texts reached, nor have scholars and writers as part of students’ literary training. Part come together to try to define it unlike of this literary study has been dominated in Africa. In the same article, Achebe by works from India, while the other goes on to suggests that African literature half comprised of works by Western cannot be crammed into ‘a small, neat writers. This meant that until recently definition’ and that ‘any attempt to define while Bhutanese students were exposed African literature in terms which overlook to Indian and Western literature, as part of the complexities of the African scene… their literary study, there was no place for is doomed to failure’ (1994, p.429).1 the study of Bhutanese works in English in Taiye Selasi in her opening speech at the the national syllabus. This longtime lacuna International Literature Festival in Berlin, in the national English curriculum prior to titled “African Literature Doesn’t Exist” the 2006 revision brings into question the laments this tradition of defining literature existence of an Anglophone Bhutanese by its geography and suggests that African literature in the first place. literature is ‘an empty designation’ which disregards the ‘complexities of African Indeed, Bhutanese literature in itself cultures and the creativity of African remains quite undefined. Questions about authors’ (2013, p.1). The same might be what constitutes Bhutanese literature, or said for Bhutanese literature and what Anglophone Bhutanese literature, has not Bhutanese literature means. Perhaps there been adequately addressed by scholars, is no need to define Anglophone Bhutanese researchers or educationalists: What would literature, but the lack of a discussion one consider Bhutanese literature? Does itself about Bhutanese literature highlights it mean literature produced in Bhutan or a severe shortage of published works in about Bhutan? Or does it mean texts written English in Bhutan and thereby a lack of in the national language, Dzongkha? scholarly discussion about what Bhutanese Or can it include literature written in literature actually means. English by Bhutanese authors? Does it

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 35 This dearth in scholarly analysis of and the factors that finally propelled the Bhutanese literature could be due to 2006 revision to include Bhutanese text in the fact that until a few decades ago, English in the national syllabus. Anglophone publications were rare in Bhutan. While there seems to have been A Brief History of Education in Bhutan a thriving book production and printing culture of early chokey (chos skad) and The history of education system in Bhutan Dzongkha texts within monasteries in can be traced back as far as the arrival of Bhutan,2 the first Bhutanese book in the Buddhist scholar Zhabdrung Nawang English, Kunzang Choden’s Folktales of Namgyel, in 1616 from Tibet (Curriculum Bhutan, was not published until 19933. and Professional Support Division Despite this, during the revision of the [CAPSD], 1994, p.27). The establishment national English curriculum in 2006, of numerous Dzongs and monasteries there was a common agreement between meant the beginning of educationists, curriculum developers and with its own curriculum. Dzongs and scholars that Bhutanese students should monasteries served, and still continue to be introduced to literary works that reflect serve, as the central locus for monastic their indigenous experience. education. In an important development with significant consequences for the The exclusion of Bhutanese works in growth of literacy in Bhutan, at least the English curriculum can, on the one one male child from every family was hand, be attributed to this contested obligated to attend monastic school in the definition of Bhutanese literature and Dzongs, though education for the general what it constitutes and, on the other population remained less accessible. hand, be due to the dearth of Anglophone literature written by Bhutanese authors. Formal secular education began in Bhutan But a more significant reason is the in the 1960s. This was in accordance with influence of the Indian sub-continent in Bhutan’s ongoing effort to modernize the the educational sector in Bhutan, and the country and to forge closer international country’s decision to adopt English as the relationships, particularly with the medium of instruction across its school. neighboring . Given In order to understand the development of the proximity of the two countries, it Anglophone literature in Bhutan, it is first is no surprise that India would play important to understand the educational a particularly influential role in the history of Bhutan, its long-standing educational and institutional development relationship with the English language within the country. These influences

36 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles from the Indian subcontinent could be prominently seen in three major aspects Often this had little, if anything, to offer of Bhutanese education: the schooling students in Bhutan culturally. This is system, the borrowed curriculum, and because the India’s school curriculum is the adoption of English language as the based on a colonial history closely aligned medium of instruction. with India’s long period under the up until the first half of the twentieth First, a nationwide network of formal century. Indian scholar Gauri Viswanathan secular education, based on Indian models, suggests that the study of English and was established during the first five- English literature in India was designed year plan of 1961-1966 (Sherab, 2013; to disbar the natives ‘from cultivating a Thinley & Maxwell, 2013). By 1997, with native literature held in pious veneration this model, Bhutan would start a total – a literature that was deeply interwoven of 300 English medium schools across with the habits and religion of the people the country as the mainstream mode of and comprised valuable records of their education (Education Division, 1997 as culture’ (2011, p.4). Additionally, Thomas cited in Ueda, 2004). Second, Bhutan Macaulay asserted the ‘superiority of the also relied heavily on India for its primary Europeans’ as ‘absolutely immeasurable’ and secondary school curricula. Although declaring that ‘a single shelf of a good regulated by a separate organization, until European library was worth the whole 2005, schools in Bhutan would deliver native literature of India’ (1835, p.3). curriculum that have been established The aim of the British Raj was to make based on borrowed syllabi from India. In colonized Indians identify with and accept fact, the Council for the Indian School British values, cultures and literature as of Certificate (CISCE) in Delhi would superior to the natives. oversee the majority of the curricula for primary and secondary schools (Classes Consequently, the curriculum in PP–XII). This included the curriculum place reflected these same ideological for the majority of the subjects such assumptions, and dealt with themes and as Geography, Mathematics, and other issues about India that were a far cry from science subjects, and more importantly for the problems Bhutan faced. This meant the purpose of this article, English. This that the transfer of the Indian syllabi to means that for years, Bhutanese students, Bhutan created problems for Bhutanese in their literary studies, had to rely on a students. While India was under British body of writings that were chosen for colonial rule during her adoption of Indian students. English, Bhutan has never been colonized.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 37 Thus, Bhutanese students were being Bhutan’s predilection for English could subjected to a curriculum deeply rooted in no doubt be an influence of India’s wide colonial history yet knew very little of that acceptance and use of the language. experience. The curriculum in place was Howard Solverson in The Jesuit and the culturally, ideologically and linguistically : The Life of Father unsuited to the needs of Bhutanese in the Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan students’ situation and requirements. The reports that since English was already curriculum failed to provide Bhutanese being taught as a subject in Bhutanese students with a literary study that schools, ‘adopting English would not emphasizes Bhutanese values and culture involve any perceived threat of cultural or that reflects the Bhutanese way of life. influence from a neighboring country’ Yet, like India, Bhutan had no choice at and the choice to start the country's ‘first first but to adopt a foreign curriculum. quality school fit well with the adoption of the English language for schools’ (1995, Subsequently, the implementations of p.107). Besides, since the majority of the an Indian schools curriculum combined teachers and curriculum had to be brought with borrowed syllabi would also mean from India, any other choice would have the adoption of English as the medium of been unwise at the time. instruction in school in Bhutan. However, the reasons for adopting English as an This decision was also due to the lack of instructional language are a bit more other feasible language, even the national complex. English had long been studied language Dzongkha, as the instructional in several private schools, but the rise of language. Dzongkha, up until its adoption English as a communal language in Bhutan as a national language, did not have a began with the introduction of English as a standard orthographic and grammatical medium of instruction in schools. Bhutan structure, making it impossible to be officially recognized Dzongkha as the recognized as the medium of instruction national language in 1960s, however, the of a national wide education system4 lack of teaching and learning materials in (Phuntsho, 2013). Further, the fact that Dzongkha made it imperative to choose a English language provided Bhutanese second language as the medium of formal students with greater exposure to global instruction. English was, thus, adopted as economic and intellectual privileges the medium of instruction for majority of was in line with the nation’s ongoing the curriculum, except for Dzongkha and modernization efforts, and certainly to a certain extend History, at all levels of contributed to its choice as the medium of primary and secondary education. formal instruction.

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However, the choice of language is eventual consequences of borrowing an ‘central to a people’s definition of Indian-based education and curriculum, themselves in relation to their natural and put Bhutan is a somewhat similar situation social environment, indeed in relation as those of colonized countries. Bhutanese to the entire universe’ (Thiong'o, 1986, students were increasingly exposed to p.4). Bhutanese government’s decision to a language and culture that was alien to choose English as a medium of instruction her own, leaving the indigenous language meant that Bhutanese students were left and culture in danger of being surpassed to define themselves in a language that by a foreign culture. Further, the history is not their own. More than 20 different of the adoption of the English language languages are spoken throughout the in Bhutan is similar to that of counties country, and Dzongkha, while adopted as that were formerly colonised. The only the national language, is mainly spoken in difference lies in the fact that English Western Bhutan (Phuntsho, 2013). Since was never forced on the Bhutanese by Dzongkha is not spoken by majority of a colonial power, but by the Bhutanese Bhutanese people, learning Dzongkha is government itself necessitated by the often perceived to be ‘as hard as learning a implementation of a foreign curriculum. foreign language’ (Phuntsho, 2013, p. 53). Many Bhutanese schools mandated the Thus, choosing Dzongkha as the medium use of either only English or Dzongkha of educational instruction would feel like in schools, while the use of students’ an outside imposition in many regions local language during school hours would within Bhutan while, at the sometime, not invite severe punishments5. This is not offers the opportunities associated with surprising since the effects of ‘intellectuals learning English. Bhutanese students’ and cultural dependence are as serious as language of education was no longer the those of political subjection or economic language of their culture, and brought dependence’ (Brennan, 1989, p.22). upon cultural alienation that is extensively discussed by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, Achebe Thus, Bhutan’s decision to adopt Indian and other post-colonial writers (Thiong'o, syllabi left Bhutan in danger of being 1986; Crystal, 2000). Thus, Bhutan was overwhelmed by a foreign culture. not only left with an Indian school system Relating to a foreign culture, Frantz Fanon but also depended on an Indian-based claims: ‘We only become what we are by curriculum and a foreign language as the the radical and deep-seated refusal of that main medium of knowledge. which others have made of us’ (1963, p.17). Bhutan has reached the same stage where While Bhutan was never colonized, the she has to fashion a national culture that is

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 39 characteristically her own. After following in three phases: Classes XI and XII in 2006, India’s lead for so long, Bhutan’s only Classes VIII – X in 2007 and Classes PP option was to decenter all conventions and – VIII in 2008 (CERD, 2002). The new themes relating to India and the West and curriculum aimed to decenter Indian and concentrate on establishing a new national western influences, and emphasized the identity. Bhutan’s situation resonated need for students to cultivate principles with Fanon’s argument about national that reflect the ‘cultural values of Bhutan’ culture: ‘this passionate search for a (CAPSD, 2005, p.3). One of the ways this national culture which existed before the was done was by incorporating literary colonial era finds it legitimate reason in texts by Bhutanese authors from the local the anxiety shared by native intelligentsia context. to shrink away from that western culture in which they are in danger of being However, the establishment of a national swamped’ (1963, p.209). Significantly, curriculum meant Bhutan first needed Bhutan had to face the combination of to produce a national literature that the both western and Indian influences that are country solely lacked. As discussed in danger of overshadowing the country’s earlier Bhutanese literature as such has indigenous culture. Bhutan chose to not been defined. And though Bhutan has do this by consciously moving away a reasonable body of work in chokey and from conventions and themes related to some in Dzongkha, these works remain India and the West and concentrate on largely inaccessible beyond the monastic establishing a ‘nationalized’ curriculum population. The need to revise the English for Bhutanese schools. curriculum also meant that Bhutanese literary works needed to be in English. ‘Nationalizing’ the curriculum A search for Anglophone literature by Bhutanese authors in 2002 yields limited In its initial stage of development, Bhutan results. During the revision, Bhutan could was more concerned with the expansion boast no more than 30 books written in of the educational system than with the English by Bhutanese authors. The first cultural impact of Indian or western work in English by a Bhutanese author was curricula on students. It was only in not published until 1993 with Kunzang December 2002 that a major shift was Choden’s Folktales of Bhutan. With a made in English education (Centre for handful of writers, including Karma Ura, educational and research and development Lily Wangchuk and Ashi [CERD], 2002). This revision of the Wangchuck, this lack of a substantial body English curriculum was to be implemented of work by Bhutanese writers made it

40 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles apparent that Bhutan not only did not have can learn another language and write in sufficient secular works to be added in the that. Many young Bhutanese don’t even syllabus, but also that Bhutanese literature speak Dzongkha; how can they jump to in English itself was just beginning to write in English?’. This notion not only develop. discourages more Bhutanese to take up writing but also intimidates the handful of Phuntsho (2014 as cited in Raina, 2014, established Bhutanese writers. para. 8) states that Bhutanese literature is ‘starkly divided into two mediums that Bhutanese Literature in English comes with two different approaches and value systems’. Phuntsho, here, seems Bhutan is still in the initial stages of creating to be referring to the rich Bhutanese a national literature. Fanon claims that literature in chokey and Dzongkha that while creating a national culture, writers was prominent amongst elite educated often look to the past trying to ‘renew circles, while secular works in English contact once more with the oldest and more by Bhutanese writers only emerged in pre-colonial springs of life of their people’ mid-1990s. Fanon posits that the late bears truth in Bhutan (1963, p.210). The establishment of a country’s literature same sentiments echo in Brennan’s work: is because most of the ideas developed ‘On the one hand, the developing world by colonized intelligentsia have already had to root itself in the soil of its past, forge been wildly professed by specialists in a national spirit and unfurl this spiritual the colonizer’s country (1963, p. 209). and cultural revindication before the This is perhaps one of the reasons Bhutan colonialist’s personality’ (1989, p. 4). The has taken so long to act on creating a same phenomena occurred in Bhutan with secular Anglophone literature. With an a rise in the publication of a large number abundance of Indian and western literary of non-fiction and translated works in the texts readily available in the country and 1990s. As noted earlier, the publication of also through the national curriculum, Kunzang Choden’s Folktales of Bhutan perhaps Bhutanese writers did not feel the marked the beginning of the establishment need to develop a literature of their own. of Anglophone literature in Bhutan. In Another discouraging factor could be Folktales of Bhutan, Choden collected the sentiment shared by many Bhutanese a series of short stories that had been which is summarised by Phuntsho (2014 in circulation among Bhutanese for as cited in Raina, 2014, para. 23) in the generations but had never been recorded. following quote: Bhutanese people should Similarly, Karma Ura’s A Hero with ‘first learn to live as Bhutanese, then you Thousand Eyes, published in 1995 gives a

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 41 detailed picture of life at the court of the in the 18th or 19th century. The result is a second King . Moreover, perfect picture of Bhutan as a happy and through the biography of her father, in Of exotic country, rich and unique in her Rainbows and Clouds (1999), Ashi Dorji beauty, traditional custom, and rituals. Wangmo Wangchuck provides an account Through these works, Bhutan embraces of Bhutanese society in the early-mid- the idealized characteristics that outsiders 20th century. Both these works strive to have imposed on her, allowing writers to provide readers with a glimpse into the paint a picture of perfect Bhutan, ‘The history of the Bhutanese economy and Last Shangri La’. And, with an educational administration at that time. The Lyrical system in place that was largely based on Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi translated Indian and western idealogical norms, by Ura and Gaylong Sumdar Tashi (Songs Bhutanese culture becomes confined to of sorrows) translated by Sonam Kinga a mythological representation of its own were also published during this time. history.

Although all these works are different in Indeed, prior to 2006, the curriculum in their own right, the prevalent theme is place did nothing to change this view of the nation in all her past glory. The works the country as an exotic nation. Thinley tell tales of traditional customs that were (2007, p.78) posits that ‘a country’s literary followed in the country in past decades and tradition is a reflection of its culture’. A offered meticulous accounts of Bhutan’s lack of the countries’ indigenous texts in sacred customs and rituals, providing the national English-medium curriculum, readers with a view of Bhutanese culture thus, creates a void in the presentation and traditions at their best. These works of native culture and in its preservation deal with the past, idealizing it and placing and promotion. In reference to a ‘lack a high value on the customs and traditions of strong literary tradition’ in Bhutan, an of the country. Although quintessentially article in Kuensel editorial (June 4, 2005 Bhutanese, the customs represented in as cited in Thinley, 2007, p.78) stated that these works are not the ‘living’ culture ‘The absence of a good literary tradition most people experience in contemporary would not only mean the lack of academic Bhutan. Instead these traditions have long credibility but also a superficial society’. since ceased to exist or have been modified This was perhaps one of the main concerns in the way they are observed in present during the curriculum revision. day Bhutan. Ironically, the publication of these works strived to provide a Thus, the revised curriculum endeavored nostalgic view of Bhutan that was trapped to incorporate works by Bhutanese authors

42 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles including nine such works in the syllabus. from an ignominious stray in the streets A novella, Dawa – The Story of a Stray Dog of Paro to a ferocious leader in the dog in Bhutan (2004) by Kunzang Choden in world. Written as a first-person narrative, Class 9 was by far the most transformative the plot is set against the background of inclusion in the new syllabus. Two present day Bhutan. Although written autobiographical poem, The Lyrical Ballad from a dog’s perspective, Choden draws of Pemi Tshewang Tashi (1996) translated several analogies, often describing by Karma Ura and Gaylong Sumdar Tashi Dawa’s experiences as akin to a human (1998), translated by Sonam Kinga were being. While the inclusion of Dawa in also included. Other essays such as Value the national syllabus can perhaps simply and Development (GNH) by Jigme Y. be attributed to the fact that Choden is the Thinley, by T. most popular Bhutanese author and among S. Powdrel, and two accounts of Drukyel’s the first female authors in the country, the Destiny by Tashi Pem and Dechen Dolkar reasons are a bit more complex. were also incorporated in the new syllabus. Through the portrayal of Dawa’s adventure In the next section, this article closely in the book, Choden manages to highlight analyzes two texts: Kunzang Choden’s the country’s unique culture and tradition Dawa – The Story of a Stray Dog in Bhutan as it is at present. Choden illustrates the and The Lyrical Ballad of Pemi Tshewang various beliefs prevalent in the country Tashi translated by Karma Ura included today by drawing on several Bhutanese in the revised English curriculum. I myths and traditions throughout the book. examine the implications these Bhutanese For instance, although the protagonist is works had for students while highlighting mocked and called ‘Koto or crooked’ by how the shift in the country’s ambition others, Dawa decides to name himself, to focus on indigenous Anglophone Dawa Koto after the moon referring to writings contributed to the development himself as the ‘fusion’ of the ‘perfect’ of Bhutanese literature in English. moon with the ‘imperfection of his slightly misshaped body’ (p.9). Choden is drawing Dawa – The Story of a Stray Dog in on the translation of the word, ‘Dawa’ Bhutan since the word when translated from Dzongkha literally means the ‘moon’. The novella, Dawa – The Story of a Stray Choden’s deliberate choice of name for Dog in Bhutan (2004), the first work of her protagonist is to highlight the meaning fiction by Kunzang Choden, traces the behind the name. Dawa is depicted as a adventures of a dog, Dawa Koto as he rises linguist stating that Dawa’s skills are a

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 43 result of his previous life as an ‘excellent at a later part of the journey. Thus, and well-reputed translator’ (p.13). Here, Choden deliberately draws on traditional the author is drawing on traditional Bhutanese ideas and values, making it Buddhist belief about the cycle of . easier for students to relate it to their own The Buddhist belief that the dog is the last experiences. rebirth before being reborn as a human is held by many Bhutanese even today. The novella also touches on several Choden’s use of Bhutanese myths makes issues confronting Bhutan in transition the book relatable to students through a expressing the fears of a nation in danger similar Bhutanese belief system portrayed of losing their traditions and values to in the novella. outside cultures. At the beginning of the novel when Dawa searches for food near In the novella, Dawa travels extensively the streets, for example, Choden includes throughout the country from his time in an incident between a shop owner and his the streets in Paro, to his rise to fame in son (p.12), which exemplifies the tension Thimphu and finally his travels to the East between Bhutanese and western values for his health. Narrating Dawa’s travels in the novel. While the shopkeeper is around the country allows Choden to described as a ‘calculating businessman’ portray the nation’s different cultures and who beats dogs into submission, in a traditions. On one of his first journeys to relatively conventional representation of Thimphu, Dawa is beaten by a police: rampant capitalism, the son is revealed ‘The policeman who was jotting down the as ‘a slightly overweight teenager with a number of a vehicle into the palm of his bandana printed with the stars and stripes hand, gave him a hard kick for no reason, of the American flag around his head’ loudly shouting, ‘Shood, stray dog’ (p. 20). (p.12). Since the story is set in Bhutan, Despite the beating, Dawa considers this this reference to the American flag to be an auspicious sign. He hopes that the bandana around the son’s head is likely unsolicited kick would remove any other to attract reader’s attention. The son’s obstacles that he might encounter during portrait positions him as someone easily his journey to Thimphu. Choden directly mistaken for an individual who seeks to relates this incident to Bhutanese beliefs emulate American individualism rather that untoward or inauspicious occurrences than a Bhutanese boy. Furthermore, the at the beginning of a journey signal a boy is portrayed as willing to defy his peaceful journey thereon. It is believed father’s command by sitting in front of the that the bad incident will eliminate any television screen with his eyes glued to the other hitches that one might have faced screen. This picture of a young Bhutanese

44 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles succumbing to the lures of western culture everything into educating you, and all and modern technology suggests a threat you do is sit in front of the TV’ (p.13) is to Bhutan’s culture in the global age. resonant of a reprimand used by almost every parent in Bhutan. Additionally, the Considering that television and internet father’s mean demeanour highlights a were only introduced in Bhutan in 1999, mechanical society more interested in the their influence on the Bhutanese population profit and loss than being kind to others, has been significant. The son’s easy a far cry from Bhutan’s portrayal as a acceptance of western culture and modern peaceful and exotic nation as presented in technology over and above the authority previous literature. This can also be seen in of his own father could be correlated the choice of name for other characters in to Thiong'o description of a ‘cultural the novel. For instance, during one of his bomb’ that aims to ‘annihilate a people’s travels, Dawa comes across a dog named, belief in their name, in their languages, Zorro (p. 92). When asked why he chose in their environment… and ultimately in that particular name, Zorro states: ‘Dawa themselves’ and that which ‘makes them is a common name and not exotic as Zorro want to identify with that which is furthest or even as funny as Tommy, Tiger or removed from themselves; for instance Puppy’ (93). The dog’s desire for a fancy with other people’s languages rather than western name like Zorro, Tommy, or Puppy their own. It makes them identify with compared to a traditional Bhutanese name that which is decadent and reactionary, mirrors the sentiments shared by many all those forces which would stop their Bhutanese who opt for a fancier or foreign own springs of life’ (1986, p.3). Most way of life in an effort to appear modern. Bhutanese youths today are more prone to Furthermore, Dawa comments that the identify with western and Indian cultures trend is popular everywhere, remarking imitated from television than with their that he can remember at least ‘a dozen own identity as a Bhutanese which in Tommys and a half dozen Puppys’ (p.93). comparison is dull and boring. Through This reflects a common scene in Bhutan this, Choden explores some of the issues today whereby citizens adopt a western that face Bhutan and the preservation of lifestyle as opposed to a Bhutanese one. Bhutanese culture, now caught between a traditional past and a postmodern future. The Lyrical Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi The novella presents the son as being heavily influenced by Indian and western While Choden’s Dawa – The Story of a values. The father’s scolding ‘I put Stray Dog in Bhutan is a contemporary

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 45 work; this is not the case with the 18th thoughts which are deeply embedded century Dzongkha poem, The Lyrical in Buddhist and Bhutanese values. One Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi translated of the most intriguing aspects of the by Karma Ura and included in Class 12’s poem is the picture it paints of Bhutan’s syllabus. Although a prime example of a landscape. The description of the journey traditional Bhutanese genre, lozey, this text provides students with a view of unfolding has been inaccessible to most audiences mountains ranges that are compared to within and outside Bhutan due to its use ‘reserves of ’ (p.33), hamlets described of Dzongkha, which many Bhutanese as ‘gold scriptures’ and ‘sliver dish’ (p.33) are unable to fluently read even today. and the beautifully adorned fields of wheat Since the nuances and subtleties of 18th (p.36). The picturesque scenes described Century Dzongkha far surpasses the level in the poem give students a glimpse of the of Dzongkha language used today, the journey taken during olden days. While readership within Bhutan for this text was the exact route is not used at present, also dwindling. Thus, its confinement to the places described in the poem are a scholarly elite had deprived Bhutanese places that are familiar to students today, students of a chance to read a more subtle boosting their interest in learning about representation of Bhutanese culture. One the country’s different landscapes and its way Bhutanese students could be made deeply intertwined history with regional familiar with such a literary work was politics. Like Choden’s text, the setting of by translating it in English, a language the poem makes the poem accessible and that has both local and international retable to Bhutanese students. prevalence. Due to the English-medium schools, Bhutanese students are perhaps Ura describes a marchang (offering) more comfortable with English. scene as follows: ‘had unfolded a golden bamboo mat/had planted a iron tripod/ The Lyrical Ballad of Pemi Tshewang had placed on it a precious cauldron/ Tashi first recorded in the 18th Century and had stuck upright ivory white yarden/ translated by Karma Ura in 1996, narrates that nectar of strong sumchang/’. This the story of a chamberlain who is forced description of an offering of locally made to flee after losing a battle, and eventually wine is an inherently Bhutanese custom decides to jump off a cliff, named common across the country. Even today, Thomangdrak in Trongsa. Following Pemi the marchang ceremony is performed at Tshewang Tashi’s journey through central the beginning of official ceremonies to Bhutan, Ura highlights the perilous scenery signal the appeasement of local deities of Bhutan and gives insight into Pemi’s and ensure the smooth conduct of the

46 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles celebration. Reading the description of is as heavy as the hills/’ (p.38). Although the ceremony helps drive home the idea the verse gives students a glimpse of that the marchang ritual we follow at customs and ways of thinking from present has a long rich history, allowing the 18th century, the civil wars between students to be personally connected to a dzongpons is an account of the past. While longstanding custom. This would in turn students would be familiar with the history boost students’ interest in the different of these civil wars, the majority of them nuances of Bhutan’s culture and traditions may not find it relatable. Thus, instead of that are still practiced. Additionally, the a living culture, students are compelled poem’s use of similes and metaphors that to study about past traditions that have are quintessentially Bhutanese is another vanished over time. This complicates the relatable aspect for students. For instance, texts ability to successfully deliver the the verse lines ‘upper lip like a lotus petal,/ revision’s goal is making the new syllabus lower lip like a coral flower/ between, in Bhutanese but also modern and up-to-date. what is like a temple/the boneless tongue can turn well/’ (p.33) contain comparisons This effort to nationalize the curriculum is often made in Dzongkha and sayings with further complicated by Bhutanese authors’ which many Bhutanese students would be use of English language to express familiar. This allows students to read in quintessential Bhutanese cultures and a foreign language well-known sayings values. Like many postcolonial writers, from their upbringing, ironically making Achebe laments the reality of English as the English language feel closer to home. a unifying language, stating ‘there are not many countries in Africa today where you However, despite familiarity with some of could abolish the language of the erstwhile the language and rituals, the work presents colonial powers and still retain the facility a rather outdated view of the customs and for mutual communication’ (1964, p. 344). traditions of Bhutan. For instance, the Likewise, while most Bhutanese now use main premise of Pemi Tshewang Tashi’s Dzongkha as the lingua franca within ballad relies on the royal decree from the country, Bhutan is in no position to dzongpon (literally “lord of the fortress”) forsake the English language and still Angdruk Nim, to the protagonist to lead maintain communication with the outside the reinforcement troops to a battle. Pemi world. However, while English has been Tshewang Tashi is unable and unwilling embraced by the Bhutanese as a language to refuse such a direct order, despite his of opportunities, most Bhutanese writers reluctance, saying of the command, ‘to cannot write like native-English speakers dismiss it, is as dear as gold,/to carry it out, and should not strive to write like one. This

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 47 same problem is addressed by Achebe: such as Kuzuzanpo la and Kadrenche So my answer to the question. “Can an la (p.45) meaning ‘Good Morning la’ African ever learn English well enough and ‘Thank you la’ in her text. Within to be able to use it effectively in creative Bhutanese culture, it would be considered writing?” is certainly “Yes.” If on the rude to address an esteemed senior figure other hand you ask, “Can he ever learn with simply ‘Good Morning’, rendering use it like a native speaker?” I should the necessity of the term ‘la’. The term say, “I hope not.” It is neither necessary ‘la’ is a ubiquitous Bhutanese term used to nor desirable for him to be able to do so signify respect; and this seamless addition (2011, p. 347). of the suffix ‘la’ to English expressions is a common habit among many Bhutanese This is the same sentiment reflected today. Other terms such as Gelong (p.58) by Indian writer, Rao: ‘The telling has meaning ‘monk’ and an expression of not been easy. One has to convey in a surprise ‘Yalama’ is also used in the text language that is not one’s own the spirit (p. 59). Similar phrases can also be seen that is one’s own. One has to convey the in Ura’s text when he refers to ‘dzongpon’ various shades and omissions of a certain (lord of the fortress), ‘Dzong’ (fortress), thought-movement that looks maltreated and ‘chorten’ (). The use of these in an alien language’ (1938, p.1). Thus, words shows perhaps, the Bhutanese Bhutanese authors have to coin phrases way of searching for a ‘middle ground’, and idioms to accommodate words and giving birth to a ‘queer Bhutanese hybrid experiences that cannot be adequately English’ that Phuntsho terms ‘Dzonglish’ expressed by the English language. (2013, p. 61).

In fact, in Dawa – The Story of a Stray However, these problems cannot be Dog in Bhutan, Choden returns several solved by the mere addition of occasional times to Dzongkha phrases to express Dzongkha terms in the text. Achebe, in characteristically Bhutanese beliefs. She reference to a new type of English, wrote: uses the word ‘doma’ which is a mixture of ‘I feel that the English language will be and betel leaf with lime (p. 42). able to carry the weight of my African This Bhutanese custom of chewing doma experience. But it will have to be a new pani is an integral part of Bhutanese life English, still in full communion with its style; however, this tradition is not shared ancestral home but altered to suit its new by Western countries hence there are no African surroundings’ (2011, p. 349). equivalent terms in English leaving Choden Similarly, Rao posits that the ‘The tempo to revert to Dzongkha. She also uses word of Indian life must be infused into our

48 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

English expression, even as the tempo of and folklore (1986, p.7). This is the same American or Irish life has gone into the sentiment reflected by Salman Rushdie making of theirs’ (1938, p.1). Any country (as cited in Crystal, 2003, p.184) when he that has adopted English as its medium states that ‘those people who were once of communication has faced the same colonized by the language’ are rapidly problem in past decades. This is the main ‘remaking’ and ‘domesticating’ the English phenomenon that gave rise to African language. Similarly, Bhutanese writers English during Achebe’s time and the rise now have the opportunity to fashion a of that Rao illuminates. new kind of English that will incorporate traditional Bhutanese expressions while A similar scenario is unfolding in Bhutan retaining enough norms of the English at present. It would be imprudent to language to make it comprehensible for assume that Bhutanese writers can the outside world. authentically express traditions and values that are characteristically Bhutanese by However, considering Bhutan is neither using English like native speakers of the as big as Africa, nor can she boasts of a language. Likewise, one of the challenges large population such as India, and with now facing Bhutanese writers is to try to only a handful of writers at her disposal, reconcile traditional Bhutanese beliefs this process of creating a new Bhutanese with international styles of writing. English will be a slow one. Although slow, Bhutanese writers will have to choose this development of Bhutanese English between emulating Western or Indian means that Bhutanese will eventually writers or modify the English language to have an English language of their own suit Bhutan’s unique expressions. Thus, which will effectively express indigenous the focus is now on how a Bhutanese writer personal thoughts. As Rushdie points out, composing in English can still maintain English is no longer just a language of enough Bhutanese aspects in the language the British and Anglo cultures, but ‘now to create a new type of Bhutanese English. grows from many roots; and those whom it once colonized are carving out their Indeed as Thiongo’o reiterates: ‘...the own territories within the language for only question which preoccupied us themselves’ (as cited in Brennan, 1989, p. [African writers] was how best to make 6). Bhutan is undergoing the same process the borrowed tongues carry the weight of at present, fashioning a new kind of our African experience by, for instance, English for Bhutanese people to set their making them ‘prey’ on African proverbs place in the world language. and other peculiarities of African speech Although the initial aim of the revised

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 49 curriculum was to create a nationalized, irrelevant to their personal experiences and perhaps even a nationalist syllabus, within the country. Furthermore, the the inclusion of Bhutanese Anglophone exclusion of Bhutanese Anglophone works, in turn, is encouraging Bhutanese works in the national syllabus meant that writers to develop an English language Bhutanese students were increasingly of their own. With the publication of a alienated from their own literature and number of novels and other literary works culture. Thus, the primary goal to create in the country since the curriculum revision a Bhutan-focused curriculum that spoke in 2006, Bhutan is now in a better place of Bhutanese national culture and identity to create her own national identity. The was achieved through the addition of inclusion of literary works in English by Bhutanese Anglophone works in the study Bhutanese authors has coincided with the of literature in the 2006 revision of the emergence of a body of writers composing English syllabus studied by Bhutanese in English who are contributing to change students. the way English language itself is being used in Bhutan. A search for Anglophone Bhutan’s main aim during this revision literature published by Bhutanese authors was to establish a nationalist curriculum between 2006 to 2019 shows a burst based on Bhutanese culture. However, of emergent new authors like Chardor due to the lack of a strong literary base, Wangmo, Jurmi Chhowing and Pema it has been nearly impossible for the Euden. This affirms the suggestion by country to create a national curriculum Thinley and Maxwell (2013, p.6) that that reflects inherently Bhutanese values. Bhutanese writers’ choice of writing in Moreover, this revision has brought English is a ‘pragmatic choice to carve out up questions about what constitutes a distinct territory for Bhutanese writing Bhutanese literature. Thus, while with in English’. the inclusion of Bhutanese Anglophone works in the national curriculum, Bhutan Conclusion manages to close the cultural alienation gap, new problems crop up in relation to Bhutan is relatively new to modern secular the expression of an authentic Bhutanese schooling system, thus, it is not surprising experience in a foreign language. The that most of the educational development in inclusion of Bhutanese Anglophone works the country was influenced by the neighbor in the education system of the country has, state of India. The adaptation of Indian- nonetheless, offered Bhutan a platform to based syllabus meant Bhutanese students develop the country’s own unique version were faced with foreign concepts that were of English. Consequently, with the increase

50 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles in the number of Anglophone publications 4 Phuntsho (2013) implies that the decision to in the country in the last few years, Bhutan adopt Dzongkha and subsequently develop a standard orthographic and grammatical is now in a better place to develop her structure for Dzongkha was ‘triggered by own national literature in English. This a cultural consciousness and a nationalistic development of a Bhutanese literature sentiments aimed at establishing a unique in English and a new Bhutanese English linguistic identify for Bhutan’ (p.53). would be a huge step for the country, since 5 Thiong’o in Decolonising the Mind (1986) it creates a place for Bhutan in the world offers an account of his childhood in school language with the hope that it might one stating that ‘one of the most humiliating day gain the same importance as Indian or experience’ for being caught speaking Gikuyu African English. in his school, was to carry a metal plate with the inscription I AM STUPID or I AM A DONKEY around his neck, which would be Endnotes handed over to whoever is caught speaking 1 Achebe (1994) also highlights a definition of in a local language, with the culprits punished African literature, as defined in a literature the next day. While Thiong’o is narrating an conference held in Fourah Bay, as “Creative incident that took place in Africa in 1940s, writing in which an African setting is this process of ensuring English was spoken authentically handled or to which experiences in school was followed in many schools in originating in Africa are integral”, while the Bhutan in the mid 1990s. Encyclopaedia of African Literature (2003) states African literature can be been defined by ‘several dominant threads and accompanying References paradoxes’ and goes on to discuss the diverse Achebe, C. (1994). “The African Writer and the ethnic, national and regional traditions within English Language.” In Colonial discourse Africa. and post-colonial theory: A reader”. P. Williams & L. Chrisman (Eds). New York: 2 see Sonam Nyenda’s article in the same journal Columbia University Press. for more detailed discussion on early printing and development of Dzongkha literature Achebe, C. (2011). “English and the African Writer.” Transition 75 (76), 342-349. 3 Information about the establishment of the first printing press in Bhutan is difficult to Brennan, T. (1989). Salman Rushdie and the Third ascertain. But Kunzang Choden’s publication World: Myths of nation. Great Britain: The of Folktales of Bhutan through White Lotus Macmillan Press LTD. Co. LTD, a printing press based in and Karma Ura’s self published A Hero with Centre for Educational Research and Thousand Eyes, which was the second book in Development (CERD). (2002). The silken English to be published in Bhutan, highlights a knot: Standards for English for schools in lack of a strong publishing industry in Bhutan Bhutan. Thimphu: Ministry of Education. at the time. Even today, many Bhutanese books are self published. Choden, K. (2004). Dawa – The story of a stray dog in Bhutan. Thimphu: KMT Press.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 51 Crystal, D. (2000). Language death. Cambridge Solverson, H. (1995). The jesuit and the dragon: (UK): Cambridge University Press. The life of Father William Mackey in the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan. : Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Robert Davides Publishing. New York: Cambridge University Press. Thinley, D. (2007). Cultural maintenance and Curriculum and Professional Support Division promotion: The print media’s role in (CAPSD). (1994). A history of Bhutan: providing space for knowledge and Course book for class X. Thimphu: Centre discourse. : University of New for Bhutan Studies. England.

CAPSD. (2005). BCSE English reading & Thinley, D., & Maxwell, T. (2013). The Role of literature: Class IX. Thimphu: Ministry of English in Culture Preservation in Bhutan. Education. Journal of Bhutan studies 28.

Fanon, F. (1963). The wretched of the earth. New Thiongo’o, N. W. (1986). Decolonising the York: Grove Press. mind: The politics of language in African literature. London: Heinemann. Gikandi, S. (Ed.). (2003). Encyclopedia of African literature. London: Routledge. Ura, K. (1996). The ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi. Thimphu: Karma Ura/sponser: Helvatas. Macaulay, T. (1835). “Minutes on Indian Education” History of English Studies. Viswanathan, G. (2011). of Conquest: Literary study and British Rule in India. The Raina, S. (2014). Bhutanese literature: Rich oral American Historical Review 97.1 (1992): tradition but few writers. Indo-Asian 272-273. News Service. Retrieved July 12, 2019, from https://www.business-standard.com/ article/news-ians/bhutanese-literature- Tshering Om Tamang is an Associate rich-oral-tradition-but-few-writers- Lecturer with the Department of English feature-114053100933_1.html in the College of Language and Culture Studies. She has a Master's degree in Rao, R. (1938). Kanthapura. Michigan: The Teaching English as a Second Language University of Michigan. (TESL) from the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, and an Selasi, T. (2013). African Literature Doesn’t Exist [Speech transcript]. Retrieved July 13, undergraduate degree in English Literature 2019, from https://www.literaturfestival. (Honors) from the University of Wollongong, com/medien/texte/eroeffnungsreden/ NSW, Australia. Her pedagogical research Openingspeach2013_English.pdf focuses on language learning and teaching, second language acquisition, bilingualism, Sherab, K. (2013). Strategies for encouraging teaching literature and using literature as a Behavioural and Cognitive Engagement of means to teach language. She currently Pre-service teachers in Bhutan: An action serves as editor for multiple publications research case study, Educational Action and teaches English modules in CLCS. Research, 21(2), 164-184.

52 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles

Karma and Female Agency in Novels by Bhutanese Women Writers

Holly Gayley

Abstract:

A new Bhutanese Anglophone literature is emerging with women at the fore as both writers and protagonists. In folk tales, short stories, children’s books, and novels published in the last two decades, two Bhutanese writers in particular interweave Buddhist themes with challenges specific to women in Himalayan contexts. This article engages in a comparison of the novels, Circle of Karma (2005) by Kunzang Choden and Kyetse (2016) by Chador Wangmo. There are a number of parallel features in these works that make for a salient comparison. Both center on female protagonists who begin their lives with keenly-felt religious aspirations and, following a series of misfortunes that propel them from their homelands, eventually become nuns. Both are unflinching in confronting gender issues, including sexual abuse and human trafficking, through the lived experiences of an array of female characters. In addition, both use karma as a narrative devise, though to different effect, at pivotal moments in the narrative as the protagonists attempt to make sense of their predicaments. In analyzing these novels, this article examines the gendered deployment of karma and its relationship to female agency. How do Buddhist understandings help the protagonists of these novels cope with and/or transcend the confines of gender roles assigned to them in traditional Bhutanese culture? What might these novels suggest about the challenges that Bhutanese women have faced in navigating the crossroads of traditional interpretive frameworks and rapidly changing conditions of contemporary Himalayan societies?

Keywords: Bhutanese literature, female agency, Buddhism in Himalaya, karma, World Anglophone Studies

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 53 A new Bhutanese literature is emerging in Bhutanese Anglophone fiction emerged English with a select number of Buddhist in the 1990s as part of a broad expansion women at the fore as both writers and of South Asian writers composing in protagonists. There is Tsomo, betrayed English.3 Within the region, English serves in marriage, who sets out on a long and as a lingua franca given the linguistic perilous journey to realize her religious diversity within and among the countries aspirations in the classic, Circle of Karma of India, Nepal, and Bhutan, even as (2005), by Kunzang Choden. Ordinary its dominance in the literary sphere has women’s lives also take center stage in her been subject to postcolonial critique.4 collection of short stories, Tales in Colour Regional collaboration in the literary and Other Stories (2009), which highlights and cultural spheres has been fostered (in its title) the metaphor of weaving, vital since at least 1987 with the establishment to Bhutanese women’s traditional work, of the Foundation of SAARC Writers while some of her children’s books take and Literature (FOSWAL, part of the up explicitly Buddhist topics.1 And there South Asian Association for Regional is Dema, the nun-superhero of Dema: Cooperation) and its annual South Mystery of the Missing Egg (2017), the Asian Literature Festival. The Jaipur first in a series by Chador Wangmo. An Literature Festival (founded 2006) and author from the next generation, she its Bhutan corollary Mountain Echoes likewise focuses on women as protagonists (since 2010) are also important sites for in her novels. Her debut La Ama... a cross-fertilization between South Asian mother’s call (2015) depicts an urban intellectuals, writers, and artists. woman Dechen’s escape from an abusive husband, comforted by the memory of her English provides a common language not mother, and Kyetse... destiny’s call (2016), only across South Asia, but also within published just a year later, recounts the tale Bhutan. As elsewhere in the region, of a rural girl SomDema (Sonam Dema) Bhutan is home to a range of vernaculars. who unwittingly grapples with local Of its nineteen spoken languages, only operators in the sex trade on her journey three including Dzongkha, the national to becoming a nun. The folk tales, short language, have literary corollaries stories, children’s books, and novels by (Thinley and Maxwell, 2013),5 but not these authors interweave Buddhist themes the vernaculars of central and eastern with the challenges of contemporary Bhutan, which serve as mother tongues Bhutanese women in a modernizing to women writers like Kunzang Choden nation.2 and Chador Wangmo.6 In its written form, Dzongkha remains an elite language,

54 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles used in government documents, monastic addition, both use karma as a central education, and specialized language theme though to different effect. In Circle programs in colleges and universities. of Karma Tsomo often seems helpless in Perhaps for this reason, it has yet to be confronting male violence and betrayal, yet harnessed for colloquial-styled fiction to proves resilient and ultimately discovers a the same extent that English has, though sense of autonomy in a humble lifestyle Bhutanese newspapers and blogs are in line with her spiritual aspirations. In published in both Dzongkha and English. this work, karma is used as a form of Moreover, since the early 1960s the solace to retrospectively make sense of Bhutanese education system has been misfortune. By contrast SomDema, the predominantly English-medium in order narrator of Kyetse, is summoned to act by to facilitate communication beyond its sometimes mysterious forces, yet survives borders and enable students to study abroad treachery in childhood to regain a foothold for advanced degrees.7 The result has been in the world and discover her calling as a a ready readership for Anglophone fiction nun. Whether due to the propelling force within Bhutan, coupled with the potential of karma, signs in her astrological birth for an international audience across South chart, or dreams of a black cat with green Asia and beyond. eyes, SomDema is continually beckoned to prospectively move beyond her present In this article, I engage in a comparison of situation into an unknown future promise. two Bhutanese novels, Circle of Karma by Kunzang Choden and Kyetse by Chador Through an analysis of these two novels, Wangmo. There are several parallel I track the gendered deployment of karma features in these works that make for a as a narrative device and its relationship salient comparison. First and foremost, to female agency. Here I use Laura both center on female protagonists Ahearn’s definition of agency as the who begin their lives with keenly- “socioculturally mediated capacity to act” felt and astrologically-driven religious (2001, p. 112). Her definition suggests the orientations and, following a series of importance of social and cultural factors in misfortunes that propel them from their determining how situated actors articulate homelands, eventually become nuns. As desires, make choices, and take action works grounded in social realism, both are with respect to given constraints and unflinching in confronting gender issues, resources.8 While gender norms delimit including domestic abuse, rape, and human the choices and resources available to trafficking, through the lived experiences Tsomo and SomDema, karma plays an of an array of female characters. In important role in how the protagonists

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 55 understand and respond to the limitations console the mother by saying that it was and challenges they face. As the novels karma—the implication being that it was progress, their sense of agency evolves as not her fault (Childs, 2004). Using karma each awakens to the social dynamics in in this way as a mechanism for consolation which she is ensnared. How is the scope of can be comforting but also lead to a kind female agency portrayed alternatively by of resignation, whereby women passively Kunzang Choden and Chador Wangmo? accept their situation and leave social What might these novels suggest about norms unchallenged. Along similar lines, the challenges that Bhutanese women classic Buddhist narratives like the jātakas have faced in navigating the crossroads and avadānas focus retrospectively on the of traditional interpretive frameworks details of past-life deeds behind present- and the rapidly changing conditions of day circumstances, emphasizing the contemporary Himalayan societies? How driving force of karma in determining the do Buddhist understandings, such as present.9 karma, help their protagonists cope with and/or transcend the confines of gender By contrast, in doctrinal terms, karma roles assigned to them in traditional literally means ‘action’ and refers to an Bhutanese culture? individual’s intentional deeds that bear results in the future, rather than the results In order to better understand karma and its themselves.10 In the Buddhist theory of deployment in contemporary Bhutanese causation, afflictive emotions (Skt. kleśa) literature, we need to be sensitive and impel action, and this action (karma) sows attuned to the different ways that this the seeds for results (phala) that ripen term is deployed in classic Buddhist in the future in accord with conditions.11 doctrine and narrative as well as the lived In this sense, although there may be experience of Buddhists in Himalayan strong karmic propensities that drive an areas. Anthropologists of South Asia have individual toward a habitual course of emphasized that, in everyday life among action, the future is technically open. That and Buddhists, karma is invoked said, colloquially there is often a slippage as the “explanation of last recourse” between karma as a causal factor and in the face of misfortune, when other karma as a depiction of the process of explanations and remedies have failed, cause and effect more generally. For this such as medical or ritual interventions reason, it can easily be misunderstood (Keyes and Valentine, 1983). For example, fatalistically even though, as it appears in Himalayan contexts, if a child dies at in discussions of dependent arising (Skt. birth, family and friends will typically pratītyasamutpāda), karma is part of a

56 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles series of causal links that are identified ‘blind faith’ (Tib. rmongs dad) by depicting in order to be broken and thereby free unscrupulous monastics, wayward ritual oneself from suffering in the cycle of specialists, and fake lamas,15 even as the saṃsāra. Rather than a passive acceptance overall representation of Buddhism in of ‘fate,’ this theory of causation points these two novels is positive. As Tshering prospectively to the possibility of freedom Om Tamang suggests in her article for this or, at least, shaping one’s own future in journal issue, contemporary Bhutanese this life and the next. works of Anglophone fiction are part of an emerging national literature. In this While tracking karma as a narrative context, Buddhism serves as a distinct device in these works, I consider Circle marker of national identity among others.16 of Karma and Kyetse to be works of Buddhist conceptions, such as karma, Bhutanese literature containing Buddhist exist alongside competing discourses as themes, rather than Buddhist literature per the protagonists attempt to make sense se—in line with the broader development of their ever-changing circumstances of contemporary fiction in Tibetan and and circuitous route to fulfillment. Even Himalayan areas.12 Buddhist orientations so, the religious aspirations of Tsomo are articulated as part of the aspirations and SomDema to become Buddhist nuns and lived worlds of the protagonists rather participate in a traditional form of female the providing the overarching framework liberation from the social constraints within which the story takes place as is the of marriage, raising children, and their case with contemporary hagiographical attendant hazards. works. The lives of Tsomo and SomDema unfold at a series of critical junctures— Circle of Karma (2005) by Kunzang along transitions in a woman’s life cycle, Choden across borders between Bhutan and its neighbors, and between competing Let me start with Circle of Karma, which epistemic frameworks associated with has become a contemporary classic. Its tradition and modernity.13 Like Indian author Kunzang Choden was the first fiction by women writers since the late female Bhutanese writer to publish nineteenth century, these novels question and garner international acclaim.17 A social roles prescribed for women and descendant of the prominent Dorje Lingpa illuminate patriarchal discourses and , she attended boarding school practices.14 Like secular Tibetan fiction in Kalimpong and Darjeeling before since the 1980s, they also contain implicit going on to study at Delhi University and critiques of certain religious impulses like University of Nebraska.18 During an MA in

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 57 Sociology at Nebraska, she started writing its tenth anniversary.20 As the publisher’s stories and folktales for her children note suggests of these classics, “each sheds to offset their displacement between a different light on the world seen through three cultures: American, Bhutanese, women’s eyes, and each holds its place and Swiss-German (the heritage of her in the world of contemporary women’s husband). Some of the earliest Bhutanese writings.” In addition, she has written literature in English were compilations of numerous children’s books; a collection oral folktales (Penjore, 2013), and along of short stories, Tales in Colour and Other these lines Kunzang Choden’s first book Stories (2009); the novel Dawa: The Story was the collection Folktales of Bhutan of a Stray Dog in Bhutan (2004);21 and the (1993), literary retellings that sought cultural study, Chili and : Food and to preserve stories from a waning oral Society in Bhutan (2008). She has been a tradition, followed by Bhutanese Tales of regular participant at the SAARC Literary the (1997), accounts of encounters Festival and Mountain Echoes, where with the elusive ‘abominable snowman’ or she presented in its first year (2010) with yeti (from the Sherpa, migoi in Bhutan). Zubaan co-founder Urvashi Butalia on Both were published by White Lotus the lack of women writers in Bhutan.22 In Press in Bangkok, a publisher of books addition, she established Riyang Press as a on Asian art and culture, as the Bhutanese family publishing house in order to publish publishing scene was still early in its co-authored works like Ogyen Choling: a stages of development.19 Manor in Central Bhutan (2012) about the family manor that she helped to turn into a Her novel, Circle of Karma, found its museum and heritage guesthouse.23 editor at the Women Writer’s Festival that Kunzang Choden first attended in “Everything happened because we are the early 2000s. It was published in 2005 women,” says Dechen Choki to the by Zubaan, a feminist publishing house protagonist Tsomo in Circle of Karma established two years earlier (as an imprint (Choden, 2005, p. 109). This statement of Kali Press) in order to make available encapsulates the helplessness and lack of women’s writings from across South Asia, control articulated by female characters including works of fiction, translation, in this landmark Bhutanese novel. memoir, and non-fiction. With its carefully Published in 2005, the narrative spans the wrought plot and prose, Circle of Karma previous half century and the topography stands on par with the best of South Asian of Himalaya, from Bhutan to northern fiction and was later reprinted in 2013 as Indian and Nepal. Author Kunzang one of Zubaan’s ten ‘classics’ to celebrate Choden unflinchingly depicts the plight

58 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles of Himalayan women coming of age by Tibetan Sinophone author Geyang in the 1950s and 60s: working on road who likewise addresses the issue of male crews as bonded slaves; suffering from violence against women and exposes the their husband’s alcoholism, infidelity, ways that women get blamed. “An Old and domestic abuse; and traumatized Nun Tells Her Story” recounts the rape by rape, both in the family and on the of a young nun named , the job. Traditional gender norms and their narrator’s companion in youth, while the internalization are highlighted through two were herding cattle.24 Not believing and set against the unconventional life that her testimony—and out of interest in Tsomo after leaving her adulterous the “convent’s reputation for purity and first husband. upright conduct”—the abbess decides to expel her from the nunnery,” a verdict Through the narrative deployment of which Geyang glosses as “punishment karma, Kunzang Choden encapsulates for someone else’s misdeed” (2000, pp. society’s tendency to blame women for 86–87). In the end, Nechung feels she has their own misfortunes. While eventually no other choice than to marry the young Tsomo comes to the realization that nomad who violated her, accepting it all as “women internalize their problems and her ‘fate.’ This work of social realism, set grief” (210), along the way Circle of sometime in the early twentieth century, Karma depicts how men act and women reflects the scrutiny, derision, and gossip bear the consequences. A case in point is that Buddhist nuns in some Himalayan the teenage pregnancy of her childhood areas continue to face today (Makley, friend Chimme, when the monk who 2005),25 even as their status is gradually actively courted and seduced her failed improving with greater access to resources to claim responsibility as the father and and education due to local and transnational abandoned her before the public ritual initiatives. In terms of agency, the narrator for purifying the pregnancy. Humiliated of “An Old Nun Tells Her Story” moves in front of the whole village, Chimme in and out monastic life according to accepts the situation, saying “This is my the decisions of others (her parents in karma... I did not have enough merits to youth) and dictates of circumstances (her have the father of my baby for the public husband’s death), leaving her to adapt to show tonight” (43). If that were not bad circumstances rather than drive them. enough, her mother tacitly accuses her of causing the monk to lose his celibacy! In Circle of Karma, gender norms shape Tsomo’s life as the eldest daughter in a This scene finds a parallel in a short story property-owning and tax-paying family,

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 59 who is forced to take on her mother’s according to her own wishes and aims. As role in managing the household after her predicted in her astrological birth chart, premature death in childbirth. Tsomo her misfortunes in life prompt a sense of grew up the daughter of a gomchen, or restlessness and desire to travel. On the ritual specialist, but was not allowed to anniversary of her mother’s death, Tsomo learn to read and write alongside the boys makes a pilgrimage to nearby Trongsa to of the village, even though she aspired to light lamps on her mother’s behalf. lead a religious life. Her father refused her En route, she joins a group of travelers requests by affirming gender roles: “You only to wake up one night to something are a girl. You are different. You learn rubbing against her body—the handsome other things that will make you a good Wangchen in the process of seducing her woman and a good wife. Learn to cook, despite her whispered protests. Love, weave and all those things. A woman does pregnancy, and marriage ensues. But when not need to know how to read and write” her first and only baby is stillborn and her (Choden, 2005, p. 21). Tsomo handles stomach remains bloated from the retained the disappointment with “resignation and placenta, Tsomo sinks into depression. In acceptance” for being “only a woman” response, Wangchen grows abusive and while lamenting that “being born a male his interest wanders to her younger sister already has the advantage of a better birth” Kesang. All this she attributes to karma, and, through their religious training, men which she takes to be both a ‘mystery of “are being helped to accumulate more merit life’ and the ‘consequence of her actions’ for their next birth” (20–23). Regrettably, in recognition that Wangchen had left his the rhetoric of a ‘low birth’ (Tib. skye first wife for her.26 Until Tsomo is able to dman) is a common feature of life stories get surgery many years later, she refers by and about Tibetan and Himalayan to her bloated stomach as her ‘karmic women, even as their protagonists often illness.’ transcend the limitations ascribed to them and become accomplished masters After suffering abuse and humiliation (Schaeffer 2004; Jacoby 2010). at the hand of Wangchen, Tsomo leaves home to an uncertain future. She joins a Kunzang Choden masterfully conveys the road crew to earn money only to encounter sense of entrapment that Tsomo feels in other gendered challenges, in this case her life, whereby the scope of her agency the rape of her friend, the young and is restricted to whether to stay or go in any vivacious Dechen Choki, by their boss, given situation—without the opportunity the lajab. At this, “Tsomo grew feverish to chart a coherent course of action with anger, could women not even have

60 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles control over their own bodes? she asked bandits and others, and this is the rationale herself. Can women not decide anything given when the Buddha is asked “how for themselves?” (Choden, 2005, p. 121). the nun Dharmadinna, admired by many Her sense of helplessness recurs as a theme men, maintained her celibacy despite and can be summarized in “her realization great adversity.” Likewise, the Therīgāthā that she had absolutely no control over her depicts the nun Subha escaping sexual own life. Her life was controlled by the assault by her own wit and courage, when events in other people’s lives” (259). The wandering alone in the forest.29 lajab makes Dechen his ‘favorite’ until Tsomo can no longer bear the situation The nun Uppalavaṇṇā was fearless but not and escapes with Dechen to Kalimpong on so fortunate. A chapter in the Saṃyutta an improbable quest to seek out her elder Nikāya dedicated to nuns depicts her brother, the gomchen Gyaltsen Phuentso. as unafraid to stay alone in forest, even when challenged by Māra.30 Yet in some With respect to domestic abuse and rape, accounts, after attaining nirvāṇa and while we find some but not many precedents she resided at a forest hermitage, a lust- in Buddhist canonical sources, which are filled cousin snuck in and violated her. In fascinating for the different ways that the Pāli , she is exonerated from the women are held responsible for their own first root downfall (pārājika) of breaking (mis)fortunes. This literature was mainly the precept of celibacy, since she did not composed by and for monks, so women’s consent to or take pleasure in the act.31 In issues receive far less attention than tales addition, the commentary of temptation that index the struggle male places responsibility squarely on her monastics had in maintaining celibacy.27 assailant, who falls instantly down to In the Karmaśataka, the great beauty Avīci hell, the earth cracking open at the Dhammadinnā underwent a harrowing set horror of the incident.32 By contrast, in the of trials in a past life, after being wrongly Vinayakṣudrakavastu, Khemmo Gautamī accused by her in-laws for infidelity and became a nun only after a harrowing set of kicked out of her husband’s house with travails, including suffering beatings at the child.28 Through these trials, she was made hands of a violent husband and witnessing to bear responsibility for her husband’s his gruesome murder of their newborn.33 lust and secret rendezvous with her while When asked about the cause of her travails, ostensibly far from home. Remarkably, the Buddha places responsibility on her she remains unharmed through her and recounts her misdeeds in a previous own ingenuity—posing as a fearsome lifetime in which she reportedly mistreated demoness to preclude defilement by a co-wife out of jealousy, killed her rival’s

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 61 firstborn son, and swore a false oath to swollen with a nameless illness? What disavow her crime.34 In this case, the victim choices does she have?” (Choden, 2005, gets blamed for her own misfortunes by p. 150). After retreat, her brother decided recourse to karma.35 Khemmo Gautamī’s to return to Bhutan and invited Tsomo to agency is displaced to a previous lifetime, join him, but she refused, having begun when she was wicked and crafty. Whereas, to enjoy “her new-found independence in her present life, she is left to passively and freedom” while also not wanting to endure an onslaught of tragedy—helpless “return like a beggar.” to the point of madness until encountering the Buddha. Shortly thereafter, much to her surprise and delight, Tsomo’s aspiration bears In Circle of Karma, Dechen is likewise fruit when, by “lucky chance, perhaps... helpless to protect herself against because of her karma” (179), she is invited the lajab’s abuse until Tsomo, out of to join a group of friends in Kalimpong to frustration and anger, takes action. This is travel on pilgrimage to . From a turning point in the narrative, when the there, she meets other Bhutanese pilgrims fortune of the two friends begins to shift. with whom she travels to and Remarkably, on arrival in Kalimpong, later Tso Pema, receiving teachings and they find Tsomo’s brother, Gyaltsen blessings from lamas long the way. Here Phuentso, who gives them a place to stay we see her agency blossom by leaping at before leaving for retreat. Interestingly an opportunity to go on pilgrimage and enough, when good fortune occurs, they having the resourcefulness to sell family attribute it to ‘luck’ rather than karma.36 heirlooms to pay her way. Yet soon after Only after laying bare her story and in gaining a sense of independence, she the supportive presence of her brother is becomes enmeshed again in married life Tsomo finally able to articulate what it without deliberately deciding to do so. is she wants in life—to devote her life to At Tso Pema, through the match-making religion and to become a ‘simple pilgrim.’ of a mutual friend, her second husband Even as she comes to this realization, Lhatu showed up at her doorstep and she also acknowledges the gendered moved in. From there, he ‘took charge’ challenges of such a vocation. Referring to of the situation, expecting her to cook her brother and herself, she states: “We are and clean for him. Together they moved all pilgrims on earth, but the choices are to Dehradun to live close to an unnamed not the same for all. He could seek out a Rinpoche who becomes the main religious teacher and travel as he liked. What about figure in her life, a kindly presence who a women, especially a woman with a belly eventually encourages her to get surgery

62 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles for her mysterious illness at an American to a double standard whereby men’s hospital in Mussoorie.37 Although during harmful actions tend to be unchallenged this period Lhatu occasionally worked as socially and thereby condoned, while a scribe, Tsomo supported them through women are left to console themselves by weaving and selling arak, only to find out blaming it on other women or ascribing it later that he had been gambling away her to karma. Were it not for the intervention earnings. After fifteen years together, he of a kindly monk, Tsomo had a knife in eventually abandons her for a younger hand ready to enact her revenge on Lhatu’s woman and once again Tsomo is left to her mistress by cutting off a piece of her nose own devices. as was the custom. The monk Sherab questions her: “Why do women always In a gendered version of karma captured blame each other when their husbands are in this novel, responsibility is transferred unfaithful?” Coming to her senses, Tsomo to women for the actions performed by realized that “she was trying to punish a men. This is true, for example, when her child-woman for something that an adult younger sister Kesang—and later Tsomo man, who could have easily been her herself in defense of Dechen—blames the father, had done” (269). Indeed, over the wife for her husband’s infidelity, using course of her relationship with Lhatu, a the iconic phrase: “Why don’t you look younger gomchen, she began to recognize after your husband better?” (91, 123) his immaturity and laziness despite the Tsomo also recalls the brutal attack of outer show of bravado. Meanwhile, despite the village beauty Pem Doma by other remaining passive in her relationships women accusing her of ‘stealing their with men, Tsomo demonstrates her husbands’ even though it was the men resourcefulness throughout her life in her who sought out her company. When Lhatu frugality, saving money while working left Tsomo for a sixteen-year old whom he on the road crew; in her competence got pregnant, she initially felt ‘worthless’ in making a modest livelihood through and ‘caste aside,’ making sense of the gardening, weaving, and brewing arak; situation by supposing “it was her karma and in her humility to accept support that that he should leave her” (262). Here again others generously offer once she adopts a we see the same gendered twist, whereby religious life. women invoke karma for solace rather placing responsibility on the man for his From here, Tsomo gradually gains a misconduct. sense of confidence. After Lhatu left, her longtime friend and landlord in Kalimpong, In this way, Circle of Karma calls attention Pema Buti, encouraged her: “Now without

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 63 a master to order you around you can do undoing all that she had worked so hard as you please. Be your own master” (281). for if she re-established her ties and Despite her years as a pilgrim, Tsomo attachments and immersed herself in had still not realized her aspiration to live the activities of family life. If she had a full-time religious life. Once again, it to constantly move around looking for would take a man to launch the final phase a space to live in, it was surely because of her life, this time her beloved Rinpoche. of her karma. She had so little, moving Tsomo visited Rinpoche whenever he was not really a problem. She could lay stayed in Phuentsholing, and during his out the butter lamps and ritual bowls final stay, he suddenly said to her, “Come anywhere (310). here, come closer. Come quickly before any doubts enter your mind.” With that Each day, Tsomo went to the chorten he plucked out a few hairs from her head (reliquary) at the center of town to and ordained her as a novice nun saying, circumambulate, recite , and “Isn’t this what you always wanted but light butter lamps, discovering a new you kept forgetting, because you were too community among the regular pilgrims busy living your life?” (287) Although there. Her homecoming was a humble Tsomo was not sure how to be a nun, reconciliation and reunion. While in especially an illiterate one, Rinpoche youth, after leaving her family, she had encouraged her to continue with her daily hoped to prove her worth, now in old age devotions. Following this transformative her return signaled a spiritual maturation yet uncertain moment, she offered her whereby she no longer cared what others jewelry to him, proceeded to the barber thought. Karma finally takes on a positive to have her head shaved, and donned the valence as she welcomes gifts received to maroon robes. sustain her religious pursuits.

Coming full circle, when Rinpoche passed In some sense, her journey shifts from away, Tsomo returned to Thimphu to view passivity, relying on others to shape her life, his corpse and finally settled there. Though to taking a more active role, particularly in her family eventually found her and invited embracing simplicity and renunciation as her back to live with them, she politely a nun. Through her marriages, Tsomo was refused, preferring to live in a makeshift enmeshed in worldly life and the cycle shack and maintain her autonomy: of suffering known as saṃsāra (‘khor ba, passive construction). Eventually It had taken her a lifetime to get away single again, as an old woman returned from all attachments. Now it would be home to Bhutan but not to family life,

64 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles she embodied a religious life perpetually composing children’s books as a way of on pilgrimage by circumambulating the “contributing and preserving our rich chorten in Thimphu daily (skor ra, active bounty of orally transmitted folktales” in construction).38 Though painful, her a format accessible to children in primary failed marriages and ‘karmic illness’ had school.41 Chador Wangmo became an propelled her forward into the religious avid proponent of rural education and life that she had always wanted but never youth literacy, involved in projects such knew how to make happen. If this work as READ Global as well as the National resembles in any way the Tibetan genre of Reading Year (2015). Although she namthar (Tib. rnam thar) by virtue of being eschews the label ‘feminist,’ at a certain a life story of a religious figure, though point she decided to foreground female fictitious, Tsomo’s liberation may be her perspectives and address women’s issues awakening of consciousness to gender in her writings, since they are too often dynamics and the autonomy she realizes overlooked in public discourse. In 2015 late in life.39 In this sense, she comes full Chador Wangmo attained national acclaim circle. Yet even after settling in Thimphu, after the publication of her first novel, La she decides to journey to to attend Ama,42 a tribute to her mother who died the Kālacakra empowerment (1997) with three years earlier, dealing with issues the Dalai Lama—never to resonant for urban audiences like divorce return. In the end, as her friend Lham and domestic violence. With a breezy, Yeshi searches for her at the chorten, colloquial style and readily accessible Tsomo is everywhere and nowhere, her prose,43 Chador Wangmo has become a ongoing presence glimpsed in the faces of popular author and regular participant the elderly gathered for daily devotions. at literary conferences, such as the SAARC Literature Festival and Mountain Kyetse (2016) by Chador Wangmo Echoes.44 She is now a full-time author and publishes her own works through the A decade after the publication of Circle of Thimphu imprint, Miza Books.45 Karma, another female novelist came onto the scene: Chador Wangmo, part of a new Kyetse (2016) is her second novel, published generation of Bhutanese writers.40 From only a year later. It chronicles the chilling a young age, she was drawn to reading misadventures of a young Bhutanese girl, and writing stories, while attending SomDema, who was given away by her boarding school in Tashigang (alt. father to an older nun, after the untimely Trashigang) in eastern Bhutan. As a school death of her mother, along with four other teacher early in her career, she began girls from her village. The nun, known

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 65 only as Ani throughout the novel, turns out generate a mysterious set of forces that to be an imposter who first has the girls SomDema must navigate. These include a earn money by reciting prayers they barely multigenerational curse by an old family understand and later selling them one by rival, invisible spirits who kidnap humans, one into prostitution. Only SomDema taboos against eating walnuts at night, and escapes this fate by fortuitously running dreams of a black cat with green eyes who away with the help of a kindly ‘speckled appears at critical moments predicted by man’ (i.e. wearing glasses). The other her kyetse or astrological birth chart.47 All girls, including her best friend Pentang, of these add an element of magical realism were sold, and SomDema continues to to the novel. Also invoked as propelling have dreams of her calling out for help. factors in her life are karma and the kyetse Eventually the others are rescued and itself, which predicts an inclination toward returned to their families after the trauma religious pursuits and travel, as well as of several years of forced prostitution. adverse circumstances at the ages of ten While Circle of Karma raises awareness and eighteen. Among the bricolage of about domestic abuse and rape—as well beliefs, old and new, is even the Christian as the way women blame each other for language of sin, guilt, heaven, and God. sexual predation by men—Kyetse takes up a more sinister problem in contemporary The novel begins with an ominous scene Himalaya: human trafficking. This is a in the prologue: SomDema running harsh reality for Himalayan girls who are away from the nunnery just as she turns lured away from home with the promise eighteen, propelled by the wind and of good jobs, marriage, or in this case a encouraged onward by the mysterious religious life in a nunnery.46 green-eyed cat.48 After that, the setting shifts to rural Bhutan and the genealogy The novel begins in an idealized village of the protagonist’s family is given. From setting with SomDema born as the only there, the novel can be divided neatly into child to a young couple who fell in love thirds: (1) SomDema’s idyllic childhood in the mid-1980s while fulfilling their and later captivity at the age of ten under compulsory government labor in the the ‘maroon-robed fraud’ who takes the small town of Lungtenzampa. Chador unsuspecting girls from Bhutan to India, (2) Wangmo takes care to explain the local her transition to puberty in the early 1990s customs around marriage, pregnancy, and in Tashigang, where she takes a job at a childbirth as part of inducting the reader hotel after successfully escaping from the into the world of rural Bhutan. Numerous wicked Ani, and (3) her time at a legitimate folk beliefs are also invoked, which nunnery, where she adapts to its rigorous

66 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles schedule only to get tempted at eighteen seeing a snake, who turns out to be (in by falling in love with a handsome patron. her elders’ estimation) none other than Hovering over the plot in the first section her mother’s . The idea that of the book is the baffling naiveté of her her loving mother would have such awful relatives and others in the village who give karma and return as a snake is too much their girls to an unknown and fraudulent for SomDema. The traditionalism and nun. The girls suffer relentlessly under superstition of village life are contrasted the dictates and malice of the imposter, with the kindly man who owns the hotel whose sinister aims are only slowly in Tashigang and is open to hiring her to revealed across several chapters. After work there. Needless to say, he functions two of the girls disappear, SomDema has as a marker of modernity and upward a chance to escape, due to the kindness of mobility, wearing glasses and acquiring the ‘speckled man,’ a hotel owner from the first telephone in town in 1993. Again Tashigang who helps her return home. In ‘testing fate,’ she decides to return to Chapter 13, the black cat appears in her Tashigang to work at the hotel rather than dreams to mark this dramatic shift in the remain in the village. plot whereby SomDema must take action. Though it seems like a ‘big gamble’ to In the second section of the novel, the trust a stranger again, she approaches the Tashigang of author Chador Wangmo’s man for help, and he proves to be honest. boarding school days comes to life as an ‘enchanting town.’ Unlike the “dusty As SomDema’s narrative voice matures village where life was a cycle of nothing across the novel, the ‘blind faith of new,” as she puts it, “the road was abuzz the elders’ comes under critique. Their with the never-ending activities with decision to give away the five girls to a all the screaming children” (172–179). unknown nun was bad enough, but upon Dance competitions, roadside games, cars returning home, the villagers doubedt and telephones, foreigners and schools, her story, unable to believe “a ten-year all abound. SomDema spends a happy old girl’s testimony against an aged three years in Tashigang until the onset maroon-robed fraud” (Wangmo, 2016, p. of menstruation. Though her ‘aunty’ 148). Worse still, they make no attempt (the hotel owner’s wife) surely would to find out what happened to the girls, have understood, the now thirteen-year- accepting their unknown circumstances old SomDema is too embarrassed to tell as karma. Perhaps more devastating to anyone what happened in an awkward the protagonist, when she falls ill, her scene involving blood and cramps, sickness is attributed to the bad luck of worthy of a Judy Blume story.49 The new

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 67 teenager suspects that this is either karmic Tsomo feels helpless through much of retribution or the punishment of God for Circle of Karma, SomDema is only falsely posing as a nun earlier in her life, paralyzed to the extent that she does not even though she had no choice in the understand the world of adults, but takes matter. action when opportunities arise. In the final section of the novel, Instead of serving as a retrospective SomDema becomes a nun, and this time explanatory device, as it did for her her father takes no chances: he escorts elders and in most of Circle of Karma, her to a nunnery near one of his relatives. here karma summons her to action. Although the only eastern Bhutanese girl SomDema’s sense of guilt and sin inspires among the ten other nuns, SomDema her to return home once again and ask enthusiastically engages the rigors of her her father to allow her to become a nun. new life, feeling a sense of peace even as Various ‘telltale signs’ occur along the she endures teasing from others. Finally journey home that assure her she has found she befriends Kinley Om, who becomes the right path. Here karma is forward a ‘soul-sister’ and teaches her Dzongkha. facing, like modernity itself, beckoning It turns out they have a terrible truth the teenage protagonist into a new phase in common, both having encountered of life, indeed her destiny as predicted by the imposter nun and narrowly escaped the kyetse. Unlike Tsomo, whose longing being sold into prostitution. The pressing to practice religion surfaced at various obstacle of this last section turns out to be turning points but only expressed itself romantic: SomDema develops a crush on a late in life, here SomDema has more pluck handsome young patron who comes to the in following her own impulses, however nunnery to offer prayers for his deceased indiscriminate. This likely has to do with mother. He ends up returning to make the generation difference in the time period several contributions, and SomDema feels being represented, i.e. the scope of female the tension between her “maroon robe of agency in the 1960s versus the 1990s. In chastity” and the flutter in her heart as she addition, like ‘new age’ appropriations of succumbs to “love’s magic formula” (226). , Kyetse creates a Even as SomDema depicts her obsession bricolage of Buddhist motifs, folk customs with the young patron Kuenga, she resists and beliefs, Christian language, and other the temptation to act on her feelings and numinous elements, as well as a more drops them altogether once he marries. active take on karma, which may reflect The dramatic dream in the prologue with a modernist emphasis of the doctrinal, her fleeing the nunnery at the green-eyed ‘rational’ aspects of Buddhism. Whereas cat’s command never comes to pass in

68 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 Articles actuality. Nonetheless, across these novels, there are subtle differences in the deployment Instead, the crescendo of the novel is of karma and its impact for representing a news broadcast about a robbery of female agency, as well as disparities in sacred artifacts accompanied by photos how religious figures are depicted. In of the imposter nun and her accomplice. Circle of Karma, religious figures remain SomDema and Kinley tell the Lama remote and benevolent with the exception their stories and travel with him to Paro of Tsomo’s delinquent husband Lhatu. to provide a report of their experience to As a narrative device, karma is invoked the police. The novel has a somewhat pat to console women, and Kunzang Choden ending with the villains caught, the nuns implicitly critiques the tendency to let men rewarded (they donate the reward to the off the hook for how they treat women, Lama who promises to use it to build a either by blaming each other or attributing new shrine room), and most of the village their misfortunes to karma. By contrast girls rescued and returned home (with Chador Wangmo is more irreverent; she the exception of Pentang who committed features a fraudulent nun at the heart suicide). The epilogue features a final visit of Kyetse and questions the blind faith from SomDema’s father, who announces of villagers in anyone wearing maroon that the family rival who issued the old robes.50 At the same time, she situates curse had finally died. In these ways, SomDema within a bricolage of beliefs, SomDema is liberated from her tragic past superstitions, dreams, and portents, adding and feels a bright future ahead: “a spiritual a touch of magical realism.51 Rather than life... transformed into a free highway” karma or even destiny holding her back, (304), a decidedly modern image. the mysterious forces in SomDema’s life are galvanizing, encouraging her to pursue Conclusion her calling and creating an empowered female figure that extricates herself from To conclude, in these novels, Kunzang the most harrowing of circumstances. Choden and Chador Wangmo dare to foreground the challenges faced by On the one hand, the differential in female Himalayan women in the last half century, agency can be explained with reference to and both narrate the customs of Bhutanese the time periods in which their protagonists village life with care, situating their come of age, the 1960s and 1990s protagonists within a traditional setting respectively. Yet alongside that may be a and orienting the plot around their religious generational shift (among the protagonists aspirations to become Buddhist nuns. certainly and perhaps the authors as well)

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 69 in how karma is deployed—moving from and illustrated by Pema Tshering. passive acceptance and consolation to active engagement in identifying and 2 My focus will be on these two female novelists who take up Buddhist themes in their writings, pursuing one’s calling or ‘destiny.’ If though there are younger women writers indeed the attitudes embodied in the emerging on the scene and other successful protagonists reflect their times, there is female writers of non-fiction, such as Lily a contrast between a modern emphasis Wanggchuk, whose Facts about Bhutan: The on linear progress and a more traditional Land of the Thunder Dragon (2008) has sold notion of saṃsāra as a perpetual cycle.52 over 25,000 copies and is in its third edition.

3 Dorje Penjore (2013) dates the beginning Even if this is the case, in Circle of Karma, of Bhutanese Anglophone literature to the we see the of the cycle changes. publication of Kunzang Choden’s compilation, Tsomo is liberated as a woman not by a Folktales of Bhutan (1993), and Karma Ura’s bold act of self-definition, as SomDema historical novella, The Hero with a Thousand makes by entering the nunnery, but rather Eyes (1995). through a gradual shift in the nature of the ‘circle of karma’ itself—from passive 4 For recent perspectives on the politics of Anglophone literature in South Asia, see Aamir entrapment in saṃsāra (‘khor ba) to active Mufti, Forget English! Orientalisms and World engagement in pilgrimage (skor ra), Literatures (2018) and a special issue on “From circumambulating sacred sites and earning Postcolonial to World Anglophone: South merit in the process. While Kyetse offers Asia,” edited by Ragini Thaoor Srinivasan the resolution that comes with wrongdoers in Interventions: International Journal of punished, Circle of Karma provides a Postcolonial Studies 20/3 (2018). more mature and open-ended vision of 5 The other two are Nepali and Lepcha with resilience and reconciliation. historical roots in neighboring Nepal and Sikkim. Literary Dzongkha derives from chos Endnotes skad, the religious language of Buddhist texts 1 Membar Tsho: The Flaming Lake (2012) (literally ‘dharma language’), closely linked narrates and illustrates the famous revelation to classical Tibetan as a lingua franca for of the fifteenth-century Buddhist master Pema Buddhists across Himalaya and Central Asia. Lingpa at Membartso, a pilgrimage site in Bumthang, and Guru Rinpoche is Coming 6 In other words, English is the medium of (2015) brings to life a family’s preparations choice for Bhutanese writers who are not for the annual Buddhist celebration of Guru native Dzongkha speakers, who speak a mother Rinpoche (the eighth-century Indian tantric tongues that do not have a written corollary, master who is an important founding figure for and who have grown up attending English- Buddhism in Tibetan and Himalayan areas). medium schools. Both books are written by Kunzang Choden

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7 See the Ministry of Education website: http:// 12 Thanks to Sara Shneiderman for raising this www.education.gov.bt/about-us. issue in a panel on “Contemporary Bhutanese 8 My use of constraints and resources is an Literature” at the Association of Asian Studies adaptation Anthony Gidden’s formulation conference in Denver, March 19–22, 2019. of “rules and resources” that circumscribe By way of comparison, contemporary Tibetan agency in his study, Central Problems in Social authors are writing secular short stories and Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction in novels in Tibetan, Chinese, and English, Social Analysis (1979). depending on their location and education. For discussions of contemporary Tibetan literature, 9 While for ordinary beings the past-life causes see Hartley and Schiaffini-Vedani (eds.), of their current situation is indeterminate, Modern Tibetan Literature and Social Change the Buddha’s reputed omniscience provided (2008). In Nepal, Manjushree Thapa bemoans the pretext for colorful morality tales across that despite 123 recognized languages, its lifetimes. This literature includes jātakas and literature is still dominated by Nepali, the avadānas that detail the past lives of the Buddha official language and mother tongue of and his disciples; associated works such as approximately 45% of Nepal’s population. See the Karmaśataka; as well as commentaries to her introduction to volume 8 (May 2017) of aphoristic verses from the Dhammapada, to the La.Lit: A Literary Magazine (https://lalitmag. songs of the early male and female elders in the com/guest-editorial-translation-issue). As Theragāthā and Therīgāthā, and to the rules in a writer of fiction and non-fiction based in the monastic code or Vinaya. Canada, she herself and other Nepali writers produce Anglophone works. 10 Doctrinal descriptions are found in sūtras like the Mahānidāna Sūtra, in 13 Note that the protagonists of Circle of Karma literature, and in authoritative commentaries and Kyetse are not the cosmopolitan, educated, like ’s Vishudhimagga or middle-class characters of much of Indian ’s Abhidharmakośa. diaspora literature, straddling continents and struggling with hybrid contexts and identities. 11 This causal sequence is available to the laity The border crossings of these rural Bhutanese through artistic depictions of the Wheel of women invoke the nausea of first-time travelers Existence (Tib. srid pa’i ‘khor lo), commonly who ride in the back of a truck or take buses to found in murals at the entry to Buddhist neighboring areas of India and Nepal. Bridging monasteries and temples in Tibetan and this divide, Manjushree Thapa’s intimate and Himalayan areas. The three inner circles episodic novel, All of Us in Our Own Lives represent afflictive emotion (kleśa) at the (2016), brings together the transnational hub, virtuous or non-virtuous action (karma) émigré story with the lives of village women in circling that, and the six realms of existence a poignant mosaic of intersecting lives. arranged around those, which are deemed the result (phala) of the causal factors of kleśa and 14 See A History of the Indian Novel in English, karma. The outermost ring depicts the twelve edited by Ulka Anjaria (2015), especially nidāna, a series of links that depict the chain of chapters 3, 8, 14, and 21 which discuss causation across lifetimes. fiction by Indian women writers from the late

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 71 nineteenth century to the present. July 12, 2015 (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=eoYG3DUBMLk). 15 A famous work of this kind is Dondrup Gyal’s short story, “Tulku” (Sprul sku), published 19 In our conversation, Kunzang Choden in 1981, which critiques the blind faith of emphasized the difficulty of publishing within villagers in a charlatan lama. Françoise Robin Bhutan, so it should come as no surprise that has discussed several other works in this both the authors treated in this article have vein in her article, “’Oracles and Demons’ in created their own imprints. Tibetan Literature Today: Representations of Religion in Tibetan-Medium Fiction” (2008). 20 Signaling its prominence internationally, Circle Such critiques are indirect but palpable, of Karma has been translated into thirteen made possible through the predicaments different languages. Within Bhutan, the novel that characters find themselves in and the is paired with Anita Desai’s Clear Light of lessons they learn as a result. Focusing more Day in one of the English literature modules narrowly on sexual transgressions by fake for the undergraduate program in Language lamas, Somtsobum and I have authored a and Literature at the College of Language and chapter, titled “Parody and Pathos: Sexual Culture Studies (CLCS), the Takse campus Transgression by ‘Fake’ Lamas in Tibetan of the Royal University of Bhutan. Personal Short Stories,” for an anthology on Tibetan communication from Tshering Om Tamang. Feminisms, edited by Nicola schneider and Hamsa Rajan (forthcoming). 21 This work has become part of the national curriculum for ninth grade (Class 9); see 16 Buddhism is the dominant (but not exclusive) Tshering Om Tamang’s article, “Exploring religious tradition in Bhutan and is central to National Identity through Literature in its national identity through the founding role Bhutanese English Curriculum” in this journal of the Buddhist hierarch in the Drukpa issue. lineage, Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594– 1651). Village life is another marker of identity 22 For more about their conversation, see a CNN in these novels as indexed by the meticulous report on the first Mountain Echoes: http:// depictions of Bhutanese customs in the villages travel..com/mumbai/mountain-echoes- of the protagonists’ youth. bhutans-literary-festival-109845. 17 Sonam Nyenda and I spoke with Kunzang Choden on February 17, 2018 while visiting 23 See entry on Ogyen Choling Museum in the Ogyen Choling, the family manor that she online Bhutan Cultural Atlas: https://www. transformed into a museum and heritage bhutanculturalatlas.org/2154/culture/cultural- guesthouse. Unless otherwise noted, the facilities/ogyen-choling-museum. information for this paragraph and the next comes from that conversation. 24 This short story originally appeared in Lingting Xizang (Listening to Tibet) in 1999. It was 18 For more details of her fascinating life, see the translated by Herbert Batt and published in a Bhutanese Broadcasting Service series, “Down special issue of Manoa 12.2 (2000), Song of Memory Lane with Writer Kunzang Choden,” the Snow Lion, featuring translations of Tibetan

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short stories from Tibetan and Chinese. See threat to male celibacy. This transition marks Old Demons, New Deities (2017), edited by one way that women get blamed in Buddhist Tenzin Dickie, for a more recent collection narratives, constructing the female body (and of contemporary Tibetan short stories, some character) as problematic in nature rather than translated and others composed in English. For monks taking responsibility for and grappling a discussion of Tibetan Sinophone literature, with male sexual desire. see Tsering Shakya 2007. 28 Thanks to Adam Krug for bringing this episode 25 In her discussion of nuns as the subject of gossip to my attention and to Kaira Fischer for sharing in the vicinity of in eastern her draft translation with Dr. Lozang Jamspal, Tibet, Charlene Makley describes a “sexual- prepared for publication as part of 84,000—a karmic polarity” (2005, p. 270) replicating massive translation project of the Buddhist early Buddhist associations of women with canon under the auspices of the Khyentse saṃsāra (chronicled in Wilson 1996) and Foundation. The false accusation comes creating a hierarchy that aligns women with the about due to the insatiable sexual desire of body, the profane, and the household, and men Dhammadinnā’s husband in her past life. Due with the mind, the sacred, and the monastery. to constant preoccupation with his beautiful Here and elsewhere, women are forced to play wife, the husband’s parents send him away. the ‘other’ to male monastic purity. But he somehow manages to obtain access to a magical garuḍa that flies him home at night to 26 This is a notable exception to other ascriptions make love to his wife. When she gets pregnant, of karma in the novel. When Tsomo grapples the parents blame her for infidelity, even with her own loss of her husband Wangchen though her husband was the one responsible. to her sister Kesang, she realizes that she 29 When a libertine approaches Subha, first she had unwittingly benefited from his straying asserts her own purity to counter the seduction tendencies when he left his first wife to live and finally resorts to disfiguring herself in with her. order to defuse his lust once and for all. See Therīgāthā 14.1), translated by Thanissaro 27 Within early Buddhist literature, Alan in 1995 (https://www.accesstoinsight. Sponberg (1992) has identified a progression org/tipitaka/kn/thig/thig.14.01.than.html). of several enduring attitudes toward women: (1) “soteriological inclusiveness” 30 When Māra taunts her, “Aren’t you afraid of which establishes the spiritual potential of rape?” she replies, “ If even a hundred-thousand women to attain nirvāṇa on par with men, rapists came across me like this, I wouldn’t stir (2) “institutional androcentrism” which a hair. I’d feel no terror, and I’m not afraid structurally subordinates nuns to monks in the of you, , even alone like this.” See the Vinaya code, and (3) “ascetic misogyny” which Uppalavaṇṇā Sutta, translated by Thanissaro expresses monastic contempt for women as Bhikkhu in 1998 from the fifth chapter of the lustful by nature. In the emergence of this third Saṃyutta Nikāya (https://www.accesstoinsight. attitude, Sponberg emphasizes that male sexual org/tipitaka/sn/sn05/sn05.005.than.html). desire is projected onto women as a category, depicting them as temptresses and an inherent 31 See passage quoted in Bhikkhu Sujato’s

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 73 Bhikkuni Vinaya Studies (2012), p. 130. the jātakas and the violence that can ensue, Damcho Diane Finnegan analyzes a different sometimes across lifetimes, is found in other account of this nun (Skt. Utpalavarṇā) from the tales such as “Not Hatred for Hatred” in Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya in which she escapes Buddhist Legends I.4, retrieved from https:// rape (2009, pp. 290–295). In either case, www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English- her story provides a rationale for restricting Texts/Buddhist-Legends/01-04.htm. See Reiko nun’s mobility, dictating that henceforth Ohnuma (2012, pp. 22–27) for a discussion of they should reside together in vihāras rather this and other examples. than wander alone in forest hermitages. For different versions of her story and past lives, 35 According to the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, see Alice Collett’s chapter on Uppalavaṇṇā in the nun Kapilabhadrā is similarly helpless to Lives of Early Buddhist Nuns: Biography as defend herself when she gets kidnapped and History (2016). Note that Amy Langenberg has trapped by ministers of King Ajātaśatru for critiqued the premise of pleasure as consent his pleasure, and her predicament is likewise on a panel about “Buddhist and Christian attributed to her own previous karma. She Resources for Addressing Sexual Violence” at is only able to free herself after another the American Academy of Religion conference nun (ironically Utpalavarṇā) miraculously in Denver, November 23–26. See also Cabezón, appears and teaches her supernormal powers. 2017, p. 192. When Kapilabhadrā flies out of the palace, the king witnesses the miracle and repents. 32 This shows the serious weight of the crime of For an analysis of this story as found in the raping a nun according to canonical literature— Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, see Finnegan 2009, at the same level as the five inexpiable sins. pp. 244–247. See Buddhist Legends V.10, translated by Eugene Burlinghame (Cambridge: Harvard 36 Example are finding a jeep to Kalimpong from University Press, 1921), retrieved from https:// the bus station in Phuentsholing, recognizing www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English- her brother from afar on the road soon after Texts/Buddhist-Legends/05-10.htm. For other they arrive, and discovering their luggage was examples, see José Cabezón’s discussion of safe after leaving it with a stranger to watch how classic sources such as the Smṛtyupasthāna (Choden, 2005, pp. 137–140). focus on male sexual impropriety and the torments experienced in hell as the result of 37 At this she feels that her “negative karma is serious offenses, especially incest and the rape over” (Choden, 2005, p. 223). of nuns (2017, pp. 45–73). 38 The verbs, ‘khor ba and skor ba (alt. skor 33 Thanks to Kaira Fischer for sharing her draft ra), in Tibetan both mean ‘to circle.’ The translation with Dr. Lozang Jamspal of this first is passive and the second active. The episode in the Vinayakṣudrakavastu. Their passive spelling is used to translate the translation work is being done under the Sanskrit saṃsāra, suggesting that beings are auspices of the 84,000 project. involuntarily caught in its cycle of suffering. Circumambulation, on the other hand, is an 34 The theme of rivalry between co-wives in active process and virtuous act, involving

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venerating sacred object or place. As a result, a housewife, and I do nothing.” it is understood to accrue merit. 46 For some general statistics, see: https://www. 39 A parallel can be found in Himalayan Hermitess himalayan-foundation.org/what-we-do/stop- (Schaeffer, 2004), the autobiography of the girl-trafficking. seventeenth-century nun Orgyan Chokyi, whose liberation is as much her autonomy later 47 Tib. skyes rtsis, alt. skyes skar brtag pa and in life—after her difficult childhood and years tshes rabs las rtsis. spent in the kitchen when first ordained—as it is the realization credited to her. 48 In the contemporary Tibetan short story, “Entrusted to the Wind” by Lhashamgyal, 40 Together with Sonam Nyenda and Tshering the wind also plays a compelling force, Om Tamang, I interviewed Chador Wangmo symbolizing alternatively karma and changing over tea in downtown Thimphu on February historical circumstances. See translation and 21, 2018. analysis in Robin 2016 and Lhashamgyal 2016. 41 For more details about how she became a writer, see Bhutan Broadcasting System 49 Judy Blume is an American writer of children’s interview with Chador Wangmo on August books and young adult novels known for the 21, 2015 (https://www.youtube.com/ way she captures the awkward moments and watch?v=eoYG3DUBMLk). confusions of coming of age with poignant humor. 42 Her first novel quickly sold out its first printing of 2000, and Chador Wangmo sighed when 50 Fake monks (and to a lesser degree nuns) are mentioning that it has been pirated ever sense. also a problem in contemporary Tibet. See To a lesser extent, it evokes karma as a guiding note 15 above for literary treatments of this force alongside others. phenomenon.

43 Despite this, Chador Wangmo deliberately 51 When I asked Chador Wangmo who peppers her prose with Sharchokpa, her mother ‘God’ referred to in the story, she replied tongue, without always giving the translation, ‘Guru Rinpoche.’ This epithet refers to thereby marking difference. Padmasambhava, the eighth-century Indian tantric master deemed a second Buddha by 44 In August 2018, she was featured in a New Buddhists in Tibetan and Himalayan areas. Her York Times article, “A New Flourishing synthesis of these reflects a ‘new age’ approach Literary Scene in the Real Shangri-La” by to spirituality in which elements from different Geoffrey Gettleman (https://www.nytimes. traditions are fashioned into a bricolage. com/2018/08/19/books/bhutan-literary- festival--shangri-la.html). 52 Chador Wangmo discusses how Kyetse reflects on what it means to be Bhutanese and 45 In our interview, Chador Wangmo quipped that Buddhist in modern times in a Kuensel article, being a professional writers is so unrecognized “Bhutanese Writers Look to Make a Mark” on in Bhutan that she ends up telling people, “I am August 28, 2016 (http://www.kuenselonline.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 75 com/contemporary-bhutanese-writers-look-to- Geyang. (2000). An old nun tells her story (H. Batt, make-a-mark). Trans.). Manoa 12.2, 83–94.

Giddens, A. (1979). Central problems in social Bibliography theory: Action, structure and contradiction Ahearn, L. (2001). “Language and Agency.” in social znalysis. Berkeley: University of Annual Review of Anthropology 30, 109–37. California Press.

Anjaria, U. (2015). A history of the Indian novel in Hartley, L., & Schiaffini-Vedani, P. (Eds.). (2008). English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Modern Tibetan literature and social change. Press. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Cabezón, J. (2017). Sexuality in classical Jacoby, S. (2010). This ‘inferior female body:’ South Asian Buddhism. Boston: Wisdom Reflections on life as a treasure revealer Publications. through the autobiographical eyes of Se ra mkha’ ‘gro (Bde rdo rje, 1892-1940). Childs, G. (2004). Tibetan Diary: From Birth to Journal of the International Association of Death and Beyond in a Himalayan Valley in Buddhist Studies, 32.2, 115–150. Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press. Keyes, C., & Daniel, V. (Eds). (1983). Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry. Berkeley: Choden, K. (2005). The circle of karma. Delhi: University of California Press. Zubaan Publishers. Lhashamgyal. (2016). Entrusted to the wind (F. Cuevas, B. (2008). Travels in the netherworld: Robin, Trans.). HIMALAYA, the Journal of Buddhist popular narratives of death and the the Association for Nepal and Himalayan afterlife in Tibet. Oxford: Oxford University Studies, 36.1, 178–183. Press. Makley, C. (2005). The body of a nun: Nunhood Dickie, T. (2017.) Old demons: New deities. New and Gender in contemporary Amdo. In J. York: OR Books. Gyatso & H. Havnevik (Eds.), Women in Tibet. New York: Columbia University Press. Dondrup, T. (2019). The handsome monk. In The Handsome Monk and Other Stories Mufti, A. (2018). Forget English! Orientalisms (C. Peacock, Trans.). New York: Columbia and World Literatures. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. University Press.

Finnegan, D. D. (2009). ‘For the sake of women, Ohnuma, R. (2012). Ties that Bind: Maternal too’: Ethics and gender in the narratives imagery and discourse in Indian Buddhism. of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford University Press. dissertation at the University of Wisconsin Madison. Penjore, D. (2013). “The state of anthropology in Bhutan.” Asian and African Area Studies,

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12.2, 147-156. Sujato, B. (2012). Bhikkuni Vinaya studies: Research and reflections on monastic Prude, A. (2016). “Women returning from death: discipline for Buddhist nuns. Retrieved from The gendered nature of the delog role.” http://santifm.org/santipada/2010/bhikkhuni- Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines, 36, 5-28. vinaya-studies. Retrieved from http://himalaya.socanth.cam. ac.uk/collections/journals/ret/pdf/ret_36_03. Thapa, M. (2016). All of Us in Our Own Lives. pdf. Delhi: Aleph Book Company.

Robin, F. (2008). ‘Oracles and demons’ in Tibetan Thinley, D., & Maxwell, T. (2013). “The role of literature today: Representations of religion English in cultural preservation in Bhutan.” in Tibetan-medium fiction. In L. Hartley & Journal of Bhutan Studies, 28, 1–29. P. Schiaffini-Vedani (Eds.), Modern Tibetan literature and social change (pp. 148–170). Shakya, T. (2007, December 27). Language, Durham, NC: Duke University Press. literature, and representation in Tibet: The politics of language. Tibet Writes. Robin, F. (2016). Souls gone in the wind? Retrieved from http://tibetwrites.in/index. Suspending belief about rebirth in html%3FLanguage-Literature-and.html. contemporary artistic works in the Tibetan world. HIMALAYA, the Journal of the Srinivasan, R. T. (Ed.). (2018). “From Postcolonial Association for Nepal and Himalayan to World Anglophone: South Asia.” Special Studies, 36.1, 116–129. Issue of Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 20.3. Schaeffer, K. (2004). Himalayan hermitess: The life of a Tibetan Buddhist nun. Oxford: Wangmo, C. (2016). Kyetse... destiny’s call. Oxford University Press. Thimphu: Miza Books.

Sponberg, A. (2002). Attitudes toward women Wilson, L. (1996). Charming cadavers: Horrific and the feminine in early Buddhism. In figurations of the feminine in Indian Buddhist J. Cabezón (Ed.), Buddhism, Sexuality, hagiographic literature. Chicago: University and Gender (pp. 3–36). Albany, NY: State of Chicago Press. University of New York Press.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 77 Holly Gayley is a scholar of Acknowledgements: contemporary Buddhism with a My interest in Bhutanese women writers special interest in gender, ethics, was sparked by meeting the Queen Mother and identity. Early in her academic Ashi Dorji Wangmo Wangchuk in Boulder, career, she conducted research on Colorado when she visited for the Jaipur the Bhutanese saint, , Literary Festival in September 2016. The contributing the introduction to Queen Mother encouraged my interest, The Life and Revelations of Pema and I had the good fortune to meet with Lingpa (2003) and an article to several Bhutanese women writers during Bhutan: Traditions and Changes a research trip to Bhutan in February 2018 (2007). Since then, her research with the generous assistance of Sonam has focused on Buddhist literature in Nyenda and Tshering Om Tamang, contemporary Tibet. Gayley is author alongside funding from a Kayden Grant of Love Letters from Golok: A Tantric at the University of Colorado Boulder. I Couple in Modern Tibet (2016) and would like to thank Kunzang Choden and has numerous articles in academic Chador Wangmo for meeting with me to journals including Journal of Buddhist discuss their writings, Sonam Nyenda Ethics, Contemporary Buddhism, and Tshering Om Tamang for their help Religions, Himalaya, and History of during my research trip and for bringing Religions. She serves as Associate together this special journal issue, and Professor of Buddhist Studies and Amy Holmes-Tagchungdarpa and Sara Co-Director of the Tibet Himalaya Shneiderman for their helpful comments Initiative at the University of Colorado on my presentation on this topic at the Boulder. Association of Asian Studies conference in Denver in March 2019.

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Perspectives on Contemporary Bhutanese Literature

Chador Wangmo, Rinzin Rinzin and Namgyal Tshering

Introduction Bhutanese literature.

The limitations of rich literary resources The Royal Government of Bhutan declared may be attributed to limited written folklore, Year 2015 as the National Reading Year as myths and histories which are otherwise envisioned by our leaders. Reading culture the crux of tradition and culture imbued was infused into the school system, and its in the rich oral storytelling traditions. practice provided priority by celebrating Bhutan’s traditions and culture have been Annual Reading Week in September passed down through the generations of across the nation. In the last three years, oral storytelling and has not been written children and adults have begun to pick until about two decades ago. While epic up reading, which recorded hundreds of tales and short stories written in Dzongkha thousands of books read annually. were part of Bhutanese curriculum since the institution of schooling system in the In recent years, there has been an increasing early 1960s, literature in English included number of Bhutanese writers contributing literature from the outside world. towards enriching Bhutanese literature by publishing indigenous research books, Bhutanese contemporary story writing journals, history, novels, poetries, and gained newer opportunities for writing essays. with Bhutanese individuals beginning to contribute towards the growing repository Kunzang Choden’s books Folktales of of printed literary works. The early printed Bhutan, Bhutanese Tales of the Yeti, literature included books on the history of Chilli and Cheese - Food and Society in Bhutan by Hasratjit chronicling the lives Bhutan and Dawa: The Story of a Stray of Bhutanese monarchy. The growth in Dog in Bhutan dominate the pile. Then Bhutanese Literature in English is a recent there is Kinley Dorji’s Within the Realm trend. Until a few years ago, reading of Happiness, Ugyen Gyeltshen’s Dear culture was not an active culture across Seday and Doji Dhratyul’s Escapades. Bhutanese citizenry, and contemporary Rinzin Rinzin and Chador Wangmo are writers were few. Writing was mostly among the most prolific writers today inspired by Kunzang Choden, one of the contributing in writing children’s books, first Bhutanese women to contribute to novels as well as poetry.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 79 Today, the ideas of literature people have education gave more importance to rote embraced over time have undergone a sea learning, modern education was expected of change. This paper presents a synopsis to enhance development of skills and on perspectives related to the current knowledge to produce doctors, engineers, literary culture in Bhutan. administrators, and other professionals, which would be useful for the development A Bird’s Eye View of Bhutanese of the country. The Royal government Literature of Bhutan invited expatriate teachers Traditional Bhutanese literature from India to overlook the early phase of education in the Bhutanese schools. This The education system of Bhutan began led to the adoption of curriculum and as early as the advent of Buddhism in instructional materials based on the Indian 747AD with the arrival of the Indian saint syllabuses except the national language popularly known as Padmasambhava texts, which were taught in the national alias Guru Rinpoche. Guru Rinpoche language, Dzongkha. The medium of is associated with the foundation of instruction for the other general subjects community of Lamas (Buddhist teachers) were then English and Hindi. English who further propagated Buddhism through became the medium of instruction in a traditional monastic teaching akin to the Bhutan not because it was expedient to present day schooling system. learn, but because it was already the lingua franca of the world. Monastic education was the earliest traditional school of education in Bhutan Bhutanese traditional literature that grew where monks learnt to read and write out of the monastic system of learning was through Buddhist literature. It was the only classified into ten broad categories, while form of literacy in Bhutan until the 1960s. in the modern context the categories are Although informal religious discourses varied and specific to institutions. were held since Buddhism reached Bhutan, formal monastic education started 1. Choejung: Meaning Dharma only in 1622 with the establishment of the Histories and religious literature, formal monk body at Chari in Thimphu. which consisted of kanjur and Western education system infiltrated into tenjur containing Buddha’s Bhutan only in the mid-1950s after Bhutan teaching and its translation; relaxed its policy of isolation from the outside world. The prominent difference in 2. Namthar: Religious biographies, the two systems was that while monastic which tell stories of great

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religious figures; metaphorical compositions;

3. Gyalrab: Historical chronicles; 9. Karchag: Catalogues of temples, chortens and Dzongs; and, 4. Logyu: Records of history of chronicles. The widely read 10. Tshig mdzod: Dictionary. Logyu, the Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi and Gaylong These literatures of traditional and Sumdar Tashi, which are both monastic nature were not readily accessible translated into English, are fine to common people, except to recruits in examples of this genre; the monastery. Common people, therefore, did not gain interest to associate with 5. : These are treasure texts these forms of literature as a part of their believed to have been hidden daily lives. The scriptures were, however, by Guru Rinpoche in , taught through discourse by accomplished Hidden lands. In Bhutan, Terton monks (Lama) to common people as part Pema Lingpa, the great treasure of religious initiations. discoverer, has mystically discovered many of these sacred This lack of reading culture for available texts; traditional literature, except by monks and teachers who were trained through the 6. Srung: Epics. The epic of Dzongkha language can be attributed to King Gesar of Ling is the most two prominent reasons: appropriate example of this classification; 1. All the above-mentioned forms of literature have existed in Chokey 7. Glu: Folk songs normally sung (‘the language of the Dharma’), in the form of Gurma, which is a form of early Dzongkha a form of religious realizations. script. Chokey was not easy to Lam Drukpa Kuenley and Jetsun comprehend by common people , the two Buddhist saints without training in its grammar. are best-known composers of Gurma; 2. These texts were revered as sacred and were not accessible for 8. Nyan ngag: Ornate poetry reading without explicit initiations that follows a complex and by a teacher.

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 81 Modern Bhutanese English literature the glorious roles of various leaders in shaping our country to the position it is in There is no conclusive research to validate now, myths and the history of our country. the emergence of Bhutanese traditional Apart from these, many research journals literature except as part of monastic and annual statistical data from various learning institutions. English literature Ministries have been compiled into books. began discreetly alongside the growth and Interestingly, since the early twenty first development of modern education system century, Guide Books for various subjects in the country. In the mid-1960s about and Solved Question Papers for Board 59 schools were established in different examinations, which were academically locations across the country. Modern driven, have flooded the Bhutanese education accelerated in the country after book market. This may be due to the pioneer students of these schools were importance set on the Examination system selected and sent to schools in Kalimpong in the schools. and Darjeeling in India on government scholarships for higher studies. A glance at other genres of Bhutanese literature Until recently almost all the books that Bhutanese people read were imported Talking about iconoclast in the field of from India and other countries. Earliest literature in English, Kunzang Choden Bhutanese mass publications in English ushered in the change in the voice of were largely school textbooks, grammar, literature in our country. Her first book, history, and other stories used as Folktales of Bhutan, was published in supplementary books based on the school 1994. This was one of the first books on curriculum. Records with the National Bhutanese oral stories to be published in Library and the Centre for Bhutan Studies English. Today, if you visit any bookstores show that the variety of publications has in Bhutan, you will find that many folktales changed over the years. From the era of that have been penned down by many printing Buddhist scriptures on wooden other writers in Bhutan is in between 2000 blocks to recounting of history, a new to 2015. era is taking concrete shape in the field of writing with improvements parallel to Then, in 2002, The Talisman of Good international standards. Fortune and Other Stories from Rural Bhutan written by Rinzin Rinzin came The first ever English books written by and into the hands of the readers. The readers about Bhutan were basically unfolding of unabashedly classified it as another

82 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ArticlesPerspectives compiled book of folktales, although the writer with her book My Life which is an book was a collection of nine creative illustrated journal of a ten year old. stories. Creative short story writing thus began to peek into existence with this Gopilal Acharya’s Bhutanese folktales book. from East and South and Dancing to Death (anthology of poems) is a huge We cannot be wrong in our assumption inspiration to many aspiring Bhutanese that the genre of longer prose in the form writers. His debut novel Stone in my heart of novel gained momentum with Kunzang was long listed for the 2009 Man Asian Choden’s book Circle of Karma, which Literary Prize. Adding to the list, some of has been translated into thirteen different the popular books published in the recent languages, and is still widely read and years are: loved by readers around the world. In the same year, Karma Tenzin’s The Restless 1. Dorji Dhrytul’s Escapades. This Relic hit the book market. These books set book explores very sensitive the trend of fiction writing in Bhutanese theme of exploitation of women literary landscape. in rural areas and of the sheer power of woman. Since the early nineties, slowly but steadily, Bhutanese writers have followed 2. Karma Tenzin, who is a retired the zest for literature in the footsteps of the law enforcement officer, has likes of Kunzang Choden. While we are on authored four books till now, and a listing spree, we must not forget that we the crime fiction he has produced have had the book Homecoming, written is an unduplicated genre in our by a twelve-year-old girl Pema Yuden. country till date. His books, The She published her second novel, Lomba, Restless Relic, Barnyard Murder in 2016 adding yet another creatively and other stories, The Darkest crafted fiction in the list of books written June, and his recent publication by Bhutanese writers. But 2016 saw two Switched off has been well more young writers join the bandwagon of received by readers of all ages. writers, bagging the title of the “Youngest writer.” Yeshey Tseyang Zam, an eleven 3. Ugyen Gyeltshen’s Dear Seday, year old came into limelight with her which flooded the book market illustrated book for children Khakey, and a in 2012, swept the masses with month later a ten year old Tserim Damchen the first of its kind love story. Jamyang became the youngest In the various dot com sites,

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 83 people were rebuked and mocked to the fact that these books were for writing romantic stories, published in a different fashion. and some critical readers even These as well as Gyalo, were claimed that all that the Bhutanese the first ever crowd sponsored can think of is “Romance” when published books. it comes to writing stories. But this book proved that Romance After Rinzin Rinzin’s collection of short is a genre embraced with love by stories, writers like Nawang Phuntsho and many. Lingi Jamtsho have tried to spread the love for contemporary short stories, which is a 4. Chador Wangmo’s maiden novel, genre different from the list above. La Ama, which was published in 2015 voices issue of domestic Poetry and poets bring out the sublime violence and gender inequalities. beauty of life. Celebrating the splendor In August 2016, her second of this genre of literature, Riyang Books novel Kyetse hit the market brought together a group of Bhutanese along with Rinzin Rinzin’s book poets in the book Folded into a paper boat. Depa Bondeypa and Maj. Lingi In the past few years, many Bhutanese Jamtsho’s Gyalo. Kyetse is a tale poets have participated in various literary woven around many superstitious festivals across India. Mr. Namgyel beliefs that existed in the early Tshering who published his maiden 1980’s in Bhutan, while Depa collection of poems, Dragon Delights - A Bondeypa traces the historical rosary of poems in 2017 was recognized path and the bond that existed for his poetic talents at the Pentasi B between Kurtoe in the East and World poetry festival held at Hyderabad. Bumthang in Central Bhutan. Accompanying him was a young yet to Gyalo opens the reader’s eyes to be published poet, Shiv Nepal who is an military life. equally enthusiastic poet. Rinzin Rinzin and Chador Wangmo were nominated for 5. Realistic fiction gained popularity the prestigious Premchand Fellowship in in 2015. Kadrinche beyond 2015 and 2016 respectively and in 2017, words by Kinley Wangchuk, and they were both awarded Vidhyavachaspati Monu Tamang’s Chronicles of as well as Tathagath Srijan Samaan 2017 Love foretold and The Morning at Sidharth Nagar in UP, India. Some of Sun became a sensation in the the duo’s poems have been published book world. It can be attributed abroad in renowned poetry anthologies

84 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ArticlesPerspectives like the Amaravati Poetic Prism 2017, The into another genre by publishing the first Poetry of South Asia, Complexion Based ever super hero chapter book for children and so on. Back home, with her Dema- the mystery of the missing Jurmi Chhowing published his collection egg in 2016. Rinzin Rinzin also published of poetry Ballad of a Minor Man in a a few illustrated books for children. The Major Chord, which struck the right chord Story of the Yak and the Buffalo, The of poetry in the hearts of poetry lovers. In Pheasant takes the Snake to Court, Eggs August 2018, Rinzin Rinzin published his to the Rescue and The Story of the Raven first poetry anthologyDewdrops in the Sun and the Owl are few of his works in this – A Treasury of Poem taking Bhutanese genre. poetry to newer heights. The love of poetry is on the rise as we see many Bhutanese In the decade since the influx of mass taking to Instagram and Facebook to post media, Bhutan has seen a rapid increase their poems online. in the number of enthusiasts pursuing writing as a passion. What started from Children’s books are also beginning to get social forums like Nopkin.com, WAB better attention with the Bhutan Children’s and Kuzuzangpo.com has hatched many Book Initiative (BCBI) project, which is writers who discovered their flair for a joint venture between Save the Children writing and many continue to post their office and the Ministry of Education. write-ups on popular social media such This project started with the aim to as Facebook. Blogging too has caught provide leverage to Bhutanese writers up well with Bhutanese masses. In 2015, and illustrators interested in producing Community of Bhutanese Bloggers (CBB) Children’s books written in Bhutanese was formed, sensing the need to bring context for Bhutanese Children. This together bloggers. CBB now has more genre too began its journey with illustrated than 600 plus members. One of the popular folktales. Kunzang Choden’s Aunty bloggers, successfully Mouse, Room In your Heart and Tshegho- published his blog posts into a book titled the garment of life added to the collection ‘Passu Diary’ in 2017. of Lamche series written and published by Pema Gyaltshen. Chador Wangmo Conclusion added ten books to the list, bringing in the variety of creative writing in this genre Going by the listings, we are positive that with her books Monster in my Room, English literature in Bhutan did start late, Weaving a Rainbow and Tikpa-the drop but it is definitely on the rise and in a positive of Water. Chador Wangmo also ventured way. While the world is grappling with the

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 85 anxiety of techno-gadgets superseding the presence of books, Bhutan’s growing number of aspiring writers confirmed by the increasing number of books churned out every year is unquestionably a new Chador Wangmo is a popular Bhutanese quest in undertaking. writer, who has authored four novels, including La Ama and Kyetse, and ten “There are stories everywhere and in illustrated books for children, including books from the superhero series, Dema. every heart”, many Bhutanese are feeling this nudge and we are certainly seeing Rinzin Rinzin is a prominent Bhutanese upheaval in the literary culture. Today, with writer, poet, scholar and a former many of us bestowed with the privilege parliamentarian. His debut book was The of bringing ourselves out to attend Talisman of Good Fortune and Other forums like the SAARC Literary Festival Stories from Rural Bhutan. He has also initiated by the Foundation of SAARC authored a novella and four children’s illustrated books. Writers and Literature (FOSWAL) and Mountain Echoes, which is the biggest Namgyal Tshering is the author of Dragon literary festival that happens in Bhutan, Delights: A Rosary of Poems. He has won we Bhutanese are unquestionably making The Enchanting Muse Award during 2017 headway in the writing journey. Our India world Poetry Festival in Hyderabad. mountains have begun to rumble for quite a long time, and today it is beginning to make louder calls to the world of literature hidden deep in the valleys.

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Contemporary Children’s Literature in Bhutan

Ugyen Tshomo and Pema Wangdi Abstract

This perspective piece explores what contemporary literature is: defining children’s contemporary literature and discussing its characteristics through commonly accepted standards (Kasten, Kristo, McClure, & Garthwait, 2005; Cooper, 2001). The authors studied children’s books in stores and stalls within Bhutan and eventually concluded with recommendations for how to improve the writing of children’s books in Bhutan. We include a literature review to indicate a criterion for what contemporary children’s books should include in order to qualify as contemporary children’s books.

Keywords: children’s literature, contemporary literature, Bhutanese literature, Children’s themes

Background Bhutanese markets. Thus, we can say the literary project of writing children’s book Bhutanese have inherited rich folklores, is still in its infancy. Consequently, there legends, and myths but only through seems to be a gap between the publication oral tradition. Outside of the rich of traditional folk tales and contemporary array of religious works, premodern literature intended for children (Raina, secular writings are mainly history or 2014). administrative texts, focused on facts. It was only in 1984 that the first few Despite the truism that the literature we authors began to set folktales down in read impacts our lives, reading took longer writing with the work of Sherab Thaye to take root as a common practice in Bhutan in Dzongkha (Sharma, 2007) followed than elsewhere in the world. Reading by Kunzang Choden in English (1993). and storytelling have numerous benefits Choden, later, started writing novels as including early childhood development well and several other authors followed of sounds, words and language, and suit. Still, it has only been within the last development of literacy skills. It can decade that children’s books written by stimulate imagination and build social and Bhutanese authors started appearing in communication skills. By providing an

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 87 emotional journey for the reader, stories for online educational websites were: provide experiences about reality and contemporary literature, children’s make-believe worlds. In this way, reading literature, characteristic of children’s shapes and molds our character (Niklas, literature, reading and early childhood. A Cohrssen, & Tayler, 2016; Kalb & Ours, total of twenty nine articles were included 2013; Reading and storytelling, 2018). in the review. A total of thirty children’s Thus the books we choose during the books written by Bhutanese authors were developmental stages of our lives are very reviewed. Overall the book by Cooper important because they model for children (2001) and Kasten et al. (2005) guided the how to behave and speak (Swingley, authors in gauging the quality of children’s 2008). Having quality children’s books in book. the market and library is important for the overall growth of a child. Categories of Literature

Aim and Methods The word contemporary means anything that is current. Trends what are ongoing, The aim of this paper is to review that is happening now and which reflects children’s literature and contemporary the live environment. There are only few literature available in the local market and children’s literature that reflects Bhutanese examine if they meet commonly accepted contemporary culture. Most definitions standards of children’s literature. From point to contemporary literature as post- this comparison, the authors provide World War II writing, but for Bhutan recommendations for the development the term usually designates literature in of Bhutanese contemporary children’s Dzongkha or English published from the literature. In conducting this study, the 1990s forward. But the word contemporary authors gathered data on the types of according to the Merriam-Webster literature available in Bhutan. Libraries dictionary also means “characteristics of and book stalls were visited. We also the present period” (Merriam-Webster, reviewed supplementary readers available 2018). Thus any literature which is written in Bhutanese schools. The authors as for the present era must have contemporary member of English Committee in Royal characteristic. It should reflect a society's Education Council also had access to social and/or political viewpoints, shown all the Readers that sat on the table for through realistic characters, connections the selection. It was during that time the to current events and socioeconomic author realized there is a dearth of quality messages. Contemporary literature can children’s literature. The keywords used also offer depictions of traditional customs

88 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ArticlesPerspectives and values, as well as historical events that remain relevant and salient to contemporary populations. Even children’s literature according to this definition must include content that children will encounter in their lived environments, including traditional customs as well as modern technology and media references. Folklores has its place and is a valuable way to educate children whether in oral or written form. But does it fit in what we define as “contemporary literature?”

Children’s literature is best described as collection of books written for children, read by children, and/or written about children (Schneider, 2016). The authors in this review will only discuss English category of children’s literature. Find below few local literature the authors reviewed along with the Readers of Pre Primary till Class III published by Royal Education Council.

Book Writer/Editor/Publisher Fish for Dinner Students Plus Bhutan Spikey Students Plus Bhutan Tikpa the drop of water Chador Wangmo Gangchung, The Baby Students Plus Bhutan The Heavenly Birds Pema Gyeltshen The Brothers Students Plus Bhutan A Chest of Stones Students Plus Bhutan The Pheasant takes the snake to court Rinzin Rinzin Aku Duba Students Plus Bhutan Kado goes to the Tsechu Karma Tshering Deyzhang Indra K.Vishwa A little Thing Called Love Indra K. Vishwa The Eggs to the Rescue Rinzin Rinzin Akash’s Day Royal Education Council Kabray Royal Education Council My Ama is my best playmate Royal Education Council The Flea and the Louse Chador Wangmo Pem and Tashi Royal Education Council A Skipping Rope Royal University of Bhutan

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 89 Characteristic of Contemporary to-read texts. Apart from textbooks used Children’s Literature in the school curriculum, our survey Text Type revealed that Bhutanese children’s books mainly fall into the category of authentic Children can only learn a certain number literature. Nonetheless, attention to some of vocabulary words according to their age of the issues highlighted in the typology group. In order to pique children’s desire to below, such as repetition and rhythm or learn, certain text types are recommended accessible language remain important. (Cooper, 2001). There are six distinctly Presented in Table 1 is a brief description different types of texts that can be used with major uses for each type of text. All for reading instruction: wordless books, texts can be used at all grade levels, but predictable texts, controlled high- some are more appropriate for beginning frequency vocabulary texts, decodable reading instruction. See chart below based texts, authentic literature created, easy- on Cooper (2001, p 2).

Type Description Major use Example It helps children develop Text composed only A Ball for Daisy By: a concept of themselves Wordless of illustrations or Chris Raschka A Boy, as readers, develop Books photographs. No print is a Dog, and a Frog By: oral language, and self- given. Mercer Mayer expression. Used as a way to introduce Texts that utilize a children to reading through Predictable repeated pattern of some Home shared reading and to Texts type. May be authentic by Carson Ellis provide practice through literature or created text. repeated readings. Brown Bear, Brown Text written specifically Controlled Bear, What Do You for beginning reading High See? instruction using a core Provide practice in reading Frequency by Bill Martin Jr. and of high frequency words high frequency words. Vocabulary Eric Carle Where is that have been carefully Texts the Green Sheep? By introduced. Judy Horacek Provide practice and Text written using words Pumkin and the Kitten Decodable application of phonics and that utilize decoding skills by All about Learning Texts structural skills that have students have been taught. The Bad Rat been taught.

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Type Description Major use Example Stories and informational texts where no attempts Used for practice and Yo! Yes? By Raschka have been made to control application of reading once Silly Billy By Browne Authentic the words, patterns, or students have developed The True Son, Class Literature decoding elements used in beginning decoding skills. III ( Royal Education the text. The text is in the Also used for shared Council) original form written by reading and read aloud. the author. Used for practice and Stories and informational application of reading texts that have been skills for students who Created, Ball by Mary Sullivan written to control the level may be experiencing Easy to Read Hug by Jez Alborough of difficulty and some difficulty in certain aspects Texts aspect of skill application. of learning to read or need practice in applying a targeted skill or strategy.

Repetition and Rhythm Pictures/Illustration

Repetition and rhythm is important in Children love pictures as Grozdanic children’s books. We learn multiplication described in her report on child reading tables by repeating them over and over. preferences, where she references this Similarly, any new words repeated comment made by Nevaeh, 7, Landers, will form meaning and frame value in CA “I love to read because the pictures a child’s mind. It is a powerful tool to and stories help me to imagine that I am generate meaning (Gannon, 1987). With somewhere else!” ( 2013, para 6). It also more repetition, there are more chances stimulates their imagination and sustains for a child to remember the particular their attention. The art must enhance and vocabulary word. A book which contains extent the story (Kasten, p.162). Before a good rhyme, rhythm and repetition is child can read, they follow the pictures in enjoyed by most children (Reading and order to understand the story. That is why storytelling, 2018.). For example Where is there are picture books for little children. Dechen? (Royal Education Council, 2017) According to Katherine Paterson who was has repetition “Dechen,Dechen where are named by Librarian of Congress as, the you?”. Robert Munsch’s Love you Forever National Ambassador for Young People’s has the refrain “I‘ll love you forever/I’ll Literature from 2010 -2011 “picture books like you for always/As long as I ‘m living are like lettuce in the grocery store, they /My baby you’ll be.” disappear so fast.” (as cited in Zipp, 2012, para .4).

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 91 Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Language Wonderland (1897) was popular in part due to its numerous illustrations that A child develops its language through brought the text to life. Most of Dr. Seuss its surrounding. Language should be books are popular not just for the rhyming “smooth, fluid, and readable” by young language and sense of magical realism children (Kasten, p. 162). According to apparent in the book, but also because of Skinner (1938), Skinner (1948) as cited his illustrations. Closer to home, a high by McLeod (2018), the major influence standard for illustrations in Bhutanese on human behavior is learning from one’s children’s books has been set by Kunzang environment. Other behaviorist Ivan Choden and Pema Tshering in Membar Pavlov (1890s) and John Watson (1990s) Tsho – The Flaming Lake (2012), which also agreed with the theory that language recounts in simple yet vivid terms, learning depends on one’s environment. with respect to both the language and Even Mehawesh (2014) and Harris illustrations, the life of the Bhutanese saint (1996) stated that the social and linguistic Pema Lingpa with special focus on his environments of the child plays a vital role miraculous revelation at Membar Tsho. in acquiring language comprehension. For Bhutan, this extends well beyond literary While illustrating, the picture should texts, given that most of the dialects be clear and appealing to young mind’s spoken in various regions of the country imagination. The color must be prominent do not have written languages. The types as children are too young to appreciate and standard of books that are available abstraction. Most of all, it should be in our environment is crucial for early culturally specific in its settings. Teachers language development. The social aspects of primary schools are encouraged to of language acquisition are even more use three-dimensional art or pictures, so important when a person learns a second children can understand what is being language as they go through stages of said or discussed from a visual point of language acquisition. In Bhutan, this may view. Well-composed illustrations can be Dzongkha and/or English, depending set the mood, provide setting, define on the region. We should note that English characters, provide different point of view, is the medium of instruction in the demonstrate a concept, provide textual Bhutanese school system, and Dzongkha coherence, reinforce the text, provide is studied in special language classes. In mental scaffolds for the child reader, and learning a second language, the stages thus assist their comprehension of the are Preproduction, Early Production, written text (Fang, 1996). Speech Emergence, Intermediate Fluency

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(Linguanaut, 2013). It is important to buffalo characters, representing nomadism consider these stages as Bhutanese authors and farming respectively. Even more continue to write children’s books in educational in terms of Bhutanese culture English. is Kunzang Choden’s Guru Rinpoche is Coming, illustrated once again by In 2015, the Ministry of Education initiated Pema Tshering. It presents customs National Reading Year commemorating and beliefs around an annual Buddhist the 60th Birth Anniversary of the Fourth holiday celebrating Guru Rinpoche, Druk Gyalpo and to make reading a another name for the Indian tantric master healthy habit amongst Bhutanese. It Padmasambhava who visited Bhutan in sought the support of families, teachers, the eighth century and helped establish and the media to build a vibrant reading Buddhism in the region by burying culture in Bhutan, and planned several treasures for saints such as Pema Lingpa. activities throughout the year geared towards this end. According to the report In addition to traditional themes related posted in Facebook (March 7, 2016) about to Bhutanese culture and values, it is 2.5 million books were read by teachers, also important to depict modern themes, students and staff by the end of the related to urban life and technology. The National Reading Year. way writers write could adapt and balance their themes accordingly (Alterman, Themes 2018). Writers can also address twenty- first century crises through children’s For children to associate themselves book they write (Crawford, Roberts, & with their immediate surroundings, Zygouris-Coe, 2019). This includes the books written for them must reflect their loss of culture to global forces but could immediate environment in terms of also take creative avenues, such as stories Bhutanese culture, geography and values.. with ghosts popping out of computer This is especially true in Bhutan given that screens. This would be one way to portray its children’s literature is still so young. the dangers of virtual world gently, so Stories for children should reflect and children are prepared of what is behind illustrate Bhutanese culture, geography, the addictive screen. Stories around the and values. Rinzin Rinzin’s retelling computer games can be another suggestion of a folktale in The Story of the Yak and (Kersten, Apol, & Pataray-Ching, 2007). the Buffalo (2014), illustrated by Tempa Children’s books usually ends with Rabgay, is a good example with its setting happily ever after. Despite all the struggles in the Himalayan highlands and yak and and adventures characters go through, the

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 93 story most often ends happily, especially Gender Role Stereotyping in Children's in books intended for children who are too books young to understand the complexities of life. For example The Frog Prince Hops Gender stereotyping and sexism in to It by Tony Bradman, The Ugly Duckling illustrated books affect the development of by Hans Christian Andersen, Beauty and gender identity in young children according the Beast by Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot to Narahara (1998) and Knorr (2017). In de Villeneuve. Perhaps also writers feel most of books reviewed by these authors, a little child should not be burdened males were more typically portrayed as with all the worries of the world. That possessing power, being adventitious, is why children’s books only have basic and potentially represented by dangerous emotions such as sadness, fear, anger, and beasts such as , bears and tigers. happiness, which are portrayed mostly Females tended to have smaller roles, through adventure. represented by more vulnerable creatures such as birds, cats and insects (Ferguson, Innocence is a key theme in many 2018). Keira Knightley, the British female children’s books, such as the fairytale, actor, bans her daughter from watching Little Red Riding Hood. The red-hooded Disney films like Cinderella or The Little girl is innocent throughout the book Mermaid. This is because, according to despite the danger posed by the , Knightley, Cinderella “waits around for a albeit portrayed with a gentle touch. rich guy to rescue her,” and Little Mermaid Protagonists in children’s book are gives up her voice for a man (Keira children themselves because readers love Knightley bans daughter from watching to see themselves in the text. And it is also some Disney films, 2018, para. 2 ). The agreed that little readers find it engaging reality of gender bias and the importance since the characters, themes, and action of gender equality have become widely mirror their concerns and their perspective recognized, so modern children need to on the world. Whether short stories embrace these values. Children’s books or books, the use of young characters could encourage this by adding modern ensures that the themes will be relatable to twists, like featuring a woman as the children. That is one of the reasons for the hero rather than a man. Among children’s popularity of Enid Blyton’s stories, The stories in Bhutan, Chador Wangmo’s Enchanted Wood, The Famous Five, The series featuring the nun superhero Dema: Magic Faraway Tree. Mystery of the missing egg (2017) is an excellent example of this.

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Writers such as Kortenhaus and Demarest illustration on child reader, extra attention (1993) observe that frequency of male and should be paid to illustration in Bhutanese female heroic roles are becoming more literature, including the accuracy of local evenly distributed in the global media in clothing, buildings, and landscapes. As is recent times as gender roles in society the case for much of Bhutanese children’s shift. In Bhutan, there is still a need to see literature, the themes and characters should that change. For the most part, in media be drawn from immediate surroundings. and literary representations, women are The pictures in Lion and the Hare Class still portrayed as passive characters. III has pictures from Google which are not For example, the reader from Class I, clear. Finally, we recommend that authors Occupation depicts women as forester, of children’s book check criteria for nurse and police while the Pilot, farmer, children’s book by Kiefer (2010); Kasten, electrician, doctor and teacher are all Kristo, McClure, & Garthwait (2005) and male. We should showcase woman role Cooper (2001) to get some views about model as early as Class I ( age 6- 7 years). the categorization of books, format and The book should have pictures of both setting . male and female simultaneously. Another example is Blessed Rainy Day, Class II Conclusion reader, the mother carries the baby all through the story, including while she is We have discussed the contemporary serving food with the baby on her lap. nature of Bhutanese children’s literature She is also illustrated cooking food. Even while asking question such as: Does the the book Akash’s Day only has the main book reflect contemporary environment? protagonist’s sisters and mother dress him Through our literature review of essays while the father is absent. and books about children’s literature in English, we have recommended numerous Recommendation possibilities for Bhutanese authors to consider in order to follow or adapt After exploring several aspects of children’s the trends in contemporary children’s literature, the authors here recommends books while blending in cultural aspects that the vocabulary in the book be age within the book as well. As mentioned appropriate. Language used by Bhutanese at the outset of this article, Bhutanese author can improve on lexical creativity children’s literature is still at its infancy, and grammar accuracy. Gender roles thus the authors look forward to tracking and stereotyping in children’s literature its development as more is published. In can be reduced. Given the importance of future, we wish to see more children’s

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 95 literature to strengthen reading culture, as partners for teacher educators. Journal of which in turn might stimulate more people Early Childhood Teacher Education, 40(1), to take up writing children’s books. 44-56. doi:10.1080/10901027.2019.157040 1

Fang, Z. (1996). Illustrations, Text, and the Child Reader: What are Pictures in Children’s References Storybooks for? Reading Horizons 37 (2), Alterman, E. (2018, February 18). Modern 130-142 children's literature: Twentieth century and beyond. Retrieved August 23, 2020, from Ferguson, D.(2018). Must monsters always be male? https://thesismag.com/2014/02/18/modern- Huge gender bias revealed in children’s childrens-literature-twentieth-century-and- books. Retrieved July 20 ,2020, from https:// beyond/ www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jan/21/ childrens-books-sexism-monster-in-your- BBC. (2018, October 18). Keira Knightley kids-book-is-male bans daughter from watching some Disney films. Retrieved July 20, 2020, Gannon, S. R. (1987). One More Time: Approaches from https://www.bbc.com/news/ to Repetition in Children's Literature. entertainment-arts-45900794?ns_ Children's Literature Association Quarterly mchannel=social&ns_source=facebook&ns_ 12 (1), 2-5. doi:10.1353/chq.0.0202 paign=bbcnews&ocid=socialflow_facebook

Grozdanic, A. (2013, February 14). Kids from Bhutan National Reading Programme. (2016, March around the World Tell Us Why They Love to 7). The National Reading Year 2015 annual Read. Retrieved August 20,2020, from http:// report reveal that the students, teachers and savethechildren.typepad.com/blog/2013/02/ staff have read around 2.5 million books kids-really-do-say-the-darndest-things- [Facebook update]. Retrieved on October about-reading.html 20,2020, from https://www.facebook.com/ readingbhutan/posts/the-national-reading- Harris, M. (1996). Language Experience and Early year- 2015-annual-report-reveal-that-the- Language Development: From Input to students-teachers-a/784383938362862/ Uptake. Psychology Press, an imprint of Erlbaum (UK) Taylor & Francis. Cooper, J. D. (2001). Using different types of texts Kalb, G. R., & Ours, J. C. (2013). Reading to for effective reading instruction. Houghton Young Children: A Head-Start in Life? Mifflin Company. Retrieved July 20,2020, SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ from https://www.eduplace.com/state/ ssrn.2267795 author/jdcooper.pdf.

Kasten, W. C., Kristo, J. V., McClure, A. A., & Crawford, P. A., Roberts, S. K., & Zygouris-Coe, Garthwait, A. (2005). Living literature: V. (2019). Addressing 21st-century crises Using children's literature to support through children’s literature: Picturebooks

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reading and language arts. Upper Saddle McLeod, S. (2018). Skinner - Operant Conditioning. River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall. Retrieved April 20,2020, from https:// www.simplypsychology.org/operant- Kersten, J., Apol, L., & Pataray-Ching, J. (2007, conditioning.html January). Exploring the Role of Children’s Literature in the 21st-Century Classroom. Narahara, M. M. (1998). Gender stereotypes in Retrieved August 23, 2020, from http:// children’s picture books. Retrieved July www.csun.edu/~Bashforth/305_PDF/305_ 15,2020, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/ FinalProj/RoleOfChildLit21stCentury_ fulltext/ED419248.pdf Jan2007LA.pdf Niklas, F., Cohrssen, C., & Tayler, C. Kiefer, B. Z., & Huck, C. S. (2010). Charlotte (2016). The Sooner, the Better. SAGE Huck's children's literature. Boston, MA: Open, 6 (4), 215824401667271. McGraw-Hill. doi:10.1177/2158244016672715

Kortenhaus, C. M. & Demarest, J. (1993). Gender Reading and storytelling with babies and children. role stereotyping in children's literature: An (2018, July 22). Raising children. Retrieved update. Sex Roles;A Journal of Research 28 July 20,2020, from https://raisingchildren. (3), 219-232. net.au/babies/play-learning/literacy- reading-stories/reading-storytelling Knorr, C. (2017). Gender stereotypes are messing with your kid. Retrieved July 20,2020, from Raina, S.(2014, May 31). Bhutanese Literature: https://www.commonsensemedia.org/blog/ Rich Oral tradition, but few writers. Business gender-stereotypes-are-messing-with-your- Standard. Retrieved from https://www. kid business-standard.com/article/news-ians/ bhutanese-literature-rich-oral-tradition-but- Linguanaut. (2013). Stages of Language Learning. few-writers-feature-114053100933_1.html Retrieved July 20,2020, from http://www. linguanaut.com/stages_of_language_ Schneider, J. J.(2016). The Inside, Outside, and learning.htm Upside Downs of Children's Literature: From Poets and Pop-ups to Princesses Merriam-Webster(2018).Contemporary. Retrieved and Porridge. University of South April 20, 2020, from https://www.merriam- Florida. Retrieved July 20,2020, from webster.com/dictionary/contemporary https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www. Mehawesh, M. (2014). Stages in Language google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1002& Acquisition: A Case Study. DOI: 10.5539/ article=1002&context=childrens_lit_ ells.v4n4p16.Retrieved April 20, 2020 textbook from https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/282730419_Stages_in_ Sharma, C. S. (2007). Bhutanese Folktales: Language_Acquisition_A_Case_Study Common Man’s Media with Missions For Society. Retrieved August 20,2020,

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 97 from https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/262726069_Bhutanese_ Folktales_Common_Man’s_Media_with_ Missions_for_Society Ugyen Tshomo is an Assistant Professor at Paro College of Education. She has a What is contemporary literature. (2018). Study. Master in Education in English from the com.Retrieved August 20,2020, from University of Newcastle, Australia. She https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is- currently teaches Philosophy and Political contemporary-literature-definition-writing- Science. style.html Pema Wangdi is a Senior Lecturer at Swingley, D. (2008). The Roots of Early Vocabulary Jigme Singye Wangchuck School Of Law. in Infants’ Learning From Speech. He is currently enrolled to pursue PhD Association for Psychological Science 5 at University Of Victoria, Canada. He (17). teaches Philosophy and Political Science modules in JSWSL. Zipp, Y. (2012). The Snowy Day, first picture book with black child as hero, marks 50 years. Retrieved June 20,2020, from https:// www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/ books/the- snowy-day-first-picture-book- with-black-child-as-hero-marks-50- years/2011/12/04/gIQA3a8yUP_story. html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.26ac326cba2

98 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ConferenceArticles Report

Conference Report of International Society for Bhutan Studies

Anden Drolet

The inaugural conference for the was not something to exist in a vacuum but International Society for Bhutan Studies to be a springboard for future engagement. (ISBS) was held in Magdalen College of Unified by topic rather than discipline, Oxford University in Oxford, England the goal was to enable multiple ways of from January Eighth through January seeing and speaking about Bhutan to rise Tenth of 2019. With scholars and speakers in the space of interchange. To that end, from around the world, the conference’s the conference was officially opened by design and focus was to provide a ground the Honorable Former Prime Minister of for discourse between disparate scholars Bhutan Dasho . In his unified in their interest in the country of opening remarks, Tobgay implored all Bhutan. From the opening call to action participants to view this time together by Sabina Alkire, the current head of the as one of both auspiciousness as well as organization, the intention felt throughout interdependence. Several examples of the conference was one of continued this auspiciousness could be seen in the generative work, and that this conference date and location of the conference. The

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 99 start of the conference marked the 109th attending the conference were invited to anniversary of the the Evensong session of the Magdalen between Great Britain and Bhutan and College Choir in the college chapel. the location of Magdalen College was the This set the of the evening when university where his excellency, the Druk the guests and notable members of the Gyalpo of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyel university joined for dinner in the great Wangchuck studied. hall. President of the College Sir David Clary opened the dinner with a prayer Once initiated, the conference broke out and brief history of the college’s notable into sessions held in the Grove Auditorium royal affiliates, many of whom looked and the Summer Common Room, and two on from the oil paintings surrounding the of the key themes of the keynote by the hall. This history culminated in the first former Prime Minister were evident from crowned monarch of the college, Jigme the outset: the study of Bhutan is one of Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, student of deep respect for the history of the country the college whose painting was positioned and the active analysis of the great changes next to the president of Magdalen College occurring in the country. The conference’s at the time. The former Prime Minister close attention to Bhutan allowed ended the night by remarking about the for analysis of specific intra-country warmth and hospitality of the host in “this migratory patterns and burial rituals while crystalline palace” of knowledge and the linguists traced the transformation and space of convivial exchange. adaptation of regional languages, and geographers marked the resiliency of the The second day of the conference country’s response to earthquakes. The saw further investigation into rituals, plenary session of the afternoon brought development, governance, and Gross three venerable lamas of esteemed note, National Happiness (GNH). The highlight Dralop Rinpoche Sangay Dorji Lopen of the day was the evening lectures held Gembo Dorji, and Lama Lotay Singay to in the Sheldonian Theatre. A site of great describe in erudite clarity and skill three importance for Oxford University, the aspects of Bhutanese Buddhist practice: lectures began with opening remarks from as a form of construction, Dr. Ralph Walker, former Chairman and masked dances and religious chants. Emeritus Fellow of Magdalen College, Each highlighted how deeply embedded who introduced the Former Prime Minister practices of Buddhism serve to for his talk titled, “Does Bhutan Matter? inform upon social and cultural outlooks. Stories from a Young Democracy.” This In an exchange of religious prayer, those talk served to orient those in attendance

100 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ConferenceArticles Report to the unique history and aspects of the life to serve as a useful measure of success country. Spoken with pride and deep for the country. As such, the aggregation affection, the former prime minister methods of GNH work to calculate both elaborated on the history of the monarchy, individual experiences and shared national the development of GNH, and the move success, and these serve to better align with towards a democracy brought about by the complexity of life. Concluding with a the monarchy itself. Emphasizing the comparison of some of the changes seen unique context of Bhutan, he spoke of in the country, Dasho Karma Ura noted how central the monarchs are as figures how certain scores have risen and fallen, of moral identity as the nation moves and where some of the causes might stem forward in the 21st century. Following his from. To provide further background, Dr. talk, the former Prime Minister took some James Foster, instrumental in creating the questions from the audience including a algorithms to quantify GNH results, gave more detailed discussion of the nature of a short talk on the algorithmic structure of Bhutanese political parties that run not on the multivariable index. Finally, Martine ideological divisions but on the grounds of Durand, Chief Statistician of OECD came policy practice. to provide a cross-cultural comparison with the ’s model of the The second half of the session, the keynote Better Life Index. Following the closing lecture, started with an introduction from discussion, the assembled conference Professor Louise Richardson, Vice- attendees and discussants gathered in the Chancellor of Oxford, who welcomed Divinity School Main Hall for evening Dasho Karma Ura to the stage. An and appetizers provided by the alumnus of Oxford, Dasho Karma Ura university. is the President of the Centre for Bhutan Studies and GNH Research. His lecture, The third and final day of the conference “Development with Integrity: Bhutan’s brought more sessions on the social Development and its Gross National sciences and was a chance to gather the Happiness Index”, built on the history members of the conference to discuss provided by the former Prime Minister the future of ISBS. The roundtable and delved into far greater detail on panel included Sabina Alkire, Dasho the creation of GNH survey, the nature Karma Ura, Kuenga Wangmo, Françoise of indicators, and how the categories Pommaret, Venerable Lopen Gembo are explained. Central to the argument Dorji, and Seiji Kumagai. David Gellner was that measures like Gross Domestic and Roger Goodman started the session by Product fail to capture the experiences of comparing possible routes forward for the

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 101 organization based on their experiences with the Nepali and Japanese studies organizations respectively. Questions of focus, impact, and inclusion were the central themes of the roundtable. While the next conference date was debated in the roundtable, there was an agreement that more scholars from Bhutan need to be supported by the society. It was noted that the majority of scholarship on Bhutan is being published within journals of the natural sciences, yet there were almost no papers at the conference from the natural Anden Drolet is a PhD student in cultural sciences, and outreach to other disciplines anthropology at the University of Colorado Boulder. His research interests look at the was a priority for future conferences. intersection of Gross National Happiness, Along with conventional scholarship, development and local frameworks of the roundtable also proposed that further well-being. support of monastic scholarship and translation was needed. Following an afternoon session, the conference was formally closed by Sabina Alkire, who along with managing and trouble- shooting this inaugural conference, is a key contributor to the country’s GNH studies. In her concluding remarks, Alkire called upon all scholars to continue to strive for inclusion and collaboration and encouraged all to maintain these discussions until the next conference of the International Society for Bhutan Studies is convened.

102 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ArticlesBook Review

Old Demons, New Deities: Twenty-One Short Stories from Tibet. Tenzin Dickie (ed.) New York & London: OR Books, 2017. 286 pages. ISBN: 978-1-682191-00-2

Review by Eben Yonnetti

“You know how vampires have no mark an important step toward creating reflections in the mirror? If you want to a body of modern Tibetan literature and make a human being into a monster, deny a source for Tibetans searching for their them, at the cultural level, any reflection own reflections. of themselves.” Quoting Junot Díaz’ provocative words, editor Tenzin Dickie Although Tibetan literary traditions have introduces readers of Old Demons, New existed for over 1,400 years, modern Deities to the precariously meagre state literature in Tibet has only emerged in fits of Tibetan self-representation in modern and starts. In the mid twentieth century, literature. Like many Tibetans, both inside Dorjé Tharchin (1890-1976) published the People’s Republic of and in the first Tibetan language newspaper, The exile, Dickie recalls a childhood when the Tibet Mirror (yul phyogs so so’i gsar ‘gyur available films and literature were largely me long), which served as a literary vehicle devoid of relatable images of people like for world news, modern science, and herself. Although emic religious texts eventually Tibetan nationalist sentiments. and foreign works about Tibetans were Although disrupted by the People’s numerous, who could a young Tibetan Liberation Army’s invasion of Tibet, the identify with in Tintin in Tibet or The exodus of many prominent Tibetans, and East is Red (东方红)? Responding to the , modern Tibetan this lacuna, the twenty-one short stories literary production was revived in the published in Old Demons, New Deities early 1980s largely through the work

IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 103 of the Dhondup Gyal (1953-1985). His most prominent Tibetan authors: Pema literary journals, Tibetan Literature (Bod Bhum, Woeser, Pema Tseden, Jamyang kyi rtsom rig rgyu rtsal) and Light Rain Norbu, Tsering Dondrup, Bhuchung (sbang char) and collection of poetry, D. Sonam, Kyabchen Dedrol, Tsering The Dawn of Clear and Simple Writing Wangmo Dhompa, Tenzin Dorjee, (bol rtsom zhogs pa’i skya rengs), paved Takbum Gyal, Tenzin Dickie, Dhondup the way for modern Tibetan language Tashi Rekjong, Tsering Namgyal Khortsa, publications. It was Dhondup Gyal’s Pema Tsewang Shastri, Tenzin Tsundue, poem “Waterfall of Youth” (lang tsho’i and Tsering Lama. The topics of their short rbab chu), however, that ignited a flurry of stories are wide ranging, and they are set Tibetan compositions in the post-Cultural in widely disparate geographies. Indeed, Revolution period and inspired many of if there is one strand that connects these the authors featured in Old Demons, New stories, it is the phenomenal complexity Deities. of Tibetans’ lives in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Today, Tibetan authors compose novels, poetry, and short stories in various Tibetan Several of the stories deal with traditional vernaculars, Chinese, English and other Tibetan motifs, such as the interrelation languages via numerous print and online of love, music, and dreams described outlets. Nevertheless, until recently there in Pema Tseden’s “The Dream of a has not been much translated into English Wandering Minstrel” or nomadic life and or published outside of South Asia. With the power of local deities Jamyang Norbu the publication of Old Demons, New touches upon in “The Silence.” Others Deities a significant step has been made depict Tibetan narratives from the recent toward expanding the modern Tibetan past, such as Pema Bhum’s satirical take literary world, and it is for this reason that on Communist officialdom around the it serves on a global scale as what editor time of Chairman Mao’s death in “Wink” Tenzin Dickie describes as “the coming or a grizzled freedom fighter’s impossible out story of the Tibetan short story” (p. 7). last stand in Jamyang Norbu’s “Hunter’s Moon.” Nevertheless, the vast majority Some of the short stories contained within of the stories in Old Demons, New Old Demons, New Deities were composed Deities reflect contemporary Tibetans’ in English, while others were translated struggles, joys, and sorrows. Woeser’s from Tibetan and Chinese, mainly by the “Nyima Tsering’s Tears,” for example, volume’s editor and a few others. The highlights the uncertainty and sadness of sixteen contributors are some of today’s a monk from Lhasa who is faced with an

104 IJBHR Inaugural Issue 2020 ArticlesBook Review exiled Tibetan’s anguished protests while The short stories in Old Demons, New serving as a Party emissary to . In Deities give readers an honest and raw Tsering Dondrup’s “Valley of the Black reflection of Tibetans as they navigate “the Foxes,” Sangye and Ludron’s faith in spaces between tradition and modernity, the Communist government and hope occupation and exile, the national and in material ‘progress’ are reminiscent the personal” (p. 7). For Tibetan readers, of Upton Sinclair’s Jurgis, with the Dickie hopes, the stories “examine and exception that their story concludes with explain our heartbreak—the heartbreak of a sober reckoning with the contemporary our occupation, our exile, our diaspora— environmental destruction in Tibet. and in doing so, they give us comfort, clarity, and a measure of belonging” (p. Just as the book’s cover art by 7). Bringing together in English short contemporary Tibetan artist Tsherin Sherpa stories from a diverse group of today’s pushes boundaries in its transformation most influential Tibetan authors, Old of traditional religious imagery, several Demons, New Deities truly stands out as of the short stories in Old Demons, a unique contribution to the burgeoning New Deities push boundaries through field of contemporary Tibetan literature. exploring female sexuality, psychological More than that, this volume generates trauma, sex trafficking, HIV/AIDS, and vivid and complicated images of Tibetans other difficult topics. Kyabchen Dedrol’s in the twenty-first century and in doing so, “Snow Pilgrimage” discloses the manifold contributes to the literary reflections of emotions and sexuality of a young Tibetan themselves available to Tibetans around sex worker swept up in the caterpillar the world today. fungus economy. Crossing south of the Himalayas, Tsering Wangmo Dhompa’s Eben Yonnetti is a PhD Student in the “Letter for Love” depicts the complex Department of Religious Studies at the calculations around happiness, money, University of Virginia. His research interests love, and family by Tibetan women include the contemporary transmission of in exile. All of these stories provide across and the important glimpses into moments that historical and contemporary relationships are simultaneously the unique stories of between Buddhists and the environment. individuals as well as a collective story of Tibetan identity in the early twenty-first century.

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