Diplomsko Delo

UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA Oddelek za prevodoslovje

DIPLOMSKO DELO

Ivana Williams

Maribor, 2016

UNIVERZA V MARIBORU FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA Oddelek za prevodoslovje

DIPLOMSKO DELO

IZRAZJE AMERIŠKEGA NOGOMETA V SLOVENŠČINI OB PODNASLOVIH FILMA ZAPORNIŠKO DVORIŠČE

GRADUATION THESIS

AMERICAN FOOTBALL TERMINOLOGY IN SLOVENIAN: SUBTITLING IN THE MOVIE THE LONGEST YARD

Mentorica: Kandidatka: izr. prof. dr. Michelle Gadpaille Ivana Williams

Somentor: doc. dr. Simon Zupan

Maribor, 2016

Lektorica: Ivana Williams, prof. slov. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to Dr. Simon Zupan for pushing me and always being there to answer my endless questions, and to Dr. Michelle Gadpaille for her valuable comments and encouraging remarks throughout the years; without your help and guidance this paper would be very different – if not non-existent. Also thank you to all my family and friends who contributed to this paper in any way, in particular Beno for doing the layout, Alenka for her tireless support, my parents for making it easier and my dear Tommy for everything – from giving me time to giving me ideas. And lastly, thank you to little Tommy and little Jamie for being precious little people in my life.

IZJAVA O AVTORSTVU

Podpisana Ivana Williams, rojena 10. 10. 1977, študentka Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Mariboru, študijski program Prevajanje in tolmačenje – angleščina in …, izjavljam, da je diplomsko delo z naslovom Izrazje ameriškega nogometa v slovenščini ob podnaslovih filma Zaporniško dvorišče pri mentorici izr. prof. dr. Michelle Gadpaille in somentorju doc. dr. Simonu Zupanu avtorsko delo.

V diplomskem delu so uporabljeni viri in literatura korektno navedeni; teksti niso prepisani brez navedbe avtorjev.

Maribor, 23. 5. 2016

______

(podpis študentke)

POVZETEK

Diplomsko delo obravnava terminologijo ameriškega nogometa v slovenščini skozi analizo slovenskih podnapisov filma Zaporniško dvorišče iz leta 2005, ki so bili pridobljeni s slovenske izdaje DVD-ja. Ker je ameriški nogomet v slovenski kulturi nov šport in so njegova pravila večinoma neznana, naloga vključuje tudi kratek opis igre. Predstavi podnaslavljanje kot posebno vrsto prevajanja z določenimi omejitvami in posebnimi izzivi. Analiza podnaslovov ni omejena samo na dialoge v zvezi z ameriškim nogometom, ampak vključuje tudi področje prevajanja kulturno specifičnih elementov in besednih figur v ustrezno besedilo. Ko športi pronicajo v vsakdanje življenje, njihova terminologija pridobi nove, prenesene pomene in zadnje poglavje na kratko obravnava uporabo terminologije ameriškega nogometa v takšnih kontekstih.

Ključne besede: ameriški nogomet, terminologija ameriškega nogometa, podnaslavljanje, kulturno specifični elementi, besedne figure

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses the Slovenian terminology for American football through an analysis of the Slovenian subtitles of the 2005 movie The Longest Yard that were acquired from the Slovenian version of the DVD. In light of the fact that American football is a new sport in this culture and its rules are mostly unknown, the paper includes a short description of the game. It presents subtitling as a special type of translation with its restrictions and specific challenges. The analysis of subtitles is not limited to the dialogue that relates to American football but also includes the area of rendering culture-specific elements and figures of speech into adequate text. As sports permeate into everyday life, their terminologies gain new, metaphorical meanings, and the usage of American football terminology in such contexts is briefly discussed in the last chapter.

Keywords: American football, American football terminology, subtitling, culture- specific elements, figures of speech

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION...... 1

2 AMERICAN FOOTBALL ...... 3

3 THE LONGEST YARD ...... 8

4 SUBTITLING ...... 9

5 SLOVENE SUBTITLES IN THE LONGEST YARD ...... 15

5.1 Culture-specific elements ...... 15 5.1.1 Subtitles involving references to people or fictional characters...... 17 5.1.2 Subtitles involving American football terminology ...... 23 5.2 Figures of speech ...... 43 5.2.1 Metaphor ...... 44 5.2.2 Alliteration ...... 45 5.2.3 Rhyme ...... 47 5.2.4 Pun ...... 47 6 AMERICAN FOOTBALL METAPHORS IN EVERYDAY USE...... 49

7 CONCLUSION ...... 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 55

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1: American football field ...... 3 Figure 2: Breaking a wishbone ...... 38 Figure 3: Wishbone formation ...... 38

TABLE OF TABLES

Table 1: National Football League teams ...... 6 Table 2: Favorite American sport ...... 7 Table 3: The polysemiotic nature of audiovisual products ...... 10

iii

1 INTRODUCTION

Popular media is a powerful tool for exporting culture, and the United States with their movies, TV programs, music, books and computer software are the biggest global exporter. Through these means, new concepts, ideas and products are presented to the world, where they penetrate and gradually become part of the local culture. These consequences of globalization can be observed in all areas of life, from food and technology, to sport and, importantly, language.

Languages are living entities that adapt to the emergence of new cultural concepts by introducing new words, and adding to or changing the meanings of existing ones. The explosion of American popular culture exports has led to a corresponding increase of English language influence on other languages. Slovenian is no exception: where it used to borrow from neighboring languages, it now predominantly introduces words from English (Snoj 2012). It should be noted that borrowed words frequently exhibit spelling variants, as the adaptation of an originally foreign lexicon to Slovenian rules is a long and not completely predictable process (Bizjak Končar 2012). The most notable area with the need for the introduction of new words is technology, on account of previously non-existent products or concepts. Other areas that stimulate the emergence of new lexicon are economic, political and social developments in general.

An example of a “newly discovered” lexical gap in Slovenian language is the field of sports that have been recently introduced in Slovenia. Even though they have been around for a long time, since they were not present in our culture, there was no need for the terminology. The most popular among them is probably American football. With the games of the teams from the world’s best league, the American National Football League, being televised on Slovenian TV stations, it has become apparent through the commentators’ usage that in large part English terminology is still prevalent.

This paper discusses the Slovenian terminology for American football through an analysis of the subtitles of the 2005 movie The Longest Yard that were acquired from the Slovenian version of the DVD. In light of the fact that American football is a new sport in this culture and its rules are mostly unknown, the paper includes a short description of the game. It presents subtitling as a special type of translation with its restrictions and specific challenges. The analysis of subtitles is not limited to the dialogue that relates to American football but also includes the area of rendering culture-specific elements and figures of speech into adequate text. As sports permeate into everyday life, their terminologies gain new, metaphorical meanings, and the usage of American football terminology in such contexts is briefly discussed in the last chapter.

2 AMERICAN FOOTBALL

American football, in the United States referred to as football, is a sport that evolved from rugby football in the 2nd half of the 19th century in the United States. It is played on a rectangular field that measures 360 feet in length (≈ 109.7 m) and 160 feet in width (≈ 48.8 m).

Figure 1: American football field

Source: http://www.sportsfy.com/football-field.php

Two opposing teams of eleven players try to score points by getting the ball across the opponent’s goal line into the end zone (called a “touchdown”). Each attempt consists of four plays, called downs, in which the offensive team (the team with the ball) must gain at least 10 yards by running with the ball or passing it, in order to secure another set of four downs on their way to the goal line. The defending team tries to gain possession of the ball by blocking passes or tackling the opponents to prevent them from gaining 10 yards in four downs, intercepting the ball or recovering it after a fumble (dropped ball). Instead of trying to move the ball further down the

field, the offensive team can—usually on fourth down—also choose to kick a field goal (worth half the points of a touchdown) or punt (surrender the ball to the opposing team). If a team scores a touchdown, they get a try attempt—an opportunity to score an extra point by kicking the ball between the opponent’s goalposts from approximately 19 yards, or two points by moving the ball across the opponent’s goal line from the two-yard line (a two-point conversion). In rare events when the defensive team gets a turnover during these attempts (by blocking the kick, intercepting the pass or recovering a fumble), they earn two points if they run the ball into their end zone (a defensive two-point conversion). After the fourth down or points scored with a touchdown or a field goal, possession of the ball goes to the other team. The last and, together with two-point conversions, least common way to get points is a “safety”: when a member of the attacking team who is in possession of the ball is tackled in his end zone, the defending team earns two points.

A big part of the game involves penalties. These are called by the officials (referee, umpire, field judge, line judge, head linesman, side judge and back judge) by throwing a flag on the field. “A Penalty is imposed upon a team that has committed a foul and may result in loss of down, loss of yardage, an automatic first down, a charged timeout, a loss of playing time, withdrawal or disqualification of a player, extension of a period, the award of a score, or a combination of the preceding” (NFL rulebook 2015: 9). Common penalties include the following: too many men on the field, delay of game, false start, encroachment, neutral zone infraction, illegal formation, roughing the passer/kicker, intentional grounding, holding, pass interference, facemask, horse collar, unnecessary roughness, unsportsmanlike conduct, taunting, etc. The game time is 60 minutes, divided into quarters. In professional football, if the score is tied after 60 minutes, a 15-minute overtime is played, and if it is still tied at the end of overtime, the game ends in a tie and the point is split between the teams. In non-professional leagues (University, High School, etc.) and in Canada, the rules may vary slightly.

A football team consists of the following personnel:  offense: backs and receivers (quarterback, running back (fullback, halfback/tailback, rarely an H-back), wide receiver and tight end) and offensive linemen (center, offensive guard and offensive tackle);  defense: defensive linemen (defensive tackle, defensive end); linebackers (middle and outside linebacker); defensive backs/secondary (cornerback, free safety and strong safety, nickelback and dimeback);  special teams: kicker, snapper, long snapper, punter, kickoff specialist, punt returner and kick returner, upback, gunner and jammer.

These positions correspond to the jersey numbers:  quarterbacks, punters and placekickers: 1–19;  running backs and defensive backs: 20–49;  centers: 50–79;  offensive guards and tackles: 60–79;  wide receivers: 10–19 and 80–89;  tight ends and H-backs: 40–49 and 80–89;  defensive linemen: 50–79 and 90–99;  linebackers: 40–59 and 90–99.

The world’s best American football players compete in the National Football League (NFL) in the United States of America. There are two conferences in the NFL: the American Football Conference (AFC) and the National Football Conference (NFC). Each of these is further divided into four divisions: North, South, West and East. Currently, there are 32 teams in the league.

Table 1: National Football League teams

NFL AFC NFC New England Patriots New York Jets Washington Redskins New York Giants East Buffalo Bills Miami Dolphins Philadelphia Eagles Dallas Cowboys Cincinnati Bengals Baltimore Ravens Minnesota Vikings Detroit Lions North Pittsburgh Steelers Cleveland Browns Green Bay Packers Chicago Bears Houston Texans Jacksonville Jaguars New Orleans Saints Atlanta Falcons South Indianapolis Colts Tennessee Titans Carolina Panthers Tampa Bay Buccaneers Denver Broncos Oakland Raiders Arizona Cardinals Seattle Seahawks West Kansas City Chiefs San Diego Chargers Los Angeles Rams San Francisco 49ers

Source: http://www.nfl.com/

While the American professional football league is the strongest, most popular, and most lucrative league, there are other leagues for American football. American students compete under the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and many of them are later drafted by NFL teams. There are leagues on every continent, with Europe having around 30 national leagues and some regional ones. In the past few years, Slovenian teams competed in the Slovenian championship as well as in the Alpe Adria Football League (AAFL) and the Central European Football League (CEFL).

The popularity of American football in Slovenia is on the rise. The first American football team in Slovenia, the Ljubljana Silverhawks, was founded in 2002. In the following years a few more teams followed (the Maribor Generals, the Alp Devils from Kranj and the Gold Diggers from Celje/Žalec), and in 2009 Slovenia saw the first Slovenian Football League (Državno prvenstvo v ameriškem nogometu), with all four teams competing. According to ZANS (Slovenian Association for American Football) (ZANS 2016a), there are currently eight American football clubs in Slovenia (the four abovementioned plus the Murska Sobota Storks, the Koper Pirates, the Slovenska Bistrica Werewolves and the Domžale Tigers) and five more that play a contact-free version called flag football (the Ljubljana Killer Bees, the Kočevje

Wild Hogs, the Ajdovščina Gladiators, the Novo mesto Knights and the Velenje Black Miners). In 2016, the Ljubljana Silverhawks and Maribor Generals are joining Austrian leagues for American football, its elite American Football League (AFL) and 2nd division, respectively.

The Harris Poll survey—the last results on this topic were published in January 2016—suggests that American football has been the most popular sport in the United States for over 30 years. Approximately every third surveyed person’s answer to the question “If you had to choose, which ONE of these sports would you say is your favorite?” was professional football. Combined with college football, that amounts to more than 40 %.

Table 2: Favorite American sport

1985 1989 1992 1993 1994 1997 1998 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

Pro football 24 26 28 24 24 28 26 27 29 30 33 29 30 31 35 31 36 34 35 32 33

Baseball 23 19 21 18 17 17 18 14 13 15 14 14 15 16 16 17 13 16 14 16 15

Men’s college 10 6 7 8 7 10 9 9 9 11 13 13 12 12 12 12 13 11 11 10 10 football

Source: http://www.theharrispoll.com/sports/Americas_Fav_Sport_2016.html

Given the popularity of American football in the USA, it is not surprising that this sport has been the theme of many movies. The first ones date as far back as the 1920s and 1930s: The Freshman (1925) and Horse Feathers (1932). They include movies like Semi-Tough (1977), Everybody’s All-American (1988), The Last Boy Scout (1991), Jerry Maguire (1996), Any Given Sunday (1999), Leatherheads (2008), Blind Side (2009) and The Longest Yard (1974, 2005).

3 THE LONGEST YARD

The 2005 remake of the movie with the same title from 1974 is an American football- themed sports comedy. It brings us the story of Paul Crewe, a famous, disgraced, former professional football player. After being imprisoned and pressured by the warden, he forms a prison football team that is to play against the guards. With the help of several inmates, such as former college football star Nate Scarborough and the well-connected Caretaker, he manages to build a team that—despite loss and through personal growth—brings them victory in the nationally televised game against the guards.

“The Longest Yard more or less achieves what most of the people attending it will expect” (Ebert 2005): an abundance of American football-related comedy and drama for purely entertainment purposes and with little artistic value.

4 SUBTITLING

Movies can be a good tool for cultural education. This is in particular true for subtitled video materials, where one of the by-products can also be language learning. Being a movie about American football, The Longest Yard can help get the viewers acquainted with this sport and introduce or establish new terminology. But in order to have that effect, the subtitles must adhere to certain rules and above all, be accurate and appropriate.

Gottlieb defines subtitles as “diasemiotic translation in a polysemiotic media (including films, TV, video and DVD), in the form of one or more lines of written text presented on the screen in sync with the original dialogue” (2004a: 220).

Linguistically, he distinguishes between:  Intralingual subtitles – these are in the original language and include:  subtitling of domestic program for deaf and hearing impaired and  subtitling of programs in a foreign language for language learners.  Interlingual subtitles – compared to the intralingual subtitles where the spoken language is only written, the subtitler here switches from speech in one language to written text in another language, hence changing the mode and language.

On the basis of technical processes of subtitling, Gottlieb classifies:  Open subtitles – these are not optional and they include:  cinema subtitles which are part of the film or can be transmitted separately;  interlingual television subtitles that are part of the television picture.  Closed subtitles – these are optional and are transmitted as teletext:  television subtitles for deaf and hearing impaired; the viewer enables them individually with the remote control;

 interlingual television subtitles transmitted by satellite which simultaneously support different versions of the same program for different language communities (Gottlieb 2004b: 247).

In this paper we will concentrate on subtitling for film—interlingual subtitles. Their purpose is to help the audience understand the narrative of the film, since its source language is different from the language with which they are familiar.

Subtitles are translations of the spoken foreign language text in a film or a television program that are generally placed at the bottom of the screen. When appropriate, they also include discursive elements that appear in the image, such as signs, graffiti, book covers, etc., or translation of information on the soundtrack such as songs, voices off, etc. (Diaz-Cintas and Remael 2007).

Table 3: The polysemiotic nature of audiovisual products

VISUAL ACOUSTIC SCENERY, LIGHTING, MUSIC, BACKGROUND COSTUMES, PROPS, etc. NOISE, SOUND EFFECTS, Also: etc.

NON-VERBAL GESTURE, FACIAL Also: EXPRESSIONS, BODY LAUGHTER, HUMMING, MOVEMENT, etc. CRYING, BODY SOUNDS (breathing, coughing, etc.)

STREET SIGNS, SHOP DIALOGUE, SONG-LYRICS, SIGNS, WRITTEN REALIA POEMS, etc. VERBAL (newspapers, letters, headlines, notes, etc.)

Source: Chiaro 2009: 143

Since audiovisual content uses two codes, image and sound, subtitling differs significantly from paper-to-paper translation. It must take into account the synchrony

between the image and sound, meaning that the subtitles should match the characters’ actions on the screen, and also the timely delivery of the subtitle onto the screen that matches the original speech.

In their work, a subtitler must also change the mode from the spoken to the written word. One of the main challenges of subtitling lies in the difference between the speed of the spoken word and reading speed. Besides the audience perceiving read content differently from spoken content, this also imposes certain constraints on the translation in terms of length. Certain omissions are inevitable in order to allow the viewers enough time to read and process the subtitle combined with the image on the screen. Lomheim (cited in Gottlieb 2004) suggests that to this effect subtitling tends to condense the original dialogue by 20–40%, while Antonini (2005) claims this figure to be 40–75%. Another issue to be considered is the width of the screen. According to Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007), subtitles are limited to 32 to 41 characters per line in a maximum of two lines, which is consistent with Gottlieb’s (2004) claim that “subtitles usually consist of one or two lines of an average maximum length of 35 characters.”

Adhering to all of the above-mentioned technical requirements, the translator must deliver subtitles that read naturally and convey the essence of what is being said on the screen. These must be concise enough for the viewer to read within their time on screen, and clear enough so the viewer can comprehend them immediately and not lose sight of what is happening in the film. Their function is to support the viewer’s understanding of the narrative, and they should not become the main focus of the movie experience.

According to Antonini (2005), the translator must carry out three principal operations in order to obtain effective subtitles: elimination, rendering and simplification. With elimination, the translator cuts out elements that do not affect the meaning of the original speech but only the form, such as hesitations, false starts, redundancies, etc.,

and removes any information that can be understood from the image (e.g. gestures). Rendering includes dealing with features such as slang, dialect and taboo language (in most cases these are eliminated), while simplification condenses and simplifies the original syntax to enable comfortable reading.

Gottlieb (1992) has devised ten strategies that he sees at work in reducing a text to subtitles, which are further explained by Taylor (2000: 10): (1) Expansion – expanded expression, adequate rendering (culture-specific references): the original requires an explanation because of some cultural nuance not retrievable in the target language. (2) Paraphrase – altered expression, adequate content (non-visualized language-specific items): the phraseology of the original cannot be reconstructed in the same syntactic way in the target language.

(3) Transfer – full expression, adequate rendering (slow, unmarked speech): the strategy of translating the source text completely and accurately. (4) Imitation – identical expression, equivalent rendering (proper nouns, international greetings etc.): maintains the same forms, typically with names of people and places. (5) Transcription – non standard expression, adequate rendering (D; intended speech defects): when a term is unusual even in the source text, for example the use of a third language or nonsense language. (6) Dislocation – differing expression, adjusted content (musical or visualized language-specific item): the original employs some sort of special effect, e.g. a silly song in a cartoon film, where the translation of the effect is more important than the content. (7) Condensation – condensed expression, concise rendering (mid-tempo speech with some redundancy): shortening of the text in the least obtrusive way possible.

(8) Decimation – abridged expression, reduced content (fast speech, low redundancy speech): an extreme form of condensation where even potentially important elements are omitted. (9) Deletion – omitted expression, no verbal content (fast speech with high redundancy): total elimination of parts of a text. (10) Resignation – deviant expression, distorted content (incomprehensible or “untranslatable” speech): the strategy adopted when no translation solution can be found and meaning is inevitably lost.

As subtitles mainly consist of translation of the dialogue in the film, it is important that the subtitler is aware of its function. Barbara Schwartz (2002) identifies the main purpose of the dialogue in a film or television program as communicating the narrative. It sets the time and place of the story and determines the characters “by giving them idiosyncratic voices in the form of regional dialect, register, timbre and delivery of speech.” These sociolinguistic markers tend to be lost in subtitling since the general norm is for all characters to adopt a standard variety of the target language (Chiaro 2008). Dialectal usage, swearing, grammar deviancy or even inarticulacy help set the context of culture, and subtitling should provide some clues to that end. Using a transcription of a native dialect might be unnecessarily misleading, but the subtitler can picture an uneducated, grammatically limited speaker by using simple vocabulary (Taylor 2000).

In Slovenian language there is a big gap between the standard language (“zborni jezik”) and the non-standard variants. Kovačič (1995) suggests that the feeling of safety offered by language norms still mostly prevails over the need to additionally characterize the protagonists, their relationships or speech situation by using the non- standard language variant. According to her (ibid.), there are certain methods we can employ in subtitling to increase the “colloquialness” of the written language:  Avoid typical words and phrases used in standard and literary language such as “le”, “morda”, “imeti pod palcem”, etc.

 Use additional particles to substitute for expressive value of intonation.  Imitate the stressed word order of the sentences.  Imitate certain syntax patterns of the spoken language.  Do not limit the text merely to the expressions carrying the meaning, but— where possible—keep the expletive, personal elements (“ti rečem”, “veš da”, etc.).

Kovačič (1991) claims that general colloquial language (“splošnopogovorni jezik”) is perfect for replacing other non-standard variants such as slang, jargon or dialect. She expects the elements of non-standard language to become more frequent and accepted in subtitling, the same way this happened in theatre and literature (Kovačič 1995).

Besides being linguistically proficient in the target language to recognize all the nuances of language variants, the translator must recognize cultural implications that appear in the source language dialogue as well as in the imagery of the film and judge to what extent these need to be transferred into the target language in order for the audience to be given all important information. This means the work of a subtitler is not limited only to the linguistic dimension, but they must be able to recognize architectural or geographical landmarks, icons from mass culture like pop music or television, historical or political events and symbols of political or religious significance (Schwartz 2002). Hatim and Mason (2003: 223) refer to the translator as a mediator “between cultures /.../, seeking to overcome those incompatibilities which stand in the way of transfer of meaning.” Nida (cited in Yang 2010) gives cultural mediation even greater importance, saying that “for truly successful translation, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function.”

5 SLOVENE SUBTITLES IN THE LONGEST YARD

5.1 Culture-specific elements

Christiane Nord holds that “translating means comparing cultures” (cited in Yang 2010: 77). Therefore, in every translation we inevitably face the challenge of culture boundaries—terms, concepts or other elements in the source language that are specific to the source culture. Antonini and Chiaro (cited in Chiaro 2008: 156–157) have identified ten areas in which these may occur: (1) Institutions (including judiciary, police, military) a. Legal formulae: e.g. “Please state your name for the court,” “The honorable judge … presiding,” “… the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth;” b. Courtroom forms of address: e.g. “Members of the jury,” “Your Honour;” c. Legal topography: District Court, Grand Jury, Court of Appeals, etc.; d. Agents: lawyers, attorneys, etc.; hospital hierarchies such as fellows, chief residents, interns; military hierarchies, etc. (2) Educational references to “high school” culture, exams, grading systems, fraternities, clubs, teams, etc. (3) Place names: The White House, Broadway Avenue, etc. (4) Units of measurement: Three cups of flour, 32 °F, a mile, etc. (5) Monetary systems: Dollars, yen, pounds, etc. (6) National sports and pastimes: American football, baseball, basketball teams: New Orleans Saints, Boston Red Sox, Los Angeles Lakers, etc. (7) Food and drink: Yorkshire pudding, Worcestershire sauce, PBJ, etc. (8) Holidays and festivities: Halloween, Boxing Day, July 4th, Thanksgiving, President’s Day, Bar Mitzvah, Hanukkah, etc. (9) Books, films and TV programmes: “Sesame Street”; “Hasta la vista, baby.” (10) Celebrities and personalities: Elton John; Twiggy; The Cookie Monster, etc.

Domestication and foreignization are two basic translation strategies which provide both linguistic and cultural guidance (Yang 2010). According to Venuti who formed these two concepts, domestication refers to “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bringing the author back home”, while foreignization is “an ethnodeviant pressure on those /cultural/ values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti cited in Yang 2010).

Tomaszkiewicz (cited in Hosseinnia 2014) offers these strategies for translation of culture-specific elements, while noting that some terms are untranslatable: (1) Omission – the cultural reference is completely omitted. (2) Literal Translation – the solution in the target text matches the original as closely as possible. (3) Borrowing – original terms from the source text are used in the target text. (4) Equivalence – translation has a similar meaning and function in the target culture. (5) Adaptation – the translation is adjusted to the target language and culture in an attempt to evoke similar connotations to the original. Strictly speaking this can be considered a form of equivalence. (6) Replacement – cultural terms are replaced with deictics, particularly when supported by an on-screen gesture or a visual clue. (7) Generalization – might also be referred to as neutralization of the original. (8) Explication – usually involves a paraphrase to explain the cultural term.

Owing to space limitations, some of these strategies might not always be suitable for subtitling, as they tend to increase the word count of the source text. Another thing that must be considered is the imagery on the screen: it is difficult to replace a culture-specific element that is clearly visible on the screen with an element that is more familiar in the target culture without the audience noticing the discrepancy.

The main focus of this paper is on American football terminology so the subtitles relating to this sport were included in large part, unless i) the same term was used on more than one occasion (down, quarterback), ii) the original Slovenian subtitle was adequate, or iii) when the solution would be similar to other examples. These terms are divided into three groups: i) players’ positions, ii) terms pertaining to the progression of the game, plays, formations or common sport jargon, and iii) penalties. Other categories of subtitles analyzed were i) references to people or fictional characters and ii) figures of speech (metaphor, alliteration, rhyme and pun). These often present challenges for a translator, and the chosen examples show different solutions that can be used to bridge the cultural or linguistic gap. The subtitles were placed within the narrative of the movie, in particular when context was necessary to understand them (this was mostly not the case with sports expressions, as they always occur during the game and have no other connotations). The terms analyzed were then explained (who the mentioned character is; what a certain position is; what kind of figure of speech is used) and both subtitles, the English and the original Slovenian one, were compared. We commented on the differences between the two, discussed the translation strategy where relevant, and suggested an improved subtitle.

5.1.1 Subtitles involving references to people or fictional characters

Every culture shares a set of celebrities—people (mainly from entertainment industry or sport) who are famous and well-known within a country, and are sometimes even well-known to the rest of the world. When they appear in movies as themselves or their names are mentioned, a subtitler must consider how and whether the target culture audience is familiar with these personas and find an adequate translation solution to include all the subtext connected with these celebrities. This is especially important if such a name is used as an allusion—a figure of speech in which a person, place, thing or idea is used to “invoke one or more associations of appropriate cultural material and brings them to bear upon a present context” (Leddy in William 2001: 288).

There are several references to famous people in the movie The Longest Yard. At the beginning of the movie Crewe’s affluent girlfriend lays down some clothes she has bought for him to wear at her event. Crewe responds:

Who am I, Elton John? I ain't wearing that shit.

Elton John is an openly gay world renowned singer, known for his love of glasses and hats and an extravagant, colorful dressing style. The outfit we can see on the screen is a variation of a sailor’s uniform and clearly clashes with the elegant formal wear of people at the party, as it appears to be a costume. The Slovenian subtitle was as follows:

Kdo pa sem? Elton John? Tega sranja že ne bom oblekel.

The translator deemed Elton John to be sufficiently familiar in Slovenia as a public person with extravagant clothing choices and decided to keep his name. Had they opted to adapt the dialogue to the image to avoid the culture-specific element and use something like “mornarček” (“sailor boy”) or “lutka za oblačenje” (“dress-up doll”), the humor of Crewe comparing himself to Elton John would have been lost.

It is also worth noting that the non-standard contraction “ain’t” from the second line of the subtitle is not reflected in the translation. One solution would be to use the wrong case (nominative instead of genitive which is required in negated sentences: “To sranje že ne bom oblekel”), as this is a common mistake in spoken and even in written language. In American English the form “ain’t” is acceptable in spoken language, so it cannot be replaced by a grammatical mistake to imply that the speaker is less educated. The Slovenian audience might also perceive this merely as a translator’s mistake and not as means to communicate non-standard language usage.

The next famous “person” mentioned in the movie is Frodo:

Now, listen here, Mr. Frodo. Don't get short with me.

Frodo Baggins is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien’s fantasy book series The Lord of the Rings. He is a hobbit, a member of a humanoid race of small people whose main physical features are being short and having big hairy feet. In the movie, Crewe is stopped by a couple of policemen, one of whom is really short. After a few jokes targeted at the short policeman, Crewe calls him Mr. Frodo, referring to his resemblance to a hobbit because of his height.

The original Slovenian translation kept the name Frodo, since the books have been translated into Slovenian and are fairly popular, but mostly because the The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy based on the books was such a success that it is hard to imagine someone who would not be familiar with it:

Poslušajte, g. Frodo. Ni vam treba biti zadirčen.

The second line of the subtitle adequately translates the semantics of the phrase “to be short with someone”, meaning “to speak with someone rudely without saying much” (Cambridge Dictionaries Online). However the translator missed or chose not to include the connection between Frodo being short and the phrase used, which includes the word short, therefore somewhat dampening the cleverness and wittiness of this exchange. A possible solution to this would be to slightly alter the meaning of the original phrase, but to include the reference to short, or in the case of Slovenian, low:

Poslušajte, g. Frodo. To pa je bilo nizko.

It is not as obvious or funny as the English version, but an attentive viewer would probably notice and appreciate this translation.

Another fictional character that appears in the movie dialogue is Sleeping Beauty:

Wake up, Sleeping Beauty.

Crewe is locked up in solitary confinement, where a prison guard wakes him up by addressing him like this. Sleeping Beauty is the main character from the eponymous fairytale with the same title who was put to sleep by a spell. Nowadays, this phrase can be humorously used for any sleeping person. The subtitler chose to translate this with another fictional character, Snow White:

Zbudi se, Sneguljčica.

While Snow White was also put to sleep by a spell, she is mostly associated with an apple or a mirror. There is no reason to have exchanged these two characters in this context. However, Sleeping Beauty’s name in Slovenian is derived from the word thorn (Trnuljčica) and has no sleep connotation, so it would be reasonable to choose another character whose name in some way relates to sleeping. One option would be Zvezdica Zaspanka (The Sleepy Twinkle Star), the protagonist of the Slovenian story for children whose name already carries the connotation of being sleepy. This name is well known even among the people who are not familiar with the story, so semantically and from the point of usage it would be suitable for this subtitle.

Substitution can also be employed as means to overcome a cultural gap when it is reasonable to expect that the audience will not recognize the cultural reference or its implications. If this element or person appears on the screen, the translator has little choice but to leave the reference and, space permitted, try to explain its meaning in

the given context. Such an example in the movie is a reference to a long-running American daytime talk show entitled The View and one of its hosts, Joy Behar:

You’re kidding. Five-star Torres likes The View?

Nah, just Joy Behar.

Inmate Torres is seen watching the show, and Joy Behar is on screen for an extended period of time, so the viewers would notice the discrepancy between the image and the subtitle if a translator adapted the source to the target culture. Unlike this, there is no image of a culture-specific element when Caretaker speaks in the following subtitle comments:

I’m a Star Jones man myself. I love that big bitch.

Star Jones is an African-American lawyer, writer, television personality, fashion designer, and women's and diversity advocate. She is mentioned in a conversation so the translator can look for an equivalent known in the target culture, but the subtitler completely mistranslated this dialogue, converting a proper name into a common noun (Star Jones => one star):

Sam imam eno zvezdico, pa mi je baba všeč.

The viewer does not get any additional information as to why Caretaker likes Star Jones, and the only obvious connection is that they are both African-American. Oprah Winfrey, who is well known in Slovenia on account of her talk show, could be an adequate substitution:

Sam sem bolj za Oprah. Noro všeč mi je ta baba.

The above examples deal with culture-specific elements that are well known or have equivalents in the target culture, but a translator encounters a special challenge when a person/character mentioned does not belong to that culture. We can find such an example in the movie when Crewe is brought to the warden’s office where he meets Errol Dandridge, a large man resembling Colonel Sanders, and comments:

Colonel Sanders been eating his own chicken.

Colonel Sanders was the founder of the Kentucky Fried Chicken (now KFC) fast food chain, and his face and name are symbols of the company (RTV SLO 2016). The franchise does not operate in Slovenia, so it is unlikely the Slovenian viewers would notice the resemblance of the actor on the screen to Colonel Sanders or be familiar with the name. The translator ignored the subtext and translated this dialogue literally, not giving the audience any clues or additional interpretations of the Colonel Sanders persona or his connection to chickens:

Polkovnik Sanders je jedel svojega piščanca.

Given the space restrictions, it is impossible to translate this subtitle in a way that would allow a viewer who is completely oblivious of Colonel Sanders or KFC to

understand its implications. It is also not possible to adapt it to the target culture by substituting the name of a locally known persona, as the humor arises from the resemblance of the movie character, who is seen on the screen, to Colonel Sanders, and the suggested connection between the physical appearance of the former and the field of business of the latter. What we can do is provide a clue in the subtitle, with additional information about the name:

Polkovnik Sanders iz KFC je jedel svojega piščanca.

The company name probably has higher recognition than Colonel Sanders himself, so this approach might help some viewers to better understand the joke, but for some it will inevitably be lost regardless of this translation attempt. In most cases, such unsolvable translation problems—if not too frequent—do not affect the viewers’ ability to follow the plot, but they limit their perception of the characters, since certain traits like humor, eloquence or cleverness are not appropriately depicted.

5.1.2 Subtitles involving American football terminology

A major category in which a translator can expect to deal with numerous culture- specific elements is sports, and in particular sports that are not popular or practiced in the target culture. American football in Slovenia is in its early stages. To a very limited extent, its lexicon can borrow from other sports with already established terminology in the areas that are common or comparable, but in most part all the parties involved resort to English. In their training, the officials in Slovenia use English manuals, and all the calls within a game are in English. Now that the NFL games are televised in Slovenia, some sports commentators during those broadcasts have undertaken the pioneering endeavor of translating or attempting to translate the terminology pertaining to American football. Robbrt (sic) Riffel, one of the commentators of last year’s broadcasts, translated the term “illegal use of hands” as

“napačna uporaba rok” (backtranslation: wrong use of hands) and added: “A bit of an awkward translation, but it’s hard to always translate these American expressions to Slovenian nicely; sometimes it’s not even possible and then we stick to English” (Texans @ Bengals, 17. 11. 2015, 11:56, SK1).

Common sports vernacular that is shared between different sports includes many terms introduced by the process of borrowing from English. Quotations are left in the original spelling or adapted in writing and pronunciation to Slovenian: avt (out), tajmavt (also spelled time out or time-out), gol (goal). Some terms were translated word-for-word and entered the language as calques: polčas (halftime), golova črta (goal line), protinapad (counterattack). In the process of free borrowing, the initially introduced quotation word gets adapted, first in pronunciation and then spelling, and at some point a synonym is introduced that replaces (or many times co-exists with) the borrowed word: offside – ofsajd – prehitek (language did not accept this new word well enough to be used in everyday sports) – prepovedani/nedovoljeni položaj. “The occurrence of the synonym and abandonment of the loanword is the most productive result of the process of borrowing” (Bokal 2009: 111). For some concepts, new words were introduced or old words were ascribed additional meanings (podaljšek – overtime).

American football has entered Slovenian culture more prominently only in the last decade, and therefore its language has not yet had an opportunity to develop. It is becoming more and more popular, raising the number of people who are learning its rules and terminology. One way of promoting language learning and broadening vocabulary is through popular culture, e.g. movies. Several movies deal with American football and the more popular they are, the bigger the opportunity for introducing or spreading the lexicon relating to it.

The Longest Yard was released just a few years after the first American football team was founded in Slovenia, so the subtitler had to fill numerous lexical gaps. There is

rarely enough space in a subtitle to explicate the term in question, so one possible approach would be to italicize the terms without straightforward equivalents and introduce them as borrowed words. However, in their translations of terms pertaining to American football the subtitler had to choose between translation, generalization and omission.

Here are some examples from the movie involving players’ positions:

a) I’m gonna be your coach, your captain, your quarterback.

A quarterback is the main and usually most valuable/expensive player in American football. He is the leader of the offense and often calls the plays. In historical formations, a quarterback lined up approximately a quarter of the distance between the center and the fullback, hence the name. In case of The Longest Yard, Crewe used to be a professional quarterback and is now taking the same position on the prison team. This term is repeated in the dialogue several times and the subtitler mostly translated it consistently, but incorrectly:

Bom vaš trener, vaš kapetan, vaš srednji igralec.

“Srednji igralec” (middle player) would make more sense as “osrednji igralec” (main player), but there is no need for a new term as an established one already exists:

Bom vaš trener, vaš kapetan, vaš podajalec.

“Podajalec” (passer) describes the fundamental role of a quarterback and it is widely used. The subtitler must have been aware of this translation, since they used it in one

instance (Je kapetan Knauer njihov podajalec?). The terms “coach” and “captain” are shared with many other sports, so their Slovenian translations are well established.

b) I think Papajohn’s their safety.

Safety is a tricky term, as it denotes both a position and a play. It is clear that we are dealing with a position here and it means a defensive player—the last man trying to stop the offensive players. The subtitler completely misunderstood this line and translated it as:

Papajohn skrbi za njihovo varnost.

In order to avoid Papajohn coming across as a security guard, the following translation could be used:

Papajohn je njihov zadnji branilec.

The term “last defender” is borrowed from soccer. A more common term might be “zadnji obrambni igralec” (last defensive player), but it would not fit on the line. This wording is sufficiently self-explanatory to allow viewers without any knowledge of soccer or American football to understand what Papajohn’s role in the game is and not draw their attention from the movie.

c) Y’all got a running back?

A running back is an offensive player in the backfield. His task is to carry the ball forward in running/rushing plays after a quarterback hands it to him, but he might also serve as a receiver in passing plays. Given his primary role of carrying the ball, the term in Slovenian subtitles adequately describes this position:

Že imate nosilca žoge?

To some degree, this sentence formulation reflects the colloquial nature of the source text by omitting the interrogative article “ali”. However, there is another term already in place for this position in Slovenian (ZANS 2016b) so the subtitle needs to be adapted to:

Že imate tekača?

This is also more in line with the majority of position names being a single word or a noun phrase consisting of an adjective and a noun (running back, left/right tackle) rather than a head word with a noun modifier.

d) And Dunham is back in at fullback.

Fullbacks and halfbacks are types of running backs. A fullback is typically larger when compared to the halfback, while the latter is faster. As described above, their primary role in the game is to carry the ball.

In this subtitle, the translator omitted the information on Dunham’s position, but this does not affect the viewers’ understanding of the storyline:

Vrnil se je Dunham.

ZANS (2016b) calls this position “tekač bloker,” but according to Kordić’s English- Slovenian glossary of American football (2009), fullback is “močni tekač” (strong runner). That would be in line with the movie, in which Dunham is described in the following subtitle as “a load, at 6'2", 260” and seen running the ball and saying: “That’s how a white man runs a football.” Compared to the ZANS term, it covers both the running and blocking actions which are specific for this position. But having this translation of the position in the subtitle might be distracting and misleading for an audience not familiar with the game—and even for the ones who follow it, but are

used to English names of positions—in particular because it might come across as a runner who is strong rather than the whole phrase being the name of the position. One possible compromise that would allow the subtitler to convey more information from the source text is generalization—substituting a narrower term of a specific offensive position with the hyponym “offense”:

Dunham je spet v napadu.

It is worth noting that this term has a homonym in soccer. A fullback in soccer (bek) is a defensive position, so this could pose a trap for a translator who is trying to apply an established translation of seemingly the same term to an unfamiliar field.

e) Nate Scarborough, the former Heisman Trophy winner from 1955,

is gonna play tailback/./

A tailback is another variation of a running back who in modern playbooks is often used interchangeably with halfback, and it means a running back that is farthest from the line of scrimmage, at the tail. The subtitler translated it as “last defender”:

Nate Scarborough, bivši dobitnik trofeje leta 1955

bo zadnji branilec/./

Like any other running back, a tailback is part of the offense so this translation is incorrect. According to Kordić (2009), we can use this term interchangeably with halfback and he suggests the translation “vsestranski, hitri tekač” (versatile, fast

runner). With the goal of maximizing the fluency of subtitles, the best solution would again be generalization:

Nate Scarborough, dobitnik Heismanove trofeje leta 1955,

bo na mestu tekača/./

The beginning of the subtitle also includes a reference from the field of American football: the Heisman trophy is awarded every year to the most outstanding college football player. There are probably not many non-American viewers who would be familiar with this, but it is a valuable piece of information for those who are, and it testifies to how promising Scarborough once was.

f) Why does he get to be the kicker?

A kicker, also called a placekicker, is the player responsible for kicking field goals, kickoffs and extra point attempts. While the translation from the Slovenian subtitles, shooter, could be considered appropriate, it has not yet been established. Transfer from soccer brings the connotation that “kicking” is a general action, so a viewer might not perceive it as a position:

Zakaj bo on strelec?

There are two alternatives for translation of this term. We could leave it in English and mark the borrowed word with italics or quotation marks, but that would interrupt the viewing experience. The other option is to rephrase the sentence in a way so that the noun is expressed with some other word class:

Zakaj bo on izvajal strele?

Using the imperfective aspect and a plural noun, we give this phrase a sense of continuity and repetitiveness.

g) All right, punt team.

This example involves a special team that comes on the field to punt the ball, i.e. to transfer the possession of the ball to the other team. The subtitler translated this line as “Streljajte!” (“Shoot!”). For this to make sense, “punt” here would have to be an imperative verb form, but the action on the screen confirms otherwise, as the punt team is not on the field yet and this is a call to them to get in position on the field.

The correct translation is “ekipa/moštvo za predajo žoge”, but this might be too long compared to the short English line so the subtitle must be shortened by omitting the expletive phrase:

Ekipa za predajo žoge.

The next set of expressions will mostly deal with phrases pertaining to the progression of the offensive team, but will also include examples of terminology denoting plays, formations or common sports jargon shared with other sports. Every team’s playbook contains hundreds of plays and there are hundreds of possible formations; hence, it is very unlikely an average fan will know all or even most of them. Some are more common and can be seen frequently in games, and those are the ones translators should pay the most attention to since they are easily recognizable by viewers who are familiar with the game.

The game starts with one side’s punter punting the ball and the other side’s special team catching it and trying to gain as many yards as possible.

a) That's a 90-yard return.

Subtitler’s translation “To je bil prehod z 90-ih jardov” shows their utter lack of understanding of the game. There is no 90-yard line on the field; it consists of two 50-yard stretches, each being one team’s half. In Slovenian, “return” has an established term “vračanje žoge” that is basically a literal translation. In case of limited space, “žoge” can be omitted:

To je bilo vračanja za 90 jardov.

At that point in the game, the offense of the receiving team starts their play at the spot where the player who was returning the ball was brought down. They get four downs, i.e. attempts, in which they must gain 10 yards. This is the part of the game that is common to every offensive action, regardless of the chosen formation or play, so there are several examples from the dialogue involving references to downs, such as:

b) First and 10 at the guards’ 35. Or: And he’s hammered at the 17 for a 13-yard pickup, and that’s a first down.

In the first example, “first” stands for the first down and “10” for the yards the team must obtain before the next drive of four new downs. The down count can go up to four, and the yard count can theoretically be any number from 1 to 99, as the initial ten yards can be increased by losing yards and penalties or lowered by gaining ground and penalties on the opposing team (e.g. second and seven, third and fifteen, fourth and twenty-two). In the case from the movie, the team’s position is at the 35-

yard marker on the guards’ side of the field. The Slovenian subtitle “Prvi poskus. / Pazniki so pri 35-ih.” (“First down. The guards are at 35.”) makes it clear that the subtitler was not watching the movie while translating, since in this scene the guards were the defending team and this phrase refers to the position of the offensive team. In the first part the translator used the correct term for down, but omitted part of the message, either because they did not understand the source expression or to make it easier to understand for the viewers. There is not enough space for explication (“prvi poskus in deset jardov do novega prvega poskusa”) to explain the meaning of the phrase, but word-for-word translation, “prvi in deset”, is widely used by Slovenian commentators during game broadcasts.

Still, as this information is not important for the narrative and because this would allow better subtitle fluency for the average viewer, while still being in line with the action on the screen, only the second half of the original translation must be corrected:

Prvi poskus pri 35 jardih paznikov.

Another variation of this phrase is “first and goal.” This is used when a team reaches a first down within ten yards of the opponent’s end zone and cannot get another first down without crossing the goal line.

And Megget is down to the 4-yard line, where it’ll be first and goal.

The existing Slovenian subtitle “Megget je padel v 4-em jardu. / Prvi bo streljal na gol.” fails to convey the correct meaning. Goal in this phrase stands for the goal line and not actually taking a shot at the goal. In translating the phrase, it is reasonable to keep the formulation and the wording, especially because this is an established

translation among the TV commentators, but it does sacrifice some clarity for certain viewers:

Megget je na 4 jardih in to bo prvi in gol.

The last example listed in point b) actually includes the word “down” instead of just implying it. In subtitle translation, the source is again shortened, but there is also a mistranslation of the term down as “dotik” (“touch,” possibly from touchdown), which was translated correctly in previous subtitles: “Pri 17-ih so ga zbili. / To bo morda prvi dotik.” (“He was brought down at 17. / This will possibly be the first touch.”). A complete translation would not introduce any new terms, hindering the flow of the dialogue, and would give the audience a better understanding of the action on the screen:

Pri 17 so ga zbili, pridobil je 13 jardov in prvi poskus.

One of the most recognized terms in American football is “touchdown,” the scoring action that brings the most points in the game. In his article on American football, Podgoršek (2011) offered “polaganje” from rugby terminology as the Slovenian term for touchdown, and this is also somewhat of a literal translation of touching the ball down to the ground. Despite certain similarities between the two sports, the highest scoring action significantly differs, as in rugby the ball must touch the ground and hence the term—to lay it down, while in American football it suffices if it is carried over the goal line or caught in the end zone.

c) Knauer has Potter wide open. Touchdown, guards.

The subtitler consistently translated touchdown as “dotik”, “touch”:

Potter se je na široko odprl Knauerju. Dotik za paznike.

Given the familiarity of the term and this bad translation, it would have been better to leave it as a loan word and italicize it. Uroš Valant, the president and general manager of Ljubljana Silverhawks, the most successful American football team in Slovenia, and one of the first Slovenian TV commentators for American football, used the word in English in his description of American football for the Slovenian sports site Sportal (Podgoršek 2011). That is also the most common way it is used in Slovenian TV broadcasts. Lately, however, another term is emerging and is being used frequently enough to have become recognized as a synonym for touchdown: “zadetek.” Kordić in his glossary (2009) prefers the loan word, but adds the Slovenian translation as a synonym. Considering all this, the subtitle would read as follows:

Potter je popolnoma odkrit. Zadetek za paznike.

Another sports term that needed adjustment was “to be wide open.” In Slovenian the collocation is “biti odkrit, odkrivati se.” To account for the adverb “wide,” the long Slovenian adverb “popolnoma” was added which meant that the subtitle needed to be shortened. The information that was cut out to conform to the space limitations is easily obtainable from the events on the screen.

d) And now the cons are a mere extra point away from overtime.

An extra point, also known as the point after a touchdown, is a play that occurs after a touchdown is scored, in which the kicker kicks the ball through the goalposts. It is

worth one point, so technically the Slovenian subtitle—“Zdaj kaznjence do podaljška / loči le še ena točka.”—is correct (if we disregard the use of an incorrect preposition). But since it refers to the play, it does not only mean that the team is down by one point, but also that they will get a chance to score the additional point and thus tie the score in the next play. Kordić (2009) suggests the translation “dodatna točka,” which is also widely used in TV broadcasts. Considering this term and eliminating the grammatical error, the subtitle should be:

Zdaj kaznjence od podaljška loči le dodatna točka.

This translation already uses the standard term for overtime that is well established and common to all sports. Another such term is:

e) Time-out!

Every sport has different rules for time-outs, but they all mean a brief break in play for the players to rest, discuss strategy or just interrupt the opponent’s game. The Slovenian subtitle translated it as: “Premor” (break). The fact that Slovenski pravopis (2001) allows the loan word and acknowledges three ways to spell it is a testament to how widely the word is used. It has gone through several stages of the process of being introduced into the language and now the recommended use is the Slovenian synonym “minuta odmora.” However, time-outs in American football are 2 minutes long. They are usually called by making a T-gesture with one’s hands, so it would make sense, especially given the complete integration into the Slovenian sport jargon, to use the following translation:

Tajmavt.

One of the terms from American football that correlates to similar concepts in other sports is a “live ball”:

f) Oh, my! That ball is live!

The ball is live when it is in play, and it is called a dead ball when it is not in play. A literal translation of this phrase gives us a false friend: “mrtva žoga” denotes a “held ball” in basketball and there is no such thing as “živa žoga” in any sport. Instead, Slovenian jargon uses “ball in play” and “ball not in play.” The original Slovenian subtitle “Žoga je šla mimo” should therefore be corrected to:

Žoga je še vedno v igri!

To allow for enough space, the interjection was omitted. These are frequently cut out in shorter subtitles:

g) Oh, incomplete.

This refers to an incomplete pass that occurs every time a player fails to catch a ball passed to him. The subtitler left out the expletive word: “Bil je prekratek.” and rephrased the source. This translation avoids the sports term and might work in certain situations when the quarterback in the movie underthrows the pass so it does not reach the receiver, but for all other instances this should be:

Nezaključena podaja.

Another example in which the subtitler avoided using the sports term, whether due to their lack of familiarity with the sport or in an attempt to simplify it for the audience, can be found in the translation of the following line:

h) Fumble!

When a player has possession of the ball and then loses it by dropping the ball or having it knocked out by another player, this is called a fumble. The translation from the Slovenian subtitles, “Neroda!”, clearly does not belong in American football jargon and would be inappropriate in this context, as it is hard to imagine that a TV commentator would call a player a klutz. Kordić (2009) suggests the translation “izgubljena žoga” (lost ball), but in order to distinguish a fumble from other turnovers it would be better to call it a “dropped ball”:

Izpuščena žoga!

i) Knauer, play action. Here comes the blitz.

Play action is a fake hand-off by a quarterback to a running back, designed to deceive the defense about the position of the ball. On the other hand, blitz is a defensive maneuver in which additional defenders attack the quarterback or the ball carrier. In the subtitle, the first expression is generalized by using the method of chunking up, as it moves from more narrowly defined term to a broader definition (Katan cited in Schwartz 2003): “Knauer gre v napad.” For the second one the subtitler offers an equivalent translation: “In bliskovit naskok.” Even though both are correct, the subtitle could be improved:

Knauer fintira. In prihaja blitz.

Slovenian sports jargon includes a word that denotes an action of a player performing a move designed to deceive the opponent (fintirati; it can also appear in a noun form: finta). It is not specific to any sport, so it can be applied to this case. While this is still a generalization—there are several fake plays in American football—it gives the viewer more information about the nature of the offensive play on the screen than the original Slovenian translation.

The decision to change a perfectly adequate translation in the second line is based on the fact that “bliskovit naskok” could be considered merely a description of the action rather than the name of the action. Just from the subtitles, many viewers would probably perceive it as an offensive maneuver. Therefore, keeping this term as a loan word does not affect the viewers’ understanding compared to the original translation, but it helps to introduce terminology that is already established among Slovenian experts in this field. Over time, if American football gains more popularity and a wider audience, this term could first completely adapt in spelling and later maybe even get a synonym in a phrase that includes the adjective “bliskovit.”

j) Now, as you can see, they’re running a standard wishbone.

Wishbone refers to the offensive formation in which three running backs line up behind the quarterback in the shape of a letter Y. That is also the shape of the wishbone, hence the name.

Figure 2 : Breaking a wishbone Figure 3: Wishbone formation

The subtitler translated this as: “Kot vidite, igrajo po klasičnem vzorcu.” This is an attempt to generalize the source text by using a hyponym instead of including the specific formation in the subtitle. The correct term for formation in sports is “postavitev” (compared to “pattern” that the translator used), but there is no point in translating “wishbone,” as we would encounter another cultural gap. The original word denotes a forked bone between the neck and breast of a bird which two people pull apart until it breaks. The one left with the longer piece can make a wish, hence the name. This custom is not known in Slovenian culture, so the audience would probably not be familiar with the Slovenian name of this bone (furkula). One of the standard ways of naming formations is by using numbers or letters and this would allow the viewers to picture the formation even if it is not visible on the screen:

Kot vidite, igrajo klasično Y-postavitev.

The next action mentioned in the dialogue is never realized on the screen so the subtitler has more freedom in translating it:

You do a buttonhook. The rest of you guys block for me.

The current translation does not affect the story, but neither does it convey the original meaning: “Vi boste v napadu, / ostali pa jih blokirajte.” In this scene the quarterback is talking to his offense, giving them their individual tasks. The first part is directed at a receiver, as a buttonhook is a play in which a receiver runs downfield and then suddenly turns back. In the second part he is addressing his offensive line, which is supposed to prevent the defenders from reaching the quarterback. There is no established translation for buttonhook, so it can be either explicated to describe the play or generalized by using a more common term in order not to interrupt the audience’s viewing experience with unknown concepts:

Ti teci, da ti podam, ostali pa me varujte.

This translation uses both methods: it leaves out some details of this offensive play and thus can mean any of a number of similar plays, but it also uses a whole sentence to translate a word, paraphrasing it for the convenience of the viewers.

This next set of subtitles includes references to penalties in American football. The complete list of penalties is extensive, but the ones used in the movie are among the most frequent penalties that are likely to occur several times in every game.

a) That’s gonna be a personal foul on the big guy.

Personal fouls in American football are called against players for violation of rules regarding conduct or safety. In the Slovenian language, this term is associated with basketball, where it is used as “osebna napaka” and as such—but in nominalized form is commonly used in colloquial language—it also appears in the subtitle: “To bo osebna za velikana.” Considering the fact that in no other sport foul was translated as “mistake, error,” this would be the corrected subtitle:

To bo prekršek za velikana.

For other usage, this term should be translated as “osebni prekršek” to distinguish this subset from other fouls. Even though this foul implies “dirty play,” this can be seen on screen, so the type of foul is not relevant to viewers’ understanding of the story. Owing to its clarity and brevity, this generalized solution renders the subtitle more fluent for the audience.

The foul from the next subtitle falls under the personal foul category and is called when a facemask is twisted, pulled, or turned by a player on either team:

b) That was a facemask!

The subtitler translated this word for word: “To je bila obrazna maska.” In this case, we can gather the meaning from the previous subtitle in which the commentator says: “He’s brought down hard, by his facemask.” But for the purpose of introducing a term that would also be clear for a viewer who is not familiar with this sport in other contexts, a more descriptive translation including the action of pulling might work better:

To je bilo vlečenje za masko.

Masks by definition go on the face, so this expression is tautological and the first part of the word can be omitted without losing any meaning.

Another personal foul is:

c) Unsportsmanlike conduct!

This applies to any action that is not in line with generally accepted principles of sportsmanship. The translation “Nešportno vedenje!” is perfectly clear and appropriate, but in order to harmonize it with the official soccer terminology used in the rulebook for soccer referees, it can be changed to:

Nešportno obnašanje.

Like all the listed fouls, the next one can be committed by both offense and defense, but it is an infraction of the game rules rather than one of the rules that improves safety and promotes fair play:

d) That’s gotta be pass interference.

Pass interference is called on a player when his act significantly hinders an eligible player’s ability to make an attempt to catch the pass. Therefore the translation “To je prekršek pri podaji.” is not appropriate, as it implies the passer’s involvement in this foul. If instead we include the act of receiving in the name of the foul, it becomes much clearer and more specific:

To mora biti oviranje pri lovljenju.

5.2 Figures of speech

Sometimes words veer from their normal meaning, or phrases have a meaning that is not based on the literal meaning of the words in the phrase. Or sometimes they are joined in a way that draws attention to their sound and therefore also emphasizes the meaning. Figures of speech, also called rhetorical devices, are “a form of expression /…/ used to convey meaning or heighten effect often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or connotation familiar to the reader or listener” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). Quintilian (cited in Corbett and Connors 1999: 43) described them as “any deviation, either in thought or expression, from the ordinary and simple method of speaking, /.../ a form of speech artfully varied from common usage.” They add color to the language and frequently pose a challenge for a translator as not only the meaning needs to be rendered in target language, but at the same time the form needs to be retained. What Onič (2006) concludes with regard to alliteration, can also be generalized to translation of other figures of speech: “Other very common feature in /.../ translation include register, rhythm, length of words and various kinds of markedness.” In subtitling, we can add space restrictions and the need to match the picture on the screen to this list. These features often make it impossible for the subtitler to translate the figure of speech into the target language, as it might need to be sacrificed in order to preserve a more prominent feature of the text or simply to comply with technical limitations.

This chapter will address a few examples of figurative language from the movie The Longest Yard: metaphor, alliteration and rhyme. There are numerous examples of allusion in the movie, but as they also constitute culture-specific elements they are discussed in Chapter 5.1.1.

5.2.1 Metaphor

Metaphor is “a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). In the example below, the likeness is based on color, since the vehicle (Richards in Donoghue 2014) of the metaphor is black players:

We didn't get the whole chocolate bar, but we got a Hershey's Kiss.

This sentence is uttered after Crewe failed in his attempt to recruit black players to the inmate team, but was approached by a single black player who agreed to join the team as a running back. The chocolate bar stands for a team of black players, while a Hershey’s Kiss—a bite-size piece of chocolate—stands for a single player, so the quantities are also used metaphorically. The Slovenian subtitler ignored this fact and only translated the first part of this extended metaphor:

Nismo dobili cele čokoladne tablice, nekaj pa imamo.

The reason for this decision probably lies in the phrase “Hershey’s Kiss” being a culture-specific element. The target audience is not necessarily familiar with this American candy, but by means of generalization the whole meaning and thus metaphor can be rendered into Slovenian:

Nismo dobili cele čokolade, imamo pa čokoladni bonbon.

Compared to the original Slovenian and English subtitle, the word “bar” was omitted to shorten the subtitle and save space for the longer phrase in the second line. Another solution would be to replace the Hershey’s Kiss with Baci (‘kiss’ in Italian), which is a bite-size chocolate candy of the same shape available to the target audience, but this might limit the viewers’ comprehension and interrupt the flow of the subtitle.

5.2.2 Alliteration

Alliteration signifies repetition of the letter or the sound at the beginning of several words in a group. Poetic devices like alliteration can heighten readers’ aesthetic experience (Lea et al. 2008: 709) or, in case of everyday language, bring attention to certain phrases by giving them an attractive rhythm.

There are several examples of alliteration in The Longest Yard. They are mostly idiomatic phrases that are not specific to the movie:

This is baby-back bullshit!

According to The Urban Dictionary, “baby-back” is “nonsense, craziness, illogical. A lie.” It is “/a/ nicer way to say ‘bullshit;’ or sometimes paired with ‘bullshit’ for dramatic effect.” We can hear an inmate shout this in the beginning of the game in the movie when the referee is making obviously false calls against the inmates’ team. The translator did not opt for alliteration in their subtitle nor did they include the meaning of the idiom:

To je pravo sranje!

To render this adequately, a translator needs to consider that this is an overlap of language and culture. While it can be hard to find an equivalent for the idiomatic

expression, alliteration can usually be achieved, sometimes by means of sacrificing some of the meaning:

To je skorumpirano sranje!

Using the word “skorumpiran” (corrupt) allows the alliteration, but at the same time somewhat covers the meaning of the idiom as it implies that the referees have not been fair in making the calls.

Another example of alliteration in the movie is the name of the team:

Mean machine.

The subtitler translated this word-for-word into “Zlobna mašina,” thereby losing the alliteration, rhyme and the rhythm of the phrase. The latter is important because later in the movie we can see the spectators chanting: “Mean machine. Mean machine.” It is impossible to preserve all of these features, but the following translation includes most of them, even the double meaning of the word “mean” as “evil” and as “awesome,” as it can be used colloquially:

Strašni stroj.

5.2.3 Rhyme

Like alliteration, rhyme is a repetition of similar or same sounds, but at the end of words, most often in the final syllables of lines in poems. The challenging part is maintaining the form, while at the same time conveying the meaning of the source. In the case of The Longest Yard, the character called Cheeseburger sometimes uses rhyming language for dramatic effect:

I got the shakes that are gonna make you quake. I got the fries that will cross your eyes.

Only one of the rhymes was kept in the original subtitles, but the meaning was altered in that line, while the other line was translated literally with no rhyme: “Imam napitke, ki te bodo stresli. / Imam krompirček boljši kot pirček.” Since Cheesburger is using these words to advertise how good his merchandise is, the second part can be replaced with anything that rhymes, but describes positive feelings upon ingesting delicious food:

Imam napitke, ki ti prinesejo užitke. imam pomfri, ki te obnori.

5.2.4 Pun

Pun, also called a play on words, is the humorous use of a word or phrase so as to emphasize or suggest different meanings or applications, or the use of words that are alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning (Dictionary.com). Its main purpose is humor. When used in a dialogue, it is a testament to a speaker’s cleverness and linguistic abilities.

In The Longest Yard, there are two characters whose humor is derived from their witty dialogue rather than amusing actions or situations: Crewe and Caretaker. When commenting on the team’s receiver, Caretaker says:

Man, that boy would catch a cold in the desert.

This pun is based on the literal and metaphorical use of the polyseme “catch”: the receiver is so good at catching that he would catch even the impossible, a cold in the desert. The subtitler translated this literally, correctly replacing the idiom to “catch a cold” with a Slovenian collocation with the same meaning:

Fant bi še v puščavi staknil prehlad.

By not using the word “catch”, the translator lost the connection with the action on the screen. This sentence is now out of place and sounds nonsensical and random. In order to avoid this, the translation must include a phrase with a word “catch,” denoting something that is hard to catch:

Fant bi ujel še lasten rep, če bi bil pes.

The image of the dog chasing its tail preserves the comical effect of this exchange, therefore completing the adequate rendition of this pun.

6 AMERICAN FOOTBALL METAPHORS IN EVERYDAY USE

Languages draw inspiration for introducing new words and phrases from every important area of life. Sports in general have contributed many idioms that are widely used in everyday life. Examples of such usage in Slovenian are idioms like “startati na prvo žogo” (“to start at the first ball”; soccer), “dvigniti letvico” (“to raise the bar”; high jump) or “voziti slalom” (“to slalom”; skiing).

There are probably no countries in the world in which sports—not a particular sport but sports in general—are as interwoven with national life as they are in the United States. Sports are part of the very fabric of American life, discourse and lexicon to such a degree that it is common to hear prominent national leaders speak about matters of state with reference to such sports metaphors as “throwing up a Hail Mary,” “scoring a slam dunk,” “playing hardball,” and “hitting below the belt.” Even the presidential briefcase that holds the codes to launch U.S. nuclear attack is referred to as “the football” (Firestein 2007).

Given the above connection between the American people and sports, it is not surprising that we can find examples of sport metaphors even in presidential speeches. In September 2012, President Barack Obama spoke in Toledo, Ohio, where he incorporated an extended football metaphor into his speech. It was a response to Mitt Romney, his opposing candidate in the presidential election, who opened the exchange as follows:

“One of the promises he made was he was going to create more jobs. And today, 23 million people are out of work or stopped looking for work or underemployed. Let me tell you, if you have a coach that's 0-23 million, you say it's time to get a new coach. It's time for America to see a winning season again and we're going to bring it to them.”

There are several American football-related metaphors in this short paragraph. It refers to Obama as the coach, since a president leads the country in a similar way as a

coach leads a team. “0-23 million” refers to Obama’s record of wins and losses. The metaphor implies that Obama’s job as president is to lead the country in such a way that new jobs are created, and that Obama has failed in that job. Romney would have a “winning season” by being a better coach/president.

Obama’s rebuttal to Romney used an analogy between American football and Romney’s political actions:

“The problem is everybody has already seen his economic playbook. We know what’s in it.

On first down, he hikes taxes by nearly $2,000 on the average family with kids in order to pay for a massive tax cut for multimillionaires. That’s on first down. It sounds like unnecessary roughness to me. [Laughter]

On second down, he calls an audible and undoes reforms that are there to prevent another financial crisis and bank bailout. He wants to get rid of rules that are there to protect our air and our water and workers’ rights and protections to make sure health care is there for you when you get sick.

And then, on third down, he calls for a Hail Mary, ending Medicare as we know it by giving seniors a voucher that leaves them to pay any additional cost out of their pocket. There’s a flag on the play: loss of up to an additional $6,400 a year for the same benefits you get now.

That’s their playbook. That’s their economic plan. And I’ve got one piece of advice for you about the Romney-Ryan game plan, Ohio: Punt it away! It won’t work. It won’t win the game. You don’t need that coach. That’s a losing season.”

A “playbook” is a book that contains the team’s strategies and plays. The economic playbook that appears in the first and the last paragraph refers to the Romney campaign’s economic plan. It rounds up this football metaphor as all the other actions in between would be a part of the playbook.

The second paragraph introduces the count of downs. In the game, each drive consists of four downs in which the team must gain ten yards. The first part of Romney’s plan would allegedly have included raising taxes for families, which Obama called “unnecessary roughness.” This is a penalty in American football denoting a personal foul for using methods beyond what is necessary to stop the opposing player. In this case Obama probably just wanted to say that raising taxes was unnecessary and rough on those families, and there was no real comparison between the football and the action other than the semantic meaning of the phrase.

The third paragraph continues the progression of the game with the second down. When a quarterback “calls an audible,” he changes the play after assessing the situation on the field, therefore responding to the opponent. Romney’s described actions were not in response to anything; he merely changed the rules in place that provide social security and environmental protection by undoing the reforms as part of his political agenda. This metaphor is based on the premise of both actions changing something, but Romney’s undoing the reforms bears little resemblance to calling an audible.

In the fourth paragraph we reach the third down, in which a team is expected to make considerable progress, otherwise they usually surrender the possession of the ball in the next play. Here Obama claims that Romney calls for a Hail Mary. In American football, a Hail Mary pass is a long forward pass, usually made in desperation at the end of a quarter or a game, with little chance of succeeding. The name originates in the Catholic prayer “Hail Mary”: since the play has a low success rate, you say the prayer, heave the ball, and hope for the best. By comparing Romney’s action of ending Medicare to a Hail Mary, Obama suggests that this was a desperate act with little, or maybe in this case no chance of bringing any benefits to the people it involved. He continues with “there’s a flag on the play”, a phrase that is used for a foul or penalty in American football where referees throw a flag to mark the spot of the foul. He explains it further using another football term: loss of yards. As the

offense sometimes doesn’t succeed in making any progress down the field, they lose yards and end up worse off than they were before the play. Similarly, on account of Romney’s actions, people pay a lot more for the same benefits, therefore losing money, and that is not playing according to the rules of the “politics game”—to serve the people, hence flag on the play.

Obama concludes this football metaphor with an action we usually see on the fourth down. A playbook with this game plan will not win the game, and a coach like this would produce a losing season so he calls on the voters to “punt it away.” A football team punts the ball on the fourth down when they have little chance of succeeding in gaining the necessary ten yards. This means they kick the ball and surrender it to the opposing team, allowing them to try and score. In the same fashion, voters should “punt away” Romney by voting for the “opposing Obama team,” since Romney had not been successful and does not make a good coach/leader.

7 CONCLUSION

The Longest Yard is a sports comedy and as such its main purpose is to offer its viewers entertainment rather than extensive insight into the social, historical or political characteristics of the nation it depicts. However, since sports are often a big part of the culture—this is particularly the case with the all-American sports in the US—through a movie the viewer is exposed to new concepts from foreign cultures, including new vocabulary.

This diploma paper focuses on examining the American football terminology in Slovenian through the analysis of the subtitles in the movie. After a short description of the game, the paper presents subtitling with its methods, which constitutes a special kind of translation. Its limitations influence the translation choices, as subtitles must comply with space restrictions and fluency requirements, but also be in line with the action on the screen. The paper also discusses other culture-specific elements, namely references to celebrities or fictional characters and figures of speech. These present another challenge for the translator, but are important for the audience, since they add humor or additional information, important for the understanding of the story.

The analysis of the subtitles showed that the subtitler made some poor choices regarding American football terminology. They mostly employed the translation methods of generalization and omission, but they failed to convey the meaning correctly or adequately, which suggests that the translator was unfamiliar with the specifics of the game. The underdeveloped Slovenian terminology for American Football probably also contributed to the low quality of subtitles; even the Slovenian commentators in the televised games mostly use English terms and sometimes try to conform them to the Slovenian rules so we can hear expression like “dropal v kavridž” for “drop into coverage” (Aljaž, Colts @ Falcons, 22. 11. 2015, 21:38, SK3). On the other hand, other culture-specific elements and figures of speech were not

appropriately translated, either, as they were simply translated word-for-word without any regard for the intended reference or figurative language.

In our suggestions, the translations of references to people or fictional characters depended on the level of their recognition in the target culture. If it was reasonable to expect that the viewers would know them, the reference was left as in the original (Elton John, Frodo), otherwise it was replaced by a more familiar concept (Star Jones => Oprah). Some references had to be changed because direct translation did not carry a certain connotation arising from the scene (Sleeping Beauty – “Zvezdica Zaspanka”) and some had to be kept regardless of the level of recognition, since the person appeared on the screen and was not just a part of the dialogue.

In translation of figures of speech, our main obstacle was matching the meaning with the form. In some cases we had to somewhat deviate from the meaning to preserve the figure of speech (rhyme – the meaning did not relate to the story), but in general we managed to find semantically equivalent translations with similar figurative effect (mean machine – “strašni stroj”).

American Football terms were mostly translated with the help of the established terminology used by the TV commentators, Slovenian association for American football or Kordić’s English-Slovenian glossary of American football (quarterback – “podajalec,” down – “poskus,” unsportsmanlike behavior – “nešportno obnašanje”). In some cases, the terms used were borrowed from English and have been adapted to Slovenian (timeout – “tajmavt”) or are still in their original form (blitz – “blitz”). For the purpose of maintaining subtitle fluency and to conform to space restrictions, we sometimes used generalization (fullback – “v napadu”). Complete understanding of these football terms was not crucial for following the narrative, as the actions can be seen on the screen, but including proper translations in subtitles can enable the viewers to enjoy the movie better, as they get to know the game and can help to establish American football terminology in Slovenian.

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Video materials

The Longest Yard. DVD. Directed by Peter Segal. 2005; BLITZ Film & Video Distribution d.o.o., 2005.

Texans @ Bengals. 17. 11. 2015. SK1.

Colts @ Falcons, 22. 11. 2015, SK3.