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Mimesis / Passato Prossimo MIMESIS / PASSATO PROSSIMO N. 23 Collana diretta da Paolo Bertella Farnetti COMITATO SCIENTIFICO Ruth Iyob (University of Missouri-St. Louis) Silvana Palma (Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”) Adolfo Mignemi (Insmli, Milano) Shiferaw Bekele (University of Addis Ababa) Alessandro Triulzi (Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”) Paolo Bertella Farnetti (Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia) MARZIA PONSO PROCESSI, RIPARAZIONI, MEMORIE L’“elaborazione del passato” nella Germania postnazista e postcomunista MIMESIS Volume pubblicato grazie al contributo dei fondi di ricerca MIUR, Progetto PRIN 2009 “Passioni e politica nell’età globale”, Dipartimento di Culture, Politica e Società dell’Università degli Studi di Torino. MIMESIS EDIZIONI (Milano – Udine) www.mimesisedizioni.it [email protected] Collana: Passato prossimo, n. 23 Isbn: 9788857530222 © 2015 – MIM EDIZIONI SRL Via Monfalcone, 17/19 – 20099 Sesto San Giovanni (MI) Phone: +39 02 24861657 / 24416383 Fax: +39 02 89403935 INDICE INTRODUZIONE 11 PARTE PRIMA. «VERGANGENHEITSBEWÄLTIGUNG»: L’ELABORAZIONE DI DUE PASSATI DITTATORIALI 39 1. La “denazifi cazione” nelle zone d’occupazione 45 2. La BRD: dalla “politica del passato” alla “cultura della memoria” 76 3. La DDR tra sovietizzazione, antifascismo e rimozione 95 4. Dopo l’unifi cazione: la seconda Vergangenheitsbewältigung 104 PARTE SECONDA. LA GIURIDIFICAZIONE DELLA COLPA. I PROCESSI AI COLPEVOLI 117 1. La «giustizia dei vincitori» 120 2. I processi a carico di ex-nazisti nella BRD 152 3. L’elaborazione giudiziaria del passato nella DDR 170 4. La giustizia di transizione postcomunista 185 PARTE TERZA. LA MONETARIZZAZIONE DEL TORTO. RICONCILIAZIONE CON LE VITTIME? 219 1. Vistose asimmetrie 223 2. Restituzioni e risarcimenti nella BRD 228 3. Prestazioni assistenziali nella DDR 247 4. La Wiedergutmachung dopo la riunifi cazione 253 a. Le riparazioni alle vittime “dimenticate” del nazionalsocialismo 254 b. Le riparazioni alle vittime della SED 265 PARTE QUARTA. LA CULTURA DELLA MEMORIA. IL PASSATO E L’IDENTITÀ COLLETTIVA 281 1. La «questione della colpa» nell’immediato dopoguerra 287 2. Amnesia, anamnesi e ipermnesia nella BRD 298 3. La politica della storia nella DDR 321 4. Verso una rielaborazione del passato comune 332 a. La memoria della Shoah dopo la “Wende” 335 b. La memoria della DDR nella Germania riunifi cata 349 CONCLUSIONI 369 BIBLIOGRAFIA 377 In memoria di un’amica molto cara, Fulvia Tagliamacco «Die lieben Deutschen kenn ich schon; erst schweigen sie, dann mäkeln sie, dann beseitigen sie, dann bestehlen und verschweigen sie» (Johann Wolfgang Goethe a Friedrich Wilhelm Riemer, 29 agosto 1816) La ricerca alla base di questo lavoro è stata avviata nel corso della mia collaborazione nel Sonderforschungsbereich 537 «In sti tu tionalität und Ge- schicht lich keit», coordinato dal Prof. Gert Melville, presso la Techni sche Universität di Dresda, nel quadro di un progetto su giustizia politica e pro- cessi di transizione dal titolo “Institutio na li sierung von Schuld und Sühne. Po litische Justiz im Spannungs feld der Vergangenheits be wäl ti gung”. Il tema è stato ulteriormente approfondito in occasione di un post-dottorato presso la Fondazione Luigi Firpo di Torino. Tale indagine si pone in continuità, per i risultati conseguiti, con il lavo- ro a cui, tra il 2004 e il 2010, ho dedicato gran parte delle mie ricerche, e che verteva sui dibattiti storiografi ci sviluppatisi intorno al tema del Son- derweg tedesco (il volume è apparso con il titolo Una storia particolare. Sonderweg tedesco e identità europea nella collana “Mono grafi e” del Cen- tro per gli studi storici italo-germanici presso la Fondazione Bruno Kessler di Trento). Si tratta di un tema che, oltre a chiarire specifi ci aspetti della storia tedesca in età moderna e contemporanea, è di grande rilievo anche per la storia del pensiero politico e per la storia comparata delle istituzio- ni. Le modalità di elaborazione del passato – Terzo Reich e DDR – rap- presentano un elemento costitutivo della peculiarità tedesca nel secondo dopoguerra. Per gli aspetti relativi alla neutralizzazione dei confl itti e all’eco no mia delle passioni, il presente lavoro costituisce anche il mio contributo («Ri- mozione e autostigmatizzazione: il caso tedesco») alla ricerca PRIN 2009 10 Processi, riparazioni, memorie (Nessuna passione spenta? Rabbia, disincanto e felicità ai tempi del ca- pitalismo globale), coordinata a Firenze dalla Prof.ssa Elena Pulcini, in sede torinese dai Proff. Pier Paolo Portinaro ed Enrico Donaggio. Vi hanno collaborato, con contributi apparsi nel volume Passioni violente e memorie contrastate (a cura di P. P. Portinaro, editore Mimesis), i Dott. Diego Guzzi e Jacopo Rosatelli. Ai maestri e ai colleghi di Torino esprimo la mia grati- tudine per una collaborazione stimolante e fruttuosa. Un ringraziamento particolare va al coordinatore del SFB 804 («Transzendenz und Gemein sinn») della Technische Universität di Dresda, prof. Hans Vorländer, per l’opportunità offertami di svolgere le ricerche presso la Sächsisches Land Universitätsbibliothek. Gli ultimi aggiorna- menti bibliografi ci sono stati condotti presso la Zentral- und Hochschul- bibliothek di Lucerna, ove attualmente lavoro a un progetto di ricerca nell’ambito della storia del pensiero politico: di questa opportunità sono molto grata a Enno Rudolph, professore emerito dell’Università di Hei- delberg. Oltre a ringraziare la mia famiglia e gli amici per il loro calore e sostegno, preziosi nei lunghi soggiorni all’estero, desidero menzionare la Prof. Manuela Ceretta, alla quale mi legano amicizia e gratitudine. INTRODUZIONE 1. Nel passaggio da un regime dittatoriale a un sistema democratico, in qualsiasi paese, le questioni che si pongono al governo successore sono sem- pre le medesime: come punire i responsabili dei crimini di Stato? Come ripa- rare le sofferenze e le ingiustizie infl itte alle vittime? Come conservare e tra- smettere la memoria di quanto accaduto per le generazioni successive? Nel secolo dei fascismi e dei totalitarismi, queste domande trovarono risposte differenti nei rispettivi paesi che vissero esperienze dittatoriali1. Tra di essi, la Germania occupa un posto particolare, perchè nell’arco di cinquant’anni si trovò due volte di fronte al compito di elaborare il lascito di un regime contrario ai principi di diritto e di superarne l’eredità2 – nel ’45, dopo il crollo del Terzo Reich, e nel ’90, con la dissoluzione della DDR – e la prima volta, essendo divisa in due Stati contrapposti per ordinamenti politici, strutture economiche e fondamenti ideologici, la resa dei conti fu duplice ed etero- genea3. Gli effetti di questo duplice passato sulla rifl essione storica, sulle decisioni della politica e nella cultura pubblica sono ormai da tempo oggetto 1 F. Muñoz Conde / T. Vormbaum (a cura di), Transformation von Diktaturen in Demokratien und Aufarbeitung der Vergangenheit, de Gruyter, Berlin 2010. 2 Ampliando il campo d’osservazione, Jon Elster (Closing the Books. Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004; trad. it. Chiudere i conti. La giustizia nelle transizioni politiche, il Mulino, Bolo- gna 2008, p. 18) include anche la terza transizione vissuta dalla Germania nel XX secolo, quella dal Kaiserreich alla Repubblica di Weimar, sottolineando che tanto nella seconda (1945) quanto nella terza (1989) la resa dei conti con il regime pas- sato fu animata dal desiderio di non ripetere gli errori commessi nella precedente occasione. 3 Quanto la questione della Vergangenheitspolitik sia un processo che s’intreccia con la nascita degli Stati tedeschi è stato evidenziato, tra gli altri, da N. Frei, Ver gan genheitspolitik. Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Ver gan gen - heit, Beck, München 1996; A. Weinke, Die Verfolgung von NS-Tätern im geteilten Deutschland. Ver gan ge n heits be wäl tigungen 1949-1969 oder: Eine deutsch-deut- sche Beziehungsgeschichte im Kalten Krieg, Schöningh, Paderborn / München 2002. 12 Processi, riparazioni, memorie della ricerca storiografi ca, che ha indagato con intensità i modelli interpreta- tivi dominanti nel dibattito politico e scientifi co, così come le immagini della storia fi ssate sul piano istituzionale di entrambi gli Stati tedeschi e successi- vamente della Germania unita. Ne è emerso che il riorientamento valoriale e il consolidamento democratico sono dipesi in misura rilevante dal rapporto intrattenuto con questa duplice eredità storica. In quale modo e con quali esiti sia avvenuto questo processo di «VergangenHeitsBewältigung» (ossia di «su- peramento del passato» attraverso la sua elaborazione critica)4 è l’oggetto del presente lavoro, rivolgendo particolare attenzione all’interazione tra diritto, politica, storiografi a e discorso pubblico5. L’interesse della letteratura internazionale per i temi della giustizia in relazione ai grandi crimini di natura politica è cresciuto enormemente negli ultimi anni. La questione che essa pone è la punizione dei «delitti di Stato» e la riparazione d’ingiustizie storiche come presupposto per la fondazione 4 La coniazione del concetto Vergangenheitsbewältigung viene attribuita al primo Bundespräsident, Theodor Heuss (ad es., F. Bauer, In Namen des Volkes. Die strafrechtliche Bewältigung der Vergangenheit (1965), in: Id., Die Humanität der Rechtsordnung. Ausgewählte Schriften, Campus, Frankfurt a. M. / New York 1998, pp. 77-90), il qua le si rivolse ai tedeschi in numerosi discorsi, affi nché non dimenticassero mai «quel che negli anni della vergogna era suc cesso
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