sustainability

Article -Based : A New Model for the Development of Italian Inner Areas

Luigi Mastronardi and Luca Romagnoli *

Department of , University of Molise, 86100 Campobasso, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]

 Received: 4 February 2020; Accepted: 6 March 2020; Published: 8 March 2020 

Abstract: Italian municipalities distant from main service supply hubs are defined by the Development Ministry as “inner areas”. A new business model, called community-based cooperatives, has recently developed in these areas. The name itself highlights the strong link between these firms and the local population. Their essential features are the pursuit of general interest and the creation of . This explores the potential contribution of these enterprises to the growth of Italian inner areas. The data come from a direct survey, and the methodology includes text analysis techniques and correspondence analysis to create useful concept maps that define the paths that community-based cooperatives can take to regenerate their territories. The results highlight the critical issues of inner areas and the needs of their , together with the potential fields of business for the establishment of a community-based . In conclusion, these new firms may lead to real and enduring benefits to local communities. They could also contribute to demographic decline inversion by introducing new practices that reduce inequalities, enhance social, natural, and artificial capital, and boost the process.

Keywords: cooperation; community; place-based approach; content and sentiment analysis; correspondence analysis; inner areas; Italy

1. Introduction Inner areas (IAs) are municipalities that are distant from cities but capable of offering some essential services, which condition the standard of living for residents and their degree of social inclusion [1]. In recent years, IAs have been the subject of a public intervention, called the Strategia Nazionale per le Aree Interne (Inner Areas National ; SNAI) [2]. The SNAI is founded on a place-based approach [3], and its main purpose is to invert the negative demographic trend afflicting IAs. The SNAI approach to IA classification relies on two phases: (1) detection of the so-called poles and inter-municipal poles, where essential services (health, , mobility) are concentrated; and (2) classification of the remaining municipalities into four groups: urban belt areas, intermediate areas, peripheral areas, and ultra-peripheral areas. The last three groups form inner areas (Figure1): they are identified on the basis of their respective distance from poles, calculated as the time (in minutes) required to reach the nearest pole. In particular, intermediate areas are those that are between 20 and 40 min away from their nearest pole; peripheral areas are between 40 and 75 min away; and ultra-peripheral areas are more than 75 min away.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 2082; doi:10.3390/su12052082 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 2082 2 of 13 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13

Figure 1. Strategia Nazionale per le Aree Interne ( (SNAI)SNAI) 2014 classification classification of Italian municipalities municipalities.. Source: own elaboration elaboration..

WhenWhen the SNAI was defined,defined, the groups constituting IAs IAs consisted consisted of of 4,185 4185 municipalitiesmunicipalities (almost 52% of total Italian municipalities), and more than 13 million people (approximately 22% of the national population) lived there.there. The rationale rationale underpinning underpinning the the classification classification methodology methodology is overcoming is overcoming the traditional the traditional city– city–countrysidecountryside dualism. dualism. The centre The may centre be may a little be town a little or towneven several or even neighbouring several neighbouring towns, provided towns, providedthey are capable they are of capableoffering ofessential offering public essential services. public On services.the other hand, On the a city other can hand, be classified a city can as an be classifiedinner area as if anit is inner not able area to if offer it is not adequate able to citizenship offer adequate services. citizenship services. In Italian IAs, aa newnew entrepreneurialentrepreneurial modelmodel hashas recentlyrecently developed,developed, calledcalled community-basedcommunity-based cooperatives (CBCs) [4,5]. [4,5]. The The name stresses the strong link between these organisationsorganisations and local populations, which constitute the fundamental element of theirtheir mission and for their managementmanagement models [[6,7].6,7]. They are established in marginal settings, devoid of public or private that can raiseraise theirtheir socio-economicsocio-economic potential potential [8 [8].]. In In rural rural and and peripheral peripheral areas, areas, CBCs CBCs satisfy satisfy the the needs needs of the of communitythe community [9] with [9] with the purposethe purpose of preserving of preserving the socialthe social fabric, fabric, trying trying to counteract to counteract depopulation depopulation [10]. CBCs[10]. CBCs are resilience are resilience factors factor withs with a key a role key in role the in community the community [11,12 [11,12].]. The essential features of CBCs are the pursuit of general interest, the local community community,, and the creation of partnerships. The core business of CBCs is to maximisemaximise community wellbeing [[13],13], and this involves a close relationship between and social andand environmentalenvironmental valuesvalues [[14].14]. As a consequence, they they exist exist as as associations associations that that are transforming are transforming into companies into companies to fulfil to common fulfil common interests. CBCsinterests. are aCBCs form are of hybrid a formenterprise of hybrid [enterprise15] that refer [15] to that a variety refer to of a rationales variety of [16 rationales]. In the non-profit [16]. In the sector, non- forprofit example, sector, for the example, term “hybridization” the term “hybridization refers to complex” refers to organisational complex organi formssational arising forms as voluntary,arising as charitable,voluntary, charitableand confrontational, and confront differentiatedational differentiated tasks [17]. tasks CBCs [17]. pursue CBCs many pursue purposes many related purposes to servicesrelated to provided services to provided the community to the community [18] and synthesise [18] and thesynthesi linkss amonge the links entrepreneurial, among entrepreneur community,ial, andcommunity social changes, and social [19]. changes As a consequence, [19]. As a consequence, they can be considered they can b ase considered a structural as component a structural of businesses’component biodiversityof businesses’ [20 biodiversity]. [20]. In Europe, community enterprises enterprises such such as as CBCs CBCs are are rather widespread phenomen phenomena.a. Community-basedCommunity-based enterprises enterprises similar similar to to CBCs CBCs can can be befound found in Great in Great Britain Britain [21,22], [21, 22France], France [23], [and23], andGerm Germanyany [24]. [24]. In Italy, CBCsCBCs areare aa longstandinglongstanding traditiontradition [[25].25]. Examples of CBCs are represented by social cooperatives and and energy energy sector sector cooperatives. cooperatives. However, However, the thewide wide spread spread of CBCs of CBCs on a onnational a national basis basisonly onlystarted started in 2011, in 2011, following following the thesigning signing of ofan an agree agreementment between between Legacoop Legacoop (Union (Union of Cooperatives), Associazione Borghi Autentici (Genuine Hamlets Association) and and Legambiente Legambiente [26]. [26]. Sustainability 2020, 12, 2082 3 of 13

This agreement aimed at encouraging the spread of CBCs, particularly after the reduction of the welfare state, the so-called “deflagration of the public sector” [27]. Modern CBCs are different from earlier ones in regards to their social basis, business sectors, organisational models, and governance [28]. Their main feature is sustainability [29], which involves environmental and socioeconomic issues impacting on future generations [30,31]. In particular, environmental sustainability denotes the ability to retain the capability of reproduction of natural ; indicates the capacity to ensure the equal development of human capital (with respect to class and gender); and economic sustainability implies the capacity to generate income and employment [32]. These aspects are supplemented by an institutional component: the ability to ensure democracy, stability, justice, education, and transparency. As a consequence, CBCs might contribute to sustainable development in a variety of ways: (a) the strengthening of community wellbeing (social sustainability); (b) the enhancement of endogenous potential (economic sustainability); (c) the recovery of degraded or abandoned natural resources (environmental sustainability); and (d) the creation of a network among local communities, authorities, and other private stakeholders able to mediate in situations of conflict (institutional sustainability). Environment can be considered as a determinant of the success of business [33,34]. The environmental performance of CBCs could also be assessed in terms of environmental, social, governance [35], but this goes beyond the scope of the present study. New CBCs are also linked to circular economies, which can be defined as economic systems replacing the “end-of-life” concept by reducing, recycling, and recovering materials [36,37]. Another aspect bringing CBCs and sustainability together is common goods . CBCs can promote better care of collective property by encouraging territorial sustainability [38] and an alternative to land tenure that is different from private property [39]. CBCs, in contrast with the mobility paradigm, can be a tool for the affirmation of the placemaking paradigm [40], which promotes self-reliance for urban areas [41], even in the context of IAs. In this study, the research investigated the potential contribution of these new entrepreneurial models, based on cooperative principles, on the growth of Italian inner areas. In particular, the paper aims to define the path that CBCs can take to regenerate their territories. For this purpose, the following research questions (RQs) were proposed:

1. RQ1. What are IAs’ critical issues? 2. RQ2. What are the needs of communities living in IAs? 3. RQ3. What are the potential business fields for establishing a CBC?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Dataset Implementation The study area includes six municipalities in the Molise region of Southern Italy (Figure2). Molise shows high socio-economic marginality, but also protected natural areas of relevant EU interest (Sites of Community Importance, SCIs; and Special Protection Areas, SPAs) [42,43]. Molise is subdivided into 136 municipalities, 109 of which are classified as IAs. The vast majority are very small centres (106 municipalities had fewer than 1000 inhabitants on 1 January 2019). This area was selected because it concerns the SNAI, being composed of IA municipalities. Moreover, the mayors have expressed their interest in the possibility of establishing a community-based cooperative in one of their municipalities. The study area is characterised by very small municipalities, with a population ranging from 336 to 4643 residents (at 1 January 2019), resulting in low demographic densities (varying from 20.5 to 62.8 persons per square kilometre). It shows a high rate of cropland (65.8% with respect to total agricultural area) and of employment in agriculture (11.7%), and even features young people without higher (tertiary) education, with a very high percentage of 41.4%. Furthermore, the unemployment rate in the younger population is significant, with mean values in the area being 38.2%, while female participation in the labour market is very low (29.8%). Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

Our research is based on a direct survey, the aim of which is to answer the RQs in Section 1 to define the potential role of CBCs in the sustainable development of their territories and/or communities. Information has been gathered through a questionnaire administered to nine respondents, called “privileged witnesses”, who are closer to citizens—i.e., the six mayors, two clergymen, and one employers’ organisation representative. The mayors provided information about socio-economic and environmental features of their municipalities. The choice of the clergymen reflects the closeness of Catholic Church to the population and its social needs. The employers’ organisation representative was included to express the requirements of the business world, particularly agricultural sector enterprises. The interviews were carried out by a specialised and Sustainabilitytrained interviewer2020, 12, 2082 who encountered each of the experts on a single occasion, recording4 ofthe 13 conversations on digital supports and then transcribing them for subsequent processing.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. 2. (a)(a) Cartogram Cartogram showing showing Italian Italian regions; regions; in in red, red, Molise; (b) (b) Representation of the six municipalities (in cyan) constituting the study area.area. Source: own elaboration.

OurRegarding research the is RQs, based the on questions a direct survey, concerned: the aim (a) ofsocial, which economic is to answer, and theenvironmental RQs in Section critical1 to defineissues; the(b) potentiallocal communities’ role of CBCs needs; in the and sustainable (c) the potenti developmental business of their fields territories for CBCs and that/or could communities. support Informationcommunity needs. has been gathered through a questionnaire administered to nine respondents, called “privilegedThe interviews witnesses”, withwho the privileged are closer witnesses to citizens—i.e., were preceded the six by mayors, two pilot two interviews clergymen, to solve and oneany employers’possible problem organisations with the representative. questionnaire The and mayors to structure provided its final information form better about. socio-economic and environmental features of their municipalities. The choice of the clergymen reflects the closeness of Catholic2.2. Methodolog Churchy to the population and its social needs. The employers’ organisation representative was included to express the requirements of the business world, particularly agricultural sector enterprises. With reference to the research objective, the methodology employed involves text analysis and The interviews were carried out by a specialised and trained interviewer who encountered each of the multivariate analysis. experts on a single occasion, recording the conversations on digital supports and then transcribing For text analysis, two techniques were employed, content analysis [44] and sentiment analysis them for subsequent processing. [45]. These methodologies have already been employed in different fields of applied research [37], by Regarding the RQs, the questions concerned: (a) social, economic, and environmental critical using information derived from pre-existing documents and/or websites. In our case, they have issues; (b) local communities’ needs; and (c) the potential business fields for CBCs that could support proven to be very useful in gleaning the most information from a limited number of interviews with community needs. open-ended questions. To our knowledge, they are rarely applied to this kind of data. In particular, The interviews with the privileged witnesses were preceded by two pilot interviews to solve any we applied qualitative content analysis [46] to assess the respondents’ opinions. This approach allows possible problems with the questionnaire and to structure its final form better. us to explore the text content aside from the context, through data mining techniques. Standard steps 2.2.are followed Methodology from data preparation to final analysis of data, using R open-source software. In the first step, the text of the recorded interview was imported and data were pre-processed [47]; Withthe output reference was tothe the document research-term objective, matrix the (DTM), methodology representing employed the text involves in matrix text form. analysis and multivariateIn step two,analysis. the research followed both a supervised machine learning approach (sentiment analysis)For text and analysis, a statistical two techniquesapproach (word were employed,clouds). Sentiment content analysis analysis [44 is] anda methodology sentiment analysis promot [ing45]. Thesethe extraction methodologies and analysis have already of the been sentiment, employed emotions in different, and fields opinions of applied expressed research in the [37 ], texts. by using The informationchosen method derived is lexicon from- pre-existingbased, enabling documents us to identify and/or significant websites. In keywords our case, with they semantic have proven strength to be very[45]. Each useful word in gleaning is given thea semantic most information orientation from—that a limitedis, a measure number of ofthe interviews intensity of with the open-endedword inside questions. To our knowledge, they are rarely applied to this kind of data. In particular, we applied qualitative content analysis [46] to assess the respondents’ opinions. This approach allows us to explore the text content aside from the context, through data mining techniques. Standard steps are followed from data preparation to final analysis of data, using R open-source software. In the first step, the text of the recorded interview was imported and data were pre-processed [47]; the output was the document-term matrix (DTM), representing the text in matrix form. In step two, the research followed both a supervised machine learning approach (sentiment analysis) and a statistical approach (word clouds). Sentiment analysis is a methodology promoting the extraction and analysis of the sentiment, emotions, and opinions expressed in the texts. The chosen method is lexicon-based, enabling us to identify significant keywords with semantic SustainabilitySustainability 20202020,, 1212,, 2082x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of 1313

the text. The lexicon-based method makes use of dictionaries, giving a semantic orientation to each strengthword, the [45 construction]. Each word ofis given which a semanticcan be automatic orientation—that or manual is, a [ measure48]. In our of the case, intensity dictionaries of the wordwere insidemanually the pre text.pared The lexicon-basedand were the result method of makesthe work use of of experts dictionaries, in the givingfield. They a semantic were built orientation by giving to each word,word that the constructionwas present ofin whichthe DTM can matrix be automatic from the or interviews manual [48 a]. value In our varying case, dictionaries from −4 (strong were manuallynegative sentiment)prepared and to were +4 (strong the result positive of the worksentiment). of experts Another in the importa field. Theynt role were wa builts played by giving by each word that was present in the DTM matrix from the interviews a value varying from 4 (strong enhancers and negations. Enhancers were subdivided into amplifiers and downtoners: −amplifiers negativeincreased sentiment) the semantic to + 4intensity (strong positive of the word sentiment). they refer Anotherred to important (“much”, role “more”, was played and so by on), enhancers while anddowntoners negations. reduce Enhancersd semantic were subdivided intensity (“less”, into amplifiers “fewer”, and and downtoners: so on). Negations amplifiers determine increasedd the semanticinversion intensity of word of polarity. the word Consequently, they referred toa (“much”,second dictionary “more”, and wa sos built on), whilecontaining downtoners enhancers reduced and semanticdowntoners, intensity which, (“less”, together “fewer”, with the and values so on). included Negations in the determined first dictionary, the inversion gave the of final word semantic polarity. Consequently,orientation for aeach second answer. dictionary was built containing enhancers and downtoners, which, together withSubsequently, the values included we adopt in theed first a statistical dictionary, approach gave the that final exploit semanticed orientationword clouds for to each portray answer. each answer,Subsequently, highlighting we adoptedthe word as statistical that presented approach higher that exploited intensity word inside clouds the text. to portray The strength each answer, was highlightingdetermined notthe words only by that the presented frequency higher with intensity which insidewords thewe text.re detected, The strength but by was the determined semantic notorientation only by thecalculated frequency for witheach whichof them. words were detected, but by the semantic orientation calculated for eachAs we of them.had available data matrices S = [푠푖푗], with 푟 rows (the respondents) and 푐 columns (all of the usedAs we words), had available and with data entries matrices 푠푖푗 equalS = [tosij the], with sentimentr rows (theassociated respondents) with the and i-thc columnsrespondent (all for of thethe usedj-th word, words), we andcould with investigate entries stheij equal eventual to the associations sentiment between associated respondents with the i-th and respondent the most used for thewords.j-th word,In this we way, could we investigate could discover the eventual homogeneous associations zones between inside respondentsthe study area and with the mostrespect used to words.critical Inissues, this way,localwe community could discover needs homogeneous, and potential zones CBC insidebusiness the fields. study area with respect to critical issues,Following local community a top-down needs, approach, and potential we turn CBCed business from the fields. univariate sentiment analysis to the bivariateFollowing analysis a top-down results. The approach, statistical we turnedmethodology from the chosen univariate to analyse sentiment the analysisrelationships to the bivariatebetween analysisinterviewees results. and The the statistical highestmethodology sentiments wa chosens correspondence to analyse the relationshipsanalysis (CA) between [49], for interviewees two main andreasons: the highesta) it is sentimentsan exploratory was method correspondence—that is, analysisit aims to (CA) find [49 possible], for two structures main reasons: in the a)data it is in an a exploratorydescriptive method—thatway, without is,inferential it aims to implications; find possible structuresb) its main in output the data is in a agraphical descriptive representation, way, without inferentialhighlighting implications; the associations b) its mainbetwee outputn the istwo a graphical factors taken representation, into account highlighting in a simple the and associations intuitive betweenway. Since, the in two our factors work, taken one of into the account factors in ha ad simple a geographic and intuitiveal implication, way. Since, we in present our work,ed a one different of the factorsversion had of the a geographical classic Cartesian implication, graph: we we buil presentt three a dicartogramsfferent version with ofthe the six classic municipalitie Cartesians, each graph: of wewhich built displayed three cartograms the word(s) with thewith six highest municipalities, sentiment. each In of this which analysis, displayed we theconsider word(s)ed withonly highestthe six sentiment.mayors’ answers, In this analysis,since the we other considered respondents only thegave six their mayors’ information answers, referring since the to other the whole respondents study gavearea and their not information to individual referring municipalities. to the whole study area and not to individual municipalities. InIn summary,summary, FigureFigure3 3 outlines outlines the the methodological methodological path. path.

FigureFigure 3.3. Methodological path.path. Source: own elaboration.

3. Results 3. Results Figure4 shows the sentiment analysis results. The font dimension reflects the sentiment intensity, Figure 4 shows the sentiment analysis results. The font dimension reflects the sentiment while the colour shows the direction, which is negative in panel (a) (colours from yellow to red), and intensity, while the colour shows the direction, which is negative in panel (a) (colours from yellow to positive in panels (b) and (c) (colours in shades of green). red), and positive in panels (b) and (c) (colours in shades of green). According to the respondents, the main critical issues (panel 4(a)) were socio-demographic and According to the respondents, the main critical issues (panel 4(a)) were socio-demographic and environmental. Indeed, the most recurrent words were “emigration”, “landslides”, “isolation”, and environmental. Indeed, the most recurrent words were “emigration”, “landslides”, “isolation”, and “depopulation”. We argue that there may be a strong relationship among some of the resulting terms: “depopulation”. We argue that there may be a strong relationship among some of the resulting terms: ageing, for example, is almost certainly related to the need for more healthcare, which is insufficient in ageing, for example, is almost certainly related to the need for more healthcare, which is insufficient thein the small small towns towns of IAs.of IAs. The needs of primary communities (panel 4(b)) included job opportunities and essential services for the whole population, with special attention to the elderly, the youth, and firms. In particular, a strong job demand for young people stood out, together with a demand for training. Other requirements concerned the improvement of farming and livestock, by means of, respectively, the Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13 retrieval of abandoned lands and native breeds, and the promotion of tourism. These activities could beSustainability sources 2020for ,new12, 2082 jobs and income. Finally, land maintenance and the need to assure sociomedical6 of 13 care for ageing people were also emphasised by the respondents.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 4. 4. SentimentSentiment analysis analysis results. results. (a) ( aMain) Main social, social, economic economic,, and and environmental environmental critical critical issues; issues; (b) local(b) local community community needs; needs; (c) potential (c) potential community community-based-based collective collective (CBC (CBC)) business business fields fields.. Source: Source: own elaborationown elaboration..

CBCsThe needs may ofplay primary a very communitiesimportant role (panel in the 4(b)) enhancement included job of “ opportunitiessleeping resources and essential”—for instance, services thefor the recovery whole of population, forest areas with and special inhabited attention buildings. to the As elderly, a consequence the youth, (panel and firms. 4(c)), In CBCs particular, could effectivelya strong job conduct demand business for younges devoted people to public stood out,green together areas, and with hold a demand and secure for territory training. through Other hydraulicrequirements and concernedforestry interventions. the improvement Other ofpotential farming activities and livestock, could bybe meansin organic of, respectively,agriculture and the woodsretrieval maintenance, of abandoned landslide lands and counteraction native breeds,, and and school the promotion services such of tourism. as canteen These management activities could and thebe sourcestransportation for new of jobs students. and income. Lastly, Finally, a CBC land could maintenance serve as a connector and the need between to assure hospital sociomedical services andcare c foritizens ageing through people paramedic were alsoal emphasised activities such by the as respondents.community nursing to assist ill people in their houses.CBCs may play a very important role in the enhancement of “sleeping resources”—for instance, the recoveryFollowing of the forest methodological areas and inhabited path introduced buildings. in Section As a consequence 2.2, we now (panelpresent 4(c)), the results CBCs couldfrom theeffectively correspondence conduct businessesanalysis in our devoted map format to public. Only green the areas, words and with hold the andhighest secure sentiment territory are through shown (Figurehydraulic 5). and forestry interventions. Other potential activities could be in organic agriculture and woodsIn regards maintenance, to critical landslide issues counteraction,(panel 5(a)) in the and study school area, services untilled such surfaces as canteen were management perceived as andthe mainthe transportation problem in the of cyan students. coloured Lastly, zone a CBC. Depopulation could serve wa as as perceived connector betweenas a severe hospital handicap services in green and zones,citizens while through red paramedicalareas highlight activities ageing such and aslandsliding community issues. nursing The to remaining assist ill people respondents in their did houses. not expressFollowing any particular the methodological sentiment regarding path introduced specific indifficulties. Section 2.2 , we now present the results from the correspondencePanel 5(b) analysis shows territorial in our map needs: format. according Only the towords the with respondent the highest mayors, sentiment two are areas shown are characteri(Figure5).sed by a requirement to cultivate abandoned surfaces, while the other two expressed the need Infor regards land maintenance, to critical issues especially (panel to 5(a)) reduce in the natural study hazards. area, untilled One mayor surfaces ma werede specific perceived reference as the tomain the problemcreation of in job the opportunities, cyan coloured while zone. another Depopulation highlight wased perceived the need to as counteract a severe handicap youth migration in green towardszones, while centres red increasing areas highlight the range ageing of services and landsliding devoted issues.to citizens The and remaining employment respondents prospects. did not expressPanel any 5(c) particular depicts sentimentthe potential regarding business specific fields of di ffiCBCsculties.. In two areas, CBCs could carry out care for thePanel elderly 5(b) activities shows territorial and work needs: in the according tourism to and the leisure respondent sector mayors, (e.g., recovery two areas of are buildings characterised to be usedby a requirementfor tourist accommodation, to cultivate abandoned called Albergo surfaces, diffuso while). In the another other two expressedareas, CBCs the could need deal for with land maintenance, especially to reduce natural hazards. One mayor made specific reference to the creation Sustainability 2020, 12, 2082 7 of 13 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13 landof job conservation. opportunities, In while the pink another-shaded highlighted area, CBCs the needcould to practise counteract agriculture, youth migration while in towards the blue centres area theyincreasing could thebe involved range of servicesin school devoted services. to citizens and employment prospects.

(a) (b) (c)

FigureFigure 5. 5. CorrespondenceCorrespondence analysis analysis main main results. results. (a) (a) Critical Critical issues; issues; (b) (b) community community needs; needs; (c) (c) business business fieldsfields.. Source: Source: own own elaboration. elaboration.

4. DiscussionPanel 5(c) depicts the potential business fields of CBCs. In two areas, CBCs could carry out care for the elderly activities and work in the tourism and leisure sector (e.g., recovery of buildings to be The development of the methodological path and its application to an inner area in the Italian used for tourist accommodation, called Albergo diffuso). In another two areas, CBCs could deal with region of Molise led to the concept maps displayed in Figures 6–8, which allow us to respond to RQs land conservation. In the pink-shaded area, CBCs could practise agriculture, while in the blue area posed in Section 1. In particular, they were built to link the words with the highest sentiments and they could be involved in school services. the questions referring to the themes, with the aid of the literature on IA issues and CBC features presented4. Discussion in Section 1. In regard to criticalities (Figure 6), the study area appears to be experiencing a process of demographicThe development marginali ofsation, the methodological mostly due to the path migration and itsapplication of young people to an.inner This migration area in the is Italian to be attributedregion of Molise to the lack led toof theessential concept services maps (healthcare displayed in and Figures education)6–8, which and the allow presence us to respond of an economic to RQs fabricposed largely in Section based1. In on particular, a non-competitive they were agricultural built to link themodel, words due with to difficult the highest natural sentiments conditions and and the thequestions scarcereferring relevance to theof the themes, industrial with the and aid tertiary of the literature sectors. on As IA a issuesconsequence, and CBC jobs features are becoming presented increasinglyinSustainability Section1 20. 20limited., 12, x FOR Depopulation PEER REVIEW has social, economic, and environmental implications. In social8 of 13 terms, migration leads to the phenomenon of ageing, with repercussions for the welfare system. In economic terms, economic activities cease, causing a decline in employment level [50]. In regard to the environment, depopulation is linked to land neglect and, consequently, landslides, which are the main environmental criticality in these inner areas. The result is often isolation, especially for the districts further away from urban centres. It should be noted that hydrogeological instability also leads to farms ceasing [51], which results in lower territorial capital utilisation [52], including a reduction in agricultural area utilised, disused forestry systems, and disused housing. Unemployment and isolation, in turn, reinforce the phenomenon of depopulation. The advent of CBCs is based upon the identification of community needs (Figure 7), such as more job opportunities, citizenship services, and land management. Depopulation has deprived IAs of work, reducing both the activity rate and the expertise. This issue plays a key role in examining the decline of IAs. For this purpose, it is essential to implement strategies designed: a) to rebuild a solid segment of the active population, employed especially in agriculture and tourism; and b) to ensure healthcare, education, and advisory services for the elderly, young people, and enterprises, respectively.

Figure 6.6. Concept map of critical issues.issues. Source: own elaboration.

In recent times, agriculture has assumed a multifunctional role, referring both to and non-market outputs. Farms are able to employ local resources in a sustainable and conservative productive process, which is motivating an emerging movement for going back to farming. The landscape produces ecological, environmental, social, cultural, and economic value, from which it is possible to recognise and save the identity of an area; moreover, it is a fundamental factor in defining tourist flow attraction for the growth of IAs. Land management is also essential, and is associated with making the territory safe [53]; it can be considered a prerequisite to stop migration and depopulation.

Figure 7. Concept map of community needs. Source: own elaboration.

Figure 8 illustrates potential CBCs’ business fields. They develop from resources and the territorial identity of a community [54] and from landscape features [55]. CBCs may contribute to revitalising inner areas by exploiting and promoting the potential of their territory [56], and by leveraging the leading role of citizens in order to provide answers to collective needs and to contribute to the growth of [57]. These cooperatives provide public in a new way, as opposed to the traditional method that is entrusted to a public entity or outsourced to for-profit companies. The recovery of uncultivated surfaces strengthens the ecosystem service supply, which benefits local communities and economies [58]. CBCs could assume significant relevance in the food , manifesting through the Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

Figure 6. Concept map of critical issues. Source: own elaboration.

In recent times, agriculture has assumed a multifunctional role, referring both to commodity production and non-market outputs. Farms are able to employ local resources in a sustainable and conservative productive process, which is motivating an emerging movement for going back to farming. The landscape produces ecological, environmental, social, cultural, and economic value, from which it is possible to recognise and save the identity of an area; moreover, it is a fundamental factor in defining tourist flow attraction for the growth of IAs. Land management is also essential, Sustainabilityand is associated2020, 12, 2082 with making the territory safe [53]; it can be considered a prerequisite to8 stop of 13 migration and depopulation.

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13 development of alternative food networks, the restoration and enhancement of native varieties, and the transformation of local products. CBCs could promote the role of small-scale farmers, in particular those who use organic farming. They could also encourage a greater involvement among producers, increasing their loyalty with respect to a sustainable way of doing agriculture. FigureFigure 7.7. Concept map of community needs.needs. Source: own elaboration.

Figure 8 illustrates potential CBCs’ business fields. They develop from resources and the territorial identity of a community [54] and from landscape features [55]. CBCs may contribute to revitalising inner areas by exploiting and promoting the potential of their territory [56], and by leveraging the leading role of citizens in order to provide answers to collective needs and to contribute to the growth of social capital [57]. These cooperatives provide public service management in a new way, as opposed to the traditional method that is entrusted to a public entity or outsourced to for-profit companies. The recovery of uncultivated surfaces strengthens the ecosystem service supply, which benefits local communities and economies [58]. CBCs could assume significant relevance in the food supply chain, manifesting through the

FigureFigure 8.8. Concept map of potential CBC business fields.fields. Source: own elaboration.

InThese regard cooperatives to criticalities could (Figure also offer6), the important study area services appears to farms: to be experiencing computer courses a process to build of demographicdigital expertise marginalisation, among farmers mostly and encourage due to the precision migration farming, of young and people. the protection This migration of ecosystems is to be attributedand biodiversity. to the lack CBCs of essential could manage services and(healthcare enhance and common education) goods, and the both presence in agriculture of an economic and in fabrictourism. largely Furthermore, based on they a non-competitive could promote agricultural tourism based model, on due cultural to di ffi heritagecult natural [59,60 conditions], creating andstrate thegic scarce partnerships relevance both of theinside industrial and outside and tertiary the community sectors. As [20]. a consequence, Tourism plays jobs a central are becoming role in increasinglyrevitalising inner limited. areas, Depopulation especially in has those social, areas economic, capable of and offering environmental high-level implications. natural, cultural In social, and terms,gastronomic migration resources. leads to the phenomenon of ageing, with repercussions for the welfare system. In economic terms, economic activities cease, causing a decline in employment level [50]. In regard to the5. Conclusions environment, depopulation is linked to land neglect and, consequently, landslides, which are the main environmental criticality in these inner areas. The result is often isolation, especially for the By relying on the methodological scheme in Figure 3, we are now in a position to answer the districts further away from urban centres. It should be noted that hydrogeological instability also leads principal goal of our research—that is, to define the path that can be taken by CBCs for the to farms ceasing [51], which results in lower territorial capital utilisation [52], including a reduction development of IAs. This path is illustrated in Figure 9. CBCs could lead to benefits by means of the in agricultural area utilised, disused forestry systems, and disused housing. Unemployment and supply of goods and services, improving the quality of life of the local community in a stable and isolation, in turn, reinforce the phenomenon of depopulation. enduring way. Local community involvement recalls the role of co-production, which employs the The advent of CBCs is based upon the identification of community needs (Figure7), such as more participation of citizens in the productive process, the supply of services for the community, job opportunities, citizenship services, and land management. Depopulation has deprived IAs of work, interactions between citizens and the public administration, and organised citizen participation in reducing both the activity rate and the expertise. This issue plays a key role in examining the decline the production of their own welfare services. Demographic decline inversion allows social capital to of IAs. For this purpose, it is essential to implement strategies designed: (a) to rebuild a solid segment be re-established, which in turn prevents the deterioration of natural and artificial resources. Social, natural, and artificial capital are conditio sine qua non for the growth of IAs. CBCs represent a social and can offer socio-ecological and economic solutions by introducing new practices that reduce social inequalities and disproportionate use, and foster sustainable development [61]. The role of CBCs implies the consideration of public policies aiming to promote their establishment in Italian inner areas. In particular, municipal administrations and public entities should be supportive, especially in creating favourable conditions for the establishment of CBCs, by making public resources freely available and entrusting public interest services. Sustainability 2020, 12, 2082 9 of 13 of the active population, employed especially in agriculture and tourism; and (b) to ensure healthcare, education, and advisory services for the elderly, young people, and enterprises, respectively. In recent times, agriculture has assumed a multifunctional role, referring both to commodity production and non-market outputs. Farms are able to employ local resources in a sustainable and conservative productive process, which is motivating an emerging movement for going back to farming. The landscape produces ecological, environmental, social, cultural, and economic value, from which it is possible to recognise and save the identity of an area; moreover, it is a fundamental factor in defining tourist flow attraction for the growth of IAs. Land management is also essential, and is associated with making the territory safe [53]; it can be considered a prerequisite to stop migration and depopulation. Figure8 illustrates potential CBCs’ business fields. They develop from resources and the territorial identity of a community [54] and from landscape features [55]. CBCs may contribute to revitalising inner areas by exploiting and promoting the potential of their territory [56], and by leveraging the leading role of citizens in order to provide answers to collective needs and to contribute to the growth of social capital [57]. These cooperatives provide public service management in a new way, as opposed to the traditional method that is entrusted to a public entity or outsourced to for-profit companies. The recovery of uncultivated surfaces strengthens the ecosystem service supply, which benefits local communities and economies [58]. CBCs could assume significant relevance in the food supply chain, manifesting through the development of alternative food networks, the restoration and enhancement of native varieties, and the transformation of local products. CBCs could promote the role of small-scale farmers, in particular those who use organic farming. They could also encourage a greater involvement among producers, increasing their loyalty with respect to a sustainable way of doing agriculture. These cooperatives could also offer important services to farms: computer courses to build digital expertise among farmers and encourage precision farming, and the protection of ecosystems and biodiversity. CBCs could manage and enhance common goods, both in agriculture and in tourism. Furthermore, they could promote tourism based on cultural heritage [59,60], creating strategic partnerships both inside and outside the community [20]. Tourism plays a central role in revitalising inner areas, especially in those areas capable of offering high-level natural, cultural, and gastronomic resources.

5. Conclusions By relying on the methodological scheme in Figure3, we are now in a position to answer the principal goal of our research—that is, to define the path that can be taken by CBCs for the development of IAs. This path is illustrated in Figure9. CBCs could lead to benefits by means of the supply of goods and services, improving the quality of life of the local community in a stable and enduring way. Local community involvement recalls the role of co-production, which employs the participation of citizens in the productive process, the supply of services for the community, interactions between citizens and the public administration, and organised citizen participation in the production of their own welfare services. Demographic decline inversion allows social capital to be re-established, which in turn prevents the deterioration of natural and artificial resources. Social, natural, and artificial capital are conditio sine qua non for the growth of IAs. CBCs represent a and can offer socio-ecological and economic solutions by introducing new practices that reduce social inequalities and disproportionate resource use, and foster sustainable development [61]. The role of CBCs implies the consideration of public policies aiming to promote their establishment in Italian inner areas. In particular, municipal administrations and public entities should be supportive, especially in creating favourable conditions for the establishment of CBCs, by making public resources freely available and entrusting public interest services. Sustainability 2020, 12, 2082 10 of 13 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

CBCs

Community wellbeing

Demographic decline inversion

Social capital

Natural and artificial resources

Inner areas sustainable development

Figure 9. 9. PotentialPotential role role of CBCs of CBCs in the in sustainable the sustainable development development of Italian of IAs. Italian Source: IAs own. Source: elaboration. own elaboration. Although inner area policies in Italy have a longstanding tradition, they have produced rather limitedAlthough results inner in terms area of policies social andin Italy economic have a growthlongstanding [62]. Nowadays, tradition, they the have SNAI produced is the principal rather limitedreference results point forin terms inner areaof soc policies;ial and however, economic it doesgrowth not [ adequately62]. Nowadays, recognise the SNAI the role is ofthe CBCs principal [5]. It referenceis desirable point to involve for inner CBCs area in policies; these policies, however, as theyit does could not becomeadequately the basisrecogni ofs ae process the role giving of CBCs rise [5]. to Ita newis desirable paradigm to ofinvolve community CBCs developmentin these policies, based as onthey the could sustainability become principle.the basis of These a process cooperatives giving risepromote to a annew innovative paradigm model of community of to create goods based and on services the sustainability in the interest principle. of citizens These by cooperativesmeans of involvement promote an of theinnovative local community. model of business CBCs are to fundamental create goods actors and services in the transition in the interest towards of citizensa new kind by of means economic of involvement organisation of and the contribute local community. to communitarian CBCs are empowerment. fundamental actors in the transitionIn conclusion, towards we a state new that kind our of main economic contribution organi tosation the scientific and contribute debate regarding to communitarian CBCs is the empowerment.definition of a scheme which allows the identification and management of the potential generating processesIn conclusion, of CBCs inwe Italian state that IAs. our main contribution to the scientific debate regarding CBCs is the definitionSome of practical a scheme recommendations which allows the for identification any rising CBC and include manage thement need of to evaluatethe potential the feasibility generating of processesproject ideas of CBCs ex-ante, in Italian and to IAs. take into account homogeneous areas to settle in, since this choice will facilitateSome scale practical economies. recommendations The richness for of theany topicsrising associatedCBC include with the CBCs need raises to evaluate many the opportunities feasibility offor project future idea researchs ex-an seekingte, and to to define take into a new account paradigm homogeneous of regional areas development to settle in in, since Italian this IAs choice based will on facilitatecooperative scale principles. economies. The richness of the topics associated with CBCs raises many opportunities for future research seeking to define a new paradigm of regional development in Italian IAs based Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.M. and L.R.; methodology, L.M. and L.R.; software, L.R.; validation, onL.M. cooperative and L.R.; formal principles. analysis, L.R.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M. and L.R.; writing—review and editing, L.M. and L.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.M. and L.R.; methodology, L.M and L.R.; software, L.R.; validation, L.MFunding: and L.R.;This formal research analysis, received L.R.; no external writing funding.—original draft preparation, L.M. and L.R.; writing—review and editing,Acknowledgments: L.M and L.R.The All authorsauthors wishhave toread acknowledge and agreed the to supportthe published of Mariella version Zingaro of the (data manuscript. collection) and Mara Vasile (contribution in sentiment analysis). Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements: The authors wish to acknowledge the support of Mariella Zingaro (data collection) and MaraReferences Vasile (contribution in sentiment analysis).

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