Graham Sansom

Is Australian Local Government

Ready for he recent launch in New Zealand of a national Localism project (LGNZ, Tn.d.) raises a number of interesting questions for observers of Australian local government. Those questions revolve Localism? around interpretations of ‘localism’ and the likelihood of a coherent localism Abstract agenda emerging in Australia. How might Localism is widely supported as an antidote to what are seen as the New Zealand project translate across the Tasman Sea? Does Australian local the adverse impacts of globalisation and one-size-fits-all, top-down government want to follow a similar path, central government. But interpretations of localism and views on and would it be ready to do so? how it should be practised vary greatly. This presents particular Interpreting localism challenges for local government, which typically sees itself as the Support for localism reflects widespread rightful beneficiary of a localism agenda focused on devolution and concerns about, on the one hand, the adverse economic, social and environ- decentralisation, but must then confront difficult questions about its mental impacts of globalisation, and, own institutional frameworks, its revenue base, and sharing power on the other, continuing centralisation with local communities. While local government in New Zealand of power in the hands of national governments (Albertson, 2017; Brooks, is exploring these issues through a national Localism project, its 2018). Many believe that local action can counterparts in Australia seem ill-prepared to follow suit. address some of the ‘wicked’ problems that governments appear unwilling or Keywords local government, devolution, regions, communities, unable to resolve: communities should be neighbourhoods, democracy empowered both to deal with their local concerns and to help address ‘big picture’ Graham Sansom is an Adjunct Professor at the University of Technology Sydney. He was previously director of the Australian Centre of Excellence for Local Government, and chief executive of the issues. Localism is thus intertwined with Australian Local Government Association. the governance principle of subsidiarity:

Policy Quarterly – Volume 15, Issue 2 – May 2019 – Page 25 Is Australian Local Government Ready for Localism? central governments should act only with goal, not local government’ (Commission ‘institutional infrastructure – at the respect to those tasks that cannot be on the Future of Localism, n.d., p.12). This neighbourhood scale’ is imperative for performed effectively at a more local level. point is highlighted in Taylor’s account of localism to happen. Her research into the Precisely because it espouses such a the ‘new localism’ adopted by Britain’s development of localism in urban England broad agenda, definitions of localism and Labour government in the late 1990s. found that ‘in EVERY case, localism ambitions for its implementation vary While local government was seen as a key depended upon the existence of an dramatically. The Oxford dictionary player, it was ‘far from clear to minister [sic] independent neighbourhood forum that suggests ‘Preference for one’s own area or and policy advisers in government that was able to represent local interests, develop region, especially when this results in a councils are the best bodies to promote an agenda for the local area, and make limitation of outlook’ or ‘A characteristic relevant and effective forms of things happen’. of a particular locality, such as a local idiom accountability and public engagement’ The policies of the UK government can or custom.’ Cambridge has a different view: (Taylor, 2013, p.23). Other options were also be seen as an expression of what might ‘the idea that people should have floated, such as the direct election of be termed ‘neo-liberal localism’, which is control over what happens in their local hospital boards and police chiefs, and there concerned with efficiency as much as area, that local businesses should be was talk of ‘double devolution’: power democracy, through the medium of supported, and that differences between needed to be shifted downwards ‘from competition. In his global review of places should be respected’. Whitehall and Westminster down to town localism, Hartwich refers to the work of Hayek, who preferred local to central government, but favoured private provision Localism is fundamentally about ‘place’ of services above all, and Tiebout, who argued that residents and businesses should and bringing people and organisations be able to choose between municipalities together within a framework of places in with differing policies, tax rates etc. Hartwich argues that: order to address social, economic and Subsidiarity is a central element of environmental concerns. good governance …This is the best way of enlivening democracy, engaging citizens with the political process, and preserving individual freedom … Local ‘Local government’ is not mentioned in halls, and from town halls to communities government can be more efficient in the either case, but there is a strong body of and citizens’ (Mulgan and Bury, 2006, p.5). services it provides. Arguably, it could opinion that sees elected local councils as This was the approach adopted by the also provide them at a better quality a principal means by which localism Conservative–Liberal Democrat within a system of competitive localism. agendas may be pursued. This belief seems government that assumed power in 2010. (Hartwich, 2013, pp.13–14, 11–12, 30– to lie at the heart of the New Zealand Its 2011 Localism Act strengthened to some 31) Localism project: degree the position of local government, but also included provisions that offered A very different strand of localism is Localism involves a new approach to communities and civil society a greatly ‘direct action’ by communities in supporting governing New Zealand, one in which expanded role in local planning and service local businesses, co-production of food citizens and communities, working with delivery. Prominent among those and other necessities, tackling social issues and through their local governments, provisions were the right to bid to wrest and environmental sustainability. A typical have a more active and meaningful role ownership and/or management of services example is Re>Think Local, a community … This requires re-distributing roles and facilities from councils, and processes organisation in the Hudson Valley, New and functions between central and local for existing parish councils and newly York. Its objective is ‘co-creating a better government. (LGNZ, n.d., p.3, emphasis created neighbourhood forums to prepare Hudson Valley’ and it sees localism in the added) binding ‘neighbourhood plans’ that could following terms: amend councils’ land use and development By contrast, the Commission on the policies. Localism is about building communities Future of Localism, established by two Parish, town or community councils that are more healthy and sustainable British community-based organisations – (known collectively as ‘local councils’) – backed by local economies that are Locality and Power to Change – concluded function across much of England and stronger and more resilient ... The goal that ‘Reducing the debate on localism to Wales. They are all popularly elected and is real prosperity – for all … Localists the question of “what powers are devolved?” offer a ready-made vehicle for localism, also recognize that while our focus is while a key part, misses the fundamental especially if ‘double devolution’ is a central primarily on our own communities, point about localism: people are the end objective. Wills (2016) argues that our vision is global. Each of us is

Page 26 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 15, Issue 2 – May 2019 crafting a piece of a larger mosaic – a Localism project, offer a valuable point of led by, local government. Its reference to global network of cooperatively reference for considering these questions, decentralisation of services is particularly interlinked local economies. (Re>Think and in particular the prospects for localism worthy of note. First, it reflects a strong Local, n.d.) in Australia. emphasis on improved service delivery being a key element and benefit of localism. The reference to a global vision and The New Zealand Localism project Second, it implies that localism depends network points to the crucial issue of scale: The launch document for the New Zealand on central government either funding a how local is local, and how does localism Localism project asserts that: sizeable proportion of the increased costs deal with wider concerns? Localism is to councils, or enabling councils to raise fundamentally about ‘place’ and bringing Instead of relying on central additional revenues. With Local people and organisations together within a government to decide what is good for Government New Zealand’s support, the framework of places in order to address our communities it is time to empower New Zealand Productivity Commission is social, economic and environmental councils and communities themselves currently undertaking a wide-ranging concerns. It incorporates themes such as to make such decisions. This means review of local government funding that place-shaping, integrated place-based strengthening local self-government, will consider, among other things, options planning and service delivery, and putting people back in charge of for new funding and financing tools collaborative leadership (Hambleton, 2011). But the geography of place is complex: spatial relationships vary depending on the issues involved. So as Stoker commented: ... the New Zealand Productivity ‘The difficulty is that we are still very unclear Commission is currently undertaking a about the territorial level at which to conduct the new localism. Is it the regional, wide-ranging review of local government county, district or neighbourhood level? If funding that will consider, among other it is all four, how can the system be made coherent?’ He argued that localism must things, options for new funding and also address the big issues, and identified weaknesses in the framework and practice financing tools of local politics as a significant constraint to be overcome (Stoker, 2002, p.22). In a similar vein, Wills highlights the recent shift in emphasis in Britain from politics and reinvigorating our (Productivity Commission, 2018). However, neighbourhoods to devolution at the democracy. We are seeking an active requests for additional grants carry the risk regional level, with the establishment of programme of devolution and that central government will instead combined authorities of councils and decentralisation. support provision of services by negotiation of city/devolution deals community organisations, as occurred in between those authorities and central It goes on to invoke the principle of Britain, while councillors would have to government. She notes: subsidiarity based on the following values: shoulder the political risk of raising any • that the allocation of responsibilities to new local taxes or charges. an expectation that these city deals will councils will be designed to ensure Another significant feature of the involve the further decentralisation of accountability is clear and elected launch document is its emphasis on local political power within the areas members incentivised to act in the best government becoming more accountable concerned but the jury is out on interests of their communities; for its expenditures and performance. It whether and how this will happen. The • that citizens will have a meaningful say commits local government to independent, connections between city-deals and about the range and nature of local external performance reviews, and to localism are yet to be seen and … many services in their communities; rigorous scrutiny of expenditure and policy remain cynical that the city-deals will • that the decentralisation of services will decision making that ensures community simply move from one set of elites in be accompanied by financial resources needs and preferences are met in an Westminster and Whitehall to another commensurate with the cost of efficient and effective manner (LGNZ, n.d., in the local town hall. (Wills, 2016) providing those services; and p.2). This perhaps echoes neo-liberal • that localism will ensure a ‘place-based’ ‘competitive localism’. This brings us back to questions about and integrated approach to the Oddly, the document does not the role of local government within a provision of services and local mention the potential of New Zealand’s broader conception of localism. The recent governance. (LGNZ, n.d., p.2) statutory regional councils and history of local government in New This framework evidently favours a neighbourhood-scale community boards, Zealand, and the intent of the current form of localism chiefly focused on, and which are either wholly or partly elected

Policy Quarterly – Volume 15, Issue 2 – May 2019 – Page 27 Is Australian Local Government Ready for Localism? and could be used to facilitate localism Government conference held in Melbourne. at all. Local government accounts for only agendas at different spatial scales. Over The declaration asserted that: 4–5% of total public expenditure, less than the years unitary authorities (local half the New Zealand figure. councils with wider powers) have replaced Our present ways of thinking and Rather than devolve responsibilities to some regional councils, and in many governing are neither coping with the local government, the states have repeatedly places there are no community boards, pace of change nor meeting citizens’ centralised functions. For example, in the their establishment being optional.1 expectations. There is an urgent need 1990s the New South Wales government Nevertheless, experience gained over three for a fresh approach and responsive ‘resumed’ electricity distribution from decades in allocating responsibilities leadership … Councils have a unique county councils, and almost every state has across three different forms of local mandate to support, represent and give increased its direct control over land use government, and engaging with and voice to ‘communities of place’. They planning and major urban developments. empowering local people through can provide an ideal platform for All the main utilities and public services community boards, would seem to governments at all levels to strengthen (transport, education, health, police etc.) provide a solid foundation for multi-scale their engagement with communities – are run by state agencies or have been and multifaceted localism. Australian and there is also a real opportunity to privatised, except for some public transport in Brisbane, and water supply and sewerage across Queensland, Tasmania2 and non- metropolitan New South Wales. In [Australian] councils and their particular, the states totally dominate the representative associations rarely project governance of metropolitan regions, where local government remains divided into their potential to contribute considerable numerous municipalities that play a distinctly ‘junior’ role. South East financial and human resources to state Queensland is a partial exception, due to and national agendas. the size and spending power of Brisbane City Council and its populous and rapidly growing neighbours, including Gold Coast. But even there recent years have seen local government certainly has much to bring about a renaissance in local increasing centralisation. Significantly, learn from that experience. government itself. none of the states has legislated to require councils to establish regional local Prospects in Australia It then urged local governments to governments to which they or the federal Drawing together the various strands of ‘Consider how their own roles and approach government could readily devolve powers localism outlined above, a localism agenda to community leadership may need to and functions (Sansom, 2019, p.16). for Australia might comprise the following change, and … Adopt a decentralised Faced with these challenges, Australian elements: model for their own activities, including local government tends to focus on its • devolution of additional powers and place-based planning and service delivery, weaknesses rather than its strengths. It functions from central to local and devolving decision-making to appears preoccupied with state centralism governments, and from local communities’ (Future of Local Government on the one hand, and the belief that it is governments to representative locality- Conference, 2017). entitled to more federal financial support based organisations; So is Australian local government on the other. Councils and their • expanded regional cooperation between willing and able to champion such an representative associations rarely project local governments to enhance their agenda? To answer that question it is their potential to contribute considerable capacity to address ‘big picture’ issues important first to highlight some critical financial and human resources to state and affecting the well-being of their features of Australia’s federal system. This national agendas. Councils generally see communities; is characterised by what might be termed their revenue base as inadequate for the • more widespread use by local ‘double centralisation’: federal (national) tasks they already face, and devolution of governments of integrated, place-based expenditures as a share of the total are more functions would undoubtedly be planning and service delivery; and around the OECD average, but the states opposed unless it was matched by increased • enhancing local democracy through and territories account for nearly all the grants or expanded revenue sources – the improvements to electoral systems and rest and receive all but $3 billion or so of same position as that adopted by Local greater emphasis on participatory and federal transfers. Also, the states control Government New Zealand. In part this deliberative mechanisms; every aspect of local government, and reflects the continuing presence – and An agenda along these lines was in fact intervene in local affairs more or less as influence – of large numbers of small (in put forward in a declaration adopted by they see fit, while the Australian Capital population) rural-remote municipalities delegates to the 2017 Future of Local Territory has no separate local governments that already depend on federal and state

Page 28 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 15, Issue 2 – May 2019 grants to discharge even basic functions plans, and externally funded regional framework, ‘citizen committees have the such as building and maintaining local projects (Sansom, 2019, pp.11–13). There potential to represent and advocate from roads. are evident concerns that state governments a community perspective. Unfortunately The sector’s mindset was apparent in will interfere in the operations of statutory this potential is seldom realised. Councils policy statements for the New South entities, and that ‘too much’ cooperation appear reluctant to explore the possibilities Wales and federal elections held could lead to ‘amalgamation by stealth’ of adapting citizen committees to fulfil this respectively in March and May 2019. Local (ibid., p.20). kind of remit’ (Bolitho, 2013, p.27). Government NSW (the state association Such concerns were reflected in the When the Independent Local of councils) set out 12 priorities (Local reaction of Local Government NSW to Government Review Panel recommended Government NSW, n.d.). At first glance proposals made by the New South Wales that the Local Government Act make there are hints of a robust localism agenda Independent Local Government Review Panel specific provision for elected community in headings such as ‘Support local (Local Government NSW, 2014, pp.51–6; boards as an option, this was flatly opposed decision-making’ and ‘Promote strong Independent Local Government Review Panel, by Local Government NSW, which governance and democracy’, but it soon 2013, 81– 87) for new regional joint dismissed the idea as ‘introducing another becomes apparent that the focus is firmly organisations. These were intended to facilitate layer of government for no apparent on local government’s longstanding concerns about inadequate state grants, cost shifting and rate pegging; excessive state controls and interventions in local There are no specific legislative affairs; removal of land use planning provisions anywhere in Australia for powers; and ‘domestic’ issues such as election spending laws, councillor neighbourhood bodies along the lines superannuation and skills shortages. For the federal election, the Australian of New Zealand’s community boards, Local Government Association (ALGA) although again councils are free to form proposed 12 initiatives to ‘deliver for Australian communities’ (ALGA, 2018). All area-based committees with community but three were wholly or largely bids for additional federal grants to councils, representatives, and to delegate some amounting to a doubling of current decision-making powers. transfers (some $3 billion more per annum). There were repeated assertions that local government simply could not do more with its own resources. While several greatly expanded cooperation amongst local purpose’ (Independent Local Government initiatives portrayed local government as a councils and with state agencies, not least as Review Panel, 2013, pp.93–5; Local ‘partner’ in the federation, none spelled out an alternative to unwanted council Government NSW, 2014, p.61). Similarly, ways in which councils could or would play amalgamations. But the association argued Dollery, Kortt and Crase argued that ‘there a stronger role without more federal successfully for a much weaker version of the is no need to “reinvent the wheel” in NSW assistance. concept which largely maintains the voluntary local government by introducing additional At the same time, Australian local ‘opt-in, opt-out’ culture of ROCs and restricts “sub-council” structures since existing government has demonstrated a marked mandatory cooperation to non-binding regulation already enables local authorities reluctance to create or support substantial regional strategies. to engage in local co-governance’ (Dollery, regional or neighbourhood entities. There are no specific legislative Kortt and Crase, 2014, p.747). This Councils everywhere are free to establish provisions anywhere in Australia for conveniently ignores the fact that under regional agreements and organisations to neighbourhood bodies along the lines of ‘existing regulation’ only councils can discharge some or all of their responsibilities, New Zealand’s community boards, determine what forms of ‘local co- and all states except Victoria have although again councils are free to form governance’ may be implemented; customised legislative frameworks in place. area-based committees with community communities are not enabled to decide However, as noted earlier, regional representatives, and to delegate some these matters for themselves. collaboration remains voluntary. Regional decision-making powers. Indeed, many A similar discussion had taken place in organisations of councils (ROCs) and have done so. But a study of the widespread Queensland in 2007. The Queensland similar non-statutory alliances are use of citizen committees as a source of Local Government Reform Commission widespread, but their activities are typically advice and to help manage community was required to consider ‘the ability of limited to advocacy, some joint services and facilities struck a cautious note. community boards (and other similar procurement and perhaps a few other It concluded that if formally recognised structures) to deliver services and preserve shared services, non-binding strategic within a community governance and enhance community and cultural

Policy Quarterly – Volume 15, Issue 2 – May 2019 – Page 29 Is Australian Local Government Ready for Localism? identity’. After quoting at length from an are not uncommon, and several states have and very similar principles emerged again unfavourable (and unreferenced) review promoted further reductions in the number in the ‘integrated planning and reporting’ of New Zealand’s community boards elected. Moreover, there is a trend to electing (IPR) provisions added to the New South submitted by the Local Government councillors ‘at large’ in a single electorate Wales Local Government Act in 2009.3 Association, the commission saw: rather than by locality-based wards or These require councils to work with their divisions. These features reflect the idea that communities to prepare community no advantage in incorporating councillors should operate as a small, policy- strategic plans and delivery programmes community boards as a formal part of setting ‘board of directors’ that leaves that clearly identify key strategic issues and Queensland’s local government implementation of policy and programmes desired outcomes, and how those outcomes structure … installing another tier of in the hands of professional managers. are to be achieved through concerted ‘elected’ members to a community While all this may not bode well for an action by the council and other responsible board derogates from the concept of Australian localism, there is another story. agencies, including community representative government. Nor should As the 2017 Future of Local Government organisations. Similar provisions were ratepayers be faced with the burden of conference declaration acknowledged, many adopted in Western Australia a few years having to fund a second tier of councils do have a record of achievement later. More broadly, over the past two decades Australian local government has made ... only one council, Waratah– great strides in improving community Wynyard in north-west Tasmania, has consultation and engagement, and some local government acts now require councils formally established and empowered a to prepare comprehensive community engagement strategies that go far beyond ‘community board’ for part of its area ... consulting from time to time on specific plans and projects. A number of councils have experimented with deliberative democracy through citizen juries and community representation. (Local on which to build. ‘Community online panels in order to determine Government Reform Commission, development’ has been a recurring theme expenditure priorities and obtain regular 2007, pp.49–50) in local government practice since at least community input on current and emerging the 1970s. In the early 1990s ALGA issues. In Victoria, councils have assisted In the absence of substantial entities at formulated and secured federal government residents to prepare formal (but non- neighbourhood/district level, the electoral support for a programme of ‘integrated statutory) community plans that outline a system for councils assumes particular local area planning’ (ILAP) that promoted vision for the township or locality and importance. In Queensland, New South local government’s role in ‘place identify priorities for expenditure on Wales and Victoria – that is, for the great management’, including coordination of facilities, services and other initiatives.4 majority of Australians – voting in local planning and service delivery with federal And, as noted earlier, councils routinely government elections is compulsory, as it is and state agencies. ALGA advocated six work with citizen committees and for state and federal elections, and voter ILAP principles: community organisations in the provision turnout is around 70% or more. However, • More appropriate [tailored] responses or management of services and facilities. in South Australia, Western Australia and to differing local circumstances and But it remains telling that only one Tasmania voting remains voluntary: turnout needs; council, Waratah–Wynyard in north-west in the former two is very low (around 30– • A holistic, integrated approach to the Tasmania, has formally established and 35%), although in the recent Tasmanian issues affecting a local area; empowered a ‘community board’ for part elections it reached close to 60%. This may • A shared understanding of those issues, of its area, and even there the members of be explained in part by the use of postal and a shared vision of desired futures the board are appointed by the council voting, the relatively small populations of • More effective use of resources through (after expressions of interest and a selection most local government areas, and the improved coordination between process), not elected by local people popular election of all mayors. programs; (Waratah–Wynyard Council, n.d.). From a localism perspective, a significant • Increased community involvement in drawback of local government electoral planning and management processes Conclusion systems across Australia is the typically low • Pursuit of local government’s mandate Despite some significant constraints, number of councillors per head of to play a leadership role. (ALGA, 1993, Australian local government could, if it population in most metropolitan areas and p.1). wished, pursue a substantial localism large regional centres. Ratios of one Although the ILAP initiative as such agenda. Local government acts provide councillor (usually part-time except in petered out in the mid-1990s, it anticipated a power of general competence or its Queensland) to 10,000 or more residents what later became known as ‘new localism’, equivalent, including the ability to establish

Page 30 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 15, Issue 2 – May 2019 regional and neighbourhood bodies South Wales Independent Local Stoker saw the need ‘to construct and to delegate decision-making (but Government Review Panel called for political and institutional forms that reflect not budgetary) authority to community ‘revitalisation’ and for the ‘old debates and and can manage the diverse, complex and committees. Moreover, most urban slogans’ about amalgamations, cost shifting, conflict-laden nature of localities’ (Stoker, municipalities and some rural shires enjoy rate pegging and increased grants across 2002, p.22). Local politics must both a high level of financial independence: the board to be put aside (Independent address the ‘everyday’ things people care their relatively limited responsibilities are Local Government Review Panel, 2013, about and deal with bigger issues. This well matched by their own-source revenues p.7). But they persist. requires a willingness to consider how local from property rates and service charges. It therefore seems unlikely that even the and regional democracy might evolve to And as the populations of metropolitan local government-centric version of meet new challenges. Australian local municipalities and regional cities continue localism set out in the launch document government may be clinging to a model to grow, so does the need to consider for the New Zealand Localism project that becomes increasingly redundant. whether different localities within those would win majority support. Devolution 1 However, across New Zealand citizens can initiate the local government areas would benefit might beget more cost shifting, while establishment of communitiy boards, and the amalgamated from tailored approaches to governance increased regional collaboration could Auckland Council, created in 2009, has local boards mandated by its Act, which have specific statutory functions. and service delivery. threaten councils’ autonomy and lead to Most serve much larger populations than community boards elsewhere. But many – perhaps most – councils ‘amalgamation by stealth’. Prospects for 2 Tasmania has a state-wide corporation owned by local remain preoccupied with the burdens of closer engagement and co-governance with government. 3 IPR also reflected New Zealand’s arrangements at the time state centralism and the perception local communities are perhaps brighter, for the determination of preferred community outcomes and (unquestionable reality in the case of rural- especially given emerging legislative preparation of long-term council community plans. 4 See, for example, https://www.mildura.vic.gov.au/Council- remote areas) that they already lack requirements for engagement strategies Services/Community-Development/Community-Planning. sufficient resources to do their job. Local that include elements of deliberative government thus shows little or no democracy. But there are no moves towards inclination to take the risk of playing a elected neighbourhood bodies or far- larger role. There are of course exceptions reaching delegation of decision-making to this generalisation, but the prevailing authority. narrative is one of incapacity. The New

References Albertson, K. (2017) ‘Hate globalisation? Try localism, not nationalism’, logonetdotorgdotau.wordpress.com/2017/11/14/future-of-local- The Conversation, 10 November, https://theconversation.com/ government-conference-may-2017-declaration/ hate-globalisation-try-localism-not-nationalism-86870 Hambleton, R. (2011) ‘Place-based leadership in a global era’, ALGA (1993) A Guide to Integrated Local Area Planning, Canberra: Commonwealth e-Journal of Local Governance, 8/9, May–November, Australian Local Government Association, https://alga.asn.au/site/misc/ pp.8–32, http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/ojs/index.php/cjlg alga/downloads/publications/A_guide_to_intergrated_local_area_ Hartwich, O. (2013) A Global Perspective on Localism, Wellington: New planning.pdf Zealand Initiative and Local Government New Zealand ALGA (2018) All Politics is Local: 12 ways to deliver for Australian Independent Local Government Review Panel (2013) Revitalising Local communities, Canberra: Australian Local Government Association, Government: final report of the New South Wales Independent Local http://allpoliticsislocal.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ALGA_ Government Review Panel, https://www.olg.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/ Election_Document.pdf files/Revitalising-Local-Government-ILGRP-Final-Report-October-2013. Bolitho, A. (2013) The Role and Future of Citizen Committees in Australian pdf Local Government, Sydney: Australian Centre of Excellence for Local LGNZ (n.d.) Local Government Position Statement on Localism, Wellington: Government, University of Technology Sydney Local Government New Zealand and New Zealand Initiative, http:// Brooks, D. (2018) ‘The localist revolution: sometimes, it pays off to sweat www.lgnz.co.nz/assets/Uploads/4853d04950/46672-LGNZ-Localism- the small stuff’, New York Times, 19 July, https://www.nytimes. launch-document.pdf com/2018/07/19/opinion/national-politics-localism-populism.html Local Government NSW (2014) Submission on the Independent Local Commission on the Future of Localism (n.d.) People Power: findings from Government Review Panel’s Revitalising Local Government, https:// the Commission on the Future of Localism – summary report, London: www.lgnsw.org.au/files/imce-uploads/127/submission-to-independent- Locality and Power to Change lg-review-panel-april-2014.pdf Dollery, B., M.A. Kortt and L. Crase (2014) ‘Community council Local Government NSW (n.d.) NSW Election Priorities 2019, https://www. cooperation: the Lake Macquarie City Council co-governance lgnsw.org.au/files/imce-uploads/581/LGNSW_NSW_Election_ delegation model’, International Journal of Public Administration, 37 Priorities_2019-FINAL.pdf (11), pp.747–55 Local Government Reform Commission (2007) Report of the Local Future of Local Government Conference (2017) ‘Future of Local Government Reform Commission: volume 1, Brisbane: Local Government conference, May 2017: declaration’, https:// Government Reform Commission

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Mulgan, G. and F. Bury (eds) (2006) Double Devolution: the renewal of Taylor, M. (2003) ‘There’s local, then there’s local’, Public Finance, 27 local government, London: Smith Institute June–3 July Productivity Commission (2018) Local Government Funding and Financing: Waratah–Wynyard Council (n.d.) Waratah Community Board Charter, issues paper, Wellington: New Zealand Productivity Commission https://www.warwyn.tas.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/Draft%20 Re>Think Local (n.d.) ‘Localism 101’, http://www.rethinklocal.org/about/ Waratah%20Community%20Board%20Charter.pdf localism-101/ Wills, J. (2016) ‘The future of localism and devolution in England’, http:// Sansom, G. (2019) The Practice of Municipal Cooperation: Australian www.mei.qmul.ac.uk/news-and-opinion/2016-blog-archive/items/ perspectives and comparisons with Canada, IMFG papers 44, Toronto: the-future-of-localism-and-devolution-in-england.html Institute on Municipal Finance and Governance, University of Toronto Stoker, G. (2002) ‘Going local’, Public Finance, 28 June–4 July

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