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Developing an Environmentally Appropriate, Socially Acceptable and Gender-Sensitive Technology for Safe-Water Supply to Househo Developing an Environmentally Appropriate, Socially Acceptable and Gender-Sensitive Technology for Safe-Water Supply to Households in Arsenic Affected Areas in Rural Bangladesh Nahid Amin Thesis committee Thesis supervisors Prof. dr. A. Niehof Professor of Sociology of Consumers and Households, Wageningen University Prof. dr. ir. W.H. Rulkens Professor of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University Thesis co-supervisor: Dr. ir. H. Bruning Assistent professor at the subdepartment of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University Other members: Prof. dr. ir. G. Spaargaren, Wageningen University Dr. C.A. Sijbesma, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, The Hague Dr. B. Petrusevski, UNESCO-IHE, Delft Dr. ir. M.M. Nederlof, KWR Watercycle Research Institute, Nieuwegein This research was conducted under the joint auspices of the Graduate Schools of SENSE and WASS Developing an Environmentally Appropriate, Socially Acceptable and Gender-Sensitive Technology for Safe-Water Supply to Households in Arsenic Affected Areas in Rural Bangladesh Nahid Amin Thesis Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. dr. M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Friday 19 November 2010 at 13.30 p.m. in the Aula Nahid Amin Developing an Environmentally Appropriate, Socially Acceptable and Gender-Sensitive Technology for Safe-Water Supply to Households in Arsenic Affected Areas in Rural Bangladesh Thesis Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2010) With references, with summaries in Dutch and English ISBN 978-90-8585-816-4 Acknowledgements Since 2002 I developed an interest to do my PhD at Wageningen University. In 2005, I got the opportunity to start working with Professor Wim Rulkens and Professor Anke Niehof. I have benefited from their excellent academic background and vast knowledge in two different sectors: environmental engineering and social science. During my doctoral research, different individuals, institutions and organizations helped me. I am glad to acknowledge their contributions. I am very fortunate to have Professor Rulkens and Professor Niehof as promotor. Professor Rulkens supported me from the start and I am indebted to him for his scientific guidance, patience, and support. My profound gratitude goes to Professor Anke Niehof. She introduced me to Professor Rulkens. They accepted me as PhD student and decided to submit a joint proposal to WOTRO for an interdisciplinary research project. Together with co-promotor Dr. Harry Bruning they guided me in writing the proposal and desinging and writing the thesis. Professor Niehof’s special contibution was on the social aspects of my thesis, teaching me about social science theory and how to link social aspects to technical aspects in interdisciplinary research work. She provided comments and suggestions at each stage of the research and on the many versions of the manuscript. Her critical and valuable comments during our discussions in Wageningen her and e-mails when I was in Bangladesh, were much appreciated. I would like to thank Dr. Bruning for his continuous support and daily supervision in my research and thesis writing. He provided very crucial technical guidance at all stages of the research when I was in Wageningen and by e-mail when I was in Bangladesh. I am also thankful to him and Prof. Niehof for coming to Bangladesh and to visit the field sites together. Their visit, though short, was very important and a source of inspiration for me. I am indebted to my local supervisor Dr. Bilqis A. Hoque of the Environment and Population Research Center (EPRC). I was very fortunate to get her support in carrying out the experimental work and writing the thesis. I would like to thank another local supervisor, Professor M. Mozzammel Hoque of the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) for his support during the field research. I am grateful to WOTRO for funding my sandwich PhD fellowship, which enabled me to conduct the research and work in Wageningen to develop the proposal, attend courses, write the thesis, as well as conduct experimental work in Wageningen and Bangladesh. I gratefully acknowledge the warm cooperation with staff of EPRC, UNICEF, DPHE and BRAC in Bangladesh at various stages of this research. I am also thankful to the Wageningen research schools Mansholt Graduate School (now WASS) and WIMEK for their support. I sincerely acknowledge the secretarial support and the help with arranging the formalities of staying in Wageningen of Liesbeth Kesaulya and Hedy Munro, and the way they affectionately gave me all sorts of tips and advice. I am thankful to the staff of the groups of Environmental Technology and Sociology of Consumers and Households and other colleagues and friends in Wageningen for their support. I owe much to BCL Associates Limited and managing director Mr. M. Hoque for granting me a study leave for more than two years to complete my PhD work. I also would like to thank the research assistants Mr. Azad and Mr. Anis and my survey team, who worked hard to conduct the experimental work, the survey and the interviews among more than one hundred households in the study area. The field assistants Mr. Anis and Ms. Mahima gave i me their precious time for conducting interviews, group discussions and systematic observation of the filters’ use during the trial and evaluation phases. Last but not least I want to express my gratitude to my husband Dr. Ahmed Ali, my mother and sisters and brothers-in-law for their continuous support and encouragement to complete my thesis. I hope my little daughter Diyamoni will forgive me for leaving her behind when I was in Wageningen or in the field in Bangladesh. ii Table of contents Table of contents ............................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Background ............................................................................................................ 2 1.3 Objectives of the study and research questions ...................................................... 7 1.4 Study area ............................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Study design and research methods ..................................................................... 11 1.6 Structure of the thesis ........................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2. The Arsenic Problem in Bangladesh, an Overview ................................. 13 2.1 Background and location of Bangladesh .............................................................. 13 2.2 Geology, morphology and climate ....................................................................... 14 2.3 Worldwide arsenic occurrences in groundwater .................................................. 15 2.4 The arsenic situation in Bangladesh ..................................................................... 21 2.5 Initiatives by the government of Bangladesh ....................................................... 23 Chapter 3. Materials and Methodology ....................................................................... 25 3.1 Study Design ........................................................................................................ 25 3.2 Criteria for the selection of technologies for further development ...................... 27 3.2.1 Technical criteria .......................................................................................... 27 3.2.2 Social criteria ............................................................................................... 28 3.3 Overall conceptual model of the study ................................................................. 30 3.4 Selection of As removal technology for further development ............................. 34 3.5 Methods of Data Collection and Analysis ........................................................... 34 3.5.1 Field reconnaissance and selection of the research villages ............................... 35 3.5.2 Technological data collection ...................................................................... 35 3.5.3 Social data collection and analysis ............................................................... 36 Chapter 4. Performance of Community-based Pipeline Water Systems Using Deep Aquifers ....................................................................................................... 37 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 39 4.2 Groundwater characteristics in Bangladesh ......................................................... 40 4.3 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 41 4.4 Study Area ...........................................................................................................
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