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The Routledge Companion to Early Christian Thought

D. Jeffrey Bingham

Greco-Roman Understanding of Christianity

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 Paul Hartog Published online on: 21 Dec 2009

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Jeffrey Bingham for selection and editorial materials; the contributors for their for contributors the materials; editorial and selection for Bingham Jeffrey D. Routledge isanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,informabusiness catalogue record for this book is available from the British the from available is book this for record catalogue A This editionpublishedintheTaylor&Francise-Library,2010. 2 o part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form any in utilized or reproduced or reprinted be may book this of part No Park imultaneously published in the in published Simultaneously . Title: Companion to early Christian thought. Christian Title:early II. to Companion Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Publication in Cataloging Congress of Library ncludes bibliographical references and index. and references bibliographical Includes British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Publication in Cataloguing Library British Square, 270 ISBN 0-203-86451-4Mastere-book 13: 978-0-415-44225-1 (hbk) 978-0-415-44225-1 ISBN13: 13: 978-0-203-86451-7 (ebk) 978-0-203-86451-7 ISBN13: Madison 10: 0-415-44225-7 (hbk) 0-415-44225-7 ISBN10: in writing from the publishers. the from writing in 10: 0-203-86451-4 (ebk) 0-203-86451-4 ISBN10: Milton First published 2010 published First BR100.R67 2009 BR100.R67 230.09'015–dc22 A contributions by Routledge by by Routledge by 2009026872 Park, ve., New Abingdon, Y ork, 978-0-203-86451-7 (ebook) 1. (ebook) 978-0-203-86451-7 ISBN and Canada and USA NY 100016 . Bingham, I. w.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. Oxon X14 4RN OX14 . Jeffrey Bingham. p. cm. p. Bingham. Jeffrey D. wight Jeffrey) (Dwight Jeffrey D. Library Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 long prevalent rumors.” prevalent long or impulse irrational by nor people, superstitious please to wish a by or prejudice by moved enquiry,not searching and exact an “after only given be judgment that insist they shaped popular opinion. cultural perceptions. elite adapted the simplistic prejudices of popular their social milieu, and at other and times critics intellectual between fell boundary “were in continuous change and development throughout the period.” the throughout development and change continuous in “were both since targets,” “moving were philosophy pagan and Moreover,Christianity both by popular opposition. popular by terizes the polemics. upper-class readers. Thus one senses that a certain “social prejudice” frequently charac- authors.” Christian by (tendentiously) paraphrased and (selectively) “quoted were sources. fragmentary or references offhand in found often are survive that Christianity of perceptions pagan The culties. centuries. third and second the in Christianity to loyal strata of society.”of strata lower the from adherents their drawing sects, irreligious anti-social, peculiar, small, history.” of point turning the as church the of beginning the and Jesus of life the “present texts them.” ‘read’ contemporaries their than differently quite its perspectives. “outsider” within observers pagan to context? cultural appear Christianity early did How Before the Before utemr, ot f hs pgn aeil ae on i ltrtr adesd to addressed literature in found are materials pagan these of most Furthermore, individuals “outsiders,” by written literature the trace will essay present This unde reco-Roman society and its ideology that directly engaged and challenged and engaged directly that ideology its and society Greco-Roman n the other hand, “outsider” texts view “the Christian communities as communities Christian “the view texts “outsider” hand, other the On ecian suppression of Christianity, persecutions were usually prompted usually Christianity,were of persecutions suppression Decian Gr 1 Ch uch a question underscores the difference between “insider” and “insider” between difference the underscores question a Such 4

On the other hand, one should not assume that a “hard-and-fast” 6 Christian sources recognized this role of public opinion, and opinion, public of role this recognized sources Christian 5 s Robert Wilken notes, “The Christians ‘read’ themselves ‘read’ Christians “The notes, Wilken Robert As e r r As a Christian apologist, Justin c s Paul Hartog Paul is t o-Roman o-Roman n o te ae xat ny eas they because only extant are them of Many t anding o anding 3 iani uch a task is not without its diffi- its without not is task a Such n the one hand, “insider” hand, one the On t Martyr felt compelled to y mtms the Sometimes 3 Greco-Roman f 2

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 legal system. legal sentences in governors provincial the to permitted latitude wide the to due persecution, official with linked martyria often highlight the decisive role played by hostile crowds. Christian apologists often felt compelled to define themselves in a manner that amanner in themselves define responded to to an agenda set by “outsiders.” compelled felt often apologists Christian criticisms. pagan to response in partly Judaism to relationship its clarified Christianity addition, impassibility.divine and will free of discussions Christians’ the append might One aa ciius ad i tr) h cascl rdto ws rnfre b Christian by transformed influence. was tradition classical the turn) (in and critiques, pagan doubt,” comments doubt,” no is “There schools. philosophical other to comparable philosophy a as Christianity portray to apologists second-century caused Christian self- opposition pagan of example, terrain For identity. the changing thereby development, Christian of flow the integration of integration defensive strategy.defensive the change did it but apologetics, Christian of progress the checkmated never debate religion and the civil position of Christianity, and the revelation of revelation the Christianity,and of position civil the and religion to relation his and creation world, of relation the reason, and faith of relationship the opposition: pagan of they frequently decried the role of the tn te ey rdto te wr defending.” were they tradition under very to the short, in stand themselves – among only talked had they would if than possible been earlier have belief Christian of implications the grasp “to Christians caused hita aooit priiae i a itreeainl hs mth ht spread that match Justin chess from intergenerational an in participated apologists Christian by pagans in one generation will be mirrored positively by Christians in the next.” the in Christians by positively critically mirrored be said will generation is one in What pagans became. by eventually it what Christianity making in factor a also were they inhabited; Christians world the defined only not outsiders of attitudes the “For explains, Wilken be. to came or was “really” it as Christianity early of study intertwined. inseparably were prejudices popular and policies, state critiques, elites. intellectual be to deemed those by aggravated be could opposition popular such that demonstrate find “their authentic voice,” and without them “Christianity would have beenthe have poorer.” would them“Christianity andwithout voice,” authentic “their find in these terms was also dictated by the historical situation of the times.” the of situation historical the by dictated also was terms these in provoked rejoinders from a wide company of Christian defenders. Christian of company wide a from rejoinders provoked Furthermore, early Christian doctrines frequently developed in direct response to response direct in developed frequently doctrines Christian early Furthermore, e hud o asm ta tee otie” esetvs r irlvn t the to irrelevant are perspectives “outsider” these that assume not should One 17 ikn it te olwn eape o tnt fre wti te furnace the within forged tenets of examples following the lists Wilken 14 19 o eape pioohcl rtcss oeie pope te further the prompted sometimes criticisms philosophical example, For 8 ry t Clu to Celsus to Martyr The cases (below) of (below) cases The latonism into Christianity.into Platonism , the relation of Christianity to Judaism, the status of Jesus of status the Judaism, to Christianity of relation the nihilo, ex 13 uring this period the “outsider” views embodied in intellectual in embodied views “outsider” the period this During Marta od, the historical reliability of the of reliability historical the God, , as well as the function of function the as well as ordinem, extra ordi, “that the apologists’ decision to present Christianity present to decision apologists’ the “that Sordi, ie to Origen PAUL arcus Cornelius Fronto and Fronto Cornelius Marcus famae, the

HA 10 52 15

Pagan critiques served as dams that altered Wilken argues that the pagan opponents pagan the that Wilkenargues RT Porphyry. OG rumores, and the 16

gn rtc fre Crsin to Christians forced critics Pagan turn, In criptures, the role of civil of role the Scriptures, in the Roman the in delatores suspiciones. Sossianus rhr’ polemic Porphyry’s Popular opposition 12 This ideological This od in history.in God 11 od to the to God

agan and Pagan 7 Hierocles The acta In 18 - 9

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 dsre punishment.” deserved obstinatio ) inflexibilis et (pertinacia obstinacy inflexible and be,” might creed their of nature the whatever “For citizens). Roman of case the (in Rome to on them sent or them executed Pliny commitments, Christian their in persisted and threats thrice-repeated his disregarded (or corruption) of corruption) (or Rome.” from them word The expelled he Chrestus, of instigation the at disturbances made Claudius, of reign the discussing While superstition” (superstitio prava et immodica). to hymns meal. common innocent, sang Christians an shared and the crimes, commit to not (sacramentum ) oath Rather,an took god,” to “as Christ assemblies. Christian the within activity investigation, further Upon questions. of series a posed he so the in involved been never had Pliny origin. Jewish of “superstition” a as Christianity viewed have to Tacitus had already leveled this accusation of aietd y hita mrys n h fc o death. of Epictetus, face the in martyrs Christian by manifested Christians as scapegoats when he was accused of setting fire to Rome. die ocrig h poe tetet f Christians. of treatment proper the concerning advice oenr of governor hl gacn bc t te eg of reign the to back glancing While superstitio nova ac malefica).” ac nova (superstitio superstition mischievous and new a aclass to given men Christians, of the on inflicted was “Punishment that narrates biographer) and Rome, “where all things horrible or shameful in the world collect and find a vogue.” a find and collect world the in shameful or horrible things all “where Rome, odio humani generis). humani (odio f btn, lhuh h bre o pof per t le pn hs wo read who those upon lie to appears proof of passage. the burden into Christianity the although abating, of curse Christ. curse nomini)? find cohaerentia (flagitia offenses affiliated to of guilty them necessary it was or “Christian”), = ipsum (nomen itself name the of sake the Werefaith? Christian the recanting pardoned by for merely punished be to Christians emd ovne ta Crsin wr cpbe f aiu “bmnbe ie” or vices” “abominable various (flagitia). of “atrocities” capable were Christians that convinced seemed who residents, Roman many to credible seemed incendiarism of accusation this that rescript of gious superstition,” had spread beyond the cities to the villages and rural districts. rural and villages the to cities the beyond spread had superstition,” gious Some philosophically minded writers of the second century appreciated the courage 112, year the Around how narrates historian, Roman second-century early another Tacitus, o hs part, his For Hadrian sought to curb the abuses of Marcus in this passage is sometimes interpreted as an alternative spelling alternative an as interpreted sometimes is passage this in Chrestus 32 nu ad Bithynia. and Pontus Those who publicly recanted were summarily discharged. But if they if But discharged. summarily were recanted publicly who Those G R liny ordered the accused to worship the gods, offer sacrifices, and sacrifices, offer gods, the worship to accused the ordered Pliny E urelius, and Aurelius, (“Christ”). Christus C O 25 26 -R Christians were known for their “hatred of the human race” human the of “hatred their for known were Christians ) was plaguing was superstitio) (exitiabilis superstition pernicious The OMAN liny the Pliny Early Greco-Roman references Greco-Roman Early e discovered “nothing more than depraved and excessive and depraved than more “nothing discovered He liny could find no proof of criminal orconspiratorial ofcriminal proof no find could Pliny 23

UNDE Galen. 31 Y

29 hould age be taken into account? Could one be one Could account? into taken be age Should ounger sent a letter to the emperor Trajan,emperor the to letter a sent ounger asking

cmlie ta Crsint, s “conta- a as Christianity, that complained He 22 R Nero, This S ince the Jews constantly Jews the “Since asserts, Suetonius pictetus maintained that someone who was who someone that maintained Epictetus lgl netgto) f Christian, a of investigation) (legal cognitio T 53 ANDING 34 Both Trajan’s reply to debate shows no signs no shows debate Christus–Chrestus superstitio against the Jews, and he seems eois a second-century (a Suetonius delatio (informing) against Christians. liny did not doubt that “pertinacity that doubt not did Pliny

O F C F H te time, the At og hs atos were authors these Among R IS T IANI 28 Pliny and the later 24 T

It is noteworthy Y iy a the was Pliny r used Nero equestrian 21 20 33 30 27 35

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 to Christians. to Pius. This same material is found in Justin live.” to one given is it as only but cost, any at living upon nor dying upon neither will the “set to one allows which framework mental a was fear to antidote the that contended everything on faith.” on everything of “followers the that grumbled to “genuine philosophers.” “genuine to in self-control justice. of cohabitation, pursuit keen in and drink, and restraint food death, of contempt their for Christians” martyr.theatrical a melodramatic. and emotional too as moments final their viewed still he martyrs, Christian among found “reflection and dignity” rather than “histrionic display.” While he valued certain traits a simplistic belief system. belief simplistic a by hoodwinked society,been to had threat they serious a pose not did they Although admired the Christian conduct of a life, since they acted in the same way “as those who philosophize.” “as way same the in acted they since life, a of conduct Christian the admired a rational foundation. rational a hears talk of “undemonstrated laws, and that where it is least appropriate.” least is it where that and laws, “undemonstrated of talk hears of Council the to Aurelius rewards and punishments in a future life. future a in punishments and rewards abominable cannibals, but were rather adherents of an inferior philosophical school.” “physicians and philosophers who cling fast to their schools.” “physicians andphilosopherswhoclingfasttotheir of followers “the compared he when as school, philosophical , s ih “the with as (ejqou~), “habit” by or hita itroaos ae lee a oiial gnie et s tl a ujc of subject a still is debate.” scholarly text genuine originally an altered have interpolators Christian fear. manifest not would possessions material or life to attached improperly not f he opsto lk te Christians.” the like opposition sheer of out not decision, specific a from “arise must readiness This body.” the from released alileans” as a reference to Christians. to reference a Epictetus’sas “Galileans” alen, the famous Roman physician and philosopher, praised “the people called people “the praised philosopher, and physician Roman famous the Galen, ccording to According Eusebius’s h etn tx of text extant The might well prefer apparent death rather than life for the sake of their own their God. of sake the for life than rather death apparent prefer well might they hold by accusing them as atheists (ajqevwn ), and they too when so accused which opinion the in them confirm you for tumult, into them drive you But 40 37 Benko notes, “Whether the letter is a complete Christian forgery or whether or forgery Christian complete a is letter the “Whether notes, Benko

Epictetus noted that the same mindset can be produced by “madness” (maniva~) nlds lte protdy rte by written purportedly letter a includes History Ecclesiastical 42 The emperor admired the soul which is “ready and resolved” to “be to resolved” and “ready is which soul the admired emperor The alen, Christian virtue rested upon parables, miracles, and tales of tales and miracles, parables, upon rested virtue Christian Galen, 41 ne should stalwartly face death but not play the stage-heroics of stage-heroics the play not but death face stalwartly should One Nevertheless, they were merely playing the part, since they lacked 48 46 For him, “Christians were neither dangerous conspirators nor conspirators dangerous neither were “Christians him, For Marcus 44 Asia.

n one level, one On Aurelius’s 39 The letter states, letter The ss n Crs” re ter uis t accept “to pupils their order Christ” and Moses PAUL Martyr’s Galileans.”

HA 54 43 nlds n fhn reference offhand an includes Meditations (Eusebius, n “the school of school “the In alen treated Christians as adherents of a of adherents as Christians treated Galen o hs part, his For RT n these matters, they were not inferior not were they matters, these In Apology, but he ascribes it to OG 38 n shlr hv interpreted have scholars Many 4.13.3) History Ecclesiastical Marcus 45 oses and Christ,” one Christ,” and Moses oses and Christ” with Christ” and Moses Galensympathetically rlu espoused Aurelius Antoninus 47 Marcus

Galen 36

He 49

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 rn fo dw ad o eacey h woe day.” whole the debauchery to and dawn from drink to body her sold having husband, wretched her deceive and everyone cheat to rites only’.” and ‘one call would she whom instead of holding a definite faith, she used the false sacrilegious presumption of a god, and, heaven, in chastity.”gods to the foe all a spurned and scorned “she Furthermore, mean thefts and a spendthrift in her loathsome extravagances, an enemy of fidelity and “cruel, and perverse, crazy for men and wine, headstrong and flowed.” obstinate, grasping in had her vice every absolutely which into latrine muddy some like was and his wife. oc o Crsint uo te oa cmowat ad pn rdtoa family traditional values. upon and commonwealth Roman the upon Christianity of force uncritical adaptation and satirical exploitation of popular prejudice. popular of exploitation satirical and adaptation uncritical an reveals tenor contemptuous its yet women), Jewish perhaps (or women Christian civic duties.” civic family ties, the ruining of business, the abandonment of religion, and the avoidance of and home of breaking the pleasure, of repudiation “the with affiliated were Christians Christians. of perceptions common parallel certainly n o infanticide. of banqueting and incestuous of Christians accusing speech a delivered Fronto, Cornelius contemporary,Crescens’s scholars, many of reconstruction the to According f hitas in Christians of the national festivals, never honored the gods.” the honored never festivals, national the to adornment added never have they word; fruitful a written or discovered, spoken, with conflict into never have They everything. of them care take can they that claiming bringing in another,and one and within those upsetting in housebreaking, at the from through the benevolence of benevolence the through by magic, his adventures as an ass, and his eventual transformation back into a human of people and despised the gods: the despised and wrecked a neighbor’sa home.” wrecked n his public speeches, Crescens attacked Christians as “impious” and as “atheists.” as and “impious” as Christians attacked Crescens speeches, public his In od ad ryd n h eoinly vulnerable. emotionally the on preyed and bonds Athenagoras’s may not refer to Christians.” to refer not may In his Apuleius’s from material this of assessment his in wavers Benko orator the speeches, his of one In never prayed to any or god frequented any temple, while if he chances to pass For 57 any a pagan first heard of Christianity as the disintegrating force that had that force disintegrating the as Christianity of heard first pagan a “Many learn from certain men of men certain from learn I Apology, reek race, or rather from all that is higher.” “But they are cleverest of all of cleverest are they “But higher.” is that all from rather or race, Greek alestine.” They “do not believe in the higher powers” but have “defected have but powers” higher the in believe not “do They Palestine.” Apuleius wrote that this woman did not lack “a single fault,” but “her soul 55 Metamorphoses is a comic tale of the protagonist’s alteration into a donkey From the pagan perspective, Christian commitment subverted familial subverted commitment Christian perspective, pagan the From G Plea. R E Apuleius describes a certain L C os and yons 52 51 O rnos iae a poie bcdo t te persecution the to backdrop a provide may tirade Fronto’s -R The brunt of speeches and satires and speeches of brunt The OMAN sis. While living as a donkey,a as living While Isis. 58 54 V The charges of antisocialism and disturbing family life family disturbing and antisocialism of charges The

ienne UNDE ea who know him, that to this day he has he day this to that him, know who Oea R 7, s el s h rsos ebde in embodied response the as well as 177, c. n this god’s honor she invented “meaningless invented she honor god’s this In S Aelius T 55 ANDING Aemilianus who mocked divine matters 53 itds eerd o toe impious “those to referred Aristides

56 O

F C F gn rsne te disruptive the resented Pagans 59 crig o aa censures, pagan to According hs asg my disparage may passage This H R ucius was sold to a baker a to sold was Lucius itds wih my or “may which Aristides, IS T IANI 60 T Y he was She Marcus 50

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 mocked the “credulity” of the Christians, yet he also satirized “the fanatical masses who wanted to see the Christians sentenced to death for fanatical atheism.” “the satirized also he yet Christians, the of “credulity” the mocked ranks. their among rose quickly he and Christians,” the of wisdom wonderful before his dramatic demise via self-immolation. via demise dramatic his before idols. to sacrificed meat ate he when church the from excommunicated finally was he but beneficence, individuals, but as representative[s].” as but individuals, as not creatures, living depicts it probable: the and characteristics the but truth, not swindler. of one of namesake and protagonist the Proteus, with many others who came within the cross-hairs of his satirical sights. satirical his of cross-hairs the within came who others many with o te te iet bs o [Alexander].” of abuse vilest the hardihood the utter had to who Christians and atheists accountof of full inhis was “Pontus Abonoteichus. ofChristians the subject to returns briefly Lucian V Whether this “atheist” was a Christian cannot be established with certainty, although a ipioe, i flo blees iie hm n lxrosy upre their supported luxuriously and him visited “new believers fellow his imprisoned, was a foil within his satirical caricaturizations. satirical his within foil a as employs merely he which Christianity, of understanding surface-level a manifests iuen” n “et t te hitas ae necagal ecaain with exclamations interchangeable gods. traditional the for disregard shared a of because atheists,” the to “death are Christians” the to “death and Epicureans” . unink argues that “much is to be said” for this theory.this for said” be to is “much that argues Hunink n one passage, one In Lucian of mn te, e ucl aqie sde wat b ipsn uo simple upon folk. imposing by wealth sudden acquires quickly he them, among evidence. property,common definite any without traditionally doctrines such receiving them consider and indiscriminately things all despise they Therefore, laws. his under living and himself sophist crucified that worshipping by and gods the denying by all for once transgressed have they after another one of brothers all are they that them persuaded lawgiver first their Furthermore, custody,them. into of themselves most give willingly even and death despise they which of consequence in time, all for live and immortal be to going are they that foremost, and first themselves, convinced have wretches poor The any shrine, he regards it as a crime to raise his hand to his lips in token of token in lips reverence. his to hand his raise to crime a as it regards he shrine, any Socrates.” After murdering his father, Samosata was another famous literary wit who ridiculed Christians, along o if any charlatan and trickster, able to profit by occasions, comes occasions, by trickster,profit and to charlatan able any if So 65

eregrinus was able to amass a sizeable fortune through Christian through fortune sizeable a amass to able was Peregrinus e eventually became a Cynic philosopher and wandering teacher wandering and philosopher Cynic a became eventually He ucian characterizes the Christians as follows: as Christians the characterizes Lucian PAUL Peregrinus slipped away to 70

HA 56 69

67 As RT ihn h nraie “et t the to “death narrative, the Within OG . J. M. Lucian’sa and huckster a was satires, atire seeks, “Satire surmises, Edwards (Apuleius, (Lucian, 62 Palestine to learn “the 64 5) Peregrinus When 56) Apology eadr of Alexander 63

Peregrinus Peregrinus Greek 68

Lucian Lucian 61 66 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 doctrine that has existed from the beginning,” and that the “old doctrine” was the was doctrine.” “true doctrine” “old the that and beginning,” the from existed has that doctrine ancient “an was religions traditional the all behind the that people,” a of customs to unique bound inextricably was “religion that believed who conservative traditional from ungrateful tenants who gave nothing back for the use of property.of use the for back nothing gave who tenants ungrateful Christians. among quarrels internal recognized even and scriptures Christian and Jewish the examined personally he since level, new whole a to polemic Christian anti- raised Celsus politics. society,and religion, together wove that piety traditional since they worship neither a god nor even a demon, but a dead man!” dead a but demon, a even nor god a neither worship they since Why was an omnipotent, sovereign omnipotent, an was Why nothing.” know they which of matters about pronouncements arrogant make and principles fundamental discuss “vulgarly They Christians. among secret. in religion their and female hysteria. female and thinking, wishful delusion, sorcery-formed upon based was resurrection Jesus’ in belief be applied to thousands of others far more plausibly than to Jesus.” to than plausibly more far others of thousands to applied be that argued the upon Jesus foisted also Christians Celsus foretold. was plot entire the that appear it make to resurrection emperor and fighting as his “fellow-soldiers” and “fellow-generals.” and “fellow-soldiers” his as fighting and emperor s o te aa ciis ecie aoe i nt ae a eiu efr t study to effort serious “a make not Christian did teachings or to observe above Christians in action.” described critics pagan the of Most stupid, and only slaves, women, and little children.” little and women, slaves, only and stupid, and dishonourable foolish, the “only convinced They yokels.” bucolic and illiterate most the and laundry-workers cobblers, “wool-workers, represented adherents Celsus, of mankind.” of beliefs. in the 160s or 170s. or 160s the in in Christianity against treatise entire an wrote who questions, just believe!” just questions, ask not “Do as such expressions stock repeated teachers Christian believe,” they what idea of a virgin birth was borrowed from pre-existing myths. pre-existing from borrowed was birth virgin a of idea tortured him go unpunished? go him tortured stone? tomb the move to angel an require be arrested? be permithimselfto unafraid ofdeath,needtofleeEgyptasachild?Whywouldgod be should who god, a would Why did? Jesus as eat, to need god a would Celsus, asked Celsus claimed that Christian theology was riddled with internal contradictions. internal with riddled was theology Christian that claimed Celsus fables. as writings biblical the attacked Celsus divine. been have not could and magician a was Jesus that argued Celsus was alleged he dogmatism incredulous and gullibility fideistic the opposed Celsus practicing for and behavior unsocial their for Christians the castigated Celsus ie’ rpy in reply Origen’s 77 hy hre ter ii rsosblte, uh s oprtn wt the with cooperating as such responsibilities, civil their shirked They ow could an immortal god suffer and die? Why would the would Why die? and suffer god immortal an could How 76 G They rejected They 73 R Christianity was dangerous because it unraveled the social fabric of fabric social the unraveled it because dangerous was Christianity E C 72 86 O

The disciples later fabricated Jesus’ prophecies of his death and death his of prophecies Jesus’ fabricated later disciples The lthough the work is now lost, much of it can be reconstructed be can it of much lost, now is work the Although -R 82 The Celsus. Against 75 OMAN Celsus, Porphyry,Hierocles Celsus, and Te wl tesle of n bek wy rm h rest the from away break and off themselves wall “They 84 Hellenic Celsus concludes that “the Christians are the losers, the are Christians “the that concludes Celsus

UNDE od unable to control his creatures? his control to unable God ebrew prophecies, since “the prophecies could prophecies “the since prophecies, Hebrew R S and culture by turning to “barbarian” to turning by culture and paideia T 57 ANDING f Jesus were Jesus If eel ta Clu ws a was Celsus that reveals Doctrine True

O mitie ta te original the that maintained He Truecomposed probably Doctrine, 81 F C F

71 nstead of giving “a reason for reason “a giving of Instead od, why would the men who men the would why God,

All this changed with Celsus, H R IS 88 T IANI 80 Therefore, claimed Therefore, 79 87 78 T

They were like were They n addition, the addition, In Y 85 89 on of Son

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Gnostics). orphyry argued that the book of book the that argued Porphyry Michael Palestine? 97 94

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122 nd when pagan polemicists insisted upon the superiority and antiquity and superiority the upon insisted polemicists pagan when And

116 arcus Cornelius Fronto accused Christians of incest and cannibalism. and incest of Christians accused Fronto Cornelius Marcus agans spoke of the Christians’ “mysterious intimacy,” including their including intimacy,” “mysterious Christians’ the of spoke Pagans Justin G 115 Critics also highlighted the “barbarian” character of Christianity,in of character “barbarian” the highlighted also Critics R E

te od o Clu, hitaiy peld o oe, slaves, women, to appealed Christianity Celsus, of words the In C O A. 127 artyr protested, “By the mere statement of a name, nothing is nothing name, a of statement mere the “By protested, Martyr -R Their lack of altars, images, and temples within worship was worship within temples and images, altars, of lack Their H. Moses. OMAN eols moid h “nraigy otl atc upon attack hostile “increasingly the embodied Hierocles M. Jones, “for us to appreciate how serious an obstacle this Empire. 121

UNDE Recurring themes Recurring iy i i tu, ae h efr t investigate to effort the made true, is it Pliny, R 112 S T 59 ANDING Greeks.

ne should not assume that “this that assume not should One O F C F 117

H As a corollary to such “social R IS T Great IANI rpue, which Scriptures, T ersecution, the Persecution, Y flagitia of incest 114 superstitio and 123 nomen Greek 118 But 125 “It 124 -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 emperors.” xtc iisnrtc o dgnrt religion. degenerate or idiosyncratic, exotic, faith.” temples as no better than sepulchers, abominate the gods, sneer at our sacred rites.” sacred our at sneer gods, the abominate sepulchers, than better no as temples reiin n ipey (asebia). impiety and irreligion and making the sign of the cross could all be viewed as magic. as viewed be all could cross the of sign the making and exorcisms, as such rites Christian in the corners.” garrulous but open the in mute light, the shuns which race furtive “a are Christians public ritual. public of facet central a cult, imperial the in participate to refused also Christians Faithful utc, ulc oaiy wees uesiin i not.” did superstition whereas morality, public justice, superstitio. First, doctrines. scandalous that seen of have source we the as and wonders, supernatural pandering a as same exclusivistic, antisocial tendencies as Christianity.as tendencies antisocial exclusivistic, same the of some exhibited it antiquity,”if its even by “vindicated was Judaism advantage. argumentative their to Christianity of origin schismatic the used they and two, the cisms common to both. of followers (“the Judaism with Christianity “atheism.” of a telltale sign of a secret society. secret a of sign telltale a secretive, they were well-organized. were they secretive, then added their own fantastic fabrications. fantastic own their added then perspective, Christians naively adopted the “stupid fables” of the Jewish scriptures and n at aoe bcue n i oiin at ws po sbttt fr experienced for substitute poor a was truth.” faith opinion his in based because were alone, that faith religions on for respect no “had Celsus laws. demonstrable and logic, complained that Christianity relied upon faith and revelation rather than upon proof, possessed history.national Christians a nor identity and ethnic an leader,neither seditious a by founded recently upstart religious a virtues.” the all of pearance of loyalty and social disap- union among the men as well, entail and of will justice itself, the gods queen the towards piety of disappearance the probability all “In sedition. of undertones political carried impiety world, Roman in his in a rebellious sect from a people who themselves were rebels (the Jews). (the rebels were themselves who people a from sect rebellious a to the gods on his behalf. his on gods the to The Fourth, sect. novel a as Christianity view to came critics Third, Crescens, as such critics pagan Second, Fifth, pagan “outsiders” depicted Christianity as a magical movement. magical a as Christianity depicted “outsiders” pagan Fifth, , as “atheism,” as a novel sect, as a “blind faith,” as a magical movement magical a as faith,” “blind a as sect, novel a as “atheism,” as superstitio, 146 : “Y Apology: 145 reco-Roman critique often focused upon six recurring themes – Christianity themes – recurring six upon focused often critique Greco-Roman

ierocles ridiculed “the easy credulity of the Christians.” the of credulity easy “the ridiculed Hierocles rhr lkws cnend h Crsin’ mnls ad unexamined and “mindless Christians’ the condemned likewise Porphyry 131 140 eoRmn rtc atce Crsint a a ln faith. blind a as Christianity attacked critics Greco-Roman

mong the educated, the term the educated, the Among 138 136 They would not take an oath by the emperor’s the by oath an take not would They 129

ncu Flxs aa itrouo ecam, Te dsie the despise “They exclaims, interlocutor pagan Felix’s Minucius

ou do not worship the gods … and you do not offer sacrifice for the for sacrifice offer not do you and gods … the worship not do ou 135 Secrecy was cousin to conspiracy, and although the Christians were Pliny, Other pagan authors, however, began to discriminate between 139 eois ad aiu al ged ht hitaiy a a was Christianity that agreed all Tacitus and Suetonius, Tertullian repeats a common anti-Christian accusation anti-Christian common a Tertullianrepeats 133 128 , healings, praying “in the name of Jesus,” of name the “in praying healings, glossolalia, True PAUL

130 inucius Felix’s pagan interlocutor insisted that insisted interlocutor pagan Felix’s Minucius

HA 60 pooe ad nedrd virtue, engendered and “promoted religio ucian, and Lucian, designated irrational, fanatical, irrational, designated superstitio oses and Christ”), and he merged criti- merged he and Christ”), and Moses RT 132 OG prtto” a ascae with associated was “Superstition” 142 Celsus disparaged Christianity as Christianity disparaged Celsus 141 134 orphyry accused Christians accused Porphyry Christianity, however,was hrfr, n the in Therefore, alen closely associated closely Galen 149 Celsus depicted Jesus depicted Celsus s Cicero explained, Cicero As enius, nor sacrifice nor Genius, 147 From the pagan the From 143 148 144 Certain

Greco- Galen 137

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 from the with body its sensations and passions. alone will survive.” will alone they and roasted thoroughly be will mankind of rest the “all that so cook,” a like fire monstrous by the educated pagan.” educated the by monstrous be to “held was wrath divine and scandalous, also was punishment eternal of doctrine the abstract. the to confined reason human upon based argumentation downplayed thereby and Christ but they still emphasized still they but passions.Christianauthorscould borrowaspectsofthisphilosophicalprogram, bodily the with accordance soteriological a for hunted Porphyry order to divine where they may turn, and whom they are to follow?” to are they whom and turn, may they where divine to order in dice throw to they “Are choose? ever seeker earnest the would how salvation, to the body.”the teach a final salvation final a teach Nazareth. officials. Roman to affront automatic an been have would gleefully) impassibility.and “ludicrous” to were atonement and crucifixion, incarnation, of doctrines Christian the example, For arts,” but adds that “to perform wonders is no great thing.” great no is wonders perform “to that adds magic but arts,” their by wonders some performed “have Christians that concluded Porphyry pagans conceded supernatural wonders, the debate centered upon the source of power. himself as a magician who had learned his trade in T. J. R. trans. Celsus, R. educated.” the among wisdom for passed that everything with odds at idea, distasteful startling, hn hitas lie Jss s te oe n uiesl ore f salvation.” of source universal and sole “the as Jesus claimed Christians when Oxford testimonia.) and fragments of translations Christianity,by against followed material polemical directed toward Christians, ranging from hostile contempt to intellectual acceptance.) intellectual to contempt hostile from ranging Christians, toward directed 400, A.D. to Evolution endeavor.)subjective admittedly an style, and tenor original M. Berchman, Bre, “Pagan Barnes, D. agans also opposed the notion of the particularity of particularity the of notion the opposed also Pagans sometimes (and Rome of fall the predicted that material apocalyptic Christian Sixth, pagan intellectuals critiqued the scandalous nature of specific Christian beliefs. University 160 155 153

Porphyry was willing to grant that Jesus was a devout man, but he recoiled 162

According to Porphyry, who maintained absolute divine transcendence, immutability, Porphyry Against the Christians, G But this Christian response lies beyond the purview of this essay.this of purview the beyond lies response Christian this But Hoffmann, R 152 E lively rendition of Celsus’s arguments that attempts to restore his restore to attempts that arguments Celsus’s of rendition lively (A 1987. Press, retos f hitaiy” in Christianity,” of Perceptions C 158

agan philosophers considered “resurrection in the flesh” to be “a be to flesh” the in “resurrection considered philosophers Pagan O London: Celsus reasoned that if all religions claimed the exclusive route exclusive the claimed religions all if that reasoned Celsus -R , participating in theurgical purifications, and rejecting and purifications, theurgical in participating nous, and in OMAN Celsus: On the TrueA the Doctrine: On Celsus: od’s redemptive works in history and particularity in Jesus in particularity and history in works God’sredemptive Porphyry, the soul could not be saved until it was liberated brief survey of the pagan social attitudes social pagan the of survey brief (A 231–44. pp. 1991, SPCK,

h bd, u nvr a Crsin professed, Christians as never, but body, the from UNDE Secondary sources Secondary Further reading Further Primary sources Primary 157 od applies the applies “God that belief the mocked Celsus R ad e eomne lvn in living recommended he and universalis, via Leiden: Brill, 2005. (An introduction to S T 61 ANDING Ian 154 “Platonism,” notes zet (ed.), Hazlett Egypt.

Discourse against the Christians, the against Discourse O F C F 150 H od’s revelation in Jesus of Jesus in revelation God’s R 151

Since both Christians and IS al Crsint: rgn and Origins Christianity: Early T IANI 156 T Simmons, “could 159 Y The Christian The Porphyry and his New Y ork: 161 of

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 . Clark, G. Christianity of Criticism “Pagan Benko, S. R. C. R. A. M. B. 13 12 11 10 of Celsus’sof polemic.) from Christianity of critiques source primary the of analysis de Walter Berlin: 2.23.2, Welt römischen 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 Christianity’s threat to traditional Christianity’sto threat World, Christianity.) rich study that includes a chapter on “Christians and 5 6 attack upon Christianity represented by Celsus, by represented Christianity upon attack vol. 2, Christianity.)of triumph eventual the and religiosity pagan of of Walterde Berlin: 2.23.2, acntn itrrtto o te aa dsrpin ad rtqe o ery hitaiy gone in grounded Christianity, early audience.) wide a of targeting but expertise scholarly critiques and descriptions pagan the of interpretation fascinating . Fox, L. . Wilken, L. De orphyry and Julian against the Christians,” the against Julian and “Porphyry Meredith, Crsin sebis as assemblies Christian On See M. R. E. GClark, . A.

opular Reactions against Christianity in the Roman the in Christianity against Reactions “ Popular Colwell, C. E. Wilken, Christian World2, Christian vol. , klahoma, 1986, p. 161. p. 1986, Oklahoma, xv.p. 2, vol. Self-definition, Christian a by denunciation “inquisi - formal a than required therefore rather and “accusatory” torial,” was Christians against procedure standard The 212. p. 1952, 3, R. 103. p. 1970, pp. 438–9. pp. 1970, R. R. R. the Tertullian,Cf. Justin, 24. n. 135, 38; pp. 1984, Press, Spink, and opponents. Y Empire c. 50–250 c. Empire Chicago orphyry and Julian, accompanied by an assessment of relevant modern scholarship.) modern relevant of assessment an by accompanied Julian, and Porphyry Simmons, “Graeco-Roman ork: V . Wilken, “Christians as the Romans (and Wilken,Romans L. the as “Christians . Wilken,L. . Wilken, “Towarda Wilken, L. N. Macullen, os, “Popular os, arly Christians Early Sordi, London: Routledge, 2000, pp. 840–68. (An examination of the “increasingly hostile” and refined B. M. n evaluation of the popular resentment arising from arising resentment popular the of evaluation (An 869–89. pp. 2000, Routledge, London: , Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: Society, Roman and Christianity Pagans and Christians, and Pagans odds, Dodds, aulist, 1997, p. 23. p. 1997, Paulist, Sherwin-White, “The 2; trans. 2; Apology First , pp. 31–47. pp. Them , Saw Romans the as Christians ress, 1939, pp. 53–71; J. 53–71; pp. 1939, Press, The Christians as the Romans Saw Them, Saw Romans the as Christians The , Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: Society, Roman and Christianity trans. Empire, Roman the and Christians The H. R. Willoughby (eds), mos “Graeco-Roman Simmons, Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety, of Age an in Christian and Pagan The Christians as the Romans Saw Them, Saw Romans the as Christians The 7.8–14. Apology Christianizing the Roman Empire: A.D. 100–400, A.D. Empire: Roman the Christianizing raeco-Roman Responses to Christianity,” in Christianity,” to Responses Graeco-Roman ad , Frankfurt am Frankfurt , Persecuted?” critical review of the anti-Christian polemic anti-Christian the of review critical (A 1119–49. pp. Gruyter,1980, ondon: Routledge, 2000, p. 851. p. 2000, Routledge, London: Social ne notes how Justin turned the charge of “superstition” back upon his upon back “superstition” of charge the turned Justin how notes One New Philosophical Early cus o bra sceis see societies, burial or (clubs) collegia L.W.Barnard, London: reco-Roman society.)Greco-Roman Y nterpretation of Interpretation 26, 1963, p. 15). p. 1963, 26, Present and Past n extensive yet engaging portrait of the vigor the of portrait engaging yet extensive (An 1987. Knopf, ork: Persecutions and Roman Engberg, Main: Environmental Factors in Christian History, Chicago: PAUL uring the First TwoCenturies,” First the During , 1980, p. 101. p. 1980, SCM, compilation and critical and compilation (A 1055–1118. pp. 1980, Gruyter, Philosophical Peter Opposition,” in Notes Impulsore Chresto: Opposition to Christianity in the Roman the in Christianity to Opposition Chresto: Impulsore

St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, Second and First The Martyr: Justin St. Porphyry, HA 62 Greeks) ang, 2007. Lang, RT New Others,” which discusses how pagans viewed early arly Christian Early OG New New psto, in Opposition,” aw Them,” in Them,” Saw Aufstieg und Niedergang in der römischen Welt römischen der in Niedergang und Aufstieg aven, CT:Haven, ierocles, and Julian.) and Hierocles, Bedini, A. uetonius to Suetonius P (G. delator Y Law . F. aven, CT:Haven, ork: Cambridge ork: University Esler (ed.), P Again,” University . F.. New Apologetics,” Y Pliny, sler (ed.), Esler ale mpire,” in J. T.J. in Empire,” E. E. Norman, aven, CT: Haven, P alen, as well as a synopsis a as well as Galen, Y concise yet concise (A 2004. Press, Journal of Theological Studies Aufstieg und Niedergang der Niedergang und Aufstieg F. . M. P University ale . The Early Christian World, anders (ed.), Sanders 03–4 10.96; 10.33–34, Letters ress, 2005, p. 17. p. 2005, Press, te Croix, “Why Were “Why Croix, Ste University University lr (ed.), Esler The Early Christian Early The OK: 39, History Church Y ress, 1984. (A 1984. Press, ale iest of University University of McNeill, ress, 1965, Press, ress, 1984, Press, University Jewish and Jewish h Early The New M. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 14 14 21 19 18 17 16 41 40 39 37 36 35 34 22 20 15 38 29 33 32 31 30 28 25 24 23 27 26 S Suetonius, See

Eusebius, Epictetus, Epictetus, the Pliny Ibid. Suetonius,

ome have deemed the text to be a reference to reference a be to text the deemed have Some According to R. iy the Pliny Christianity,”1073–4. of pp. Criticism “Pagan Benko, See the Pliny te Croix, “Why Were“Why the Croix, S te D.

Christians in Christians that theorizes Clark Christians. to reference a as “Galileans” Christians, London: 2, vol. Judaism, on Perspectives New Wilken, Wilken, Wilken, 1984, pp. 399–413. pp. 1984, Chadwick, agan Criticism of Christianity,”1093. of p. Criticism “Pagan Benko, Justin, oeb Classical Loeb 13; 68. Apology 401–3. pp. 1927, Heinemann, Green, in see evidence, For Cf. C. 1966. p. 361. p. 2, vol. Fragments, and Manual, the Arrian, by Recent studies include studies Recent Tacitus, 95, 2004, pp. 102–28. pp. 2004, 95, Kirche älteren der Kunde die und Wissenschaft “Noch Thraede, K. 227–50; pp. 2002, 93, Kirche älteren der Kunde die und Wissenschaft neutestamentliche die für Zeitschrift 26). n. 135, p. Empire, Roman the Christianizing Classical Fragment 2: The 2: Fragment Tacitus, 54, 2000, pp. 233–47). pp. 2000, 54, (Sulpicius 2” Fragment “Tacitus’ as University Tacitus, Tacitus, vl 4 f J. of 4 vol. Interpretation, and Redaction Talmudic in Issues Judaism: ee C. C. ee 2.23.2, Berlin: WalterWeltBerlin: de römischen 2.23.2, der Niedergang und Aufstieg igrad “hets Crsu?” in Christus?,” “Chrestus: Slingerland, Marcus nside: Celsus on Jewish and Christian and Jewish on Celsus “Outside/Inside: Remus, H. Andresen, “The 68. Apology First N G. 5.5. Histories 15.44.2–4. Annals 15.44. Annals , p. xvi. p. Them, Saw Romans the as Christians 205. p. Them, Saw Romans the as Christians 200. p. Them, Saw Romans the as Christians 54; rn. . . ako, in Jackson, J. J. trans. 15.44; Annals einemann, 1939, p. 111. p. 1939, Heinemann, . Cochrane, Cochrane, . Library, Y .317 tas K. trans. 4.13.1–7; History Ecclesiastical Y Y 4.1.3; adapted from trans. W.trans. from adapted 4.1.3; Discourses 4.7.4–6. Discourses Porton London: 25; trans. Rolfe, trans. 25; Claudius Deified The ounger, ress of Press 62 c. 93 tas J C Rolfe, C. J. trans. 19.3; cf. 16.2, Nero of Life ounger, ounger, Aurelius, Early Christian Thought and the Classical Tradition Classical the and Thought Christian Early agan Criticism of Christianity,”1079–80. of pp. Criticism “P agan Benko, See G 2.9.20–21 (see Clark, (see 2.9.20–21 Discourses R Library, Macullen, E London: Anti-Roman agan Criticism of Christianity during the First TwoFirst Centuries the during Christianity of Criticism “Pagan Benko, S. (eds), al. et C 10.96. Letters merica, 1989, pp. 133–44. pp. 1989, America, 10.97; Letters 09; dpe fo tas W. trans. from adapted 10.96; Letters O Oxford Einmal: 11.3; cf. 11.3; Meditations Christianity and Classical Culture Classical and Christianity -R E. Integration of urchdachte Konfusion: “Durchdachte Reichert, A. London: OMAN aupot further argues that the reference to reference the that argues further Laupot einemann, 1937, p. 283. p. 1937, Heinemann, arly Christians Early University Pliny’s trouble with Christians concerned only New Perspectives on Ancient Judaism, Ancient on Perspectives New iis . . n de Christen,” die und J. d. Plinius ovement of the of Movement einemann, 1965, p. 333. p. 1965, Heinemann,

Eusebius, UNDE Lanham, Severus, Platonism into es 14, . 5 Jla “the Julian 15. p. 1949, Press, R Origen, J. A. S 4.8.6, 4.9.1–3, 4.26.10; Justin, 4.26.10; 4.9.1–3, 4.8.6, History Ecclesiastical ersecuted?,” p. 8. p. Persecuted?,” T MD: 63 , p. 27). p. Society, Roman and Christianity .067 i gnie (E. genuine is 2.30.6–7) Chronicles ANDING e Classical Loeb vl 4, vol. Annals, The and Histories The Tacitus: p. 53. p. Suetonius, A University and the and Christiani A. 8.65; R. Walzer,R. 8.65; Celsus Against alilean Zealots, but compare but Zealots, Galilean c (ed.), very-Peck Lake, Early Christian Theology,” Oldfather, , , O vl 1, vol. History, Ecclesiastical The Eusebius:

xford: xford: O o. 2, vol. Suetonius, Melmoth, F C F ress of Press pictetus may have confused Jews and Jews confused have may Epictetus linius, TrajanPlinius, Christentum,” das und Library, , , Epictetus: The Discourses as Reported as Discourses The Epictetus: H O O etcrf fr i neutestamentliche die für Zeitschrift ,” in J. in Nomoi,” tudies in Judaism, in Studies R xford xford xford: xford: h Ltrtr o Ery Rabbinic Early of Literature The IS Nazoreans,” Neusner, merica, 1987, pp. 133–50. pp. 1987, America, vl 2, vol. Letters, Pliny: in the piece known piece the in Christiani ruyter, 1980, pp. 1057–8. Gruyter,pp. 1980, T London: ott” esd h label the reused Apostate” IANI U O niversity niversity Pontus (see xford xford e Classical Loeb E. T Neusner Studia Patristica 15.1, Y iean 1946, Heinemann, Vigiliae Christianae Vigiliae Feih, W. Frerichs, S. Lucian, Galen on Jews and Jews on Galen U uo, “Tacitus’ Laupot, niversity niversity P Lanham, ress, 1957; 1957; ress, Macullen, (eds), al. et Peregrinus London: Library, A.D.,” P Loeb MD: ress, ress, First H S. . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:14 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203864517, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203864517.ch3 42 45 46 44 43 55 54 47 58 57 56 53 52 48 59 51 50 49 60 65 64 63 62 61 66 67 72 71 68 70 69 Marcus Galen, Galen’son commentary on Galen’scommentary Marcus

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interpolated. 1990, pp. 371–411. pp. 1990, Christians: the on “Galen Brussels: 1, vol. History, Roman and Literature Latin Antoninus, opular Reactions against Christianity in the Roman the in Christianity against Reactions “Popular Colwell, agan Criticism of Christianity,”1098. of p. Criticism “Pagan Benko, eiden: Brill, 1986, p. 275. p. 1986, Brill, Leiden: opular Reactions against Christianity in the Roman the in Christianity against Reactions “Popular Colwell, Cf. (see Clark, (see support mutual and community, spiritual aid, practical offering family, alternative an as functioned hitaiy” p 18–) Bre age ta Fot mr poal atce Crsint i the in Christianity work lost attacked probably more Fronto that argues Barnes 1081–9). pp. Christianity,” in oration this of fragment a preserved have may Felix Christianity: Origins and Evolution to A.D. 400, pp. 295–311. pp. Christen,” die gegen Rede lateinische erste “Die Bammel, Library,Cambridge, agan Criticism of Christianity,”1078. of p. Criticism “Pagan Benko, p. 144. p. takeably depicted as a Christian” (Barnes, “Pagan (Barnes, Christian” a as depicted takeably T. 51, 1997, pp. 51–71. pp. 1997, 51, Christianae Trans. Trans. R. J. R. Benko, p. 89. p. “Origen’sTreatise agan Criticism of Christianity,”1097). of p. Criticism “Pagan (Benko, both of blend a mystery,perhaps or Benko argues that dynamic translation of translation dynamic Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews and Christians , and Jews Pagans, Empire: Roman . . Barnes overstates the case when he argues that the baker’s wife is “unambiguously and unmis- and “unambiguously is baker’swife the that argues he when case the overstates Barnes D. unink, “Apuleius, Hunink, V 8–15, 20. 8–15, Thecla and Paul of Acts Sordi, . Hoffmann, tr and “Satire Edwards, , p. 161. p. Empire, Roman the and Christians H. A. hit “ekinn u ds hitnu i den in Christentum das auf “Reaktionen Schmidt, 3.3; trans. Walzer,trans. 3.3; Pulses of Differences the On 2.4; trans. Walzer,trans. 2.4; Pulses of Differences the On Aristides, , p. 140. p. Christians , Early the and Rome Pagan Aurelius, Aurelius, 12; cf. Justin, cf. 12; Peregrinus 25; adapted from trans. from adapted 25; Alexander 38. Alexander ) (e;kklhsiva assembly local the standpoint, Christian the From 3.55. Celsus Against . Butler,E. M. (T.Pelops Against 9.14; trans. J. trans. 9.14; Ass Golden The , pp. 195, 198. 195, pp. Empire , Roman the and Christians Bloomington, Christians, Early the and Rome Pagan Oxford: , p. 21). p. Society, Roman and Christianity Harmon, See 9.6; 31.2; cf. 31.2; 9.6; Octavius Celsus: On the TrueDoctrine, the On Celsus: 11.3. Meditations P .7; rn. C. trans. 3.671; Orations 11.3; trans. 11.3; Meditations ,” in Celsus,” Against Lucian viewed the Christian movement as a philosophical school or a new oriental . Oxford The Apologia and Florida of Apuleius of Madaura, of Apuleius of Florida and Apologia The . Brunt, “Marcus Brunt, A. MA: See udentilla, and Christianity,”and Pudentilla, , vol. 5, vol. Lucian, ejxw. lato’s work; trans. Walzer,Plato’strans. work; lato’s work; trans. Walzer,Plato’strans. work; lato’s work; trans. Walzer,trans. Plato’swork; Harvard Reappraisal of the of Reappraisal A Sordi, University . Barnes, “Pagan Barnes, D. V rsmltd: hitaiy in Christianity erisimilitude: 10; Apology Second eath to the … ” is a is ” the … to “Death 162. p. Empire, Roman the and Christians University ome maintain that the words referring to Christians have been have Christians to referring words the that maintain Some M. oeb Classical Loeb PAUL Sordi, ress, 1989, p. 102. p. 1989, Press, urelius and the Christians,” in C. in Christians,” the and Aurelius A. Edwards, Harmon, A. Oxford: Hanson, Behr, A.

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Difference: UNDE offmann argues affirmatively in affirmatively argues Hoffmann Hoffmann, Hoffmann, Chadwick, H. ate and the and Date . Bettenson, H. See , p. 155. p. Christians, Early the and Rome Pagan R ncient and Ancient T Rna (ed.), Runia T. D. . T.Christians. the Against S ossible Fragment of Fragment Possible es 18; C. 1984; Press, See T , p. 12. p. Origen, m-aln ad eitne ewe the between Resistance and Name-Calling , p. 91. p. Origen, Anti-Christian 65 , p. 115. p. Celsus, , p. 73. p. Celsus, ANDING . Fédou, M. M. ee also See ttribution of Fragments,” of Attribution , p. 158. p. Origen, Cmrde Cambridge Cambridge: Celsum, Contra Origen: Saint Augustine: City of God, of City Augustine: Saint rhr o Crsin and Christians on “Porphyry Schott, e apologetische Die eiden: Brill, 2005, pp. 1–6. Berchman argues Berchman 1–6. pp. 2005, Brill, Leiden: Origen, odern 6, Modern

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See

Felix, Minucius Origen, D odds,

crig o Tertullian, to According A. J. See “Graeco-Roman Simmons, “Graeco-Roman Simmons, Ibid. Eusebius, immons, “Graeco-Roman Simmons, Lactantius, Lactantius, Porphyry, Porphyry, Porphyry, Origen,

immons, “Graeco-Roman Simmons, Them,” p. 107. p. Them,” Cicero, Wilken,“Toward a and impiety (Philo, impiety and 131–59. Cf. 10.96–97. Wilken, “Toward a “TowardWilken, Rejoinder,” Tacitus, Clark, 39. 20; 15, Thecla and Paul of Acts Justin, and the Formation of Christian of Formation the and 1; This approach was criticized by pagan opponents. pagan by criticized was approach This the of Background “Social Jones, Clarendon, 1963, p. 20; cf. 20; p. 1963, Clarendon, senate. the Benko, A. (Cyprian, Romani Cf. Tatian,Cf. Religious in Method see communities,” Christian to improve the overall social reputation of Christianity. 53, 2002, pp. 466–502. pp. 2002, 53, Second Apology 12; Works and Minucius Felix: Octavius, Felix: WorksMinucius and Tertullian, 30–31; 12.2; Polycarp of Martyrdom cf. Didymus in ierocles? The Hierocles? 2. Apology Second Eusebius, omigliano (ed.), Momigliano H. uperstitio’ and the and F.“‘Superstitio’ L. Janssen, M. , pp. 20, 24. 20, pp. Society, Roman and Christianity . Jones, “The Jones, M. 4; trans. Barnard, trans. 4; Apology First Origen, , p. 111. p. Anxiety, of Age an in Christian and Pagan , p. 158, referring specifically to Celsus. to specifically referring 158, p. Christians, Early the and Rome Pagan 1.3–4; trans. Wilken,trans. 1.3–4; Gods the of Nature the On (and Romans the as “Christians 8.17. Celsus Against 1.3. Cf. the reappearance of “secrecy” in “secrecy” of reappearance the Cf. 1.3. Celsus Against 15.44; Annals (S eneca, violat superstitio colit, deos Religio 2; trans. 2; Hierocles Against orphyry on Christians and Christians on “Porphyry Schott, 21, 30–33. 21, Christians the Against 16. 15, 12, Christians the Against 9–10. frgs Christians the Against .; rn. R. trans. 2.3; Apology 33. Oration 11, 16. 11, Persecutors of Deaths the On 5. Institutes Divine A Debate over 27, 1964, pp. 28–33; pp. 1964, 27, Present and Past 6.19.4. History Ecclesiastical Origen, V 6.27, 40; 6.27, Celsus Against Anonymous alerian edict of 257 suggests that Christians were found among senators and senators among found were Christians that suggests 257 of edict alerian 8; trans. 8; Octavius 80.2). Letters Dialogue with Trypho 10; Tertullian, Social 5.147–48). Laws Special the On Social History,” See 3.29, 79; 4.5. 79; 3.29, Celsus Against The Conflict between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century, Fourth the in Christianity and Paganism between Conflict The Suetonius, ocial Background of the of Background Social Allegorical 74 Crsin cud e bevd n h ipra plc and palace imperial the in observed be could Christians 37.4, Apology nterpretation,” 439. Interpretation,” G. nterpretation,” 440. Interpretation,” Origen, Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Irenaeus, ellene in Hellene E. E. See 11, 1980, pp. 201–17. pp. 1980, 11, History Religious of Journal Athenagoras, . Judge, “The Judge, A. Identity,” f course, Christian apologists naturally emphasized such examples such emphasized naturally apologists Christian course, Of M. truggle,” p. 20. p. Struggle,” Arbesmann 25.3; Claudius Deified orphyry on Christians and Christians on “Porphyry Schott, Arbesmann, immons, “Graeco-Roman Simmons, 4.87, 6.2. 4.87, Celsus Against New Interpretation,” e ri, Wy ee the Were “Why Croix, Ste 97; Justin, 97; Preaching Apostolic the of Demonstration PAUL , p. 24. p. Martyr, Justin St. Eusebius, ersecution of Christians,” of Persecution Makarios Y pposition,” p. 861. p. Opposition,” pposition,” p. 849. p. Opposition,” pposition,” p. 848. p. Opposition,” pposition,” pp. 844–7. pp. Opposition,” 126, 2007, pp. 361–81. pp. 2007, 126, Literature Biblical of Journal ork: Fathers of the Church, 1950, p. 10. p. 1950, Church, the of Fathers ork: 3.31; Justin, 3.31; Christians of Behalf on Plea

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