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The Routledge Companion to the Environmental Humanities
Ursula K. Heise, Jon Christensen, Michelle Niemann
Domestication, domesticated landscapes, and tropical natures
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 Susanna B. Hecht Published online on: 12 Jan 2017
How to cite :- Susanna B. Hecht. 12 Jan 2017, Domestication, domesticated landscapes, and tropical natures from: The Routledge Companion to the Environmental Humanities Routledge Accessed on: 29 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315766355.ch2
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Thesesustainabilityargumentshadtheirroots economic regimes,especially comparedwithmanyofthemonoculturallanduseson offer to long-termecologicalviability ofAmazonianlandusesunderarangeclimate and lege local knowledge systems and their derived practices, arguing that these hold the keys a regionallanduse“development”option,itisalsooftencontested. astheseareinscribedintheParisClimateaccords.Sinceconservationis (De Barroset al.) ultimately forReducedEmissionsfromDeforestationand Degradation(REDD)payments with “strong”conservationforbiodiversity,carbonoffsets andwatershedcontrol, minimal presenceofhumanshasbecomeincreasinglynecessary forlandassertionsassociated showing land use legacies is important for such territorial claims, showing the absence or lages, andhistoricalecologicalinformationaspartofthelegal dossiertoclaimlands.While evidence including ethnohistorical and archival documents, landmarks like historical vil- use, whichincludeforestactivities.Thus,traditionaland indigenous peoplesneedformsof Amazon countries—recognizeslandclaimsbasedonhistorical markersandexplanationsof about nativepeoples,currentdevelopment,andindigenouslandpoliticsinAmazonia. of historiclanduseforclimatechange,datingtheAnthropocene,civilizationaldiscourses atory framings.Theseanalyticsalsopertaintobroaderquestionssuchastheimplications this debateinvolvesdifferingepistemiccommunities,theirsociologies,andexplan and socialimpactsonlandscapes.Fromtheperspectiveofsciencetechnologystudies, except thatthesecontroversiesilluminatedivergentideologiesaboutnature,domestication, times.Thesequestionsmightbeviewedasarcanainascientificdebate, pre-Colombian currently playingoutin debates over indigenous “footprints” in theAmazonbasin This chapterexploreshowcompetingmodelsofdomesticationandhumanimpactare Further, thesustainabilityargumentsthatinfuseregional developmentdebatesprivi The Brazilianconstitutionof1988—whichhasbeenwidelycopiedthroughoutthe TROPICAL NATURES LANDSCAPES, AND DOMESTICATION, Domestication politicsandthehumanfootprint DOMESTICATED Susanna B.Hecht 2 21 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 questions ofdomestication,whynow,andenvironmental humanities? the museforarecentsetofdebatesthatrehearseherpremises andblindspots,butfirst,the zational argumentsandthe“modernization”ofherpedological arguments,assheserves restrain the developmentalist Generals. Later in this essay, I willreturn to Meggers’s civili arguments—sparse populationandculturalinsufficiency—wouldstimulateratherthan ecological limitswouldprecludeAmazonianinterventions,anddidnotexpectthather regimes (1964–1985)(HechtandCockburn;Silva;Becker).Ironically,Meggersthought tral political,geopolitical,andculturalmodernizationprojectunderBrazil’sauthoritarian of “demographicvoid”becameonethepretextsforAmazonianoccupationasacen insisted thattherewereenvironmentallimitationsonnativeculture,andtheresultanttrope which Idiscussfurtheron,alsorenderedmanyAmazonianpopulations“invisible.”She his movingautobiography.ThefunctionalismofBettyMeggers’s“soillimitation”model, in theirownautonomy,asDaviKopenawa,alongtimeYanomamiactivist,describes the Yanomamiasviolentbruteslackingskillstoevenactcitizens,letalonepartake Chagnon’s sociobiology of the “fierce people,” Brazil’s authoritarian regimes interpreted Chagnon’s descriptionoftheYanomami,fedintonegativeviewsnatives.Because (Hemming; Garfield). of thenineteenthandtwentieth centuries andwithhighly contested claims to territory overt racismforhundredsofyears,withnativesaswardsthestateduringmuch and Weinstein). Indigenousandtraditionalpopulationshavebeensubjecttostructural degeneration problem,”topromoteEuropeanimmigration(Hecht, ticians whousedthisidea,alongwithconceptsofracialdebilityandthe“miscegenation echoed bymanynineteenth-centurynaturalists,ethnographers,casualobservers,andpoli the civilizationalcapacityoflocalsandcondemnedthemtounderdevelopment,aposition ment thinkers,suchasHenryBuckle,arguedthattheexuberantBraziliannatureswamped their environments at large scale or on the terra firma? Many nineteenth-century develop- Amazonians thathavebeeninplayforcenturies.Wereevenabletoinfluence Amazonian research. systems, settlement,landuse,andhistoryaswellsociallysituateddiscussionsabout has producedacohortofresearchersconcernedwiththeoreticaldimensionsknowledge social formations(HechtandCockburn;PoseyBalée;RedfordPadoch).This of theauthoritarianperiod(1964–1985)andfocusedontraditionaltechnologies crops hasbeenaregularfeature ofimperialmovements,aniconimprovement,and, in rich “natural”concentrations ofwildresources.Theglobalizationfoodandindustrial nomadism tosedentarism,associated eitherwithdomesticatedorganismsorexceptionally civilization and has often, incorrectly,been portrayed as partofa linear progression from ity, and urbanization. Domestication fundamentally conflates with sedentary lifeways and surplus wasconsideredanecessity formorecomplexdivisionsoflabor,political “Abode for Man” in classical and medieval thought (Glacken), and specifically, agricultural two millennia.Thepracticeofagriculturewastakenasa centralproofoftheEarthasan Domestication hasbeenadurableresearcharenaandanalytic triggerformostofthelast Mid-century functionalistculturalecologicalanthropology,asforexampleNapoleon Underpinning thesedebatesareassumptionsaboutthecivilizationalcapacitiesof Domestication andtheenvironmentalhumanities SUSANNA B.HECHT 22 Scramble; Skidmore; - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 archive” iswidelyusedinarcheology, itsapplicationinenvironmentalhistoryisrelatively botanical, pedological,andpalynological evidence—inhistoricaldebates.Whilethe“natural history thatdeployquantitative biophysicaldatafromthe“naturalarchive”—agronomic, ideologies, indigenousknowledge, technology,andpoliticalecologies. implications forthinkingabout cultures,representationsandconstructionsofnature,science and, inhighlymanipulatedGMOlandscapes,evenathird natureor“neo-nature,”have are severalotherreasonsasfollows. for theenvironmentalhumanities?Whileclimatechange is intheforeground,Ithinkthere should therebeanexplosionofdomesticationdebates,and whyshouldthisbeofinterest to climatechange,withagricultureasbothdriverandvictim ofclimaticevents.Butwhy and perhapsmostcentrally,thelargerissueofviability ofproductionsystemsinrelation germplasm andtheriseofGMOs,rapiddrasticchanges inagrariancommunities, production, lossofagrodiversity,biodiversity,and Latin America,China,andSoutheastAsia,thesimultaneous concernsoverheritagefood reflect anxietyaboutthevastscaleofsimplificationsagriculturelandscapesinUS, the NationalAcademy(2014),suggeststhatthereareotherissuesinplay.Partlythismay recent themedissuesinjournalslike are represented. Jong). Theseepistemicblindersproblematically shapethewaysinwhichtheselandscapes De that constructagrodiversityintropicallivelihoods(Kennedy;Brookfield;Padochand time andspacethatconstitutetherelationsofpeoplewithlandscapesatmanyscales versus planted.Thesedichotomiesobscurethecomplexmanagementregimesspreadover hold sway, including those of wild versus domesticated, forest versus garden, and tended ferent paradigmsofagriculture,especiallywhenfundamentallydichotomousclassifications subsistence strategiesrevolvearoundsuchinvisibilitiesandhamperunderstandingofdif al.;DeJong;Lewis;Mathews;Kennedy).Problemsofclassifying al.;Freitaset Støen et ChomitzandKumari;Aguilar- has shown(Brookfield;BrookfieldandPadoch;Ellenet al.; products, successionalmanagement,foresttending,andanarrayofarborealmanagement understood orcouldeven assumed. Manylanduses,cultigens,andactivitieshavefallenoutsidewhatobservers has beentorecoverandanalyzethesepractices. and Voeks).Oneofthecentralfocimuchcurrentethnoagronomyethnoecology and Swan;Endersby;DriverMartins;Brockway;Carney;CarneyRosomoff; enous cultivarsandtechniqueseveniftheydidnotfadefrompractice(Mann;Schiebinger systems prominentwhileotherssankfromview,thuscontributingtotheinvisibilityofindig slavery, thatmediatedthesetransformations.Theseinstitutionsmadesomeagricultural institutions, suchasbotanicalgardens,royalcharters,ecclesiasticmissions,markets,and landscapes andsocialchangesassociatedwithagriculturalagrariansystems,the and continuities. that emblematize cultural aptitudes, differences, virtues, vices, and land transformations In thissense,agriculturaldifferencesbecamemarkersoftheexoticandfulcrumsresistance modern politicalecologyanalytics,theaxisforanalyzinganarrayofenvironmentalproblems. Second, domesticationandlandscape modelsaresitesfornewmethodsofenvironmental First, domesticationandcroplands,asahighlyhumanized landscapeor“secondnature” The resurgenceofinterestinpaleo-agricultureandearlydomestication,withseveral Many landscapes“read”aswildhavemuchstrongerhumansignaturesthangenerally Environmental historiansandculturalgeographershavebeenespeciallyinterestedin DOMESTICATED LANDSCAPESANDTROPICALNATURES see asagriculture,therecentattentiontonontimberforest Holocene (2015),Diversity 23 in situconservation,theprivatizationof (2010), and Proceedings of - -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 ethnohistory, andethnobiology,includenativeAmazonians asauthoritieswell. als, includingthenaturalsciencesaswelllocalknowledge systems,archives,ethnography, much largersystems,versusthoseapproachesthatcontextualize anduseanarrayofmateri bench scienceswherethesampleandtransectbecome authoritativerepresentativesof Thus, atissueinthe“footprintdebate”arepracticesusually categorizedas“normal”and BaléeandErickson;Erickson,“DomesticatedLandscapes”;PoseyPlenderleith). et al.; approaches mentionedabove(Balée,“Culture”;Heckenberger andNeves;Heckenberger integrative human/natureepistemesinvolvingmaterialapproaches ratherthanthesemiotic Researchers more rootedinarcheological and ecologicalframingsalsoengage alternative, by thetheoreticalworkofPhilippeDescola,EduardoViveirosdeCastro,andKohn. emergent “posthuman”ornonhumanparadigmsinenvironmentalthoughtasexemplified rooted inindigenousepistemes,isenjoyingsignificantprestigeandfiguresprominently (Latour). Amazonianethnographicresearchonwhatmightbecalled“naturephilosophy,” theory, andothermodelsthatrecognizenonhumanelementsasactorsinhumansystems inductive, the“co-productionmodels,”emergentanalyticsofActorNetworkandobject of nature.Thisisrelevantintermstheparadigmsnormalscience,whetherpositivistor development (theideaofprogress)andconservation(lostEdens). constitutes agrarianlandscapes.Inshort,scientistshavebeenentangledinmythologiesof development controversies,becausetheyhaveaninterestintheactionsandscaleofwhat tropical developmentliteratureisrepletewithinterventionsfromscientistsstakesin environmental andlandpoliticssincethemid-twentiethcentury(Foresta;Garfield).The policy (Schiebinger and Swan; Bowd and Clayton; Markham), but especially in tropical Pujol et al.). Clement et al.; Pautassoet al.; RivalandMcKey;McKeyet al., “EcologicalApproaches”; plex ecologiesandthusengagedefinitionalquestions(Kennedy;Clement;Fraseret al.; the developingworld.Domesticationalsooperatesatscalesfromthatofseedtocom property, culturalrecognition,andsocioculturaldevelopmentalternatives,especiallyin property oforganismsandgenomes,butalsomoregenerallyoverquestionscommon landscapes, andwhethertheyare“natural.”Thedebateshaveroiledoverintellectual germplasm andterritory.Landsfuturesarecontestedonthebasisofhistoricalbiotic “intervened” landscapesengagesharppoliticalhistoriesandnarrativesofrightsover transformations (Wood;Davis). is ameansofanalyzingcurrentframingsandexploringbiophysicallymediatedcultural because, asintheclimatesciences,“rerunningmodels”throughenvironmentalchange analysis forconstructingenvironmentalhistories.Thesedebatesarebecomingmoresalient recent. Scientificdata,ideologiesofscience,andcritiquethusbecomepartthearsenal like Walter Raleigh, gazingoversavannas which actually had asignificanthuman signature, in currentAmazonianpre-Columbian impactdebates?WasAmazonia,asearlyobservers How do ideologies of nature, scientific practices, and the framing of domestication play out At another,deeperlevel,thesedebatesreflectlandscapesastextsthatinformphilosophies Fourth, scientists have always had an important role in colonial and modernization Third, discoursesaboutformsofdomesticationandtheextentagriculturalor “Neo-Meggersians,” and the “DenevanSchool” The greatAmazonwilderness debate:Meggers, SUSANNA B.HECHT 24 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 in amodernregister( more egregiouscolonialideologies,Meggersscientized“stoneagecontinuities”inAmazonia Amazonia (HamesandVickers;Gross).Whilenotexactlydetachingherworkfromthe an explosioninecologicallyinflectedfieldstudiesontropicaladaptation,especially gent attentiontoequilibriummodelingandecologicalexplanations.Herworkinspired decades becauseitsintellectualcoherencecoincidedwithacademicfashionandtheemer period (e.g.,Jordan)andanearlyintellectualfetishoftropicalsystemsecology. Tropical forestnutrientcyclingwasahighlyfundedandcentralresearchconcerninthis scale assessmentsandwhosedocumentationwasjustdevelopinginthe1950s1960s. the easilyintelligibledynamicsoftropicalsoilfertility,whichshegeneralizedfromlarge- Limitations;” MeggersandEvans).Meggers’sworkconcretizedculturallimitationswithin because theagriculturecouldnotgeneratesufficientsurpluses(Meggers,“Environmental to themindifferentways,precludedcivilizationaldevelopmentterrafirmeenvironments characteristics. Shearguedthatecologicallimitations,thoughAmazoniannativesadapted was initiallyseenasavanguardanalysisusingequilibriumsystemsecology informed bysoil ises; thesecondis“DenevanSchool,”whichIdiscussfurtheron. “camps.” ThefirstcampIcallthe“Neo-Meggersians”becauseittakesonMeggers’sprem In the great “footprint” debate, I divide the controversy into two shores” (Carvajal et al.)? first careeningvoyagebyEuropeansdowntheAmazon,putit,apopulous“placeofteeming saw it,apristine“natureneversackt”?Orwasitinstead,asCarvajal,thechroniclerof not uniquely available through the canons of Western science, but also through experiential not uniquelyavailablethrough thecanonsofWesternscience,butalsothroughexperiential are keylodestarsinAmazonian analytics. systemsaswelltheirintellectualandlandscapelegacies McMichael et al.)—production on pre-Columbian—not“pre-historic,” astheNeo-Meggersianswouldhaveit(Bushet al.; torical andpre-Columbiansettlement andlandusethatdoesnotreferencehim.Hiswork to feelhisinfluence.Itisalmostimpossiblefindanarticle ontraditionalAmazonianhis range ofindigenousconditionspossibility,onedidnothave tobehisstudentorcolleague and forestuplandmanagement(CultivatedLandscapes).Becauseofthisattentivenesstothe magisterial compendiumonindigenouscultivationsystems intheAndesandAmazon andhis Denevan,“Pre-European Forest”;Clementet al.); management (Denevanet al.; cal forestswiddencultivation,particularlysuccessionalmanagement andforestecosystem Bolivia’s LlanosdeMojosandbeyond(AboriginalCulturalGeography ); hisresearchontropi- the documentationofenormousarcheologicalsitesindigenous productionsystemsin pathbreaking contributionsinrecastingpre-Columbian demography (NativePopulation); because he pioneered diverse elements of this counter-paradigm, including, for example, his ties arelargelyabletodevelopcomplexhumansystems.WilliamDenevanissignificant The possibilistsholdthatAmazonianenvironmentswiththeirhighprimaryproductivi- sibilists,” which I would place in a “Denevan School” of Latin American tropical analysis. et al.; WoodsPetersonRebellatoet al.). Lehmann Lima et al.; lineages, institutions, and disciplinary backgrounds (Schmidt et al.; Amazonian darkearths(ADEs)presentedbyasetofscholarsfromdiverseintellectual of Amazonia(Meggers,“Mystery”),inspiteaplethorasoilstudiesonhigh-fertility anthropogenic soilscouldnotshakeherimplacable rejection ofautochthonous cultures Meggers’s powerfultheoryofnatureandculturallimitationinthetropicsheldswayfor Betty Meggers’sfunctionalistecologicalapproachtoAmazonianculturaldevelopment In thepossibilistschool,though itinvolvesrigorousscience,authorityandinsightare The othercamp,incontrasttothe“constraint”theorists,isthatof“Amazonpos DOMESTICATED LANDSCAPESANDTROPICALNATURES Amazonia; “ContinuingQuest”).Evendramaticcounter-evidenceof 25 - - - -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 that thepalmBuriti( mainly naturaldispersal.This argumentissurprisinginlightofthewell-documented fact forests—forests dominatedby onespecies,usuallythatisveryusefultohumans—reflect forests wereresilientafterpre-Columbiandisturbance.They alsoarguethatoligotrophic on forestsandclearedverylittleland,thusonecannot assumethatWesternAmazon shifting humanpopulations.Theyclaimthatthesesmall populationshadminoreffects Neo-Meggersians arguethatuplandforestsinwesternAmazonia wereoccupiedbysmall, that wouldnotbeadequateforunderstandinglocalshifting cultivationsequences—the on fifty-fiveclusteredsitesand245soilcoresinthewestern Amazon—aquantityofsamples Based McMichaelet al.). basin, thathumanimpactonAmazoniawassparse(Bush et al.; cant theimpactonhinterlandscanbefromurbansystems andtransregionaltrade(Hecht). extensively permeableriverinetravelwasthroughoutthe Amazonbasin,andhowsignifi understand settlement better. The rubber period reveals many things, among them how central imaginaryofhumansettlementamongtheNeo-Meggersians,canalsohelpscholars movement on secondary and minor tributaries, not just the massive rivers that form the intensively managedagriculturalsystemsmaynotalwaysusefire(Iriarteet al.). Considering extraction, andthecasualpruningweedingofresourcesislands.Andevenextensive, ing, planting(whetherintentionallyorotherwise),ritualactivities,transferofgermplasm, Landscapes”; Posey and Plenderleith; Rival). Management activities included camp clear- were largelyanthropogenicandcertainlytendedlandscapes(Erickson,“Domesticated signature, whichtheNeo-Meggersiansconsideronlylegitimatesignofhumanimpact. used inforestunderstories,ortocleancampsites,mightnotleavemuchofacharcoal affect forests(Politis;Balée,“IndigenousAdaptation”).Further,lightmanagementfiresoften tary, ritual,spiritual,surveillance,medical,trade,andcollectingpurposeshavebeenshownto the onlytoolinmanagementrepertoirethataffectedvegetation.Periodictreksformili (Erickson, “Artificial”and“DomesticatedLandscapes”;RafflesWinklerPrins).Fireisnot and reflect wild and natural systems as well, but not within those categorical frameworks through andwithintheselandscapes.Thesehumanproductionsystemsincorporate,harness, management, household planting experiments, gathering histories, and extensive movement outcome notonlyofshiftingcultivation,butalsootherfire-basedsystems,humanwater than theforestprimevalofAmazonianconservationlore,region’slandscapesare annual crops,orishumanimpactassessedthrougharangeofco-producedlandscapes?Rather domestication understoodto include only specific forms of fire-basedagriculture and specific tine myth(“PristineMyth”)andalsopertaintohowdomesticationsareconceptualized.Is share similartrainingandmajorprofessors. much wider array of disciplines. The Neo-Meggersians concentrate in a handful of labs and academic institutions,British,Dutch,French,andseveralUSembracea (Jasanoff). Denevan“partisans”includescholarsfromallthemajorAmazonandBrazilian edge andusingthisunderstandingtocreatemorediverseformsofexplanationinsight means understandinghowsocialsolidaritiesandvaluesaffectthegenerationofknowl relations withnativeAmazonianexpertsandextensivefieldlives.Situatingknowledge reported in pure stands on the banks of the Purus and Madeira and have been in international reported inpurestandsonthe banksofthePurusandMadeirahavebeenininternational figured inregionalandinternational markets.Some,likeBrazilnutsandcacao,areoften and Babassu( The Neo-Meggersiansargue,basedonaverysmallsample setoverhalfoftheAmazon Indigenous peoples’travelsdependedonresourceislandsthatrecentresearchsuggests The controversies between these two camps pivot on what Denevan has called the pris Orbignia), forexample,areoftenintensively usedbylocalpeopleandhave Maritius), Brazilnuts( SUSANNA B.HECHT 26 Bertholetia), açai(EuterpePiqui Caryocar), - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 hybridity andexpansivenessofthe“landscapemodel?” Is domestication wholly definedbythe“domestication syndrome,” ordoesitreflect the intervention areinplayhere,anotherbifurcationpertainstomodelsofdomestication. of Amazoniannatureaswelldeclensionistversuspossibilistinterpretationshuman al.).Whilepristineversusanthropogenicunderstandings more widespread(Clementet if their (sparse) samples do not showcharcoal on the uplands, human impact was negligible. cacao, donothavethesesignaturestoasignificantdegree.Neo-Meggersiansconcludethat cal data. Many of Amazonia’smost significant domesticates, suchas manioc, Brazilnuts,and shifting cultivationasexemplifiedbycharcoalsignaturesinsoils,phytoliths,andpalynologi off sitesthatdonotfittheiranalysis,andonlyacceptingasevidenceofhumanintervention entire AmazonBasinintheirtitles,theNeo-Meggersians’modelhasstayedintactbyhiving Neo-Meggersians’ modelrejectshumanimpactsonforestsystems?Whilereferencingthe cal Stonehenge”;andartisticmasterpiecesofmanykinds.Givenallthis,howisitthatthe which areastrikingsignaturethroughouttheuplandsofextensivegeo-engineering;“tropi urbanism; intensiveagroforestry;morethanfourhundredsitesofring-ditchedformations, ment offorestsislands,andextensivedistributionterrapretaassociatedwithhistorical Souza et al.;PaivaClement). ShepardandRamirez; trees’ use,management,andplanting(Rival;González-Pérezet al.; export marketsforcenturies(Roller).Thereisextensiveethnobotanicalevidenceofthese one’s placeinit.Table2.1suggests someofthesedifferences. organisms ispredicatedona differentkindofinteractionwithnatureandpositioning of ensemble ofvaryingproduction regimesmediatedbyarangeofnon-orsemi-domesticated (Isendahl; Heckenberger).But maniocwasfarfromtheonlykindofproductionsystem. The limited theunderstandingof maniocasafoundationalcarbohydrateforcomplexsocieties was and how its cultivation and phenotypic plasticity in mixed systems was widespread. This easily traceableethnoarcheologicalfeatureshasobscuredhow extensivemanioccultivation “EcologicalApproaches”;RivalandMcKey;Clement).Thelackof systems (McKeyet al., necessarily reflect domestication criteria that are based on short-cycle annual grass cropping Manyusefultreesandtheirarrayofproductsdo not “Pre-Columbian”;Pujolet al.). et al., “Ecological Approaches”; McKey manioc, make rather different arguments (McKey et al., Analysts oftheecologicaldynamicsdomesticationroot andtropicalcrops,especially crops with long histories and immense current markets, were not included (Larson et al.). studies, onlyfiveweretreecrops,andsuchshrubsascoffee, cacao,andrubber,amongother in worldcommerce.Ofthefifty-four“keyplants”animportant reviewofdomestication cially inmorearidenvironments,andtheirdominance temperatezonedietsandnow which hasavenerablehistory,reflectsthedurabilityofthesekindsplantmaterials,espe annual legumes,andveryfewofthemaretrees(Meyeret al.). Thismodel ofdomestication, these modelcropsareannuals,includingmanygeneraofthePoaceae(grasses)andafew domestication havelargelyunfoldedinthecontextofsome“modelcrop”systems:most tially usedbyHarlantodescribeasuiteofcharacteristicsoutlinedinTable2.1.Ideasabout Annual cropsinthetemperatezoneepitomize“thedomesticationsyndrome,”atermini The DenevanSchool,asIhaveexplained,suggeststhathumaninterventionwasmuch In the Amazon, there is evidence of widespread raised-field agriculture, mounds, develop DOMESTICATED LANDSCAPESANDTROPICALNATURES Models ofdomestication 27 - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 Ecosystem simplifications Narrow ecologicalfunction(foodforhumans) Single use(foodforhumans) Reduction insizeofplant Larger inflorescences Predictable andsynchronousgermination Reduction inseeddormancy Reduction inplants’toxicchemicalcompounds Plants havereducedabilitytodisperseseeds Tendency tomonocrop Annual seedplantsascentralmodel;temperate “Wild” vs.“domesticated” Domestication Syndrome Table 2.1 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. processes ofcivilizationaldevelopmentinsixmajorways: reassesses paradigmsofhumaninterventionintropicallandscapesaswellmoregeneral ing, andaftertheemergenceoffull-scaleagriculture(BaléeErickson).Thisapproach large scales. Analysts generally assert that domestication of landscapesoccurs before, dur frames a set of domestication processes more around “group selection” and human effects at in thecontextofcomplexecosystems.Itturnsourattentionawayfromspecificplantsand
The “landscape domestication” model addresses historical ecology for palatability without humanintervention zone grains ical outcomesofa“co-produced”landscapewithhumanand nonhumansignatures. ity ofawiderangespecies,ratherthanfocusingonclear cultivationagriculture. more critical. ments, especiallyinthetropicswherealonghistoryoflandscape interventionsmaybe tion andgrain-basedagricultureasthemosttransformative eventsinshapingenviron has amorerelationalresonance. landscapes seemwild.Butnonhumans canbebeneficiariesaswell,sotheideaof “utility” many kindsofsystems,intropical areastheseeffectsaresoprofoundastomake human agency.Nonhumans also perform“work”ofvariouskinds.Whilethisistrue In landscapedomestication, the productionofsystemisnotuniquelyafunction agronomies andcomplexcivilizations,asconstitutiveofplaces. to agriculture,andlooksatorganismswithlongertemporal scales,aswellshortcycle The landscapedomesticationmodelrejectstheideaofalinear evolutionfromforaging It shiftsattentionfromindividualspeciestolandscapesand theircontingenciesashistor It emphasizesculturalactivitiesthatinfluencethepresence, availability,andproductiv The landscapedomestication
associated withthem. Contrasting modelsofdomesticationandthecharacteristicsspeciesecosystems model divertsattentionawayfromtheNeolithicrevolu SUSANNA B.HECHT 28 Multiple ecosystemmanipulationsatdifferent Diverse ecologicalfunctionsincludingwildlife Multiple use(food,sap,artisanal,andindustrial Variable, butplantsizemostlynotreduced Depends ondegree Much lesssynchronousgermination Seed dormancyvariable Toxins removedinprocessing;toxinsactto Most plantsnotdependentonhumandispersal Some monocropping,somemultispeciescropping Tropical tubersandtrees Extensive rangeofusebetween“wild”and Landscape Domestication scales; betadiversity support uses) reduce predation “domesticated” and human impacts - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 01:03 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315766355, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315766355.ch2 natures ofAmazoniaitself. ourselves tohistory,knowledgesystems,managementpossibilities,andultimatelythe future? BydiscountingthehumaninAmazonianlandscapes,werunriskofblinding figure intheshapingofAmazoniapast,andhowwillnonhumanworldshapeits world thatdivergefromthereductionismsofnormalscience?Howdidnonhuman nature, asmanyAmazonianethnographersargue,conceiveofwaysbeinginthenatural us withimportantquestions:Whatconstitutesdomestication?Dodifferentepistemesof ity, andthekindsofproofthatareinvokedinthesearguments.Thisongoingdebateleaves in examiningscientificpractices,explanationsoflandpatterns,lociintellectualauthor that ofanyplaceintheworldpre-Columbian(not“pre-historical”)times—isanexercise and wildness,thoseofpossibilistinnovationinthetropics—innovationthatrivaled Amazonians asimportantsourcesofknowledgewhogobeyondwhatthelaboratorycansay. nobotanical sources,tellastoryaboutlandscapesasartifactsandhabitats,onethatincludes as withhistoricalaccounts,ethnographicdata,ecology,andawiderangeofeth explanatory elementswhosegoalintheserviceoftropicalecology. to culture,butonlysoilchemistry,pollen,starchgrains,andphytolithsasthecentral The Neo-Meggersian position is basically that culture can be understood without reference 6. Aguilar-Støen, Mariel,ArlidAngelsen,Kristi-AnneStølen,andSteinR.Moe.“TheEmergence, Balée, William.“IndigenousAdaptationtoAmazonianPalmForests.” Brockway, Lucile. Bowd, GavinandDavidClayton.“Tropicality,Orientalism, FrenchColonialisminIndochina: Becker, Bertha K. Balée, WilliamandClarkL.Erickson,ed. ——. “TheCultureofAmazonianForests.”AdvancesinEconomicBotany 7 (1989):1–21.Print. Brookfield, Harold,ed. Brondizio, EduardoS.“Agricultural Intensification,EconomicIdentity,andSharedInvisibility in
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