3 CIGPT - Centro de Informação Geográfica e Planeamento Territorial Universidade dos Açores Rua da Mãe de Deus 13A 9501-801 Ponta Delgada Portugal

Scientific Editors Helena Calado Artur Gil

Scientific Committee Agustín Lobo Aldino Campos Ana Cristina Costa Artur Gil Christopher Damon David Johnson Fátima Alves Fátima Navas Helena Calado Nicole Schaefer Jorge Gonçalves Peter August Rui Pedro Julião

Graphic Design DDDD. Lda

ISBN: 978-972-8612-64-1

August 2010

4 Sponsors

5 Editorial

“The problems of ocean space are closely activities these uses can, sometimes, interrelated and need to be considered as coexist and be developed in different a whole” time schedules and levels (surface, water UNCLOS,1982 column…) and in some cases multiple uses are beneficial or complementary The introduction of the United Nations and others are exclusive. However, the Convention on the Law of the Sea magnitude and extent of their impacts (UNCLOS) from 1982 summarizes in a is very different from those on land. The sentence, most of the challenges that notion of competing (and even conflicting) Planners face when working on the spatial consuming marine uses and maritime space. The multidimensional activities lead to the development of character, the interrelations with fuzzy management and planning tools adapted borders, and mostly, the abysm of the to maritime space. unknown, transform the marine realm with a fantastic opportunity to be creative The definition presented on the “MSP in exploring new methods for the planning Good Practice” (UNESCO-IOC, 2008) of field. Marine Spatial Management is: “a public process of analyzing and allocating The sea has always been part of our the spatial and temporal distribution imaginary references and a structural part of human activities in marine areas to of our societies: first it was a barrier that achieve ecological, economic, and no one dare to cross, but also a food and social objectives that usually have salt supplier; then it challenged men to been specified through a political establish latitude, and mostly longitude, process. Characteristics of marine spatial in order to navigate and reduce distances planning include ecosystem-based, area- for trading; it kept the world apart until based, integrated, adaptive, strategic and the beginning of the nautical discoveries, participatory.” but gave us romances, poems, drawings and the most peculiar nautical charts… Marine Spatial Management can be and yet, we still know very little about considered as a more complex process then ocean space. land use planning, but it can profit from its technologies and methods. On a first The marine technologies are developing approach, its fundamental to understand faster, the remote observation systems the international regulations as those are more reliable, and yet we are not provided by UNCLOS, and the regional aware of the real ocean carrying capacity seas based organisation, conventions or the ecosystem limits to mitigate and treaties. Also the European Union negative impacts of land based human has developed several sectored policies activities. Coastal zones have already concerning marine resources. Therefore been understood as fragile and the law, rules and regulations, national and need for specific strategies and planning international, are the first base for Ocean tools defined. Now, it is time to move to zoning. maritime space: navigation, fisheries, recreation, oil and gas exploitation, The following step will require a strong marine protected areas, wind and wave scientific approach, as it must rely energy systems, archaeological sites, etc, on scientific quality data concerning the sea supports a growing number of resources and physical conditions of uses and activities. Similar to land based marine areas. The characterization

6 of the existing activities must not be For helping pursuing this goal and take considered the only basis for planning. another step to knowledge, also for their The resources, their value (economical contribution to Marine Spatial Planning and non economical) and also their development, we thank all those involved potential for exploitation are as valuable in this special issue! indicators for decision makers. This effort will require an integrated approach and Helena Calado a commom base for knowledge sharing. Geo technologies provide this platform. Spatial representation of maritime uses and activities, as well as resources distribution is a challenging theme. The geo references to different dimensions are more complex and still a developing subject.

Looking at this book we can have a glimpse of this complexity by the different subjects that our authors provided: from administrative layers to marine bird areas, we have a world of spatial representations of marine sectors and themes. These papers present the base for marine spatial planning: the resources, the problems, the conflicts and the management guidelines to face them. Being sector based or thematically approach they will be fundamental to provide the ultimate piece that a marine spatial planner aims: the zoning map.

Probably the first zoning map for Ocean Space, was produced with “Tordesilhas Treaty” were Portugal and Spain divided the world, in an imaginary line in the Ocean, to be discovered and colonies to be claimed. The world is far more complex now! But we know the world can not be divided, as also marine uses and activities. Management schemes, Zoning maps, conflict solving Rules, Codes of conduct, they all rely on the same basis: the human need to solve their problems, face their limitations and aim for a better, healthier and vibrant future for next generations. This path is made of several steps on integration, sharing, commitment and science based.

7 Foreword

Perched upon the long, wavy spine we science constitutes the raw material for call the Middle Atlantic Ridge, barely the construction of our understanding visible on the map and easily overlooked of the dynamics of the systems, and amidst the blue of the depth charts, the it is in the realm of the geographical Azores islands are, nevertheless, the sciences that those bits are chewed, epitome of what science really becomes: digested, integrated. The outcome is integration. Minuscule specks of rock, rich, for it springs out of the most varied their roots, however, encroach deep contributions; the applications are, for in the grinding force of three tectonic that matter, many and enriching, for they plates: to understand the Azores-land touch a wide range of aspects intersecting we have to integrate the movements of the life of humans. Our efforts, though, half the world. Lost in the vastness of the have for quite a long time been skewed, ocean, they, however, split currents and when trying to fit nature to our needs; dictate the fate of streams: to understand fortunately, however, our endeavour has the Azores-sea we have to integrate the shifted toward our fitting in the natural long, coiling path of the Gulf Stream. framing surrounding us. Such a shift Whipped by roaring storms or caressed by in paradigm could hold the secret for cool breezes, they, however, master the our survival, by fostering sustainability influence of the winds over continents: through a well woven network of interests, to understand the Azores-air we have to always under the all-encompassing eye of integrate trade-winds and anticyclones. a global view. Only through integration And this is what this book on Geographic will this goal be achieved; hence the Technologies applied to Marine Spatial relevance of the continuous search for Planning and Integrated Coastal Zone more appropriate instruments and more Management” is all about: integration. adequate systematizations. Information from every quadrant of

António M. de Frias Martins CIBIO Azores Unit Director & PI of Island Biogeography and Conservation Research Group

Expectant beneficiary of your work

8 Book Chapters

10 SHALLOW HYDROTHERMAL VENTS AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS WITHIN THE AZORES ARCHIPELAGO P. Aguiar & A.C. Costa SPATIAL ASSESSMENT AND IMPACT OF ARTISANAL FISHERIES’ ACTIVITY IN CAP DE 15 CREUS A. Purroy, S. Requena, R. Sardá, J.M. Gili & E. Serrão EMPIRICAL MODELLING OF BALEARIC SHEARWATER (Puffinus mauretanicus) CENSUS 23 DATA FOR THE PORTUGUESE ATLANTIC A.Bio, A.Meirinho, I. Ramírez & P. Geraldes 31 GIS-BASED MARINE BIODIVERSITY MAPPING FOR ASSESSMENT OF COASTAL AND MARINE PRIORITY AREAS FOR CONSERVATION A.Z. Botelho, H. Calado & A.C. Costa 38 SALMON FARMING IN CHILEAN PATAGONIA: A GROWING THREAT FOR COLD WATER CORALS? L. Fillinger, G. Försterra, V. Häussermann & C. Richter 46 BUILDING A MARINE SPATIAL DATA INFRASTRUCTURE TO SUPPORT MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING IN U.S. WATERS C. Fowler, B. Smith & D. Stein 53 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AS A TOOL FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COASTAL AREA OF TAZACORTE, LA PALMA (CANARY ISLANDS, SPAIN) L.M. García, C. Sangil, L. Concepción, R.F. de León, J.B. Diez & I.Y.G. Rodríguez EVALUATION OF MODIS DATA FOR MAPPING OIL SLICKS - THE DEEPWATER HORIZON 61 OIL SPILL CASE (2010) M. Gianinetto, P. Maianti, R. Tortini, F. Rota Nodari & G. Lechi 68 SYSTEM APPROACH FOR COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT: APPLICATION IN SOUTHEAST COAST OF TERCEIRA ISLAND AND GUADIANA ESTUARY M.H. Guimarães, A. Mascarenhas, C. Sousa, T. Dentinho & T. Boski ANALYSIS OF EPI-BENTHOS DISTRIBUTION AND THEIR POSSIBLE ASSOCIATION TO 78 GARY KNOLL’S PINGO-LIKE-FEATURES ON THE CANADIAN BEAUFORT SHELF: A SMALL- SCALE CASE STUDY K. Jerosch, V.E. Kostylev & S.M. Blasco GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE 86 MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A NATIONAL EXPERIENCE P. Lozano-Rivera, C. García-Valencia & A.L. Rodríguez 94 GOVERNANCE ISSUES FOR OCEAN SUSTAINABILITY: APPROACH TO AZOREAN MARINE JURISDICTIONS L. Paramio 103 GIS APPLICATIONS IN MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: EXAMPLES OF SPATIAL MANAGEMENT MEASURES FROM BERMUDA J.M. Pitt & M.L. Shailer 112 ASSESSMENT OF WATER-LOGGING EXTENT USING RS AND GIS TECHNIQUES AND ITS POSSIBLE REMEDIAL MEASURES AT THE KOPOTAKSHO BASIN AREA, BANGLADESH S. Rahman, S.H. Rahman & Md.W. Ullah 120 IDENTIFICATION OF MARINE IMPORTANT BIRD AREAS IN PORTUGAL I. Ramírez, J. Andrade, A.Meirinho, P. Geraldes & B. Lascelles DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY TO EVALUATE THE FLOOD RISK AT THE COASTAL 129 ZONE P.D. Raposeiro, C.J. Fortes, M.T. Reis & J.C. Ferreira 138 DATA REQUIREMENTS AND TOOLS FOR MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING K.A. Stamoulis WORKING TOWARD A MULTIPURPOSE MARINE CADASTRE IN THE U.S. TO SUPPORT 148 MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING D. Stein, C. Fowler, C. Taylor, B. Smith & A. Bode 155 A PICTURE IS WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS-USE OF GPS ENABLED CAMERA IN GEOSPATIAL MAPPING A. Wadwani 158 ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF BRINE DISCHARGE INTO SHALLOW BRACKISH BAY - A CASE STUDY OF PUCK BAY, BALTIC SEA A. Wochna 9 SHALLOW HYDROTHERMAL VENTS AND MARINE PROTECTED AREAS WITHIN THE AZORES ARCHIPELAGO P. Aguiar & A.C. Costa Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources (CIBIO-Azores), University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. E-mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT vent sites should be considered within the Island Park delineation, with the exception There has been a crescent interest on the of the hydrothermal vent fields at D. João scientific, cultural and socio-economical de Castro Seamount that fall within the value of the Azorean hydrothermal vents Azores Marine Park domain. by the Regional Government that has sparked the public interest on these Unfortunately, not all shallow vent sites unique ecosystems. The Azores are were included within the Island Park, and a privileged region in what concerns in the cases in which they were included hydrothermal systems since it is possible such was not done with the goal of to find most ecological variants of protecting the hydrothermal ecosystem these systems in close proximity (from itself. The later resulted in a protection terrestrial hotsprings to deep-sea vents, status miscellaneous that should be passing by shallow marine vents). The reviewed in order to obtain the same shallow marine thermal ecosystems are conservation status and management subject to higher human pressure than level for all shallow marine hydrothermal their deep-sea counterparts due to their sites across the archipelago. close proximity to the islands. However, at present time, it is the deep-sea Azorean On other hand, the protection and thermal sites that possess a more coherent conservation status of Azorean deep-sea protection status (Menez Gween and vents is better defined since two of the Lucky Strike) since they are considered three Azorean deep-sea hydrothermal SAC under the Habitats Directive. Among vent filed areas (Menez Gween and Lucky the shallower vent sites only D. João de Strike) are classified as SACs [2] within Castro hydrothermal vents field is under the context of the European “Habitats protection status due to the ecosystem directive” framework. itself (SAC). A revision and a comparison of the protection status of the nine shallow 2. SHALLOW MARINE VENTS IN THE Azorean marine hydrothermal vent sites AZORES are here discussed. There are a total of nine shallow marine Index Terms - Hydrothermal vents; Azores; hydrothermal vent sites identified within sustainable development; MPAs the Azores Archipelago (Table I). Some of these areas are characterized by an 1. INTRODUCTION intense degasification in addition to a moderate to high thermal anomaly. One The Azores Archipelago is a rich area can find the highest variety and number in hydrothermal vent habitats. Within of shallow hydrothermal sites near S. close proximity it is possible to find not Miguel Island, in the eastern islands only terrestrial but also several marine group. The western shallow hydrothermal hotsprings. Further more, the marine site is found at Flores Island shoreline and hotsprings environments span from the is known as Lagedo hostsprings. shoreline to deep-sea vents.

According to the areas defined by the Azores Regional Network of Protected Areas [1] all Azorean shallow marine 10 Table 1 - List of all shallow marine hydrothermal for Habitat or Species Management [4- sites within the Azores Archipelago with island 5]. Varadouro is outside Faial Island location and protection status. Park limits and Ribeira Quente is also not included within S. Miguel Island Park limits [6-7]. According to the present legislation minerals or other geological extractions are either forbidden or conditioned according to a previous technical appreciation at Carapacho, Ferraria, and Ladeira da Velha. Scuba diving touristic activity is also done under specific Contrarily to the deep-sea hydrothermal conditions, after technical approval, at vents protected areas none of the Ferraria [5-6]. It is not clear for the other protection levels established for the shallow marine hydrothermal sites which shallow marine hydrothermal sites were are the use restrictions for its utilization. acquired in order to value and protect the Such guidelines are essential tools and hydrothermal ecosystem it self. Even in the need to be added to the management case of the hydrothermal vents located at plans for all these areas. the D. João de Castro seamount the SAC status was attributed primarily according 3. UNIQUE ECOSYSTEMS to the habitat category of Reef [3] and only afterwards it was also classified The diversity gradient between the within the other type of sensitive habitats shallow marine hydrothermal ecosystems under the “Submarine structures made and the surrounding “common coastal by leaking gases”. marine environment” is very steep. The unique microbial communities at these The shallow marine hydrothermal sites of sites form vast microbial mats that Lagedo (Flores), Carapacho (Graciosa), blend with sea-sponges and algal cover Ferraria (S. Miguel) and Ladeira da Velha at the ecosystem limits. This biological (S. Miguel) were previously classified as mixture of two worlds results on a unique IBAs [4-6]. ecosystem powered by the two types of primary production on Earth (based on In Faial Island, the Espalamaca solar energy- photosynthesis; and based degasification low temperature on mineral energy- chemosynthesis). hydrothermal field is also integrated Such environmental constraints allow in a larger protected area designated for the co-existence of a high variety of Baixa do Sul (Canal Faial-Pico) recently metabolisms and lead to the prediction classified as a SAC and integrated in the of a higher microbial diversity at PNIFAI within the sector FAI010. The shallow marine hydrothermal sites when marine hydrothermal site of Varadouro, compared with the deep-sea microbial also in Faial Island, is located right at communities [8]. the shoreline near the Varadouro village, immediately on the outside limit between Comparatively to the deep-sea and to two protected sectors of the PNIFAI [7]. the terrestrial counterparts, the Azorean Shallow Marine Vents Ecosystem has Ferraria, Mosteiros, and Ladeira da Velha/ not been the target of many ecological Porto Formoso on S. Miguel Island, as studies. However, it is possible to say, well as Espalamaca (Faial) are classified based on the existing publications, that as Protected Areas for Resources this ecosystem has a distinct community Management within the framework of patterns from the surrounding coastal the respective Island Park premises [6- marine environment even at the 7]. Carapacho (Graciosa) and Lagedo invertebrate community level [8-9] (Flores) are classified as Protected Areas worthier of further studies.

11 such hydrothermal resources within 4. SHALLOW HYDROTERMAL VENTS the wellness tourism may lead to an WITHIN THE AZOREAN SUSTAINABLE economical and social improvement DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT however it demands an investment on scientific knowledge of the fluid chemistry Given the present socio-economic but has so far lacked on the biological settings the Azores Regional Government and ecological contextualization for such is keen on validation of the Azorean areas. In order to better promote a natural thermal resources as a mean sustainable use this resources it would be to promote the archipelago sustainable necessary to develop special management development being on geothermal energy plans for this area that emphasis the as a renewable resource or a motor for maintenance of the hydrothermal technical and touristic innovation and ecosystem equilibrium. development. Related to this sector, even though 4.1. Touristic development not directly, is the usage of marine hydrothermal fluids and “hydrothermal Since early times the Azores are known sand” and/or “mud” for cosmetic for their “Caldeiras” and thermal waters. treatments [12, 13]. In this case the study According with a few schollars Thomas of the thermal microbial communities Hicking was the first true thermal tourist and their end products are studied and at the archipelago [10]. Nevertheless the in some cases recreated in controlled Azorean thermal waters (hydrothermal environments in order to mass produce areas) start to be studied from the exfoliating or hydrating products just to scientific perspective at the end of the name a few, that than can be used in 18th [11]. The exuberance of the warm treatment spas as well as at the comfort seawater near Carapacho or Ferraria was of our homes. Such environmental mining not left unnoticeable. of organisms from these ecosystems may have small impact on the ecosystem itself 4.1.1. Wellness tourism at the time of the sample extraction. In Historically some of these shallow this case the protection and management hydrothermal sites have been explored measures should be implemented to for therapeutically purposes. In some guarantee that a percentage of the profit cases there were thermal bath houses of the eventual mass production of these constructed within the hot springs vicinity resources reverts for the local community (Varadouro, Carapacho, Ladeira da Velha, development. and Ferraria) [8, 10]. The decline of the patients number and the disbelief on 4.1.2. Eco-tourism the therapeutically properties of these The constant search for new touristic hydrothermal sites lead to the closure of products to offer within the Azores will the thermal bath houses and to the lack eventually lead to a higher number of specialized medical doctors within this of scuba diving touristic operators field. offering a “dive within the Azorean natural champagne”. While such offer Recently, the public demand for may increase people’s awareness of the alternative natural treatments as uniqueness of such habitats will also well as for the wellness-spa tourism increase the human impact at the sites. increased and sparked the investment The close proximity to the shoreline as on this sector. Ferraria, Carapacho, and well as the shallow depth at which most Varadouro thermal bathhouses were vents are found increases the vulnerability or are being recovered as well as the of theses unique ecosystems. The hydrothermal fluids caption systems geological degasification structures are for the thermal fluids adjacent to these a unique site mingled with the remaining areas. The sustainable exploitation of biodiversity of the Azores subtidal marine

12 system. Thus far only Ferraria has a level nucleation or mineral concentrations is of protection that refers usage restrictions many times carried on not by a single for scuba diving activity. It would be microorganisms but by a natural consortia necessary to promote good practices that catalyzes the minerals deposition among touristic diving operators that may [13]. offer this product as a way to preserve the habitat equilibrium without compromising 5. UNIFYING CARACTER the region sustainable development. In addition it would be important to The long Azorean thermal heritage was determine a carrying capacity for each reflected on a recent census conducted at shallow marine vent site to facilitate S. Miguel Island from which it is possible management measures and to cause the deduct that Azorean society values the least impact possible. preservation and management of their hydrothermal areas specially the shallow 4.2. Biotechnological development marine vent fields and recognizes that they need to be better protected from a On the last decades quite a few companies conservation status perspective in order specialized on screening for marine to promote a sustainable development. organisms enzymes. This type of mining The main value attributed to these is once more a low impact activity when it hydrothermal systems is related to their is carried on by knowledgeable personal. unique geological features paired with the The need for protection status and mineral depositions integrated in the both management measures in this sector are touristic sectors reported above. Less not necessarily to maintain the ecosystem people are aware of their high economical integrity but mostly to guarantee value within the biotechnological context and promote a regional sustainable [15]. development trough the balanced exploitation of such natural resources. There is no doubt that the Azorean The seas cover 70% of the planet earth. hydrothermal systems are of high level The oceans comprise a wide range of of importance for the Azores Regional ecosystems and habitats that harbor a Government and that this class is aware large biological diversity that may equal a of its importance in the biotechnological large chemical and genetic diversity. Less market. Their protection status is than 1% of all marine microorganisms however confusing at this stage with has, thus far, been successfully cultured a higher protection level for deep-sea and therefore offer a unique opportunity vents hydrothermal sites that due to to find new enzymes. Last estimates their location are less impacted, than the from marine biotechnology indicated protection settings for shallow marine that it was worth $2.48bn year. Extreme vents, whose location near the islands marine ecosystems enabled the biology to shoreline put them in at higher vulnerability evolve and adapt to high/low temperature risk. Ferraria and Ribeira Quente, (e.g. hydrothermal vents – superheated followed by Carapacho are the best water); high salinity and even high known shallow marine hydrothermal pressure to name a few characteristics, sites near shore [15]. Unfortunately, the Azorean shallow marine vents are Ribeira Quente hydrothermal vent field no exception [14] and together with the is not included within any reserved or Azores deep-sea and with the terrestrial protected area of S. Miguel Island Park hydrothermal vents can be a pivot on [6] at present. By other hand, the current the biotechnological development of the shallow hydrothermal fields were not region. purposely included in the Island Park Besides the enzyme mining it protected areas, which resulted in a status is necessary to better understand the miscellaneous that needs to be reviewed biogeochemical cycling of these systems in order to obtain the same conservation since the hydrothermal fluid mineral status for all shallow marine vents across

13 the archipelago. If the protection level [13] Câmara J., J. Medeiros, and P. was given to the ecosystem itself a base AGUIAR, “Estudo comparativo da line management policy could be more composição química de lamas e biofilmes easily implemented as for example for termais das Furnas” in Actas do Encontro the Transylvania hydrothermal vents SAC Internacional de Termalismo e Turismo [3]. As a stepping-stone in this process Termal e III Fórum Ibérico de Águas we propose the development of a geo- Engarrafadas e Termalismo p.419-424, referenced layer with general ecosystem 2009. information on all shallow marine vent [14] Aguiar, P., C.L. Pereira, C.M. sites within the Azores archipelago. Loureiro, and L. Amaral-Zettler. Bacteria communities at shallow marine thermal 6. REFERENCES vents within the Azores archipelago at the light of the 454 V-tag pyro-sequencing. [1] Decreto Legislativo Regional ICoMM Spring meeting Actas, Woods nº15/2007/A from Hole, MA, EUA. 2009 [2] Addendum to Directiva Habitats [15] Gaspar C., H. Cabral, J. P. Raposo, T. nº92/43/CEE (2009/1001/UE) from 22 Sousa, and P. Aguiar, “Nascentes Termais December 2009 e o seu significado na cultura Açoriana”, [3] Directiva Habitats nº92/43/CEE from Actas do Encontro Internacional 21 May 1992 Termalismo p.431-436, 2009. [4] Proposal for Flores Island Park by Decreto Legislativo Regional- waiting approval [5] Decreto Legislativo Regional nº45/2008/A from 05 November 2008 [6] Decreto Legislativo Regional nº19/2008/A from 08 July 2008 [7] Decreto Legislativo Regional nº46/2008/A from 07 November 2008 [8] P. Aguiar, Microbial ecology of Azorean hotsprings as revealed by culture and Molecular techniques, Portland State University, Portland, OR, 2005. [9] S. P. Ávila, Processos e padrões de colonização e dispersão dos Rissoidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) dos Açores. PhD Thesis, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, 2005. [10] Motta de Sousa, J. M. O Vale das Furnas. Almedina. Coimbra, 2008. [11] Mosely, H. N., “Notes on freshwater Algae obtained at the boiling springs at Furnas, St. Michael’s, Azores, and their neighbourhood”, J Linn Soc Botany nº 14, pp.321-325, 1874 [12] Quintela A., S.F.P. Almeida, D. Terroso, E. F. Silva, F. Rocha, and V. FORJAZ, “Microalgas colonizadoras de Lamas Vulcânicas Açorianas Durante a Maturação”, Actas do Encontro Internacional de Termalismo e Turismo Termal e III Fórum Ibérico de Águas Engarrafadas e Termalismo p.329-336, 2009.

14 SPATIAL ASSESSMENT AND IMPACT OF ARTISANAL FISHERIES’ ACTIVITY IN CAP DE CREUS A. Purroy1, S. Requena1, R. Sardá2, J.M. Gili1, E.Serrao3 1 Institute of Marine Sciences, CSIC (ICM-CSIC). Passeig Maritim de la Barceloneta, 37-49. E-08003, Barcelona (Spain), E-mail: [email protected] 2 Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes, CSIC (CEAB-CSIC). C/ d’accés a la Cala St. Francesc, 14. E-17300, Blanes (Spain) 3 Universidade do Algarve. Campus de Gambelas P-8005-139, Faro (Portugal)

“This work was presented by the first author in order to complete the requirements to achieve the degree of Master of Science in Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, within the ERASMUS MUNDUS Master Programme EMBC”.

ABSTRACT but also as safeguard against most fishing practices, either commercial or North western Mediterranean is recreational, as for tourist attractions; characterized by a high fishing activity which all together contribute to the decline and consequently, the awareness to of biological resources [3]. Cape Creus preserve and protect high ecological area is currently being studied in order to important areas has been recently on evaluate its potential ecological value to the scope. Cape Creus is lately being become the first MPA offshore from the subjected of study in order to assess 1LIFE+Indemares Project, in the frame its values in the frame of European of the Habitat Directive and Natura 2000 Directives. By combining existing data of Network as well as the 2Biodiversity Law artisanal fisheries’ components together at the national level. In order to define with gathered seabed components, a a first step on the fisheries’ domains in spatial distribution of fishing activity Cap de Creus, an instrumental study is pretended. A spatial approach has pretends to be done by taking advantage been the main tool when assessing the of the stocktacking conducted by the consistency of fishing pressure onto the FAO-COPEMED Project. Fishing activities seabed. Benthic communities seem to be increasingly participate in habitat more affected when overlapping of fishing destruction, accidental mortality of non types occur. Consequently, alternating target species, changing functioning and parceling and seasonal closures among structuring of ecosystems and causing fishing gear types, to minimize the impact evolutionary shifts in the demography onto benthic communities as also setting of populations [12]. A direction towards no-take zones is strongly suggested. The the participation of all stakeholders in establishment of a MPA in the near future fisheries management needs to be taken; has to be seen for all stakeholders as one worldwide, fishing is affecting the seabed step contributing to the sustainability of habitat on the continental shelf [10]. the ecosystem, once the potential impact The fishing behavior in space and time of this fishing activity is shown. Mid-scale resulting in a particular area will mark off benefits by means of reducing fishing the habitat impact in a patchy distribution; pressure in the area will enhance both likewise, levels of disturbance vary among alternative income solutions and spillover habitat types as a result of fishing intensity offset as a result of habitat recovery. and frequency [10]. It is clear that any fishing gear will disturb the sediment Keywords: métier, GIS, fishing spatial activity, and resident community at some degree MPA, fisheries management. but not all fishing methodologies affect habitats in the same way. Bottom-fishing INTRODUCTION activities involving mobile fishing gear have a physical impact on the seabed and European directives are strongly the biota living there [10]. Consequently, encouraging to increase the number of it is important to know the intensity of the marine protected areas in each European disturbance which will depend on used country. MPAs have been envisaged not gear, sediment type and water depth [10]. only as a potential tool for conservation 15 Accordingly, an approach throughout the habitat conservation; thus, achieving a spatially definition of fishing activities well understanding of key communities and their overlapping will serve to value and fisheries’ distribution is a first step for the existent communities’ status. Thus, an integrated management with the main this is an essential tool to be taken stakeholders, the fishermen. into consideration when analyzing the proposed area to be protected. By taking advantage of the stocktaking of In order to define the real effort invested the main fishery components associated in a resource, artisanal fisheries are with artisanal fisheries, a compilation with defined by combining fishing arts, target other existent regional information from species, fishing geographical zones the area is intended in order to find out the and seasonality, the concept of métier main goal. GIS software has been used as is applied [6]. The Mediterranean is the main tool aiming to obtain the most characterized by a high diversity of complete conception of the spatial fishing fishing gears and target species; artisanal activity in Cap de Creus and to assess fisheries are mostly coastal owing the incidence of gears on an unprotected boats with a maximum size of 12m and ecosystem. The focus on determining small capital investment [4]. The EU the degree of impact of certain areas Mediterranean fleet is represented in an according to the coexistence of one or 80% by artisanal fisheries [5]. From the more fishing gears will serve a priori to point of view of fisheries exploitation, the assess the vulnerability of the existent continental shelf and the shelf-break are community types. There is expectation the most interesting areas where most of in the relationship between outstanding the resources can be found. Coastline and communities and less exploited areas. continental shelves host wide range of habitats. Most types of artisanal fisheries MATERIAL & METHODS extend from the coastline onwards into Study area: Cap de Creus the continental shelf, decreasing in their frequencies as distance and depth Historically, Cap de Creus has been the increase [7]. Fishermen’s local knowledge first maritime-terrestrial park to be determines seasonality in relation to established in Spain in 1998, representing species behavior and its abundance along the marine domain in a 22% [11]. Even if the year [15]. the protection figure is already existent, it is intended to extend the protected area The use of GIS tools is often used to to offshore waters comprising shelf, shelf- account for spatial predictions [15, 9]. In break and canyon. By considering the here, an approach to assess vulnerable depth gradient, a more complete scheme and less damaged communities combined of the system can be offered. with spatial coincidence in time of fishing gears has been done. Cap de Creus canyon is the western canyon of the conspicuous underwater OBJECTIVES canyon system found in the Gulf of Lions. It is an area of complex bathymetry and When studying marine areas for very nutrient rich from the outflow of conservation purposes, one of the main several rivers (Rhône River from Gulf of objections is to localize the anthropogenic Lions, and the local rivers Ter, Fluvià and pressure exercised in the area. Fishing Muga). It starts at the continental shelf at tradition has distinguished this area since about 90-100m depth and it extends up the old times; however, during the last to 5Km off the coast (42°18’49.202 N – decades fishing pressure is an evident 003°34’ 6.000 E). The canyon is oriented fact. Just like in other fishing regions northwest-southeast giving a V-shape in Europe, the Mediterranean faces the structure breaking into the open sea. In problem of reconciling the economic total is about 95Km long and presents a activity with sustainable fish stocks and maximum depth of 2150m.

16 The Liguro-Provenzal-Catalan current Winds are strongly a limiting factor in this (aka Northern Current) from the Gulf of area. Their high frequency and intensity Lions, the input from the above mentioned mark the fishing activity in Cap de Creus rivers together with strong dominant which preclude going out in the sea. North north winds causing water mixing, make from Cape Creus northerly winds dominate of this area a highly productive zone. the scene along with the rough conditions Consequently, it is an area conducive to from the Gulf of Lions, especially during the agglomeration of pelagic fish among winter season. The so-called Tramontane others. and Mistral winds (northwest and northern winds respectively) are characterized to The presence of free water currents be the most frequent, strong, dry, cold coming from the Gulf of Lions collide and reaching persistences up to several with the outstanding Cape Creus causing days [14]. In turn, the noted episodes its displacement from the coast and of vertical water mixing along the coast allowing littoral currents between this are responsible of the water nutrient and the coast. Another phenomenon is enrichment. In Gulf of Roses, Tramontane the deep convection occurring in winter and south-west and western winds when a maximum in surface salinity dominate the area, whereas heading combined with strong, cold and dry south winds lose their intensity. northerly winds and a cyclonic circulation, known as the Western Mediterranean Regarding the substrate, variability along Deep Water formation [14]. This process the coastal region is clearly observed. It produces dense water which sinks to ranges from rocky, dark and high coast the bottom as a section of newly formed to lower coast areas. Sandy and muddy deep water. The cascading effect is been bottoms seem to dominate the area, reported as an alternative mechanism however a mixture of sandy and muddy to deep water formation in the northern bottoms as also gravel and rocks complete Catalan Sea [8]. Ulses et al. (2008) [16] the substrate composition. In addition, refer to water cascading and to marine protected seagrass beds can be found on storms as two mechanisms responsible those coastal areas where well-conserved of regulating shelf-slope exchanges communities of Posidonia oceanica are causing downwelling to submarine developed. The southern part of the canyons. During winter, the cooling canyon, in front of Roses Bay, is the from northwesterly winds destratify and broadest and most extensive part of the increase in density water from the shelf shelf due to river deposition processes. enabling the plunging down the slope. Underwater canyons present many areas The current system along the Gulf is acting as deep reefs, in where many strengthen and accelerated by the wind, species form structures where others receiving the south westernmost part find refuge. High abundance of corals are of the Gulf, the highest intensity. In present in the rocky bottoms whereas this extremity, the narrowing of Cap de in the deepest parts Maërl beds abound Creus shelf together with the offshore (concentration of species of calcified red limitation by Cape Creus Canyon, result seaweed), commonly associated to a high in a larger acceleration of currents. A diversity of sessile species. In other cases well-figured simulation of currents in the in the Atlantic has been seen how deep area can be found in Ulses et al. (2008). cold corals are an ideal habitat for juvenile The spreading of continental influence on and larvae of several fish species. Many waters is preferred for spawning as shown of these species have a high commercial in studies with anchovy by Salat (1996), value, thus acting again as a refugee from coinciding with the water stratification fishing pressure, by allowing the recovery period in spring and summer, which of stocks in depletion. The high regime of otherwise would be nutrient poor. currents mentioned above allows the high concentration of particles in the water

17 column, serving to feed many organisms. location of fishing gears and the related Additionally, cetacean species are also items. ArcView and ArcCatalog 9.3 associated to underwater canyons such GIS (ESRI Corp., Redlands, California) are finback whales and bottlenose software in combination with the Spatial dolphins and striped dolphins. Analyst extension has been used to spatially distribute the data and to obtain Topography of the area is already very the resulting maps. precise but biology still needs to be defined. Due to the previous projects Data structure and analysis HERMES (UE) and DEEP CORAL (National All the information used in this case study Project), a bioprospection from Cap de has been obtained from public sources Creus canyon has been done. However, and institutions. a deeper study on the ecology and In order to frame the area of interest biology will allow establishing more based on the available information, a adequate protection measures. By using fishnet of 500x500m square cell (0.25 ROV and manned submergible vehicle Km2) has been created. The fishnet has images, a high abundance of cables and been set over the study area and those abandonment fishing gears has been grids associated to the inland part have detected showing the impact of fishing been deleted, thus containing each grid activities in the area. It is known that associated qualitative marine data. the past trawling activity destroyed The result obtained is a 4581-cell grid many areas on the continental shelf and covering a surface area of 1145.25 Km2. slope; this is supported by the presence This methodology has been recently of surviving species in similar habitats, used to merge sparse data to map bird which are known to be in unreachable communities [3] or to mark out the areas, far from the fishing pressure. The boundaries of MPA in the Mediterranean impoverished mud communities in the [14]. Cell grids provide harmonization and continental shelf might be a consequence reduce the complexity of spatial datasets, of: i. major activity of bottom trawling particularly when combined, due to each by boats, ii. instability of the substrata cell has a unique cell code identifying which is mainly composed by carcasses resolution, row and column. of bivalves and detritus, together with the slope of the area make colonization and Information processing: settlement of sessile species even harder Adaptating available existent layer files [11]. in order to convert those using GIS extensions and applications to suit to Data collection the fishnet of study. Geoprocessing tools The information regarding artisanal (Spatial joining, merging, dissolving and clipping) have allowed fusing and fisheries in Cap de Creus was obtained combining the information ensuring that throughout questionnaires circulated each cell grid encloses each feature. The around fishermen in the area of Catalonia selecting tool from the attribute table has between December 2000 and March permitted to map for each of the selected 2001 by the regional FAO consultant. variables in study. The surveys consisted in interviewing either the majors or the secretariat of the Coverage layers referring to bathymetry, fishing guilds and fishermen representing substrate and bionomy have been the main métiers in the area in order to provided by CSIC scientists who had fill in a sheet for each of them. The use previously created these layers for other of surveys to the fishing communities projects. has been seen in other studies [13, 9] to provide a good assessment for fisheries. Layers referring to Coastline, European rivers, ports and others have been obtained from available European Spatial structure and regional sources (such as DARP – The GIS software allows the spatial Department of Agriculture & Fisheries).

18 The coordinate reference system by excluding thus, minor gears. The employed is the Universal Transverse added values can then be ranged from 0 Mercator (UTM), UTM zone 31, using to 4. The lack of fishing gears detected the World Geodetic System 84 (WGS84) in an area obtains the value of 0, for as the geodetic datum for storage and those areas where only one fishing gear analysis. acts 1 is the given value, when two of the gears overlap get a value of 2, and when RESULTS up to three of the fishing gears coincide the rating is 3. A value of 4 has not been A complete map has resulted from obtained meaning that in any area the combining layers with the data confluence of all arts has been recorded. regarding type of substrate (bottom The resulting map reflects the limitations quality), bathymetry and fishing zone. in the coexistence of particular fishing Consequently, each cell grid contains a types, i.e. trammel nets and longlines value attributed to each characteristic, hardly coincide due to the incompatibility allowing their combination for a spatial of their fishing methodologies. scale. The resulting spatial distribution for each fishing gear type acting on the Key communities area of Cap de Creus has been obtained Once the spatial distribution of fishing by using a total number of 73 métiers. types and the value regarding the degree Accordingly, the composition of artisanal of impact of such activities have been set, it fisheries’ gear in the Mediterranean is was time to assess the local communities. commonly dominated by trammel nets The existent major communities to gillnets and longlines as also seen in other preserve include coral reefs, sponge studies [2]. The use of one versus the gardens or maërl beds (calcareous algae) other may vary with the fishing season, as other hard substratum communities. target species’ behavior and particularly in this area, due to the environmental DISCUSSION conditions; hereby, the provided data by métiers is considered to be more accurate To protect not only species but also when spatially distributing their action of communities there is a need to know those activity because it encompasses the local habitats exposed to more exploitation tradition. Notwithstanding, to generally than others. In this study one can see assess the potential influence for each how the seabed experiences different type of gear, the métier concept has been levels of fishing activity; those areas eventually grouped when visualizing the subjected to a greater effect correspond results. Because the purpose of study to areas relatively undisturbed by natural pays particular interest in analyzing the perturbations (i.e. muddy areas) unlike offshore part of the area of Cape Creus areas suffering of high environmental and in more detailed the proposed area influence with unconsolidated sediment to protect from the LIFE+Indemares being predominant. It is important Project, a focus in the already known knowing the benthic characteristics to key communities has been made, as the ensure that fishing closures in no-take or most well conserved, representative and partially protected areas do not cause a emblematic communities. displacement to other vulnerable areas. An opportunity for protection of particular Overlap value areas where ecologically important An overlap value has been set to define species have been recorded is by taking the coincidence in space of two or more into consideration spatial distribution fishing gears and to detect the degree of when managing. impact over the system (see Figure 1). Only those gears previously considered as The partition of fishing activities is acting in a broader scale over the area of an effective approach for habitat study for protection have been considered conservation. Both, areas used

19 exclusively by unique fishing gears (i.e. the existence of activity of three gear parceling) or areas shared seasonally by types. Therefore, there is a relationship two or more participants (i.e. considering of well-conserved communities and the target species’ behavior) have seen to incidence degree of fishing activities. work and to avoid conflict among the Because of the extent of fishing activities several sectors [10]. Thus, this is an in the local economy and the urgency in excellent consideration when managing protecting certain marine habitats and areas where ecologically important species, MPA planning and management species have been recorded, to ensure should be conducted on a multidisciplinary their protection and the sustainability of basis [1]. the ecosystem. This seems to work well for benthic communities; nevertheless, CONCLUSION to fully protect mobile species and their habitats it is urgent to identify the so- This study is intended to be an approach called Essential Fish Habitats, which not for artisanal fisheries; however, for more only encompass areas for nursery and concise results regarding global fishing spawning, but areas as relevant to keep activities, such vessel monitored system up other stages of their life cycles such data (VMS) to assess fishing by semi- are food or predator avoidance sites [10]. industrial and industrial fleets should A spatial overlap implies a greater impact be recovered. Notwithstanding, it is onto the carrying capacity of the system important to note that most of the semi- and an impoverishment in the seabed. industrial fleet move away from Cape This reflects the degree of impact that Creus, off to waters from the Gulf of Lions. destructive gear cause over habitats. In addition, environmental (i.e. currents), Contrarily, by analyzing those areas socioeconomic (i.e. type of fishing gear) with less confluence of different fishing and geophysical (i.e. narrowness of the gears, one can see a higher abundance shelf) components in the area, make of of key communities for protection. Some artisanal fisheries the prevailing activity. benthic communities characterized by providing abundant biogenic structures There is an ongoing need to review are considered rich epifauna and thus artisanal fisheries in the Mediterranean as target species for conservation [10]; through recurring debates on the future these include coral reefs, sponge gardens status of fisheries. Bearing in mind or maërl beds (calcareous algae) as other that data used for this case study was hard substratum communities. These collected between December 2000 and communities are most well-conserved, March 2001 and that fishing activity’s representative and emblematic. In consequences are observable on a Cape Creus, cold coral, brachiopoda, large-scale, continuous monitoring must ceriantharia, pennatulacea, gorgonians, be highlighted in order to promote a sponges and detritic littoral sandy mud responsible development respecting both habitats are the key communities known the environment and fisheries. up to date (see Figure 2). Conservation needs to be seen from a more When comparing bionomy and overlap integrated and proactive perspective, value maps, it is seen how areas with assuming the relation of protected spaces higher ecological interest coincide with with the surrounding territories and with less overlapping of fishing gears, with human uses. Looking for coherent ways values ranging from 0 to 2. The percentage of territorial ordination will keep the of coverage of either one or none type of functions and natural services. Involving fishing reach a 60%, the confluence of 2 local communities in taking the most fishing gear correspond to 29% whereas profit of the economic potential of MPAs only an 11% of the major area of study needs to be highlighted when planning from the LIFE+Indemares Project shows with stakeholders [1]. i) LIFE+INDEMARESLIFE07/AT/E/000732 ii) Law 42/2007, December 13th, Natural and Biodiversity Heritage 20 REFERENCES profondes 215:165-189 [10] Forcada A, Valle C, Sánchez- [1] Badalamenti F, Ramos AA, Voultsiadou Lizaso JL, Bayle-Sempere JT, Corsi F E, Sánchez-Lizaso JL, D’Anna G, Pipitone (2010) Structure and spatio-temporal C, Mas J, Ruiz Fernández JA, Whitmarsh dynamics of artisanal fisheries around a D, Riggio S (2000) Cultural and socio- Mediterranean marine protected area. economic impacts of Mediterranean ICES Journal of Marine Science 67:191- marine protected areas. 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Communication [15] Rocha F, Gracia J, González ÁF, from the Comission to the Council Jardón CM, Guerra Á (2004) Reliability of and the European Parliament laying a model based on a short fishery statistics down a Community Action Plan for the survey: application to the Northeast conservation and sustainable exploitation Atlantic monkfish fishery. ICES Journal of of fisheries resources in the Mediterranean Marine Science 61:25-34 Sea under the Common Fisheries., [16] Salat J (1996) Review of hydrographic Brussels environmental factors that may influence [7] Coppola (2006) Inventory of anchovy habitats in northwestern artisanal fisheries communities in the Mediterranean. Scientia Marina 60 central and western Mediterranean. In: (Supl.2):21-32 Department FF (ed) Studies and Reviews [17] Stelzenmüller V, Maynou F, Martín P General Fisheries Commision for the (2007) Spatial assessment of benefits of Mediterranean 77 a coastal Mediterranean Marine Protected [8] Demestre M, Lleonart J, Martín P, Area. Biological Conservation 136:571- Peitx JA, Sardà F (1986) L’Oceanografia. 583 II. Recursos pesquers de la mar catalana, [18] Ulses C, Estournel C, Bonnin J, Vol 9. Diputació de Barcelona. Servei del Durrieu de Madron X, Marsaleix P (2008) medi Ambient, Barcelona Impact of storms and dense water [9] Fieux M (1974) Formation d’eau dense cascading on shelf-slope exchanges in sur le plateau continental du Golfe du the Gulf of Lion (NW Mediterranean). Lion. Colloques Internationaux du CNRS Geophysical Research 113 sur la formation des eaux océaniques 21 Fig. 1 - Overlap value in the study area from Cape Creus

Fig. 2 - Existent key communities in the study area from Cape Creus 22 EMPIRICAL MODELLING OF BALEARIC SHEARWATER (Puffinus mauretanicus) CENSUS DATA FOR THE PORTUGUESE ATLANTIC A. Bio1, A. Meirinho2, I. Ramírez2 & P. Geraldes2

1CIMAR/CIIMAR – Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-125 Porto, Portugal. Email: [email protected]. 2SPEA – Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves, Avenida da Liberdade, nº 105, 2º Esq, 1250-140 Lisboa, Portugal.

ABSTRACT and prey, fisheries bycatch and oil spills within their foraging grounds and Marine Spatial Planning for seabird migratory routes [3, 4]. protection requires identification of Important sea Bird Areas and, therefore, Recently, Marine Protected Areas have insight into bird distributions and status. been extended to protect off-shore marine Generally based on transect counts from areas, instead of protecting only breeding ships, distribution maps can be built colonies on land [2]. Marine distributions considering spatial patterns as well as are, however, technically difficult to bird-environment relationships. Balearic study and monitor, and highly variable, Shearwater May and October densities as birds are very mobile, occurring in the Portuguese Atlantic area were associated to dynamic habitat features modelled using: geostatistical, multiple like food availability. To understand and regression and regression kriging model seabird distribution, ecologically methods. While kriging reproduced the meaningful approaches are needed, such observed patterns best, regressions with as the characterization of bird-habitat environmental variables allowed better relationships, relating observed bird understanding of bird distributions, presences or densities to environmental which could be related to batimetry, conditions [5, 6]. The idea is to gain insight distance from coast, chlorophyll a and into the causes of distribution patterns, to sea surface temperature. Regression be able to understand observed patterns kriging performed better than regression. and to estimate distributions for the Regression also enabled bird density extremely vast area that could not be prediction where and when observations sampled, or for other time periods or were missing. Applications of our models potential scenarios. to a vaster area and later time period, which constitute spatial and temporal Multiple regression models have extrapolations of the models, failed to been used for this purpose, generally reproduce important spatial patterns. including oceanographic variables, such as water depth and distances to breeding colonies or the shore [6], and Index Terms — seabirds, GLM, kriging, sea surface temperature and chlorophyll regression kriging, GIS a concentration, which are considered useful proxies of water mass distributions, 1. INTRODUCTION frontal systems, and ocean productivity [7], characterizing the oceanographic Seabirds are the most threatened of all habitats of seabirds [e.g. 8, 6]. These birds worldwide [1] and pelagic seabirds, regression models tend, however, to which visit land only for short periods explain only a small part of the observed of time, are the least known, yet most variability, suggesting that the model has representative of ocean ecosystems [2]. an inadequate structure or complexity, or They are threatened by anthropogenic that it misses (unknown or unavailable) activities causing loss of feeding grounds factors affecting species distribution. Part

23 of the non-modelled variability may have in May and October were modelled spatial structure, or autocorrelation, which with species-environment multiple can be geostatistically modelled and used regressions, through geostatistical to improve regression predictions [9]. analysis and through regression kriging, This method, generally called regression combining regression model estimates kriging, allows a better spatial estimation with the estimated spatial autocorrelation or interpolation for a sampled area, component of their residuals. Observed but does not allow predictions for non- and modelled spatial patterns and bird sampled periods. densities were compared, considering the modelled time periods and sample sites. In the present study spatial and temporal Regression models were further validated patterns of Balearic Shearwater (Puffinus on an external data set, predicting bird mauretanicus) distribution off the densities for May and October of one year Atlantic Portuguese coast were assessed. that had not been used for model building. Transect-observation data collected

Table 1 - Summaries of environmental data at the sampling sites, used for modelling, and those for the whole study area, used for spatial and temporal extrapolation. Mean values are given, with minimum and maximum values in brackets.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS methodology [13], as recommended by the European Seabirds at Sea Group [14]. 2.1. Censuses Data were collected in transects defined by a period of time (normally 5 minutes). According to the International Union All birds in contact with the water inside for the Conservation of Nature and the pre-defined transect were counted, Natural Resources (IUCN), the Balearic and birds in flight were counted taking Shearwater, Puffinus mauretanicus regular snapshots to not over-estimate (Lowe, 1921), is a Critically Endangered the density. seabird which is endemic of the Balearic archipelago where it breeds [10]. In 2.2. Environmental data and GIS Portugal, this species occurs year-round with higher abundances during autumn/ To allow bird density estimations for the winter and when migrating to their whole area of interest, we considered breeding territory [11, 12]. They flock only variables available for that area: mainly on the Atlantic coast between batimetry (courtesy of the Portuguese Figueira da Foz and Aveiro, and the area Hydrographical Institute), distance from between Cascais and Cabo da Roca, the Portuguese coast, mean monthly occasionally forming groups of more than chlorophyll a (CHLO) and mean monthly 1000 birds. For modelling, we considered night-time sea surface temperature (SST) May and October records, pooling data (Table 1). Sample CHLO and SST values from 2005 to 2007. Predictions for the were extracted from the mapped MODIS whole study area were done on 2008 Aqua satellite level 3 products (http:// data. Data were obtained from the oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov), with cell-size Marine IBA LIFE Project [2], with surveys of ~4x4 km, considering the respective based on a modified version of Tasker’s month (May or October) and years (2005

24 to 2007). Bird density estimation for the were only removed after their respective whole study area, covering 135 456 km2, quadratic terms, to keep the main effects was carried out on May and October data in the models. Analogously, interactions from 2008. Environmental data were implied inclusion of the respective standardised and projected, and data and variables (at least as first-order term). model results were compiled and mapped in ArcGIS 9.3, using Spatial Analyst and For the RK models, we standardized the Hawth’s tools, a.o. GLM regression residuals and assessed their spatial autocorrelation through 2.3. Data analysis isotropic and anisotropic semivariograms. Spatially autocorrelated residuals were Spatial distribution of bird species was modelled and kriged and the kriging analysed modelling: (1) spatial gradients estimates were added to the regression in the observed data through geostatistical predictions to obtain the final model kriging analysis (KRI) [15]; (2) bird prediction. A detailed description of the densities in relation to environmental procedure has been published [9, 21]. variables through multiple Generalized Linear Models (GLM) [16]; and (3) bird Results were mapped in birds/km2 units. densities in relation to environmental All statistical analyses were done in R variables and in terms of residual spatial [22]. autocorrelation, using Regression Kriging (RK) [17, 18, 19]. 3. RESULTS

For the geostatistical analysis, Only the May 2005/2007 data showed isotropic and anisotropic (4 directions) some spatial autocorrelation, allowing semivariograms were computed to assess Block Kriging predictions for the sampling the spatial autocorrelation structure. sites. The sample semivariogram was Empirical semivariograms were modelled modelled with an isotropic spherical and these models used to estimate bird variogram, with nugget = 28.68, partial densities for the sampling sites using spherical sill = 16.97 and range = 2517 m Ordinary Block Kriging, with 4x4 km (Fig. 1). blocks [20]. The GLM for the May 2005/2007 data In the GLM regression, bird densities included batimetry, distance to the coast, were related to environmental variables. SST and SST2, CHLO and the interaction Predictor variables were checked for terms between the distance to the coast normality; CHLO was log-transformed and SST and between CHLO and SST. The to approximate normality. The response model explained 39% of the deviance. variable, bird density/km2, was modelled Model residuals showed little spatial considering a quasi‑Poisson distribution, correlation. They were modelled with which computed the appropriate an isotropic spherical variogram, with dispersion parameter for our bird count nugget = 0.82, partial sill = 0.44 and data that showed many zeros and strong range = 6203m (Fig. 1), and used for over-dispersion. We started with a model regression kriging. containing each of the predictor variables as a linear or first‑order term (x) and as a quadratic or second-order term (x2), as well as all pair-wise first-order interactions. Model terms were sorted according to their statistical significance in the model and the least significant term was eliminated. This process was Fig. 1 - Sample semivariograms and fitted repeated until all remaining model terms models for the May 2005/2007 Balearic Shearwater density records (Observations) and were significant a ( = 0.05). Linear terms the GLM regression residuals (GLM res).

25 Fig. 2 - Maps of Balearic Shearwater densities observed in May 2005/2007, and respective regression (GLM), kriging (KRI) and regression kriging (RK) predictions (we used few and equal density classes for better visualisation). Boxplots of observed (Obs.) and predicted Balearic shearwater densities, as well as model standard errors (SE) and variances (VAR); boxes show upper and lower quartiles, central lines mark median values, and 1.5 IQR Tukey whiskers as well the outlier points are given.

Fig. 3 - Maps of Balearic Shearwater densities observed in October 2005−2007, and respective regression (GLM) predictions (we used few and equal density classes for better visualisation). Boxplots of observed (Obs.) and predicted densities, as well as model standard errors (SE); boxes show upper and lower quartiles, central lines mark median values, and 1.5 IQR Tukey whiskers as well the outlier points are given.

26 October 2005/2007 data and GLM south. Considering October 2008, the residuals did not allow variogram October 2005/2007 model predicted too modelling. The October GLM included low densities for the Northern west coast. batimetry, distance to the coast, SST, In terms of density values, GLM prediction CHLO and the interaction terms between ranges were again smaller than those batimetry and CHLO and between the of the observed densities; predictions distance to the coast and SST, explaining tended to overestimate densities at most 25.9% of the deviance. sample points; and, October predictions diverged more from observations, though Model predictions for the sampling with a comparatively small prediction points did not consistently reproduce the error (Fig. 4). observed species distribution patterns. For the May data (Fig. 2), regression failed to 4. DISCUSSION predict bird accumulation near the central east coast, which was partially predicted Results showed that regression and by the kriging model. Regression kriging regression kriging, based on the Balearic reproduced the observed distribution Shearwater ship-borne transect counts better. For October only regression and on general environmental data, models were feasible. The GLM failed to were able to reproduce part of the predict most densely occupied sites in the spatial patterns observed. In spite of north (Fig. 3). While mean densities for being indirect variables, distance from the 2005/2007 data were approximately shore, depth, chlorophyll a and sea the same for observations and all model surface temperature explained 26% predictions (~0.9 for May and ~0.8 for to 39% of the observed variability in October), the ranges of model predictions bird densities; good percentages for were always smaller than those of the this type of data [2]. However, near observed densities and medians were Portugal, species distribution is mainly higher, showing the smoothing effect of determined by migration paths and the modelling procedures. For the May feeding behaviour (the species feeds 2005/2007 data (Fig. 2), the GLM produced mostly on shoaling Clupeiforms) and the smoothest results with the highest models could be improved with data on errors, whereas RK results were closer fish densities, instead of the chlorophyll a to the observed densities, both in terms concentrations which serve as proxies for of range and distribution. KRI estimates primary production and, therefore, prey showed higher (median) values and lower availability. errors (variance), but cannot be directly compared to the regression procedures as kriging tends to reproduce values at the sampling points (point- instead of block-kriging would exactly reproduce the observations, without any variance). For the October 2005/2007 data (Fig. 3), predictions did clearly overestimate bird densities at most sampling sites, though the model error was relatively small.

Considering the application of the 2005/2007 models to the 2008 data, GLM predictions showed different spatial distributions than those observed (Fig. 4). Using the May 2008 environmental data, the May 2005/2007 model missed bird concentrations in the lower north coast and predicted excessive densities in the

27 Fig. 4 - Balearic shearwater densities observed in May and October 2008, and regression (GLM) predictions for the sampling points and for the whole study area, using the models computed on 2005/2007 data (we used few and equal density classes better visualisation). Boxplots of the observed (Obs.) and predicted Balearic shearwater densities, as well as model standard errors (SE); boxes show upper and lower quartiles, central lines mark median values, and 1.5 IQR Tukey whiskers as well the outlier points are given.

While kriging methods reproduce When these are scarce (as is the case with sample values at sampling sites and bird censuses) or spatial autocorrelation are considered optimal interpolators structure is poor, alternative or additional for a single spatial variable, they only (environmental) information is needed supply information in the range of spatial to predict bird distribution in larger non- autocorrelation around sampling points. sampled areas [9]. GLM allow predictions

28 for non-sampled areas or periods, Portuguesa Para o Estudo das Aves, but results should be considered with Lisbon, Portugal, 2008. care, as such predictions constitute, [3] D. J. Anderson, K. P. Huyvaert, D. R. in fact, an extrapolation of the model. Wood, C. L. Gillikin, B. J. Frost and H. We demonstrated this, validating our Mouritsen, “At-sea distribution of Waved models on data of a later year. Here, as Albatrosses and the Galápagos Marine could be expected, model predictions Reserve,” Biological Conservation, vol. failed to identify some of the observed 110, pp. 367–373, 2003. species hotspots. Possible reasons are: [4] S. K. Hooker and L. R. 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Oro, of vaster areas or for predictions of “Oceanographic habitat of an endangered possible future scenarios, especially Mediterranean procellariiform: when scenarios differ significantly from implications for marine protected areas,” the modelled situations. But they can Ecological Applications, vol. 16, pp. 1683- nevertheless help to identify general 1695, 2006. patterns and aid Marine Spatial Planning, [7] A. Longhurst, Ecological geography e.g in. the determination of Important of the sea. Academic Press, San Diego, Bird Areas, which are generally based California, USA, 1998. on more than one methodology (e.g. [8] L. B. Spear, L. T. Ballance and D. 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30 GIS-BASED MARINE BIODIVERSITY MAPPING FOR ASSESSMENT OF COASTAL AND MARINE PRIORITY AREAS FOR CONSERVATION A. Z. Botelho, H. Calado & A. C. Costa CCPA – Environmental Protection and Conservation Center / CIBIO – Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetics Resources - Biology Department of the University of the Azores. E-mail: [email protected]. CIBIO – Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetics Resources - Biology Department of the University of the Azores.

ABSTRACT in marine ecosystems, we need a solid scientific baseline from which to Conservation measures are needed to be work, clear planning and development taken to restrict and prevent impacts of guidelines, and a transparent decision- human and natural pressures on coastal making system based on best available and marine ecosystems. Ecosystem- data. Resource management decisions based management (EBM) considers the cannot be made without considering their whole ecosystem as a functional entity. social and economic ramifications. With increasing pressure on coastal and marine A biodiversity-based spatial distribution systems, there is an urgent need to pattern enables the identification of the develop a marine spatial planning (MSP) most sensitive and potentially threatened framework based on social, economic areas. Integration of the biological and and environmental values to support socio-economic information in a GIS sustainable decisions. Furthermore, assists development of restricted use efforts must be made to improve policies zones and enables a strong baseline for and instruments for marine and coastal management decisions. A guideline is planning and management. established for the definition of coastal and marine priority areas for conservation Spatial planning is widely applied based on biodiversity evaluation criteria to terrestrial systems although its in São Miguel island, Azores. translation to the marine realm has only recently begun. Differences between This study proposes an integrated terrestrial and marine environments have management strategy, with application significant impact for spatial planning of modeling analysis together with implementation success: (a) Multi- decision support towards an ecosystem dimensionality – essential processes and conservation approach. spatial patterns occur not only on the surface, but also on the seafloor and in 1. INTRODUCTION the water column (three dimensions) and can change rapidly; (b) Mobility – In the Azores archipelago there are several most of maritime activities doesn’t have initiatives focusing on biodiversity and permanent structures, they use only a its conservation. In addition to knowing common space; (c) Complex governance the geographic patterns of biodiversity, – maritime activities are regulated by we need planning and development sectoral laws, plans and licences instead guidelines for the region in order to of the integrated planning approach ensure that future human activities do not traditionally used to guide land use [5]. jeopardize biologically sensitive areas. An ecosystem-base management Biodiversity conservation and its (EBM) is a solution to improve existing management are main goals when management frameworks; but the natural amenities are strongly valued. actual process of “doing” ecosystem For effective biological conservation management is still under development.

31 EBM is an integrated approach that measures to achieve three objectives: 1) considers the entire ecosystem, including the conservation of biological diversity, 2) humans and their activities, as well as the the sustainable use of its components, and cumulative impacts of different activities 3) sharing the benefits derived from the [9]. use of genetic resources. By committing to a Global Program of Work on Protected Protection of the marine environment Areas, over 180 countries adopted the is necessary to achieve biodiversity goal of establishing comprehensive, conservation and maintain a healthy ecologically representative and effectively ecosystem that can support sustainable managed national and regional systems economical and social activities, yet of protected terrestrial areas by 2010 and maintain delivery of essential ecosystem of protected marine areas by 2012. The services. Biodiversity valuation is one marine network consists of marine and component of EBM that will allow defining coastal protected areas, where threats are marine protected areas in order to managed for the purpose of biodiversity preserve marine habitats. conservation and/or sustainable use.

MSP integrates ecological and social General awareness for the need of coastal dimensions of ecosystems and fosters and marine conservation arose as a implementation of successful management result of European policies and demands strategies for coastal and marine regarding protection and management of areas based on scientific knowledge. natural sensitive areas, namely the Bird The ultimate goal of our project is the Directive (79/409/EEC of 2 April) and development of a marine spatial planning Habitat Directive (92/43/EEC of 21 May). effort in a GIS format that is based on a When applying terrestrial-based hierarchy of uses and restrictions derived assessments to marine areas, problems from a vision of sustainable use of natural arise as demonstrated by the difficulties resources in the Azores. Specifically, we to implement the Habitats Directive are developing a marine management (92/43/EEC) in the marine environment. plan with a zoning scheme based on “How to do it?” and “Where and in what potential and sustainable use of marine level should marine protected areas resources. In this paper we present the be assigned?” are some of the most strategy adopted and the ongoing work in frequent questions. Criteria developed for order to achieve this objective. identifying terrestrial species and habitats for conservation cannot be easily applied 2. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL to the marine environment [2]. The FRAMEWORK - MARINE tridimensionality of marine environments ENVIRONMENT increases the difficulty of its management. The selection of protected areas was often The international conservation policies, based on a very ad-hoc, opportunistic, together with the extensive use of coastal or even arbitrary matter. The chance land for industry, housing and tourism of selecting the areas with the highest catalyzed the need to develop coastal and intrinsic biological and ecological value marine planning and management. through these methods is small [11], [12]. Recognition of the challenge of maintaining biodiversity amidst growing human In 2005, the European Commission pressures culminated at the World Summit (COM(2005)505 final) developed a Marine (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992) where Strategy Directive that recognizes the the Convention on Biological Diversity need for a strategy for the protection (CBD) was first opened for adoption by and conservation of the European marine national governments. By ratifying that environment with the overall aim to convention, all members committed to promote sustainable use of the seas implement national and international and conservation of marine ecosystems

32 [4]. The Marine Strategy introduced the isolated. This reinforces the need to principle of ecosystem-based marine guarantee sustainable use and protection spatial planning and provided a supportive of natural resources. framework for national initiatives toward spatial planning designed for achieving a Until now, the marine environment was good status of the marine environment by never seen as a transdisciplinary system 2021. that required integration of diverse components in a planning framework. The “Green Paper on Future Maritime The present project aims to overcome Policy for European Oceans and Seas” this issue and apply MSP to marine and (2006) aims to provide the basis for a coastal areas in Azores. Therefore, we future maritime policy for Europe. Green have initiated a MSP process with the Paper is a maritime policy document that long-term goal of achieving coastal zone allows the development of a well-balanced and marine management throughout the and coherent suite of sea-based policies archipelago. and activities that reassure mutual reinforcement of economic growth and In the Azores, coastal and marine social welfare on the one hand and good conservation public awareness has been status of the marine environment and its heightened with the implementation resources on the other hand [3]. In this of the Bird and Habitats Directives, document MSP is seen as a key means leading to the classification of several to manage maritime space and their protected areas that include coastal and uses, while safeguarding biodiversity. The marine areas. It has classified 13 Special Maritime Policy concludes that a spatial Protected Areas (SPAs) and 17 Special planning system should be conducted Areas of Conservation (SACs) in coastal through an ecosystem-based approach and marine environments under the and established for offshore activities in Natura 2000 network. all waters under jurisdiction of its Member States. Only few classification demands take in account coastal or marine criteria With the adoption of the Blue Paper and consequently, they do not sustain (2007) by the European Commission a an adequately application into marine proposal of an Integrated Maritime Policy ecosystems. However, in 2007 the (IMP) for the EU and a detailed Action European Commission published the Plan was established; MSP was deemed “Guidelines for the establishment of to be the fundamental instrument to the Natura 2000 network in the marine achieve marine and coastal conservation. environment - Application of the Habitats In 2008, a communication from the and Birds Directives” (EC, 2007), a commission called “Roadmap for Maritime document that reveal some details on Spatial Planning: Achieving Common the establishment of marine network of Principles in the EU” was formulated with conservation areas under Natura 2000. the aim to facilitate the development of The initial list of SAC within the Directive MSP and encourage its implementation 92/43/EEC, was reviewed and an updated at national and EU levels. Key principles list was published by the Commission for MSP were established to encourage decision (2009/1001/EU – 22 December the development of a common approach 2009), including some marine areas in the among Member states (COM(2008) 791 vicinity of the Azores (e.g. PTMAZ0002 - final) [6]. Lucky Strike; PTMAZ0001 - Menez Gwen) for which it will be necessary to establish 3. AZORES – COASTAL AND MARINE conservation priorities and conservation CONSERVATION measures.

The Azores archipelago, as oceanic The regional legal framework on protected islands, is vulnerable, fragmented and areas presents has diverse and confusing

33 aims for protection and management.. In Zoning terrestrial areas in Azores is order to simplify the legal status and level already a common practice in the of protection, the Regional Legislative planning and management process, but Decree n.º 15/2007/A of 25 June zoning protected areas is still a relatively promotes the integration of the protected new enterprise, especially when applied areas in Azores into one Natural Park to marine protected areas (MPAs). for each island (NPI). The NPI integrate the areas previously protected into the The present challenge is to bring concepts following classifications: Natural Reserve, into practice and to test plans and Natural Monument, Protect area to the management measures in order to make management of habitats or species, the necessary adjustments to achieve Protected Landscape Area, and Protected the envisaged conservation goals under a Area for Management of resources, for sustainable use policy. which levels of protection are established. In 1995, the concern of the scientific 4. BIODIVERSITY VALUATION community resulted in a proposal to conserve marine areas in Azores by Santos Biodiversity valuation is one of the et al. (1995) [13]. At present, there is an most important factors that permits increasing awareness of the need for a distinguishing different marine areas; more objective valuation procedure due thus, it is necessary to compile all the to the perceived limitations of the existing information available for a study area in methods for assessing the value of marine order to make an accurate assessment ecosystems in certain regions. To improve of the richness and unique properties of the rate of actions implementation, local biodiversity. scientific criteria to identify ecologically and biologically significant areas and Information can be retrieved from a guidance for designing MPA networks are database that derived from Atlântico needed. (2003-2005) and Bionatura (2007-2008) INTERREG III B Azores, Madeira and The Conference of Parties for the CBD, in Canarias projects that accomplished a their 9th meeting (COP9 - 2008) adopted detailed distribution of species in these the scientific criteria for identifying archipelagos. These syntheses were ecologically or biologically significant based on published studies. The software marine areas in need of protection Atlantis Tierra 2.0 is being used to compile in open-ocean waters and deep-sea all this information on certain taxonomic habitats. Guidance for selecting areas groups, including marine invertebrates to establish a representative network of present in coastal and marine areas in the MPAs, including in open ocean waters and Azores. deep-sea habitats was also presented. A scientific experts’ workshop was The biodiversity database gives performed in Azores allowing the selection information on which areas species were of the following scientific criteria: 1. observed and recorded. It allows the Uniqueness; 2. Special importance for life use of conservation and environmental history stages of species; 3. Importance management metrics such as species for threatened, endangered or declining richness, rarity and complementarities species and/or habitats; 4. Vulnerability, at a spatial resolution of 500m unit cells fragility, sensitivity, or slow recovery; along the coast. 5. Biological productivity; 6. Biological diversity; 7. Naturalness. The MPA network The aim of the project was to improve criteria established in Azores workshop knowledge about the Macaronesian are: 1. Ecologically and biologically biodiversity and its spatial distribution significant areas; 2. Representativity; patterns in order to contribute to a 3. Connectivity; 4. Replicated ecological sustainable management and conservation features; 5. Adequate & viable sites. of natural values. Spatial distribution data

34 allow field ecologists to efficiently develop 5. MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING – sampling procedures for further inventory AZORES and monitoring activities. These data also permit identification of priority topics for Managing the spatial dimension of the future research investment. marine environment is very important as decision-makers in both land and marine Other databases of biological data areas of the coastal zone need to access (e.g., those derived from collections marine datasets in order to effectively obtained for the LusoMarBol and Inspect achieve their economic, social and projects) are also important as they environmental objectives [10]. MSP is a allow data integration for biodiversity strategic tool for regulating, managing mapping, permit optimization of field and protecting the marine environment sampling protocols, and facilitate better when there are multiple, cumulative, and data management for information on potentially conflicting uses of the sea biodiversity preservation (e.g., molecular [15]. data, ecological data). Some observers advocate that MSP could 4.1. On going research work improve the ability to assess and make decisions about cumulative impacts in Based on data in the ATLANTIS database, the marine environment [7]. MSP strives patterns of biodiversity (expressed as to integrate and implement successful species richness) were determined for management strategies for coastal and the biggest island of the archipelago, marine areas. São Miguel. The information available in the database with most relevance In the Azores the first activities to establish for this project is the data on marine an MSP were a classification of protected invertebrates. areas under international conservation directives. An MSP protocol was recently Invertebrates are one of the most adopted in Coastal Zone Management representative groups of the Azores Plans in the Azores to integrate coastal marine fauna with economic value such zoning with marine planning using as food resources and a tourist attraction environmental criteria [14]. The MSP will (e.g., scuba diving). In fact, some establish which uses and activities are species of high economic importance permitted or restricted based on specific (e.g., mediterranean slipper lobster - conservation targets and goals. Scyllarides latus, limpet – Patella sp.) are becoming overexploited and suffer Geographic information systems (GIS) declining abundances. allow viewing and analysis of overlapping information layers to understand and Considering that most biodiversity achieve conservation goals (e.g., information derives from scattered grey biodiversity and protected areas). Here literature and that there is a general we present the strategy and the on-going lack of quantitative data, additional work in order to achieve this objective. field work is almost always needed. Field work provides database updates 6. MARINE PRIORITARY AREAS and improves the resolution of spatial distribution patterns of species. Direct Several research studies base their observation (e.g., scuba diving) enables assessment on species richness, although scientists to confirm the presence and for marine valuation, these data are not absence of vulnerable, rare or threatened sufficient. Biodiversity metrics typically species; evaluate the status of species focus exclusively on species numbers. with economical value; and to gather Other levels of ecological organization information about regionally important (genetic diversity, ecosystem services) are habitats. not well-represented by simple diversity

35 metrics. Because of that, biodiversity by The classification and biotope/habitat itself is not a complete measure of marine mapping had been developed and valuation. Criteria for identification of the reported as an important tool for marine most valuable marine areas should be planning [2]. based on integrated data that go beyond species counts. Human uses and activities with direct and indirect impacts on study areas Biological valuation maps can also be will be assessed and these include: used as baseline maps for future spatial fisheries, natural resource extraction, planning in the marine environment. aquaculture, tourism, recreation, Areas with high biological value tend to shipping, transportation, high human also provide high socio-economic and population density on shore, and certain ecosystem service benefits. They also infrastructures (e.g., waste water indicate areas of high environmental treatment sites, ports, industrial sites). quality that have not been degraded by Interviews with local fishing communities pollution, sedimentations, or habitat will assist in developing use and intensity disturbance. maps that would contribute to delineating marine protected areas. Habitat and species mapping from coastal to marine areas in São Miguel (0 Species richness and species distributions to -30 meters depth) will be included in will be included in the GIS database the GIS database. Sampling will occur along with locations of particular between July 2010 and September 2011 geological features, habitats and on the seabed and in the water column. biotopes. Integration using GIS can Visual census by scubadivers along reveal potentially sensitive areas that 1,5m transects will be done to evaluate are under studied deficit or areas where presence and abundance of macrofauna. higher biodiversity is observed. Moreover, Surveys for macroinvertebrates will be potential impacts to marine resources done in 5m transect and fish surveys in will also be identified in each spatial unit. 20m long transects. Algal cover will be Integration of indicators of ecosystem assessed in 50x50cm quadrats at three condition, biodiversity, and threats to different depths: <5m, 5-25m, >25m marine habitats will be integrated and the [8]. This procedure will be performed GIS and contribute to identifying MPA’s. whenever when seafloor slope is not too steep. 7. FINAL REMARKS

For comparative purposes, data will Threats to the coastal zone integrity be taken in a variety of sites among are expected to increase from future classified and protected areas (Natura development and increasing human 2000 Network and Regional Network of population densities. Our study will result Azores Protected Areas – e.g., Caloura), in guidelines that ensure protection and other marine areas in the vicinity of MPAs, restoration of natural resources and and unprotected areas. ecosystem services in coastal and marine systems in the Azores. Zoning of marine Vulnerable and rare habitats will be areas will be proposed based on potential surveyed for the study area. We will and sustainable use of marine resources. also identify threatened, rare and We will present various use scenarios endemic species. Dominant species for for the study area based on different each site will also be measured. Marine economic development and conservation communities are comprised of biotic perspectives. Compatible human uses and abiotic components such as benthic will be provided for each management substrate, topography, temperature, unit, including the delineation of “no-take salinity and hydrologic conditions. These areas” where this is the most prudent parameters will be recorded for each site. recommendation in order to preserve

36 ecosystem services and economic cumulative effects. English Nature development. Research Reports, No. 599, Peterborough: English Nature, 2004. Although the state of knowledge about [8] Martins, G. M., F. F. M. Wallenstein, coastal and marine environments has N. Álvaro, A. I. Neto and A. C. Costa, grown significantly over the past decade, “Sampling strategies for biotope there is still a recognized need for further definition: minimal sampling area for information. In particular, monitoring data selected groups of macroinvertebrates in on the ecological condition of marine and the rocky subtidal of São Miguel, Azores”, coastal ecosystems is woefully lacking. Helgol Mar Res, 59: 219-223, 2005. Monitoring data will be essential to [9] McLeod, K.L., J. Lubchenco, S. objectively determine of MPA’s are having R. Palumbi and A. A. Rosenberg, their desired effects and if the overall Scientific Consensus Statement on management scheme is performing Marine Ecosystem-Based Management, adequately. signed by 221 academic scientists and policy experts with relevant expertise 8. REFERENCES and published by the Communication Partnership for Science and the Sea at [1] Cressie. N. A. C., Statistics for Spatial http://compassonline.org/?q=EBM, 2005. Data, Wiley - Interscience publication, [10] Rajabifard, A., A. Binns and I. P. 1991. Williamson, “Administering the marine [2] Derous, S., T. Agardy, H. Hillewaert, K. environment – the spatial dimension”, Hostens, G. Jamieson, L. Lieberknecht, J. Journal of Spatial Science, 50(2): 69-78, Mees, I. Moulaert, S. Olenin, D. Paelinckx, 2005. M. Rabaut, E. Rachor, J. Roff, E. Stienen, [11] Ray, C., “Coastal-marine protected J. Wal, V. Lancker, E. Verfaillie, M. Vincx, areas: agonies of choice”, Aquat. J. Weslawski, and S. Degraer, “A concept Conserv., 9, 607–614, 1999. for biological valuation in the marine [12] Roberts, C. M., G. Branch, R. H. environment”, Oceanologia, 49(1):99- Bustamante, J. C. Castilla, J. Dugan, B. 128, 2007. S. Halpern, K. D. Lafferty, H. Leslie, J. [3] Douvere, F. and C. N. Ehler, “New Lubchenco, D. McArdle, M. Ruckelshaus perspectives on sea use management: and R. R. Warner, “Application of ecological Initial findings from European experience criteria in selecting marine reserves and with marine spatial planning”, Journal of developing reserve networks”, Ecol. Appl., Environmental Management, 90: 77-88, 13 (1) Suppl., 215–228, 2003. 2009. [13] Santos, R. S., S. Hawkins, L. R. [4] European Commission, Establishing Monteiro, M. Alves and E. J. Isidro, “Marine a Framework for Community Action in research, resources and conservation in the field of Marine Environmental Policy the Azores”, Aquatic Conservation: Marine (Marine Strategy Directive), COM (2005) and Freshwater Ecosystems, 5: 311-354, 505 final, 2005. 1995. [5] European Commission, Legal aspects [14] SRAM/CIGPT, Plano de Ordenamento of maritime spatial planning. Framework da Orla Costeira da Ilha de Santa Maria Service Contract, No. FISH/2006/09 - (LITOSOST project), Secretaria Regional LOT2, Final Report to DG Maritime Affairs do Ambiente e do Mar / Centro de & Fisheries, 2008. Informação Geográfica e Planeamento [6] European Commission, Roadmap Territorial, 2008. for Maritime Spatial Planning: Achieving [15] Tyldesley, D., Coastal and Marine Common Principles in the EU, COM (2008) Spatial Planning Framework for the Irish 791 final, 2008. Sea Pilot Project. DEFRA / Joint Nature [7] Gilliland, P.M., S. Rogers, J. P. Conservation Committee, 2004. Hamer and Z. Crutchfield, The practical implementation of marine spatial planning – understanding and addressing

37 SALMON FARMING IN CHILEAN PATAGONIA: A GROWING THREAT FOR COLD WATER CORALS? L. Fillinger1, G. Försterra2, V. Häussermann2 & C. Richter1 1 Alfred Wegener Institute for Marine and Polar Research, Bremerhaven, Germany. E-mail: Laura. [email protected]. 2 Huinay Scientific Field Station, Puerto Montt, Chile.

ABSTRACT Several species of cold water corals belonging to the Scleractinia [11], [16], Chilean Patagonia´s coastal ecosystems [17] and to the Stylasteridea [20] have support unique populations like shallow, been found along the southern Chilean cold water corals. At the same time Chile coasts. In contrast to other populations is the second largest producer of farmed observed elsewhere [27] dense salmon in the world and its aquaculture populations of cold water corals live in is intensifying. Three geographic areas surprisingly shallow waters in Chile. These can be distinguished based on the level of conditions make them more accessible for exploitation: the northern fjords heavily research and in situ observation, but at used for aquaculture, the southern coast the same time more accessible also to currently under development, and central potential sources of pollution. Patagonia not exploited yet. Three species of scleractinians and one stylasterid coral Benthic ecosystems in Chilean fjords have been discovered in shallow depths. are poorly known and it is uncertain if human activities are jeopardizing those Scleractinians are more abundant in communities [17]. Nevertheless, fish Northern Patagonia while Stylasteridea farming is rapidly expanding in the region occur mainly in the south. Sedimentation and may pose a serious threat to the unique and eutrophication caused by aquaculture biota living in the area [21]. For example, have potential impacts on corals, but with few government restrictions at the investigations are needed to confirm this. present time [2], Chilean aquaculture Corals and salmon farms distributions is spreading to the southern part of the overlap in the north and will overlap in country into relatively pristine marine the south as aquaculture expands. The environments [8]. potential threats need to be addressed through regulations, development of The primary focus of this paper is to Marine Protected Areas and enhancing describe where and how salmon farms research capacity before irreversible might impact cold water corals in Chilean damages manifest. Patagonia. We also identify planning and research actions that should be adopted Index Terms— Scleractinia, Stylasteridae, cold to ensure that the expansion of fish water corals, aquaculture impact, Chilean fjord aquaculture does not occur at the expense of Chile’s fragile coastal ecosystems. 1. INTRODUCTION 2. SALMON FARMING IN SOUTHERN In the last decade, commercial fish farms CHILE have expanded in the southern Chilean fjord region. Fish aquaculture is a rapidly Aquaculture is a well-developed industry growing industry in the country and Chile in Chile and is the fourth largest economic is currently the second largest producer of activity in the country [8]. Species cultured salmon after Norway, accounting cultivated include algae and mollusks, but in 2008 for 31% of the world production fish have become the dominant product [15]. over the past 15 years (Figure 1). In 2008, 630 000 tons of fish have been produced

38 by Chilean farmers, 75% of which were Salmon aquaculture in Chile is already salmon species [30]. intensive [15] and will develop even more in the near future. The location of existing 1000 and future salmon farms in Chile are ) 3 Fish 800 Mollusks shown in Figure 2. Three areas emerge: Algae 600 -North (Puerto Montt, Chiloe Island): 400 a zone of well-developed aquaculture 200 exists now with plans of further Production (tons*10 Production 0 intensification, 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year -South (Punta Arenas): a zone of Fig. 1 - Aquaculture in Chile: annual production developing aquaculture, (tons) of algae, mollusks and fish between 1994 and 2008 (Source: Sernapesca [30]) -Center (south of the Golfo de Penas): little or no aquaculture occurs at present.

Remote setting, poor weather conditions, and difficult access [20] all have slowed the expansion of fish farming in the central Patagonian region and the lack of infrastructure still makes it too expensive to start commercial aquaculture operations in the southern part [2].

3. OCCURRENCE OF COLD WATER CORALS IN CHILEAN PATAGONIA

Chilean fjords are poorly known marine ecosystems [17] but a recent interest in them has been triggered by the recent discovery of large populations of cold water corals in shallow waters where they were not expected to occur [21]. The distribution of these organisms is shown in Figure 2.

3.1. Scleractinian Twenty-three species of azooxanthellate scleractinian corals have been found in Chile, three of them occurring in depths shallow enough to be reached by SCUBA diving in the fjord region and two of them having been described for the first time in the past decade: Caryophyllia huinayensis and Tethocyathus endesa [11]. C. Fig. 2 - Existing (black dots) and future (grey huinayensis and T. endesa appear to be dots) salmon farms in Chilean Patagonia along common in the northern Patagonian fjords with the known distribution of scleractinian and Desmophyllum dianthus sometimes (triangles) and stylasterid (asterisks) corals. forms large aggregations. The latter (Sources: salmon farms: Subpesca [34], cold species forming the basic framework water corals: UNEP-WCMC [34] completed with reviewed literature [10], [11], [16], [20], [21]) structure for benthic communities [21].

39 The shallowest coral found to date was an This is described in the following section. individual of D. dianthus discovered in 8 m depth. Typically, larger banks of these 4. IMPACT OF AQUACULTURE ON corals are found below 20 m on steep COLD WATER CORALS IN CHILEAN slopes or overhanging ledges [16]. PATAGONIA

Concerning their distribution, there 4.1. Aquaculture inputs and outputs seems to be a north-south gradient in Salmon aquaculture is conducted in the distribution of scleractinian corals floating cages (net pens) and as such along the Patagonian coast with all three directly in contact with the surrounding species described above being more water [5], [9]. This kind of culture abundant in the north [21]. Scleractinian facilitates the introduction of various corals might be absent from the Golfo components in the natural environment. de Penas and some continental fjords Several chemicals are used in fish south of it because of their sensitivity to farming: antibiotics and antiparasitics are sedimentation. The Gulf region and most added to the food or into the water to keep southern fjords are under strong influence the salmons fit and antifouling treatments from glacier run-off which carries a high prevent the net pens from being clogged sediment load [21]. with algae and mollusks [5], [7].

3.2. Stylasteridea Salmon farming also affects the Thirteen stylasterid species have surrounding water and associated been recorded in Chile but only two of ecosystems through the input of fish them occur along the coast and Errina feed and the output of processed antarctica is the only one to have been products (feces, excreted metabolic observed at SCUBA depth so far [20]. wastes) [8], [5]. With 5% to 20% of E. antarctica is quite common south of the feed being uneaten and lost under the Golfo de Penas. In some areas it can the cages (reviewed in [5]) fish farms form reef-like structures in channels with are known to release large amounts of a moderate to strong current, typically particulate organic and inorganic matter at depths below 10 m [20], [21]. The in the surrounding waters [3]. Next to distribution of stylasterids also seems to the increased sedimentation rates, high follow a latitudinal gradient but reverse to loads of organic matter and nutrients the one observed for scleractinian corals can cause oxygen depletion and low pH as E. antarctica only scarcely occurs north in and above the bottom [5], [28]. Low of the Golfo de Penas [21]. dissolved oxygen in bottom waters is heavily influenced by stratification of the 3.3. Threats to corals in Chile water column. Where mixing of oxygen- Longline fishing [6] and bottom trawling rich surface water and oxygen-poor have a negative impact on deep bottom water is low, like in some fjords, corals offshore [21], while in shallow hypoxia can develop and the pH is likely environments the harvesting of the to decrease [24]. stylasterid coral E. antarctica by divers has negative impacts on their populations. Concerning the nutrient load, Soto and Furthermore, in shallow areas where Norambuena [33] were unable to detect intensive harvesting of corals occurs, any significant nutrient increases in the the surrounding habitats are damaged water column near fish farms in Chile. by boat anchors used by the commercial They concluded that strong mixing in divers. E. antarctica is sold locally as the water column distributed and diluted souvenirs [20], [21]. nutrients in the fjord. However, samples taken in Norway [3] and in Sweden [1] Aquaculture is also believed to be a showed eutrophication as a result of significant source of disturbance to cold aquaculture operations. Even though water coral communities in Chilean fjords. the overall nutrient loads were small in

40 comparison to other sources, the local information available on warm water effects were significant. corals, especially Scleractinian have been taken into account to assess likely effects 4.2. Potential impacts of aquaculture of pollution resulting from fish farming on on corals cold water corals. A listing of the potential Due to the difficultly in studying cold impacts of salmon aquaculture on corals water corals, their biology remains is presented in Table 1. largely unknown [27]. For this reason,

Table 1 - List of potential impacts of aquaculture on cold water corals. Data in grey are known for warm water corals only.

41 Chemicals released in the environment supporting the shallowest occurrence of might interact with the corals directly cold-water corals. Although management or with associated species. As such, of such a system mandates a antibiotics may trigger pathogens precautionary principle, severe alterations resistance to coral defenses [35] and of the environment have taken place in this way disturb the natural bacterial the course of the rapid spread of intense fauna associated to cold water corals aquaculture. [5], [8], [9], [21]. [22]. Antifoulants are likely to have lethal effects on several coral development Fish farms already occur above and in stages [25], [31]. vicinity of massive coral aggregations [21] (Figure 2). This is particularly the Little is known about cold water corals case around the already well-developed sensitivity to sedimentation [27] however fish farming region in northern Patagonia the exclusive occurrence of Chilean where even more aquaculture concessions scleratinian corals in low sediment fjords are intended to be created. In the and on vertical and overhanging substrate southern region, developing aquaculture in Chilean Patagonia lead some authors doesn’t seem to threaten any corals yet to conclude that they grow better in but the apparent absence of cold water environments where sediment deposition corals may be due to the lack of biological rates are low [16], [21]. surveys in the area. Scleractinian and stylasteridean corals are quite abundant In analogy to warm water corals [14], south of the Golfo de Penas, which so high sediment deposition might have far hasn’t been intensively exploited for lethal effects on Lophelia pertusa [18], a aquaculture. deep water scleractinian. If this is found to be true, cold water corals might be 5. CONCLUSIONS vulnerable to large amounts of sediment originating from fish aquaculture pens. The salmon farming industry is rapidly Even if they might be able to cope briefly growing in importance in the Chilean with the resulting hypoxia [13], associated economy [4]. The Chilean government low pH might hinder their calcification. has not exercised much regulatory We don’t know yet if high nutrient oversight over the industry and this might concentrations have an impact on cold result in negative ecological impacts to water corals. There is evidence, however, some aspects of the coastal and marine that competition between algae and systems [9]. We recommend that an warm water corals as well as bioerosion investment be made to enhance research are increased in nutrient-enriched on the impact of aquaculture on Chilean waters [23]. Furthermore, their growth ecosystems with special focus on cold and calcification rates decrease and water coral communities. In addition, the their reproduction success is reduced in research community needs to analyze nutrient-enriched systems [14], [19]. aquaculture practices that might enhance How long lasting are the damages of fish the sustainability of the industry; for farming to cold water coral populations is example, adopting an Integrated Multi unknown. Recovery of corals is possible Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) approach [9] after the closing of a fish farm but recovery or retaining salmon farm waste and use rates are highly variable between sites it as fertilizers in terrestrial agriculture and the underlying mechanisms are not systems [29]. understood [5]. There are signs that the Chilean government is beginning to recognize 4.3. Spatial overlap between coral the importance of protecting its coastal distributions and salmon farms waters. The first marine protected area (MPA) in Chile was created in 2003: the The Patagonian fjords support a rich Franscico Coloane National Park near biodiversity. They are globally unique in Carlos III Island on the southern tip

42 of Patagonia. A second MPA is being Häussermann, “Fishing in troubled waters considered for an area near Chiloe – evidence for higher diversity and high Island in Northern Patagonia [12]. This abundance of cold water corals along the project is motivated, in large part, by Chilean coast”, pp. 234 in Brock R. and R. whale conservationists and protection Y. George, eds. Deep-sea corals science planned at the level of a multiple use and management. 3rd Int.Symp. Deep- MPA. If applied seriously, it might yield Sea Corals, Miami, FL, 2005. positive effects for protecting cold water [7] Burridge L., J. Weis, F. Cabello and coral ecosystems. We recommend that J. Pizarro, “Chemical use in salmon areas where cold water corals are known aquaculture: a review of current practices to occur be considered as a possible and possible environmental effects”. MPA site. It is urgent that the scientific WWF Report. 2008. Available from: www. community and Chilean government act worldwildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/ as fast as possible to ensure that we allow aquaculture/WWFBinaryitem8842.pdf development of salmon aquaculture in [8] Buschmann A.H, V.A. Riquelme, a manner that does not damage Chile’s M.C.Hernandez-Gonzalez, D. Varela, J.E. fragile cold water coral ecosystems. Jimenez, L.A. Henriquez, P.A. Vergara, R. Guinez and L. Filun, “A review of the 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT impacts of salmonid farming on marine coastal ecosystems in the southeast Many thanks to Simon Blyth from the UNEP Pacific”, ICES Journal of Marine Science, for helping us so nicely and quickly getting vol.63, pp.1338-1345, 2006. the GIS dataset on cold water corals. We [9] Buschmann A.H, F. Cabello, K. Young, are also grateful to our reviewers, who J.Carvajal, D.A. Varela and L. Henriquez, have supported us during the preparation “Salmon aquaculture and coastal of this article. This is publication number ecosystem health in Chile: Analysis of 49 of Huinay Scientific Field Station. regulations, environmental impacts and bioremediation systems”, Ocean & Coastal 7. REFERENCES Management, vol.52, pp.243-249, 2009. [10] Cairns S. D, “Antarctic and [1] Ackefors, H. and M. Enell, “Discharge Subantarctic Scleractinia”, Antarct. Res. of nutrients from Swedish fish farming to Ser., vol. 34, pp. 1–74, 1982. adjacent sea areas”, Ambio, vol.19, no.1, [11] Cairns S.D., V. Haeussermann and G. pp.28-35, 1990. Foersterra, “A review of the Scleractinia [2] Asche, F., T. Bjorndal and E.H. Sissener, (Cnidaria, Anthozoa) of Chile, with the “Relative productivity developpement in description of two new species”, Zootaxa, salmon aquaculture”, Marine Resource vol. 1018, pp. 15-46, 2005. Economics, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 205-210, [12] Conama, Comision Nacional del 2003. Medio Ambiente, Gobierno de Chile, www. [3] Aure, J. and A. Stigebrandt, conama.cl “Quantitative estimates of the [13] Dodds L.A., J.M. Roberts, A.C. eutrophication effects of fish farm­ing on Taylor, F. Marubini “Metabolic tolerance fjords”, Aquaculture, vol. 90, pp. 135– of the cold water coral Lophelia 156, 1990. pertusa (Scleractinia) to temperature [4] Bjorndal, T. “The competitiveness of and dissolved oxygen change” the Chilean Salmon aquaculture industry” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology Aquaculture Economics and Management, and Ecology,vol 349, pp. 205-214, 2007. vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 97-116, 2001. [14] Fabricius, K.E. “ Effects of terrestrial [5] Black K.D., H.P. Kupka and M. Holmer, runoff on the ecology of corals and coral “Salmon Aquaculture dialogue – working reefs: review and synthesis”, Marine group report on benthic impacts and farm Pollution Bulletin, vol. 50, pp. 125-146, siting Tacon A.C.G.” in Fraser, S., ed. 2005. International Aquafeed Directory, 2008. [15] Food and Agriculture Organization, [6] Bravo, A., G. Försterra, and V. The state of world fisheries and

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45 BUILDING A MARINE SPATIAL DATA INFRASTRUCTURE TO SUPPORT MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING IN U.S. WATERS C. Fowler 1, B.Smith 2 & D. Stein 1 1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Coastal Services Center, Charleston, South Carolina. E-mail: [email protected]. 2 IM Systems Group, on contract at the NOAA Coastal Services Center, Charleston, South Carolina.

ABSTRACT timely geospatial data originating from credible sources. An evolving effort to Marine spatial planning (MSP) is emerging build a marine spatial data infrastructure as a practical process to help achieve (MSDI) is tackling the complex challenges the ecological, economic, and societal associated with providing authoritative objectives of U.S. ocean management. geospatial data for the U.S. across a suite Coastal and ocean data have unique of data themes. challenges that need to be addressed. Ambulatory boundaries, 4-D data needs, Since the early 1990s, the primary focus and difficulty acquiring these data in the of U.S. national spatial data infrastructure marine environment are some of the has been directed toward terrestrial challenges not traditionally faced by land- themes, leaving marine data largely based planners. To realize the full benefits underdeveloped. The rapid increase in of MSP, the process will require accurate interest in MSP is uncovering this issue and authoritative geospatial data from resulting in more attention from a broader all sectors. Since MSP is an ecosystem- audience. There has been incremental based approach, data are required at progress on the core cadastral data that various resolutions. “Best available” and constitute the foundation of the MSDI “science-based” data are often stated as (i.e., jurisdictional boundaries and limits). necessary, but not often defined. How the More complex data themes with less well- MSP process will be implemented in the defined or, in some cases, nonexistent U.S. remains to be seen, but significant spatial attributes and legal foundation work has already begun on developing a are currently being developed for national marine spatial data infrastructure incorporation into the MSDI framework (MSDI) for the U.S. This paper discuses (i.e., georegulations, marine habitat and the history, institutional and technological biodiversity, human use, and geology challenges, and ongoing development of and seafloor). These data are crucial to the U.S. MSDI. the success of MSP as is shown by their inclusion in planning efforts in U.S. states Index Terms - marine spatial planning, marine like Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and data, marine spatial data infrastructure Oregon, following the use of analogous data in efforts on the international stage 1. INTRODUCTION in countries like Belgium, the Netherlands, Demand for ocean space is outstripping and Germany [2]. the current policy frameworks designed to manage how humans use the marine The objectives of this paper are to describe environment. In response, marine spatial the key data themes of the MSDI, the planning (MSP) processes are being used progress to date, and complexities and around the globe to replace fractured challenges associated with each. The single-sector approaches to management. paper will also detail some applications The new processes attempt to ensure that of these data and outline the next steps the ecological and socioeconomic services needed to continue moving the MSDI that oceans provide and that societies forward in support of the shifting paradigm depend upon, are protected for future in ocean management that is manifesting generations [1]. Sound MSP, however, itself in MSP processes. requires the availability and analysis of

46 2. Background planning on the U.S. outer-continental shelf. In direct response to the act, the A number of activities have shaped the FGDC Marine Boundary Working Group current thinking on what constitutes coordinated the development of a the MSDI. In 1990, the U.S. Federal mapping system called the Multipurpose Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) was Marine Cadastre (MMC)1. The significance created and charged with developing a of using the term “cadastre” in U.S. policy national spatial data infrastructure for the is that it gives MSDI data development an U.S. with much of the emphasis focused additional requirement to ensure data are on terrestrial data themes [3]. from authoritative or trusted government sources. This formed a fundamental In 1999 the National Oceanic and operating tenet of the work that followed Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) led on the MSDI. the development of the first regional ocean On December 14, 2009, President planning information system and began Obama’s Interagency Ocean Policy Task to systematically address MSP data issues Force released its Interim Framework and requirements [4]. Data were found for Effective Coastal and Marine Spatial to be sparse or nonexistent, primarily Planning for review, which offers a because of the technological limitations comprehensive, integrated approach to of acquisition. A primary marine data planning and managing uses and activities source, the official nautical chart, was not [5]: easily adaptable to MSP needs. Standards “Under the Framework, coastal and developed for land (i.e., cadastral) didn’t marine spatial planning would be regional address all aspects of marine data. Data in scope, developed cooperatively among were spread across multiple agencies and Federal, State, tribal, local authorities, not often accessible. and regional governance structures, with substantial stakeholder and public input.” To address these issues, the FGDC Marine The data needed to support MSP reside Boundary Working Group was established within a heterogeneous community across in 2001 [www.csc.noaa.gov/mbwg]. This government and scientific organizations. federal work group provides a venue for To make effective use of these varied data communicating about and coordinating sources, regional and federal partners marine and coastal geospatial issues such must collaborate to identify priorities, as standards, partnerships, and access. employ mechanisms to integrate The group began systematically working compatible data, manage quality, and through federal geospatial data and enable exchange of spatial information related policy issues needed to support using consistent techniques. To address the MSDI. Federal agencies with offshore this need, the task force called for a responsibility represent a broad spectrum national information system to establish of traditional (i.e., navigation, fishing, and implement consistency in data and energy) and nontraditional (i.e., radio products. This guidance from the task spectrum) ocean uses are included in the force focuses even greater attention on work group. In addition, because U.S. the evolving MSDI and greatly influences territorial waters encompass individual data priorities, processes, scales, and coastal states, work started soon after to access. coordinate better across state and federal jurisdictions. 3. DATA THEMES

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 accelerated “Improved decision-making”, “ecosystem- the development of the MSDI. The act based”, science-based,” “best-available”, mandated the development of a mapping and “managing human activities to reach system to support alternative energy societal goals”, all are terms that have

1 Similar to the nation’s land-based parcel system, a marine cadastre describes the spatial extent, rights, restrictions, and responsibilities of U.S. waters.

47 been used to describe requirements [4] Data should be served from as close for MSP data. The reality is that all to the source agency as technologically geographic data are an abstraction of possible. Vision is that all data will reality. Trade-offs have to be made in eventually be served at source using Web data development, updates, resolution, service2 technology. and in the techniques for presenting the [5] Data must have FGDC-compliant data. Since MSP is a continuous process metadata. [6] the goal for developing the U.S. MSDI [6] Data should be built on national or is to begin with fundamental data and international standards where they exist. to increase the complexity and accuracy [7] Data have value across multiple issues over time as requirements become better and jurisdictions and should be created understood. once and used as many times as needed. [8] Data life cycle should prescribe update The data are currently divided process but not wait for data to be perfect. thematically into the supporting areas Build on existing data and improve over of jurisdictional boundaries and limits, time. federal georegulations, navigation and marine infrastructure, geology and 3.1 Jurisdictions Boundaries and seafloor, habitat and biodiversity, and Limits human use. Each theme has its own unique challenges (addressed below) In the MSDI, jurisdictional boundaries and but the following operating tenets apply limits refers to the set of data defining broadly across the themes: areas or zones managed for official purposes. This includes the internationally [1] Data are issue-neutral and should recognized limits such as those specified be able to be viewed and queried as by the United Nations Convention on the necessary to support decision-making. Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), including the [2] Efficient electronic access to data Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic should be provided using well-described Zone (EEZ), to more local zones such as formats that can be broadly assimilated marine sanctuaries or parks. by stakeholders. [3] A foundation of authoritative and Marine jurisdictions are similar to their trusted data sources should come from land-based counterparts in that, in order agencies with legislative mandates or to map the boundary, the law must be responsibility for data. interpreted in a spatial context [4]. Where the marine environment diverges Fig. 1 - Marine Spatial Data Infrastructure is that marine boundaries generally have Themes no demarcation or physical evidence to mark the space (e.g., monument, pin, or fence). As GPS technology evolves, the delimitation of the marine boundary is becoming more accurate, but the challenge lies where the “old world” mapping meets the “new world.” Regulations and laws refer to these old boundaries and the MSDI is working to reconcile differences. For example, historically the U.S. territorial limits were mapped to reflect

2 Industry standard web services allow different applications to utilize each other’s data independent of software or operating system utilizing XML. Federal agencies are implementing web services to support national geospatial mandates, but institutional and IT security challenges still exist requiring interim system approaches for providing data access.

48 the relatively straightforward technology makers understand ocean use conflicts of the times – the 3-mile distance that a and compatibilities. To accomplish cannon ball could be fired. Today, UNCLOS this spatial analysis requires a defined uses terminology to define jurisdictions, geography of the regulation data layers in such as a tidal datum of mean high water a form suitable for use in GIS. (MHW). The lines sound plausible until an attempt is made to create them digitally. Fig. 2 - Georegulation of the Marine MHW is the average of all the high Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act. waters over a 19-year cycle. Even though tide gauges are extremely accurate in measuring MHW at a point location, the entire length of shoreline is still a modeled value. The ambulatory nature of official boundaries like MHW has a ripple effect all through the development of data for MSP. With changing sea level, it becomes even more important to develop the MSDI in a way that accommodates ambulatory data.

Why should the MSDI care about exactly where a boundary like MHW is located? Jurisdictions and regulations are tied to the lines, and ultimately, money and Once developed, georegulations can be a activities are allowed or denied based valuable part of the MSDI and contribute on these boundaries. Recently, the first to the broader MSP process. Creating offshore wind energy permit in the U.S. georegulations involves researching was held up as the line between state the federal and state policy framework and federal jurisdiction (tidal datum) in the area of interest and creating was determined. The transition to clearly spatial “footprints” of the geographic define boundaries with coordinates area where individual policies apply. cannot happen overnight, but the MSDI The development of a georegulation must facilitate access to the latest and requires careful scanning of the text for most accurate data, continue to facilitate any geographic reference. This could be partnerships that improve data and something as easy to map as defined reduce conflicts, and encourage projects latitude and longitude to something that document best practices for offshore more challenging such as “all navigable data development [7]. waters” Because policy makers, not geographers, generally write regulations, 3.2 Georegulations the challenge is to adequately capture the geography intended by each individual In MSP, much attention is applied to law. Georegulations offer the ability to geospatial data development of physical visualize the spatial extent of regulations and environmental components, but the and analyze intersections with other legal regime is an often-overlooked and data layers. Georegulations are often equally important regime to represent built on jurisdictional boundary data and in the process. In context with other therefore must reflect the best practices resource data, the regulations, laws, and of these underlying data. When added to management structures help decision the MSDI, these data bring the ability to

3 Charts must portray any known bottom feature shallow enough to present a hazard to shipping but do not need to indicate any deeper aspects of the bottom

4 ENCs are built to an International Hydrographic Office (IHO) specification called S-57.

49 more easily visualize compatibilities and MSP. Ecosystems and the services they inconsistencies in federal or state policy. provide need to be represented in a way that supports the MSP process of 3.3 Navigation and Marine considering ecological and socioeconomic Infrastructure objectives in concert. Multiple approaches to assessing ecological or biological values Navigation and marine infrastructure of marine areas have been developed data are considered baseline information and applied to MSP efforts [9, 10]. The for any marine-related application. This availability and quality of these data, theme consists of common navigational however, vary greatly across regions, and infrastructure data such as shipping creating challenges for development of the lanes, fairways, wrecks and obstructions, MSDI for marine habitat and biodiversity. and oil platforms. Planners in the marine Unlike boundaries that are relatively environment need to know where these consistent across geography, biology data exist in order to avoid potential is intimately tied to local conditions. conflicts. The official U.S. nautical chart is For example, many of the key habitats developed to support safe navigation and and species that would be relevant have a known navigation or “shoal” bias to a specific planning scenario in the inherent in its production3. [8] Building Northeastern U.S. do not exist on the this theme as part of the MSDI presents West Coast. This reality confounds the several unique challenges, the most thought process surrounding which data notable being that the data are organized are logical to include when describing by individual chart geography across habitat and biodiversity at a national multiple scales. Ideally, to construct scale. Additionally, there is no single a seamless navigation and marine classification scheme accepted by the infrastructure theme for the U.S., data U.S. government for marine habitat would require reconstruction from source that provides a framework to support data. This is a painstakingly detailed task visualization of these data at a common of determining which agency collected level across the U.S. the original chart information. U.S. chart data are becoming more broadly available To deal with these challenges and realities in the Electronic Navigational Chart associated with nascent MSP efforts, (ENC) format4 but are still not specifically the approach to building marine habitat designed for MSP and extensive and biodiversity data into MSDI is to manipulation. use habitat and species designations associated with laws like the Endangered Another important data set in this theme Species Act and the Magnuson-Stevens is the one that represents true vessel Fisheries Conservation and Management locations termed Automated Information Act. This approach is in keeping with System (AIS) data. Transponders on the legal-responsibilities information ships send signals picked up by receivers conveyed in the core marine cadastral on land used to track commercial data. Users can determine which of these vessel movement in U.S. waters. AIS authoritative data sets are relevant to data are proving vital to MSP efforts, their specific MSP process. as demonstrated in the Massachusetts Ocean Plan, and provide a more realistic 3.5 Geology and Seafloor view of commercial shipping ocean use than traditional chart products [9]. The MSDI includes bathymetric contours, undersea place names, physical substrate 3.4. Marine Habitat and Biodiversity sample locations, and sediment grain size distribution maps. These data apply to Application of spatial data to describe and everything from the basic need to know characterize the complexity of marine water depth, to more complex issues like ecosystems is essential to implementing correlating physical characteristics of the

50 seafloor to habitat for species of concern. on human uses, especially in comparison These data are essential to multiple steps to other complex data themes like marine in MSP processes, but challenges like habitat and biodiversity [11]. Human uses limited availability or access, and lack can be broken down into broad categories of consistency in data products, present like commercial and recreational obstacles to their inclusion in the MSDI. fishing, industrial and military and non- Many of the publicly available geology and consumptive (i.e., paddle sports, scuba seafloor data sets with large coverage diving, recreational boating, etc.). areas are of insufficient resolution to support MSP at the scale with which it is Considering where humans are using the occurring, or are derived from data that are ocean and what areas and resources they decades old. Remote collection of marine are depending on is critical to making geology and seafloor data are more costly transparent and informed management than the terrestrial equivalent, which decisions supported by the public [12]. can be done with aircraft or satellites. The challenge inherent in pursuing this Advances in technology have closed the ideal is a general paucity of data that gap, but highly accurate surveys on land depict human use patterns in our oceans have been conducted for a longer period both current, and historical. Similar to than those focused on the bottom of the the case of the geology and seafloor data ocean. Energy exploration and national theme, collecting human use data often security needs have both resulted in requires resource- and time-intensive a large amount of data that are often methods of surveying users directly or unavailable to the public, and therefore, via the Internet. Since many recreational to support MSDI development either. activities do not require any kind of permit or registration, users can be difficult to Strong partnerships need to be fostered locate and contact for data collection. between government agencies and There are efforts to address this lack of offices that may not have traditionally human use data for specific initiatives collaborated. To benefit the users of in the U.S. The California Ocean Uses geology and seafloor data, the MSDI Atlas project [mpa.gov/dataanalysis/ should consider the state and regional atlas] and Open OceanMap tool [www. data needed to support decision-making ecotrust.org/ocean/OpenOceanMap.html] at these scales where MSP in the U.S. are both good examples. These efforts is most likely to continue occurring. are focused on addressing specific needs Compiling and serving spatial footprints related to local initiatives, however, and and essential attribute information for do not contribute directly to the larger existing geology and seafloor data, similar national-level MSDI needs. The data to the georegulation approach, would be that presently populate this theme are a valuable addition to the MSDI. This associated with energy leases and sand approach will allow users to determine and gravel extraction areas. More work is if information exists in areas they are needed to ensure that efforts undertaken interested in. This will also keep the to increase our understanding of human responsibility of data maintenance and activities in the ocean produce spatially storage with the providers, allowing the explicit results that support mapping and MSDI resources to be focused on other monitoring. needs. 4. NEXT STEPS 3.6 Human Use Efforts to uncover and address issues There is general agreement that associated with jurisdictional boundaries understanding human use patterns in the and limits, development of methods and ocean is important to making informed data for georegulations, and compilation management decisions. However, there of marine navigation and infrastructure is very little spatial information available data for MSDI all support current MSP

51 processes and can be visualized through Journal for Environmental Management, MMC. The work to unravel the complexities Volume 90: 77-88, 2009. associated with the geology and seafloor, [3] M. Lockwood and C. Fowler, marine habitat and biodiversity, and ”Significance of Coastal and Marine Data human use data themes is just beginning. within the Context of the US National Strengthening the balance of the MSDI Spatial Data Infrastructure,” Marine and themes to increase their utility to evolving Coastal Geographic Information System, MSP processes in the U.S. requires several Taylor & Francis, London, 2000. areas of focus: [4] C. Fowler and E. Treml, “Building a - MSP in the U.S. is moving forward at marine cadastral information system regional and sub-regional scales. Future for the United States – a case study” MSDI efforts must consider development Computer, Environment and Urban of data sets and viewers that take Systems, (25) pp.493-507, 2001. advantage of locally available higher- [5] The U.S. White House Council for resolution and more timely data that Environmental Quality, Interim Framework support MSP efforts at the scale at which for Effective Coastal and Marine Spatial they are occurring. Planning, 2009. - Realizing the full potential of MSDI [6] Ehler, C. and F Douvere. Marine requires addressing the challenge of Spatial Planning: a step-by-step approach portraying uncertainty associated with toward ecosystem-based management, spatial data. Since all data model reality, IOC Manual and Guides, No. 53, Paris: it is important to find ways to convey how UNESCO, 2009. close to reality the depictions of various [7] FGDC Marine Boundary Working data sets are. Group, Marine Managed Areas: Best - MSDI must be able to integrate the best Practices for Marine Boundaries, [www. science available to describe the complex csc.noaa.gov/products/mb_handbook] multidimensional aspects of ecosystem U.S. Government, 2006. processes and, in turn, inform science [8] W. Smith and D. Sandwell, about the gaps needing attention. “Conventional Bathymetry, Bathymetry - The level of complexity inherent in the from Space, and Geodetic Altimetry”. data themes discussed here requires there Oceanography, Vol 17 (1) The to be multiple data products in the MSDI Oceanography Society, 2004. that address issues specific to individual [9] Executive Office of Energy and data types. Issues like standardization, Environmental Affairs, Commonwealth authoritative sources, and user needs are of Massachusetts,. Massachusetts still being resolved for the more complex Ocean Management Plan, Boston, data and will continue to shape the Massachusetts, USA, 2009. evolving MSDI. [10] S. Derous, T Agardy, H., K.Hillewaert A great deal of progress has been made Hostens, G. Jamieson, L. Lieberknecht, building the current MSDI. Continued J.Mees., I. Moulaert, S. Olenin, D. work on the issues outlined here will Paelinckx, M. Rabaut, E. Rachor, J. Roff ensure that the full potential of these ,E. Stienen, J. van der Wal, V.Van Lancker, vital data resources for advancing MSP is E. Verfaillie , M. Vincx, J. Weslawski, and realized. S. Degraer, “A Concept for Biological Valuation in the Marine Environment”, 5. REFERENCES Oceanologia, 49 (1), pp. 99–128, 2007. [11] K. St Martin, and M. Hall-Arber, [1] Douvere F. and C. Ehler, “Ecosystem- “The Missing Layer: Geo-technologies, based Marine Spatial Management: An Communities, and Implications for Marine Evolving Paradigm for the Management Spatial Planning,” Marine Policy, 32, pp. of Coastal and Marine Places,” Ocean 779-786, 2008. Yearbook, Volume 23: 1-26, 2009. [12] Eastern Research Group, Marine [2] ] Douvere F. and C. Ehler,. “New Spatial Planning Stakeholder Analysis Perspectives on Sea Use Management,” NOAA Coastal Services Center, Charleston, SC, 2010. 52 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AS A TOOL FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COASTAL AREA OF TAZACORTE, LA PALMA (CANARY ISLANDS, SPAIN) L.M. García1,2, C. Sangil1,2, L. Concepción1, R.F. de León1, J.B. Diez2 & I.Y.G. Rodríguez 1 La Palma World Biosphere Reserve Consortium, La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain. E-mail: [email protected]. 2 La Laguna University, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.

ABSTRACT biodiversity conservation, sustainable development and logistical support. But GIS tools are nowadays essential for even so over the last years, economic promoting adequate strategies for the activities and infrastructures in the Island use, management and conservation have increased in the coastal zone. In of littoral areas, especially in islands consequence, it is vital for long-term where human population increase and sustainable development of these areas concentrate in littoral zone. that the natural habitats are preserved and managed in conjunction with The present study therefore aimes economic development. To achieve this to create an objective protocol for goal, it is an important task to develop an ecological zonation, using terrain a successful system capable of assessing information derived from multibeam data the quantity, quality and functional value and biological variables. These data is of marine systems, thus should contain applied for geographical conservation firstly a delimitation and classification of regions classifications, using a decision the habitats according to their physical, support tool. As a result, we identify 46 chemical and biological characters [4]. priority conservations sites from the area studied, based on biological and ecological The management and protection of values. marine waters can be developed at different spatial scales, ranging from Index Terms— Marine Zonation, Geographical broad (regional seas, marine landscapes) Information Systems, benthic communities, to fine scale (habitats and species) [5]. Marxan, La Palma, Canary Islands. The different scales require different variables for their analysis. The studies of 1. INTRODUCTION regional sites must include oceanographic variables, but in a smaller scale where Antropogenic activities, such as these conditions are similar, the study habitat modification, pollution and the of variables derived from seabed terrain overexploitation of living resources, is a priority. At present there are a wide continue to have a detrimental effect on variety of techniques for mapping benthic global biodiversity levels and ecosystems areas. With the advent of multibeam [1], [2]. Furthermore, a significant technology [6] new possibilities are now proportion of the human population available, as they provide full details inhabits in coastal areas or close to of bathymetry data necessary for the aquatic systems which are particularly production of Digital Terrain Models (MDT) vulnerable to disturbance [3]. and essential for the study of the marine habitats. In 2002 UNESCO declared the entire territory of La Palma as Biosphere However, biotic information like Reserve with the objective of achieving macrobenthic spatial distribution is 53 merely restricted to point observations activities on priority conservation sites. at the sampling stations, and the full We focus on the problem of representing coverage spatial distribution maps are a group of conservation targets within a often absent [7]. But the combination geographic area, using different types of of GIS applications and statistical and available information that include: the mathematical techniques, now widely description of the seafloor morphological used [8], [9], can solve this problem features, macrobenthic distribution maps using different strategies in accordance and the presence of endangered marine with, for example, the type of data (e.g. species. quantitative data, presence/absence data), the density of the samples or the 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS level of variation of the abiotic parameters [10]. 2.1. Study area

In an attempt to elaborate an objective The Canary Islands are a subtropical zonation that includes different types of archipelago situate in the north of the environment information, Geographical Eastern Central Atlantic Ocean. La Palma Information Systems (GIS) are widely is located at the northwest of the Canaries used [11], [12]. At the same time, recent (Fig. 1). Rough rocky bottoms characterize computer software has been developed the narrow sublittoral platform of the to systematize the selection process by island that with high slopes makes that using a simulated annealing algorithm can reach a depth of over 200 m at only a [13], [14]. The combined usage of GIS few meters from the coast line. Although, tools and this specific software have the study area, located at the western increased significantly for environmental margin of the Island, is characterized planning and decision-making, mainly by sandy bottom due to de sedimentary because of the need to compare a great action of the Las Angustias Ravine. It is number of spatially related data [15]. about 875.6 ha extension to water depth of 0 – 50 m. This zone is included in the The aim of our paper is to give, by means Special Area of Conservation designated of geographical tools, an objective process under the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC to zonation of marine and littoral zones on to form a network of European protected the framework of a fine scale, in order to areas known as Natura 2000. integrate it on the local spatial planning and prevent carrying out anthropogenic Fig. 1 - Study area location map.

54 2.2. Seafloor morphological features. For the creation of the macrobenthic distribution map and the delimitation of The quantitative topographic variables the distribution area as polygons with that describe the seabed were obtained vector format, we used the sample points form the Digital Elevation Model (DEM). and the seafloor morphological features. DEM was elaborated by Medina-Villaverde et al. [16] using sidescan sonar, and single- 2.4. The presence of marine beam and multi-beam echosounders. endangered species. Five parameters features were extracted, using the spatial algorithms implemented The presence of marine endangered in ArcGIS 9.2 software and the Spatial species is an important information about Analyst extension. All of them have a the biodiversity to classify the priority resolution of 5 m. Slope, or the maximum conservation zones. In this part of the rate of change, was calculated in degrees. study we used the information collected Aspect was calculated as the direction by Concepción [20] about the location in of the cell’s slope and measured in La Palma of the marine species included degrees. Benthic Position Index (BPI) in the “Catálogo de Especies Amenazadas was calculated using ArcGIS extension de Canarias” (List of Endangered Species Benthic Terrain Modeler (BTM) Version in the Canaries) elaborated by the local 1.0 [17]. The BPI allows classifying the authorities. This study revises and pixels in crests, depressions, flats and situates all the marine species registered slopes. Roughness is a measure of terrain in La Palma except marine mammals, complexity and was calculated with a birds and reptiles. The presence of these Jenness Enterprises [18] for Arc View species in the study area was register and 3.2. This information about topography collected as points in vector format. and texture, in conjunction with video camera direct observations, allows the 2.5. Database and GIS. classification of the type of substrate in hard and soft substrate. All the recorded information about physical and biotic parameters with 2.3 Macrobenthic communities map. different format was included in the same database of the study area. For this For the creation of the macrobenthic purpose it was necessary to elaborate a distribution map it was necessary to carry regular grid over the study area with a out sampling surveys consisting in going resolution of 250 m. From this 200 cell or through the entire study area with a small units of 62.5 ha were obtained. This unit boat which has a video camera system, size was selected because macrobenthic with the method described by Barquín et distribution maps were collected at this al. [19], between 9th and 18th November scale. Each cell included the average value 2009. During the cruise we acquired for seafloor morphological features, the visual samples with the video camera total extension of benthic communities about the presence of the communities and the presence of endangered species. and substrate types, and took the precise This information units or cells were used position of the samples by means of a for the zonation process. GPS. On board the information is included using the OziExplorer software, tracking 2.6. Ecological Zonation. the GPS position on real time. The zonation was based on the information In total 192 samples were taken during included in the grid data base and the five days on the area studied, with use of the MARXAN, a computer tool for an average distance of 98 m between designing priority conservation areas them. The information was identified which includes heuristic and simulated and mapped as sample points with the annealing algorithms [14]. This software GIS applying the ArcGIS 9.2 software. is designed entirety to generate networks

55 of protected or priority conservation areas algorithm with 1,000,000 annealing based on clear objectives, with specific iterations and 100 runs to identify an conservation targets and an explicit and efficient set of sites. Output data includes transparent decision-making framework. the best solution of all runs and summed The classification process includes several solutions over all runs. steps: 3. RESULTS Conservation features. Not all the information layers compiled in this study 3.1. Seafloor morphological features. were selected for the design of priority conservation zones. The parameters were The slopes of the area range from 0º, chosen because they represent one or mainly for soft bottom, up to a value more of the following criteria: (1) diversity of 63.9º for rocky beds which occur representation and heterogeneity, (2) especially in the south of the area. In vulnerability, (3) legal protection and (4) shallow-waters a rough bedrock belt is conservation state. dominant. From there, a sandy and lower roughness platform extends with an Conservation targets. The conservation average slope of 4.5º over the northern targets were defined for every region. conservation feature in order to cover The dominant direction of the seafloor the maxim variability and assure the is the westerly component (226º) and permanence or stability of the feature the most frequent type of morphologic throughout time. The representation seafloor is the flat bottom (up to 70%), requirements for the conservation mostly sandy (Fig.2). Soft or mobile features can be moderately complex. bottom (sand and pebbles) are the most For conservation goals, the benefit of a common substrate that occupy 62.7% conservation zone increases with size, but of the study area. Hard substrate, in terms of sustainability, it occurs when it which includes rocky and blocks (stable is large enough to export sufficient larvae substrate) represents 37.3% of the total and adults, and small enough to minimize surface (Fig. 3). the initial economic impact [23]. After 80 53.10 Ha reviewing the literature, targets of 0%, 20% and 40% of conservation features 60 were established for analysis. 40

Coverage % 14.79 Ha 20 Selection of the priority conservation 642.19 Ha 164.12 Ha units. The database of 200 units that 0 divides the study area was used to Flats Slopes Crests Depressions create the planning units. The cost of Fig. 2 - Coverage percentage and total each planning unit was its size, so it was extension (on top of the column) of the the same cost for each planning unit. In morphologic seafloor classified by Benthic this way, the economic impacts are not Position Index (BPI). considered in the conservation plan and 80 the ecological values are emphasized. 549.24 Ha 60 In addition to establishing conservation 40 283.97 Ha features and targets, there are a couple Coverage % 20 22.61 Ha 8.67 Ha 4.26 Ha 6.74 Ha of spatial requirements which could be 0 included: the size, number and spacing of Sand Rock Large Pebbles Round Port the protection zones. These parameters boulder cobbles are considered in Marxan which makes it possible to reach conservation targets Fig. 3 - Coverage percentage and total extension (on top of the column) of type substrate. but minimizing the conservation area. The software uses simulated annealing

56 3.2. Macrobenthic communities.

Firstly, we expect to represent in this study the communities based on definitions of the European Nature Information System [21]. Although most of the ones considered in this study aren’t included in this classification, this paper proposes new categories for the Canary region. Eight communities were observed (Table 1). The most common was the brown garden eel (Heteroconger longissimus) community that occupies almost 40% of the area, the second were frondose algal communities (22.7%) and third, infralittoral fine sand. The other communities have an extension below 7%. The distribution maps are showed in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 - Distribution map of the macrobenthic communities.

3.4. Ecological Zonation. Table 1 - Macrobenthic communities observed in the study area with total extension (ha) and Fifteen conservation features, that coverage percentage (%). represent environmental complexity and the presence of relevant communities 3.3. Marine endangered species. and species, were identified. Table 2 includes the conservation features with Seven endangered species were registered they targets and percentages included in in the study area (Fig. 5): the arthropod the proposed priority conservation zones. Scyllarides latus, the echinoderm These conservation features were selected Echinaster sepositum, three fishes to respond to the criteria previously Gaidropsarus guttatus, Gymnothorax described: (1) diversity representation miliaris and Hippocampus hippocampus and heterogeneity, (2) vulnerability, (3) and two seaweeds Cystoseira abies- legal protection and (4) conservation marina and Gelidium arbuscula. The state. The surrounding zone of Tazacorte position on the map of these species is Port was excluded for the analysis. All represented as point layer except the macrobenthic community distributions seaweed represented as lines across and endangered species were included as the intertidal zone. Most of the species conservation features except sea urchin were located on rocky surfaces in depths communities and ports communities ranging from 13-25 m. because correspond to degradation or non-balancing states of the communities. The roughness was selected from the seafloor morphological features as a measure of terrain complexity.

57 rocky with high complexity bottom that correspond with the gorgonian and black coral communities.

Fig. 6 - Ecological zonation of the study area.

Fig. 5 - Distribution map of the marine endangered species.

4. DISCUSSION

The proposed protocol is repeatable and objective; it forms a good alternative to the currently used methodologies which imply marine reserve design decisions. The representation and area calculations of benthic habitats, communities and species have been the fundamental step for the delimitation of protected zones. At present there is a wide variety of methodologies for benthic habitat Table 2 - Conservation features using in mapping [3], but the technique applied ecological zonation. in this study for the sampling is simple, with a low-cost and allows to analyse The best solution selects 46 planning large areas in short time. Other mapping units as priority conservation zones, tools as the habitat suitability modelling that represent 287.5 ha and 23% of [23], [10] are very usefull but the large the study area (Fig. 6). This scenario amount of samples taken and the clear met all conservation goals and even delimitation of the communities in our overrepresented in some cases. Most study do not need the application of these of the selected units are located in techniques. the littoral zone with rocky bottoms Suitable environmental variables and seaweed communities and deep (bathymetry, slope, substrate, roughness 58 and morphology seafloor features) were allows an easy application in other areas. selected as the most important variables for determining the distribution of the 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS macrobenthos. They have already been indicated in many other studies [3] [5]. The work reported here is part of the However the use of only these variables Marcopalma proyect, supported by could imply an oversimplification of Fundación Biodiversidad and GISMACAN reality. Many other environmental proyect co financed by Canary Islands variables could also contribute: surface Government and EU (FEDER). Additional temperature, hydrodynamics turbidity or support was provided by Tazacorte primary productivity [10]. But this data Townhall. This is a contribution of the are more difficult to obtain and even more Biodiversidad Group of La Palma World expensive to measure. Biosphere Reserve Consortium in collaboration with La Laguna University It is an important consideration in We also thank Roberto Cáceres for his the mapping process to use terms or assistance in the sampling. benthic communities names based on definitions of the EUNIS classification, 7. REFERENCES since it is crucial to use the same terms to make possible an integral zonation and [1] Loreau, M., S. Naeem, P. Inchausti, management of the marine and coastal J. Bengtsson, J.P. Grime, A. Hector, D.U. zones of La Palma or even the complete Hooper, M.A. Huston, D.G. Raffaelli, Canaries region. B. Schimd, D. Tilman, D.A. Wardle, “Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: Finally, the use of MARXAN software has current knowledge and future challenges”, been powerful tool for integrating the Science 294, pp. 804–808, 2001. abiotic and biotic data in the decision- [2] Jackson, J.B.C., M.X. Kirby, W.H. making. In Canary Islands no design of Berger, K.A. Bjorndal, L.W. Botsford, delimitation of marine protected areas has B.J. Bourque, R.H. Bradbury, R. Cooke, applied a decision support tool, in spite of J. Erlandson, J.A. Estes, T.P. Hughes, S. the fact that the archipelago has 3 marine Kidwell, C.B. Lange, H.S. Lenihan, J.M. reserves, being one of them the largest Pandolfi, C.H. Peterson, R.S. Steneck, of Europe. In terms of further research, M.J. Tegner, R.R. Warner, “Historical the use of this tool is essential for marine overfishing and the recent collapse of reserve network design in La Palma. coastal ecosystems”, Science 293, pp. 629–638, 2001. 5. CONCLUSIONS [3] Diaz R.J., M. Solan and R.M. Valente, “A review of approaches for classifying This paper proposes an objective benthic habitats and evaluating habitat ecological zonation applied to small scale. quality”, Journal of Environmental Description of seafloor morphological Management, 73: pp. 165-181, 2004. features, macrobenthic community [4] Kostylev V.E., Todd B.J., Fader G.B.J., distribution and presence of vulnerable Courtney R.C., Cameron G.D.M.and or protected species are fundamental Pickrill R.A. “Benthic habitat mapping on information for the classification of the the Scotian Shelf based on multibeam coastal zones. bathymetry, superficial geology and sea floor photographs”, Marine Ecology The coastal and marine area studied in Progress Series, 219: pp. 121-137, 2001. this project has a good representation [5] Verfaillie E., S. Degraer, K. Schelfaut, of the marine biodiversity and ecology W. Willems, V.V. Lancker, “A protocol for of the Island and show clear relationship classifying ecologically relevant marine between abiotic variables and the zones, a statistical approach”, Estuarine, occurrence of macrobenthic species. Coastal and Shelf Science, 83: pp. 175- The methodology is straightforward and 185, 2009.

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60 EVALUATION OF MODIS DATA FOR MAPPING OIL SLICKS - THE DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL CASE (2010) M. Gianinetto, P. Maianti, R. Tortini, F. Rota Nodari & G. Lechi Politecnico di Milano, Laboratory of Remote Sensing (LaRS), Building Environment Sciences and Technologies (BEST) Department, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT for both exploration and environmental applications. For exploration, persistent In this paper Moderate Resolution Imaging or recurrent oil slicks can point out Spectroradiometer (MODIS) multispectral the presence of undersea oil seeps. imagery is used for oil spills mapping as an For environmental applications, early integration to radar data. MODIS images detection of anthropogenic oil slicks can of the northern Gulf of Mexico (USA) make possible timely protection of critical are analyzed to study the sea anomalies habitats and helps identify polluters [17]. from visible to thermal infrared in order The environmental impacts of oil spills can to detect a reported oil slick. A simple be considerable. Oil spills in water may Fluorescence/Emissivity Index and RGB severely affect the marine environment false color bands combination are applied causing a decline in phytoplankton and to detect fluorescence and emissivity other aquatic organisms. Phytoplankton anomalies due to oil spills in particular is at the bottom of the food chain and can sun glint conditions. A monitoring system pass absorbed oil on to the higher levels. of sea surface may be built using high Oiled birds suffer from behavioral changes temporal resolution imagery as MODIS and this may result in the loss of eggs data. Applying the proposed index and or even death. The livelihood of many RGB bands combination, also suitable on coastal people can be impacted by oil night-time overpasses, it’s possible to spills, particularly those whose livelihood further increase the availability of clouds is based on fishing and tourism [14]. free images using optical sensors. On April 20th, 2010, an explosion Index Terms — Deepwater Horizon, oil spill, occurred to the Deepwater Horizon Remote Sensing, MODIS, thermal infrared. offshore oil platform, located about 80 km off the coast of the Louisiana, USA. After 1. INTRODUCTION a two days fire (Figure 1), the drilling rig sank on April 22nd, causing a massive Petroleum products play a fundamental oil spill in the northern Gulf of Mexico role in modern society, particularly in that we estimated on April 29th to be at the transportation, plastics, and fertilizer least 5,840 km2. The spill was originated industries and there are typically ten to by the oil rig placed about 1.5 km under fifteen transfers involved in moving oil the sea surface, and could reach an from the oil field to the final consumer. Oil estimated total amount of millions of spills can occur during oil transportation barrels until the flow will be stopped. or storage and spillage can occur in water, The oil spill rapidly expanded during the ice or on land. Marine oil spills can be initial 8-day period and covered a very highly dangerous since wind, waves and large area along the coast of Louisiana, currents can scatter a large oil spill over extending approximately north to south a wide area within a few hours in the for 120 km. Sediments in the region open sea [8]. The detection of oil slicks are generally thick, with the greatest is an important Remote Sensing objective sediment load carried by the Mississippi

61 River [19]. Moreover, on April 30th the oil 11], the evaluation of slick thickness [7, slick reached the Mississippi river delta, 9] and the classification of the oil type, in approaching the Delta National Wildlife order to estimate environmental damages Refuge and the Breton National Wildlife and take appropriate response activities Refuge. Since the Mississippi river delta [12]. systems support a variety of coastal habitats [13], the spilled oil will adversely In the visible (VIS) region of the affect these fragile ecosystems, including electromagnetic (E.M.) spectrum, oil has endangered and threatened species. a higher surface reflectance than water [6], but also shows limited nonspecific Previous studies showed the potentialities absorption tendencies. Sheen shows of the Moderate Resolution Imaging up silvery and reflects light over a Spectroradiometer (MODIS) for wide spectral region down to the blue. environmental monitoring (e.g. rapid However, oil has no specific characteristics response flood mapping [18]). The study that distinguish it from the background area is shown in Figure 1, in which it’s [12]. Therefore, techniques that separate possible to notice a smoke plume coming specific spectral regions in the VIS do not out from the platform fire. In this paper increase detection capability. we assess the capability of MODIS for oil spills detection and mapping. This work Oil is optically thick and absorbs solar aims at demonstrating the great potential radiation re-emitting a portion of this of coastal and marine environment radiation as thermal energy, primarily in monitoring using high temporal resolution the 8-14 µm region. In thermal infrared MODIS datasets, in particular to identify (TIR) images, thick oil appears hot, anomalies over the sea surface and to intermediate thicknesses of oil appear evaluate their evolution in narrow time cool, and thin oil or sheens are not ranges. detectable [12]. Specific studies in the TIR show that there is no spectral structure in this region [17]. Tests on a number of IR systems show that emulsions are not always visible in the IR, and cameras operating in the 3 to 5 µm range seem to be only marginally useful [10].

2.2. Limitations of optical satellite sensors for oil slicks detection

Optical satellite sensors provide a synoptic view of the affected area, but several problems are associated with relying on those for oil spill Remote Sensing. Fig 1 - April 21, 2010 - MODIS true color Besides a lower spatial resolution than composition image of the study area. The white airborne images (an extremely important cross indicates the oil platform coordinates; the matter when the oil is distributed in box indicates the zoom area on the platform fire sparse windows and patches over large and smoke plume. areas), atmospheric transmission in the ultraviolet (UV) region in which oil 2. BACKGROUND fluoresces [17] is poor, making satellite observations unprofitable in that E.M. 2.1. Spectral properties overview region [3]. Another limitation is due to the timing and frequency of overpasses Remote Sensing data have been employed and the absolute need for clear skies to by a large number of researchers to perform optical image collection. The investigate oil spills, focusing mainly on chances of the overpass and the clear the mapping of the areal extent [1, 2, 4,

62 skies occurring at the same time give a suitable practice use a costly combination low probability of detecting a spill on a of techniques, including airborne radar satellite image. Moreover, the difficulty and IR/UV line scanner [12]. in developing algorithms to highlight the oil slicks and the long time required to 3. METHODOLOGY do so may disrupt oil spill contingency planning [12]. For example, in the case 3.1. MODIS data of the EXXON VALDEZ disaster, although the spill covered vast amounts of Gulf MODIS is a key instrument aboard the of Alaska for over a month, there was Terra (EOS AM) and Aqua (EOS PM) only one clear day that coincided with a satellites. Terra’s orbit around the Earth satellite overpass. As a consequence, is timed so that it passes from north to it took over two months before the first south across the equator in the morning, group managed to detect the oil slick while Aqua passes south to north over through satellite imagery, although its the equator in the afternoon. Terra location was precisely known [15]. MODIS and Aqua MODIS observe the entire Earth’s surface every 1 to 2 days In addition, other limitations are due to by acquiring data in 36 spectral bands, properties of oil surface on water in the from the visible to the thermal infrared as TIR region [17]: shown in Table 1. - the spectral reflectance properties of different crude oils vary, and TIR oil Table 1 - MODIS band setting, wavelength properties vary from day-time to night- ranges, resolution and primary uses. time; - water roughness changes the reflectance of surface, due to the backscatter of sun glint from wave sides oriented at the specular angle, as does the presence of sea foam; - although in the TIR oil has a lower emissivity than water [17], resulting in a brightness temperature contrast that may be used for oil slick detection, variations in real kinetic temperature of water can produce false targets, and oil slicks and seawater may not be at the same temperature.

Consequently, we assume that reflectance contrasts between water and oil at any given wavelength in the VIS and IR may vary with sea status, illumination conditions and oil properties [16].

In conclusion, currently no single processing algorithm is able to identify all oil slicks in the optical region of the E.M. spectrum and the potential detection of false targets is consistent. Thus, although oil slicks (especially known slicks) have been repeatedly detected using different spectral bands, no single technique has been developed that unambiguously and reliably detects all oil slicks. The most

63 64 MODIS scenes from April 20th to 4. IMAGE PROCESSING May 5th, 2010 from both Terra and Aqua satellites day-time and night-time 4.1. Pre-processing overpasses were acquired. Among these, 16 images are cloud free over the slick All MODIS images were supplied and are potentially appropriated for the atmospherically corrected and resampled aim of this study. Table 2 shows a subset to a unique value of 1 km of spatial of data actually processed in this study. resolution. They provide directional hemispherical reflectance (ρ) from Table 2 - Date, time of acquisition and satellite band 1 to 19 and directional emissivity of the processed images. (ε) from band 20 to 36. Every single scene was georeferenced to allow the Date Time (GMT) Satellite overlay with ancillary vector data (i.e. April 21, 2010 19:20 Aqua coastline, localization of the platform). April 29, 2010 07:30 Aqua April 29, 2010 16:55 Terra 4.2. Oil slick detection on MODIS day- May 05, 2010 04:10 Terra time VIS and IR data 3.2. Approach Spatiotemporal variations in the thermodynamic properties of oil and Previous works demonstrated that seawater have been mapped in order although real differences in temperature to identify oily surfaces. Although sun- between oil slicks and nearby seawater glint and wind sheen may create a similar caused by differing absorption of sunlight impression to an oil sheen, we assume may disguise the effects of emissivity that any observed anomaly is caused by differences, the spectral behavior of the oil spill. oil slicks and seawater in the 8-14 µm For opaque bodies the transmittance atmospheric window is distinctly different is negligible and Kirchhoff’s law can be and surprisingly unaffected by variables written in the following simplified form that might be expected to alter them [3]: [17]. Even then, real water temperature differences due to currents may introduce false targets. Thus, the only unambiguous difference between spectra of oil slicks The oil seeping from the sea bed passes and seawater lies in the different shapes from a colder to a hotter status during of their spectral curves, usually referred the ascension. We assume that its to as their spectral signatures, making temperature gets to equilibrium once night-time measurements desirable oil has reached the marine surface and because less dependent upon the remains constant regardless of its spatial observation conditions. Oil absorbs the distribution. Thus, we can further simplify solar radiation and emits a part of it as Kirchhoff’s law in the following: thermal energy mainly in the TIR (8-14 μm). Oil has a lower emissivity than water in TIR; therefore, at these wavelengths, it has a distinctively different spectral During the day oil has a lower emissivity signature compared to the background and higher UV fluorescence than water. water [17]. To enhance the contrast between the In this study we aim at detecting the oil slick and the surrounding seawater a slick at first during day-time exploiting Fluorescence/Emissivity Index (FEI) has reflectance properties of oil and seawater been developed on MODIS data and was and subsequently during night-time defined as follows: analyzing the IR emissivity information.

64 This normalized index is based on the relationship between blue and TIR ranges, respectively band 3 and band 31 in MODIS data, combining the theoretically higher blue range component of oil, due to fluorescence induced by λ < 0.400 µm sunlight rays [4], and the lower emissivity in the TIR. The higher is the value of the contribution of blue and the lower is the one of emissivity, the greater will be the FEI values.

4.3. Oil slick detection on MODIS IR data Fig. 2 - April 29, 2010 - MODIS day-time Given that the information from IR should grayscale composition image of FEI. The white cross indicates the oil platform coordinates. theoretically be useful to discriminate materials with different emissivity values, On the same day-time MODIS image, the intra-image emissivity variation on a RGB false color visualization was seawater surface was used on MODIS performed by combining bands 23, 31 night-time data. The different spectral and 29 respectively (Figure 3). This features of oil and seawater in this region combination clearly highlights the slick can be enhanced with an appropriate from the background and the obtained IR bands visualization. For example, result is consistent with Figure 2. it is possible to combine emissivity The same band combination was values taken from mid-wavelength and performed on a MODIS image acquired thermal range limits, and on the edge during the previous night (Figure 4). The between these two spectral regions. This oil slick seems to be well highlighted from visualization can also be performed on the surrounding pixels. Moreover, the night-time images, potentially increasing location, shape and extension of the slick the availability of clouds free images on have a good correspondence with both the study area. the previous results. 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The considered dataset (acquired from April 20th, 2010 to May 5th, 2010 by both Terra and Aqua satellites day-time and night-time overpasses) is almost centered on the investigated sector and clearly shows anomalies close to the Louisiana coast: as sun-glint conditions emphasize the contrast against the surrounding marine water, applying the FEI index to the day-time MODIS data of April 29, 2010 it was possible to detect in the sea a curved plume brighter than the surrounding seawater and expanding Fig. 3 - April 29, 2010 - MODIS day-time IR from the platform coordinates (Figure 2). false color composition image. The white cross This anomaly seems to be corresponding indicates the oil platform coordinates. for geographical position and shape to the oil slick reported in those days.

65 in particular sun glint conditions. In case of massive oil spills, MODIS sensor may highlight anomalies using a geometric resolution of 1 km.

The Fluorescence/Emissivity Index, calculated using MODIS bands 3 and 31, may represent an interesting mean to identify and discriminate oily substances floating on the sea surface, as enhancing the results obtainable using only visible data. Moreover, an appropriate RGB false colors bands composition of infrared Fig. 4 - April 29, 2010 - MODIS night-time IR emissivity data (bands 23, 31 and 29 false color composition image. The white cross respectively) highlights the oil slick in indicates the oil platform coordinates; the dark both day-time and night-time images. line indicates the coastline. This also allows to detect the presence of potential clouds coverage, that could Whereas on day-time images clouds represents false targets. were filtered out exploiting reflectance information, night-time data can be In conclusion, MODIS data may give affected by potential clouds coverage. a significant contribution for a marine However, Figure 5 shows the proposed and coastal monitoring system, also RGB bands combination on a cloudy considering the availability of several image, in which the slick keeps the same daily acquisitions from Terra and Aqua hue as in Figure 3 and 4, while clouds are satellites. A limitation of a MODIS data well distinguishable from oil. based monitoring system remains the meteorological conditions, as cloud cover may prevent radiance penetration from sea surface, but using infrared data from night-time overpasses the frequency of acquisition of clear sky scenes may sensibly improve.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge NASA Goddard Space Flight Center - LAADS Web program for the availability of free MODIS data.

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67 SYSTEM APPROACH FOR COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT: APPLICATION IN SOUTHEAST COAST OF TERCEIRA ISLAND AND GUADIANA ESTUARY M.H. Guimarães1,2, A. Mascarenhas2, C. Sousa2, T. Dentinho1 & T. Boski2 1 Gabinete de Gestão e Conservação da Natureza, Universidade dos Açores, 9701-851, Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal 2Centro de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Faculdade de Ciência do Mar e Ambiente, 8005-139, Faro Portugal

ABSTRACT impact has been recognizing worldwide by inequalities in economic and social System Approach Framework (SAF) circumstances that, in turn, generates includes a sequence of steps with political pressures. Going back in human the overall purpose to develop a self- history the susceptibility of humans to evolving, holistic research approach for the exhaustion of its resource is well integrated appraisal of Coastal Systems documented [1] and the same behavior so that the existing scientific knowledge has been registered in modern society can be available to support deliberative [2, 3]. Coastal zone due to its population and decision-making processes aimed at is one of the most important human improving the sustainability of Coastal habitats, as well as, in great risk. Systems by implementing Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Due to this, Sustainable Development has policies. The main goal is to achieve become one of the most important global equilibrium between Ecological, Social and achievements. Eu policies reveal this Economic sectors of the Coastal System agenda by the distinct action: Bird and and to explore it´s dynamics, as well as, Habitat directives, Agenda 21, Lisbon and the possible consequences of alternative Göteborg Strategies, Water Framework policy scenarios. Achieving this objective Directive, Sustainable Impact Directive, requires a reorganization of the science Integrated Coastal Zone Management required to comprehend the interactions (ICZM) recommendations and between multifaceted natural and social forthcoming Maritime Strategy and new systems at different spatial and temporal ICZM directive. From EU recommendation scales including the overall economic for ICZM we can conclude that to achieve evaluation of alternative policies. The sustainable development there is a need present work explains SAF using practical to better integrate scientific knowledge examples of its application in two distinct into policies at the most appropriate level national coastal environments: Southeast [4]. Taking this to account, the present coast of Terceira Island and Guadiana framework wants to contribute to this Estuary. process.

Index Terms - System thinking, multidisciplinary approach, integrated coastal System Approach Framework (SAF) management includes a sequence of steps with the overall purpose to develop a self- 1. INTRODUCTION evolving, holistic research approach for integrated appraisal of Coastal Systems Human activities have incessantly so that the existing scientific knowledge threatened the stability of our present can be available to support deliberative society due to the continual and fast and decision-making processes aimed at degradation of natural resources, which improving the sustainability of Coastal support our existence through its goods Systems by implementing Integrated and services. The need to stop this Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) degradation is imperative, while its policies. This framework is based on

68 several concepts including systems makers have in the SAF process: they thinking and multidisciplinary assessment are involved since the first stage of the framework that explores and applies process by identifying the most relevant methodologies in the ecological, social policy issue, as well as, the possible and economic fields of research. decisions. In the more advance stages of SAF process stakeholders are ask to work With systems we can look at connections together with the product developed so between elements, at new properties that refinements can be done. In the end that emerge from these connections of the process they receive an adapted, and feedbacks, and at the relationships interactive information portfolio. between the whole and the part [5]. This worldview is referred to as “systems SAF is being tested in 18 case studies along thinking”. The roots of systems thinking Europe under the umbrella of SPICOSA go back to studies on systems dynamics Project - Science and Policy Integration at MIT led by Jay Forrester in 1956, who for Coastal Systems Assessment, in the was also the inventor of magnetic-core 6th framework program, priority 1.1.6.3: memory, which evolved into the random Global Change and Ecosystems. One access memory used in all computers of the goals of SPICOSA project is to today. With his background in electrical create an operational Systems Approach and computer engineering, Forrester has Framework for assessments of policy successfully applied some of the same alternatives in Coastal Zone Systems. The engineering principles to social, economic SAF emerges from existing knowledge and environmental problems. In more and progress with new knowledge. recent years, system approach and A SAF Portfolio consisting of generic analysis has been spread through distinct assessment methodologies, specific tools, disciplines and tools (e.g. in management, models, and new knowledge useful for [6]; in environmental management, [7]; ICZM, will be created in a manner that and in applied mathematics, [8]). is comprehensible and updateable for future Costal Zone (CZ) researchers and SAF main goal is to achieve a balance professionals. In addition, SPICOSA will between Ecological, Social and Economic produce new curricula, training modules sectors of the Coastal System so that its and opportunities for academics and dynamics can be explore, as well as, the professionals involved in Sustainability potential consequences of alternative Science and ICZM implementation. policy scenarios. Achieving this objective requires a reorganization of the science The aim of this article is to present the required to comprehend the interactions ongoing work that has been developed in between multifaceted natural and social two case studies in Portugal: Guadiana systems at different spatial and temporal Estuary case study and Southeast coast scales including the overall economic of Terceira Island in Azores archipelago. evaluation of alternative policies. Guadiana Estuary is a case study included in SPICOSA project and the SAF can be included in the category work developed is quite advance since of tools defined as Decision Support the project started in 2007. Terceira Systems (DSS) since the aim is to produce Island case study is included in a PhD information useful for distinct end-users. project that tests SAF approach in terms End-users include politicians making of methodologies and particularities by the final decision, experts advising comparing its application in two distinct decision makers, bodies in charge of ecological and socio economic realities. policy preparation, implementation or The work in Terceira Island started in monitoring and stakeholders influence or 2009 so comparison of results is not yet influencing the process. Importance and possible. For this reason, the main goal effectiveness of this tool is enlarged by of this article is to present SAF approach the role that stakeholders and decision- giving particle examples.

69 2. CASE STUDIES earliest colonization [15, 16]. In recent years pressures on littoral and offshore Guadiana is one of the most important resources have grown [17] with the rivers on Iberian Peninsula, whose total subsistence or artisanal exploitation to length is 730 km of which the last 200 km more commercial operations. The coast forms a natural border between Portugal line of Terceira Island is characterized by and Spain. Brackish conditions can be cliffs that vary from small to moderate observed circa 40 km upstream of the heights interrupted by small bays, above river mouth. Mértola in the Portuguese all through east and south sides (figure margin is the last point of tidal influence 2). The northern coast is constantly and defines the end of the estuarine area submitted to the wave action, and on the (fig. 2). Guadiana estuary catchment other hand, the eastern part is protected basin is the fourth largest in the Iberian from these actions [18]. This way it 2 Peninsula, ca.67,500 km [9]. The climate, was possible to emerge a wetland that typically Mediterranean, is classified as attracted many kind of sea birds exclusive semiarid, being arid in July and August, from this place, and form a long beach with and temperate-humid from November to 3 kilometers length; unique in Azores, and January [10]. Accordingly, the Guadiana with a dune field of 13 meters width. In area shows clear seasonal and inter- our days this wetland is reduce to a small annual variations, characterized by severe fraction. Human activities mainly related droughts and heavy floods. The Guadiana construction drained the wetland and the basin is under increasing pressure for habitat disappeared some decades ago as exploitation of water resources, especially well as the beach, only remaining a small since the 1960s, with the construction strip of sand. of dams and reservoirs that affect the river and its tributaries. The existence of more than forty dams along the river causes a severe decrease of river flow which is leading to significant impacts on the estuarine hydrodynamics, sediment transport and water quality [11, 12]. A number of environmental problems, such as eutrophication, untreated wastewater discharges, and habitat destruction, are presently taking place.

The Azorean archipelago is located in the North Atlantic Ocean between 37-40o N latitude and 23–31o W longitude (Fig. 3) and the closest point to mainland Europe is around 1,400 km [13]. It is composed of nine volcanic islands of relatively recent origin (varying between 0.25 and 8 Myr, although most areas are less than 1 Myr old). Terceira is the third largest island, with c. 402 km2 and a maximum altitude of 1,021 m. The climate is temperate oceanic, characterized by mild temperatures, moderate to high rainfall, Fig. 1 - Guadiana Estuary geographic location and high atmospheric humidity [14]. The (source: Google earth) Azores were uninhabited until colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th Century. Man has exploited littoral, near shore and offshore living resources since the

70 designated by system design. This stage involves the identification of the structure, function and dynamics of the system. The conceptualization can begin with a very raw definition that becomes increasily accurate during the process. The development of the conceptual model and the identified policy issue is a schematic way that facilitates the development of Fig. 2 - Geographic location of Azores, Terceira scenarios and outputs. In this stage is Island and Praia da Vitoria city. also important to identified the necessary information and methods that should be 3. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS use to pass from a concept to a formal structure, that includes mathematical SAF concept follows the common formalization of the cause and effect sequential strategy described by relation identified. Jeffers (1978) presenting the following attributes: 1) it can be functional to any type of system hence its suitable for any To define the system we also need to system investigation, 2) the approach is define a question we want to address. holistic and hierarchical. It considers the This question can be of any nature but entire system but it´s possible to focus it is usually related with a dysfunction, the analysis on first-order functions and impact or change in the system that is deeper into the system if required, 3) causing ecological, economic and or social iteration and rescaling is a requirement problems. This question is designated by in order to insure a balance between policy issue that requires a prognostic effort, precision and resolution, 4) helpful to the process of deliberation and it’s multidisciplinary, 5) it gives high decision making. From this policy issue we significance to information flows in the can identify the impacts on the ecological system which facilitates the enclosure and socio economic system, as well as, of controls and constrains that human the human activities that are causing this society implies, finally, 6) it is suitable for change. modeling and scenario building. Figure 4 presents a scheme of SAF process System design includes a series of tasks; showing that the research design starts definition of the policy issue, system by defining the problem and from there definition, elaboration of the conceptual tries to understand the chain of cause and model, design of information base and effects that exist. the scale of the problem. All subtask are interrelated but can be identified individually. The definition of the policy issue is primarily a social process that describes a series of interconnected social changes that impact what we designate by the ecological system, separating human activities from the rest of the ecosystem. Hence this first task must be supported by social tools that can helps us understand the patterns of though and behavior of the society of the study area, Fig. 3 - System Approach sequence of steps. the way this society is organized including (Adapted from SPICOSA work document) rules and the relations among groups.

5.1. System design Going into the practical application of this stage, the definition of the policy issue SAF application starts with the stage was performed using different techniques

71 in each case study. This process started Fig. 4 - Q sort questionnaires: a) individual with stakeholder’s identification of each response b) group response. system. Ultimately all residents are Results haven´t been analyzed in detail stakeholders; however the identification so it´s is too premature to identified was narrowed to governmental institutions the policy issue. However, from a first with responsibilities in the decision analysis of the data the highly ranked making, human activities affecting issues are related with the maintenance the system and Non Governmental and optimization of wetlands existing Institutions (NGO) acting in the area. In in the area, the impact of the industrial Guadiana estuary one-to-one meetings park that surrounds these wetlands, were undertaken so that the project the impact of heavy construction and of could be presented and stakeholders garbage deposition. could engage with SAF application. After this meeting a questionnaire was sent by email so each participant could rank from a predefined list of possible policy issues the most relevant ones. This list was produce by a team of researchers and it was based on problems identified in previous works. From data treatment of these questionnaires the identified policy issue was: water and sediment quality of Guadiana Estuary related with untreated wastewater and river runoff control by dams existing along the river and tributaries. In Terceira Island we have used participative methodologies that included a) the application of Q-sort methodology [19] and small group meetings. The process started with semi-directed interviews to key stakeholders; review of these interviews extraditing the different policy issues; application of Q sort questionnaire (fig. 5a) where each individual ranked the identified policy issues taking into account its relevance. This process was also performed in small b) groups (fig. 5b) where stakeholders were asked to perform the same ranking all Fig 5 - Evolution of conceptualization of the together. These groups included 3 to 6 system using conceptual models: a) Conceptual stakeholders from different categories map of Guadiana estuary case study using (researchers, governmental institutions, CMAP® tools (source: spicosa project) b) NGO, economic activities, etc). simple conceptual map of Terceira island case study.

5.1. System Formulation In this second step the aim is to represent the operation of the system in qualitative and quantitative terms. During the formulation step, the conceptual map might be adapted and changed. This a) b) iterative process is also consider in SAF as

72 it can be observed in scheme of figure 4 the influence of wastewater treatment that show connection between the distinct levels and different river discharge steps (thin arrows). This iterative process regimes on fecal coliforms concentration is due to two main reasons: data available (fig. 7). So the output of this model is to represent the system and stakeholders ecological although the inputs are derived needs in terms of process, scenarios and from Human activities. outputs.

Formulation step requires the use of a platform that allows the conversion of a qualitative conceptual system to a quantitative system. The software used in this task is ExtendSim®, a simulation tool that allows the development of dynamic models of real-life processes in a wide variety of fields. ExtendSim® allows the Fig. 6 - Output of the ecological component use of building blocks, the exploration of model in ExtendSim® the processes involved in the blocks, how The socioeconomic model was developed they relate and how the system behaves using Cost-Benefit Analysis [20] and after a change in the assumptions. Economic Base Theory [21]. These two Building blocks can be divided in six approaches have been defined so that basic groups: decision variables, state distinct stakeholder’s needs could be variables, exogenous variables, random answered. The application of Cost-Benefits variables and output variables. Still in the Analysis (CBA) is in consonance with system design all the variables are put in the requirements of Water Framework one of these categories so that we can Directive (WFD) and can contribute to formulate the system, prepare scenarios the challenge that each member state and present the outputs. ExtendSim® has. This directive calls for an economic software has been use along all case analysis of water use, in order to promote studies of SPICOSA project and will also cost effective measures. In addition, the be use in system formulation of Terceira WFD presents a clear concern for the case study. Until this moment practical social cost of implementing regulatory examples can only be demonstrated in approaches and enhances the need to Guadiana Estuary. develop strategies that secure social benefits. Although SAF aims to be an integrated approach, at this stage of the proceedings, The effectiveness and short-term cost of each component is formalized separately reducing bacterial loadings were analyzed so that the simulations model can be by comparing the costs with the benefits produced and validated previously to of each possible scenario. At the moment integration. In Guadiana estuary the the defined scenarios are related to the ecological component allows us to level of waste treatment, from bad (6% understand how water quality reacts to removal rate), fair (50%; removal rate) to distinct inputs of fecal coliforms. Within good (99% removal rate) and with the level the model the user can define these inputs of river runoff that can go from ecological by changing river runoff and wastewater minimum river discharge (2m/s), half of discharges. For these results the estuary the actual river discharge, actual river was approached as a sequence of three discharge to double of the actual river interconnected segments: upper, middle discharge. The term actual represents the and lower estuarine sectors. The transport registered river discharge from 2002 until of a given contaminant along the estuary 2007 in Pulo do Lobo station localized in (across sectors) was simulated through Guadiana River immediately before the the advection-diffusion equation. With estuarine area that is being modeled. One this simulation model we can understand the benefits side we included the revenues 73 that the company responsible for waste that interest other group of stakeholders as treatment receives from each user. This Municipalities and investors of the region. indicator is interesting in a financial point One of the main economic activities in of views hence it is more useful for the the Algarve region is related with sun company managers and to some extent to and beach [22]. Every year the beaches all users of the treatment system. Taking of this region are visited by national and into account WDF concerns we have use foreigner tourists. Along the Algarve coast Contingent Valuation Methodology to there about 60 beaches awarded with the evaluate residents and visitors willingness Blue Flag award. This award is attributed to pay for improvements in water quality to beaches that respect several quality (Guimarães et al, in submission). This standards including the thresholds’ of methodology is included in a very broad fecal coliforms concentration defined by class of stated preference methods that the regulation of bathing waters [23]. elicit preferences directly from people. Taking this into account, a data base was These preferences are listed as stated created and statistical analysis performed (as compared to reveal) because there to test if the number of visitors in a beach are no behaviors being observed that is related with the existence of Blue Flag can be used to identify the preferences. on the beach. Among other variables it That is, the preferences are elicited from was observed that the beaches with Blue conversations with individuals rather than flag have more visitors than the ones from purchases, votes, expenditures of without this certification. In addition time in activities, or other observable we could also found that the number of behaviors. Contingent valuation is visitors on a beach is related with the consistent with economic valuation since amount of employment in restaurants and it elicits preferences from individuals accommodation. Applying the Base Model and provides monetary values. The use Theory we were able to understand how this of Contingent Valuation Method gives employment affects the local population. an economic output in the model that The beach demand demonstrates the translates changes in human welfare due importance of a good water quality in to changes in water quality of the estuary. terms of beach attractiveness. This In addition we confront these changes indicator shows a time cumulative effect with the costs of different policy options. i.e. if a good water quality is maintained This comparison (fig. 8) is useful for during several years, the Blue Flag status evaluating different management options is awarded to the beach and contributes in relation to policy objectives and to find to the increase in attractiveness of that the optimal option in relation to ecological beach followed by a measurable increase results. in the number of visitors per year, hence to the employment and population. Population output is then used as input in the ecological model representing a feedback loop in our simulation model.

5.1. System Appraisal In the Formulation step each component of the system: ecological, economic and social are analyzed and developed individually. This is necessary due to the complexity and work needed to Fig. 7 - Output of the ecological component perfect the simulation model of each model in ExtendSim® component previously to the integration process. In System Appraisal we begin The Economic Base Theory [21] was used the set-up preparations and outputs from to produce other socioeconomic outputs System Formulation, which consist of the related with employment and population

74 integration of all components in a single the present simulation model. In Appraisal component designated by Ecological- step an intense process of interaction with Social-Economic component (ESE). The stakeholders occurs so that feedback on distinct models are coupled to construct the simulation model design and output. the simulation model. This step can be This is the stage that Guadiana estuary is very challenging not only in terms of at the moment. Around 8 meetings with multidisciplinary approach but also in distinct stakeholders groups have been modeling task mainly due to the distinct perform. The results of this work are still units and time steps use in each ESE being process and will not be presented component. here.

After the acquisition of a valid ESE model 5.1. System Output we need to arrange the model and it´s This step starts after the process of outputs to serve the main goal; utility in iteration of the model, scenarios and simulating management questions. Model stakeholders needs. In this step all outputs and significance must be put in necessary information is organized for a format rapidly understandable by non- policy deliberation and dissemination to scientist, which implies that indicators and the non-science end-users community. interpretative material must be prepared. This step can be achieved using distinct This will help the synthesis of the model formats adequate to each reality and results including the difference between necessities. Formats can varies from each scenario. qualitative descriptions, dynamic indicators, error and effectiveness In Guadiana case study the ecological critique, recommendations forecast and socioeconomic model were linked scenarios with multiple policy options, using the threshold of fecal coliforms economic analyses of scenarios, and for bathing waters (fig. 5). The model interactive deliberations conducted with starts the simulation of a certain scenario the policy end-users, with stakeholders with an initial population driven from and with the public. The preparation of the National Institute of Statistic. The a diversity of formats of this end product simulation runs for 6 years, each year has to do with the distinct targets of SAF: the model gives an ecological output; governance, discussion forum, end users daily concentration of fecal coliforms. This and public. output is then compared with the water bathing regulation. This is the first link 6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS between the distinct components. Fecal coliforms concentrations are checked Comparison among case studies is not against the water quality thresholds used possible at the moment due to the early for the attribution of Blue Flag award. stage of Terceira island case study. During the bathing season if the standards However it is possible to say that SAF are respected the beach is considered a application in Guadiana Estuary allowed Blue Flag beach. This output is used to us to understand some interesting issues calculate people’s willingness-to-pay for arising from the challenge of working in water quality improvement and is also multidisciplinary arena. Ecological, social, used to predict the amount of visitors that economic and modeling field follow very will visit the beach each year. This is then different assumption and methodologies linked with employment and then with which can make SAF application difficult. population. For this reason the ecological However the use of a common platform component of this integrated model uses related with the modeling is a stimulus to simulated population values from the find a common ground among disciplines. second year until the end of the simulation, Hence the requirement of passing from which represents an interesting feedback a conceptual model to a simulation loop between components. In figure 5a) models forces disciplines to find common we can observe the conceptual model of solutions. In addition, modeling produces

75 a series of generic blocks that can be Journal of the European Communities. p. used in other case studies due to the 4. possibility of analyzing similar process [5] Voinov, A., System science and (e.g. nutrients dispersion) or the same modeling for ecological economics. 2008: methods (e.g. discount factor in CBA). Elsevier. These results prove the possibility of SAF [6] Blake, R.R., Mouton J. S. , he application to other coastal areas. Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.. Other advantage of this approach, as well 1964. as, limitation is the data requirement. The [7] Jorgensen, S.E., Environmental need to find and compile data can be a management in the 21st century. difficult task and might limit the number Environmental Science & Technology, of relation explained by the model. On 1999. 33(17): p. 376 the other hand it is also an exercise of [8] Murota, K., Matrices and Matroids for integration and a reason to increase Systems Analysis Vol. Algorithms and communication and collaborations among Combinatorics 20. 2000: Springer. institutions. [9] Chicharo, M.A., L. Chicharo, and P. Morais, Inter-annual differences of Looking deeper into all the social process ichthyofauna structure of the Guadiana occurring within SAF we can conclude estuary and adjacent coastal area (SE that deliberation and decision making is Portugal/SW Spain): Before and after not limited to the choice among scenarios Alqueva dam construction. Estuarine obtained by the simulation model. Coastal and Shelf Science, 2006. 70(1- Deliberation and decision making are 2): p. 39-51. complex processes that have a distinct [10] Morales, J.A., 1993. Sedimentologia time frame difficult follow with a simulation del estuario del Guadiana (SW Espana e model; however all the interaction that Portugal), University of Sevilla, Spain. SAF approach requires is an important [11] Euronatura and IIDMA, Aplicação da contribution on this process because it directiva-quadro da água e Convenção promotes discussion among stakeholders Luso-Espanhola de 1998 na Bacia including the scientific community. In Hidrográfica do Guadiana. . 2003, addition, it is visible the learning process Euronatura: Lisboa. occurring by presenting the simulation [12] Brandao, C. and R. Rodrigues, model in its integrated structure. Hydrological simulation of the international catchment of Guadiana River. Physics and 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chemistry of the Earth Part B-Hydrology Oceans and Atmosphere, 2000. 25(3): p. [1] Diamond, J., Collapse: How Societies 329-339. Choose to Fail or Succeed. 2005: Penguin. [13] Aranda, S.C., et al., Assessing 592. the completeness of bryophytes [2] Imhoff, M.L., et al., Global patterns inventories: an oceanic island as a case in human consumption of net primary study (Terceira, Azorean archipelago). production. Nature, 2004. 429(6994): p. Biodiversity Conservation, 2010: p. 16. 870-873. [14] Azevedo, E.B., Modelação do Clima [3] Vitousek, P.M., et al., Human Insular Escala Local. Modelo CIELO domination of Earth’s ecosystems. aplicado ilha Terceira, in University Science, 1997. 277(5325): p. 494-499. of Azores, Angra do Heroísmo. 1996, [4] COUNCIL, RECOMMENDATION OF University of Azores: Angra do Heroísmo. THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF [15] Serpa, J., 1886. A industria Piscatoria THE COUNCIL of 30 May 2002 concerning nas Ilhas Fayal e Pico, in Opusculos the implementation of Integrated Açorianos. 1886, Imprensa Academica: Coastal Zone Management in Europe, in Coimbra. p. 1-18. 2002/413/EC, T.E.P.A.T.C.O.T.E. UNION, [16] Sampaio, A., 1904. Memoria sobre Editor. 2002, 2002/413/EC: Official a Ilha Terceira. Angra do Heroismo:

76 Imprensa Municipal. [17] Santos, R.S., et al., Marine research, resources and conservation in the Azores. Aquatic Conservation-Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 1995. 5(4): p. 311-354. [18] Morton, B., J.C. Britton, and A.M. Frias Martins, Ecologia Costeira dos Açores. 1998 São Miguel, Açores, Portugal: Sociedade Afonso Chaves [19] Stephenson, W., The Study of Behavior: Q-Technique and Its Methodology. Psychometrika, 1954. 19(4): p. 327-333. [20] Pearce, D., G. Atkinson, and S. Mourato, 2006. Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Environment - recent developments. 2006: OECD Publishing. [21] Looye, J.W., COMMUNITY ANALYSIS AND PLANNING TECHNIQUES - KLOSTERMAN,RE. Journal of the American Planning Association, 1992. 58(1): p. 120-121. [22] Dias, J.M.A., Evolução da zona costeira portuguesa: Forçamento antrópicos e naturais. Encontros científicos, 2005. 1: p. 8-28. [23] FEE, A.B.A.d.E., Critérios Bandeira Azul para Zonas Balneares. 2009. p. 39.

77 ANALYSIS OF EPI-BENTHOS DISTRIBUTION AND THEIR POSSIBLE ASSOCIATION TO GARY KNOLL’S PINGO- LIKE-FEATURES ON THE CANADIAN BEAUFORT SHELF: A SMALL-SCALE CASE STUDY K. Jerosch, V.E. Kostylev & S.M. Blasco

Geological Survey of Canada,(Atlantic), Natural Resources Canada, Bedford Institute for Oceanography, 1 Challenger Drive, Dartmouth, NS, B2Y 4A2, Canada. E-mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT [17]. There are exceptions to this rule, e.g., cold seeps where biogenic or The study focuses on a unique geologic thermogenic organic matter is being environment throughout the Canadian provided from deeper layers of the Beaufort Shelf and its likely role as a seafloor. The correlation of unique benthic unique arctic habitat. Pingo-like-features assemblages to a definite methane- (PLFs) are bathymetric features formed driven geochemical environment, building by gas-driven sediments derived from definite biogeochemical habitats, has decomposing gas-hydrate associated been proven in several studies (e.g. [2], with Holocene sea level rise. They are [11], [15], [16]). unique habitats arising more than 15m off the seafloor, with a small diameter of To date, the Beaufort Shelf is known as about 80-90m. Based on multibeam data an area of free gas occurrence and mud and video analysis this paper details the volcanism, as shown by the presence distribution of epibenthos living on top of of actively venting gas on sub-bottom the PLFs and in the vicinity surrounding data and the observation of gas bubbles two PLFs. We, attribute to the PLFs a role at the sea surface in the vicinity of the as a distinct habitat in the Beaufort Sea. volcanoes. Sediment cores taken in 2003 We found a considerably higher number contained high amounts of methane and of species at or near PLFs than at the ice nodules[12]. Gas voids were present reference station at a distance of several in push cores [14]. Discrete dome- hundreds. Furthermore, we located more shaped bathymetric features that have sessile species on the shallower and wider been described as diapirs, mud volcanoes PLF which possibly indicates less activity or pingo-like-features (PLFs) are known and age than the steeper and higher to be formed by gas-driven sediment PLF’s. expansion and movement. They occur on the Canadian Beaufort Shelf and Index Terms - pingo-like-features, other shelves (e.g. offshore California epibenthos, habitat mapping, GIS, Beaufort [13] and the mid-Norwegian Margin Sea [9]. Venting methane, freshwater ice uplifted over older sediments on the PLF, 1. INTRODUCTION and depressions surrounding some PLFs containing younger sediments, can be It is well known that benthic distribution considered as a consequence of thermal and community features, such as warming of subsurface gas hydrate in composition, diversity, and standing permafrost associated with the Holocene stock, are influenced by a complex transgression of the Arctic Shelf [12]. of abiotic and biotic factors. The food supply of the majority of benthic faunas So far, 384 PLFs have been mapped since depends on the availability of organic 2001 by the Geological Survey of Canada matter, ultimately originating from the (GSC) using multibeam, sidescan sonar, autotrophic production in the upper and single-channel seismic systems. euphotic layer of the water column

78 Several of these features were initially Conan et al. (2008)). discovered in the 1970s and 1980s (Fig. Given the environmental and regional 1). These submarine PLFs are rising as variation in food supply, geochemistry little as 18m below the sea surface and and upwelling processes at PLFs, we some, but not all, PLFs emanate from hypothesize that the benthos will reflect within roughly circular, 1–2km diameter, these processes in their local community 10 to 20m deep bathymetric depressions, pattern. Specifically, we hypothesize that referred to here as moats. benthic community composition at Gary Benthic studies were initiated on Knoll’s PLFs is distributed as a result of its the Canadian Shelf by hydrocarbon immediate surroundings. exploration during the 1970′s but A key question for arctic benthic studies is syntheses in the literature have been whether PLFs feature prominent ‘hotspots’ sparse until this past decade (Clarke and of geochemical–benthic coupling. Warwick (2001); Cusson et al. (2007) and

Fig. 1 - Distribution of video stations and PLFs over the Beaufort Shelf. 192 video stations have been recorded in the period from 2004-2008. The red rectangle defines the study area which includes two PLFs, four video stations and multibeam data. 384 PLF features have been mapped since 2001 by the Geological Survey of Canada using multibeam, sidescan sonar, and single- channel seismic systems.

79 2. METHODS The camera used was a SeaView SV- DSP2002 high resolution digital signal 2.1. Study area processor underwater color video camera with two external lights mounted on a The study area is located at about tripod frame. Scaling lasers are attached 137º12’26W and 69º 58’4N on the to the frame on either side of the camera. Beaufort Shelf. Gary Knoll’s PLFs appear The camera was set at 35cm above the alike a corridor of diapirs in water depths tripod base, which resulted in a 45 x of 54m, approximately 25km east of 32cm wide view field when the camera Mackenzie Trough (Fig. 1). There has legs were on the seabed. Shark Marine been no gas observed coming from the Technologies (video overlay v1.3.2) PLFs at Gary Knolls, however, the region was used to produce an overlay of GPS is known for sub-surface gas in shallow coordinates, depth, and temperature data sediments [4]. in addition to date and time (UTC) on the video recording. 2.2. Shipboard operations 2.3. Identification and analysis of The video footage used in this study was epibenthos recorded aboard the Coastguard vessel CCGS Nahidik during the summers of GIS-based queries identified four video 2006 and 2007. The expeditions have stations either close to or across a PLF, been conducted as part of the Beaufort where multibeam data was available (Fig. Sea Coastal Marine Program to collect 2). These four video stations represent a seabed sediment, fauna samples and circa 2km long video swath of the seabed. video footage. They establish a study area of two PLFs (P1 and P2) with video data

Fig. 2 - 3-dimensional view on the study area at Gary Knoll. P1, P2 and the REF sites are directly located next to an area of ice scours and PLFs accumulation (corridor). Black lines represent the video transect. Upper left: single-channel seismic record (Line 73, 2005) showing the outcropping PLFs and the undisturbed seafloor between the PLFs [4].

80 close or across these features and one steep (<12.5º). Video swath lengths have reference video station (REF) 350-1300m been defined as video transect meters away. (mv) according to the morphological slope Fauna was identified and quantified from zones of the PLFs (top, and periphery), the video image to the lowest possible and the nearby relatively flat REF station. taxonomic level and logged using a GSC-developed computer program into 3.2. Epibenthos distribution at Gary a text-file which was joined with ship’s Knoll’s pingos navigation data. Total abundance of epibenthic macrofauna was recorded for In general, we found a considerably each transect. Multibeam data were used higher number of species at or near PLFs to calculate the slope and to divide the (P1: 3.52/mv; P2: 4.74/mv) than at a study area into zones of slope gradients distance of several hundred meters (REF:

(steep, moderate and flat) in order to 0.94/mv.) Furthermore, P1 shows a higher differentiate the ‘hot-spot’ areas and species richness (11 families) than P2 and reference areas surrounding the PLFs REF (7 families each). Despite the gas- closely. hydrate decomposing environment there was no visual evidence for chemosynthetic 3. RESULTS species on the videos. Analysis of the distribution of several 3.1. Slope and video data distribution groups of benthic megafauna on and near the features has shown that the relative Multibeam bathymetric data and video abundance of benthic invertebrates transects have enabled the detailed depends on the seabed slope and distance assessment of the epibenthos distribution to PLFs. on the specific morphology of two PLFs Analyzing the species distribution on the Canadian Beaufort Shelf. PLFs according to slope and not to the location, are widespread across the shelf between we see that at both PLFs the relative 140ºW and 130ºW (384 known PLFs) (Fig. abundance of Echinodermata., Mollusca 1). Along the northeastern shelf and at and Coelenterata prefer a moderate to the Gary Knoll’s corridor they accumulate steep slope (Tab. 1). All observed fishes significantly - at Gary Knoll’s 147 PLFs and Annelida were located near P1 on a appear in an area of 44 km2 (see extract flat seafloor (Fig. 4). All Species recorded in Fig. 2), which is 3-4 PLFs per square in the reference area seems to prefer the kilometer. flat regions. The slope analysis has shown that the We selected four families (Crinoidea, PLFs have a periphery with moderate Asteroidae, Ophiuroidea and Anthozoa) slope values, followed by a steep ascent for further analysis, because and have a flattened top. The designated areas in this study - P1, P2 and REF - for a habitat analysis are located closely to ice scours and the PLFs accumulation (corridor). The heights of P1 and P2 from their crest to their 2 m deep moats are 18m and 15m, respectively and their diameter 82m and 92m, respectively. Therefore, P1 has a significantly higher slope gradient than P2. The REF station is in a consistently flat surrounding. According to the distribution of slope values we classified the slope grid into three major slope zones following Jenk’s Natural Breaks method [9]: flat (<3.81º), moderate (3.81º - 12.5º) and

81 Gary Knoll - Pingo 1 1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4 Relative abundance Relative

0.2

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Slope Annelida Anthozoa Asteroidea Crinoidea Isopoda Ophiuroidea Polychaetea Expon. (Ophiuroidea) Expon. (Anthozoa)

Gary Knoll - Pingo 2 1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4 Relative abundance Relative

0.2

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Slope

Annelida Anthozoa Asteroidea Crinoidea Isopoda Ophiuroidea Polychaetea Expon. (Ophiuroidea) Expon. (Anthozoa)

Table 1 - (above) Relative and absolute abundance of major epibenthic groups related Gary Knoll - Reference 1.2 to slope at and near Gary Knoll’s PLFs P1 and

P2 (mv: video swath meter). Species richness 1.0 is higher at the steeper P1 than at P2 and REF. 0.8 The number of species is significantly higher at

0.6 or near PLFs than at REF.

0.4 Relative abundance Relative Fig. 3 - charts (left) Relationship between

0.2 relative abundance of major groups of benthic megafauna and seabed slope on and around 0.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 bathymetric features. Two nearby pingos on Slope Bivalvia Anthozoa Gastropoda Gary Knoll’s and the surrounding reference Asteroidea Isopoda Ophiuroidea Pycnogonida Expon. (Ophiuroidea) seabed station is shown.

these taxa were the most abundant than at REF. The three Echinodermata at the sampling stations. The analysis families have been recorded as extremely was done with regard to their location abundant on top and in the periphery on the PLFs (on top, in the periphery of P1. Conversely, all of these species or in the surrounding area). Anthozoa showed highest abundances in the occur considerably more often in the surrounding area of P2. surrounding area of P1 and on top of P2

82 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The species distribution supports this hypothesis. We identified more mobile PLFs hold particular interest to the oil species (Asteroidae, Ophiuroidea) on the and gas industry, and environmentalists peak of P1, whereas sessile Anthozoa and scientists, due to their association are more abundant on top of P2. Is there with possible greenhouse gas emissions, thus a general distribution pattern on potential hydrocarbons at depth, active versus inactive PLFs? Or does the geohazards, and unique ecosystems. observed distribution pattern just reflect In this small-scale case study we have an enhanced food supply caused by the shown that because of the differences additional current exposed location of the in the species structure in the PLFs steeper and higher P1? So far, a large versus REF, there is evidence for PLFs as number of PLFs has been detected on the unique habitats (see Figure 4 and Table Beaufort Shelf. Since the Beaufort Shelf 2). However, the question remaining is part of an extensive oil drilling program is whether or not species distribution and there is a lack of knowledge regarding is a result of methane hydrate seepage PLFs as marine habitats, it is important or current activity over the PLF feature. to carefully analyze PLF epifauna and P1 is steeper and shows higher species to establish the role of PLFs as unique richness when compared to P2 and seabed habitats. This knowledge supports REF. This may suggest the influence the assessment of the impact of proposed of geochemical activity as a result offshore pipeline routes and exploration of methane hydrate release at P1. drill sites on the Beaufort Sea ecosystem.

Fig. 4 - Quantitative and qualitative mapping on Gary Knoll’s PLFs P1, P2 and REF of all species recorded. Left: Echinodermata (except Ophiuridae) appear to be more abundant at the PLF sites. Center: Ophiuridae arise extremely abundant on all three test regions. Right: remaining Phyla occur considerably in a higher number and type of species close to the tops of the geological features.

83 Table 2 - Relative (per video transect meter [mv]) and absolute quantification of Echinodermata and Anthozoa according to their location: on top, in the periphery or in the surrounding of the PLFs. The variation in the relative abundance shows a relation between occurrence and slope.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Beaufort Sea Mapping Program, Geological Analysis”, Report of the Geological Survey We thank the officers and crew, the of Canada, Atlantic, 2006. shipboard scientific party for excellent [5] Campbell, A., Blasco, K., White, M., support during CCGS Nahidik cruises to Campbell, P., Burke, R. and Blasco, S.M., the Gary Knoll’s PLFs in 2006 and 2007. “2005 Beaufort Sea Mapping Program, The Natural Sciences and Engineering Geological Analysis”, Report of the Research Council Canada (NSERC) Geological Survey of Canada, Atlantic, provided support in granting a Visiting 2007. Fellowship in Canadian Government [6] Clarke, K.R., Warwick, R.M., “Change Laboratories as a part of the IPY. in marine communities: an approach to statistical analysis and interpretation”, 11. REFERENCES 2nd edition. PRIMER-E Ltd., Plymouth, 2001. [1] Atkinson, E.G., Wacasey, J.W., [7] Conlan K. Aitken, A., Hendrycks E., “Benthic invertebrates collected from the McClelland, C., Melling, H. “Distribution western Canadian Arctic, 1951 to 1985”, patterns of Canadian Beaufort Shelf Can. Data Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 745, macrobenthos”, Journal of Marine 1989. Systems 74, 864–886, 2008. [2] Boetius, A., Ravenschlag, K., Schubert, [8] Cusson, M., Archambault, P., Aitken, C.J., Rickert, D., Widdel, F., Gieseke, A., “Biodiversity of benthic assemblages A., Amann, R., Jørgensen, B. B., Witte, on the Arctic continental shelf: historical U., Pfannkuche, O., „A marine microbial data from Canada”, Mar. Ecol., Prog. Ser. consortium apparently mediating 331, 291–304, 2007. anaerobic oxidation of methane“, Nature, [9] Hovland, M., Svensen, H., “Submarine 407: 623-626, 2000. pingoes: Indicators of shallow gas [3] Berger, T.R., “Northern Frontier, hydrates in a pockmark at Nyegga, Northern Homeland. The report of the Norwegian Sea”, Marine Geology 228, Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry”, 15–23, 2006. Volume One. Ministry of Supply and [10] Jenks, G.F., “The Data Model Concept Services Canada, 1977. in Statistical Mapping”, International [4] Blasco, K., White, M., Campbell, P., Yearbook of Cartography 7: 186-190, Oickle, E., Burke, R., Blasco, S.M., “2004 1967.

84 [11] Jerosch, K., Schlüter, M., Foucher, J.P., Allais, A.G., Klages, M., Edy, C. „Spatial distribution of mud flows, chemoautotrophic communities, and biogeochemical habitats at Håkon Mosby Mud Volcano”, Marine Geology, 243, 1-17, 2007. [12] Paull, C.K., Ussler III, W., Dallimore, S.R, Blasco, S.M., Lorenson, T. D., Melling, H., Medioli, B.E., Nixon, F.M., McLaughlin, F.A. “Origin of pingo-like features on the Beaufort Sea shelf and their possible relationship to decomposing methane gas hydrates”, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L01603, 2007. [13] Paull, C.K., Normark, W.R., Ussler III, W, Caress, D.W., Keaten, R.. “Association among active seafloor deformation, mound formation, and gas hydrate growth and accumulation within the seafloor of the Santa Monica Basin, offshore California”, Marine Geology 250, 258–275, 2008. [14] MacKillop, K., pers. com., 2008 [15] Niemann, H., Lösekann, T., de Beer, D., Elvert, M., Nadalig, T., Knittel, K., Amann, R., Sauter, E., Schlüter, M., Klages, M., Foucher, J.P., Boetius, A.,. “Novel microbial communities of the Håkon Mosby mud volcano and their role as a methane sink”. Nature 443, 854– 858, 2006. [16] Sibuet, M., Olu-Le Roy, K., “Cold seep communities on continental margins: structure and quantitative distribution relative to geological and fluid venting patterns”. In: Wefer, G., Billett, D., Hebbeln, D., Jørgensen, B. B., Schlüter, M., Van Weering, T. (Eds.), Ocean Margin Systems, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, p. 235-251. 2002. [17] Tyler, P.A., “Conditions for the existence of life at the deep-sea floor: an update”, Oceanogr. Mar. Biol Annu. Rev. 33:221–244, 1995. [18] Wacasey, J.W., Atkinson, E.G., Derick, L., Weinstein, A., “Zoobenthos data from the southern Beaufort Sea”, 1971–1975. Fish. Mar. Serv. Data Rep. 41, 187 pp, 1977.

85 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN COLOMBIA: A NATIONAL EXPERIENCE P. Lozano-Rivera, C. García-Valencia, A. L. Rodríguez

Marine and Costal Research Institute “Jose Benito Vives de Andreis”, Cerro Punta Betín, Santa Marta Colombia, AA 1016. E-mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT Index Terms— Integrated Coastal Zone Several ecologic, economic and Management, GIS, Remote Sensing, Colombia institutional processes converge in coastal areas that require especial 1. INTRODUCTION planning and management. The study area of this research is the Colombian In a general context, part of the coastal zones, northwest corner of importance of coastal zone areas lies on South America. We describe the results that 72% and 20% of the earth’s surface from several Integrated Coastal Zone is covered by seas and coastal areas Management (ICZM) projects carried respectively, and that approximately 60% out between 2000-2010 by the Marine of the world’s population lives in coastal and Coastal Research Institute. The areas [1]. Coastal areas are also spaces methodology is based on the national where several ecological, economic and initiative COLMIZC (Colombian Integrated institutional processes convey conferring Coastal Management Methodology) that the need for particular planning and is supported on the use of transversal for specific management that respond tools such as Geographic Information to these specific environments. Such Systems and Remote Sensing. The strategies should reconciliate ecosystem’s progress of the ICZM plans is described conservation, the use of natural resources on Environmental Coastal Units (UAC in provided by such environments and aim Spanish). In general, 22% of coastal areas the sustainable development of these have been addressed by ICZM studies areas. that have identified a variety of coastal and marine geomorphologic features, Colombian coastal zones are defined ecosystems and land use units. Moreover, as a national space with natural, potential management units provided to demographic, social, economical and the decision makers include measures cultural characteristics, where interaction such as protection, ecosystems recovery, processes between sea, land and air sustainable and development. Another occur; where biodiversity supply goods important outcome is the identification and services that support activities such and location of problems and conflicts as fishing, tourism, shipping, harbor present in the coastal zones. GIS offers development, mining exploration; and diverse advantages related with facility where urban and industrial settlements for processing large amounts of data, are placed. It is a natural, unique, selection, definition and rate criteria for fragile and limited natural resource of environmental zoning. Nevertheless, we our country that demands and adequate found some limitations on this approach management in order to assure its related to information availability and conservation, its sustainable development differences in temporal and space scales. and its traditional communities’ cultural Colombia’s IZCM process is still in values [2-4]. progress, further work will include areas without ICZM and more detailed studies Considering the above, it becomes clear on submerged zones. that some of the causes originating this 86 situation are related to deficient planning and rocky shorelines; with the typical processes and lack of management productivity of tropical marine and coastal strategies accord to the needs of these ecosystems. areas. For this reason proper planning and management strategies are required Coastal zone pressures from population in order to: 1) solve problems and growth are not clearly evident in conflicts related to the several interests Colombia as they are in other parts of the from different users; 2) establish the word. However, there is a great threat environmental cost and impacts caused by over coastal resources particularly on human activities 3) set up guidelines that certain areas where coastal ecosystems improve coastal resources; 4) Identify are at a critical state [2]. This pressure coastal spaces of particular interests, as is developing mainly as consequence of well as resources at risk to guarantee their the land use patterns, which in most of protection and conservation; 5) place the the cases are incompatible with natural different uses and activities in such a way ecosystems’ sustainability. that are not incopatible Along the Colombian coastal zones, in Geographic information technology is a general, is evident the expansion of wider concept of (computerized) tools unplanned activities such as tourism, for handling spatial data, including waste disposal (domestic and industrial), multimedia tools. Geo-information destruction and/or habitat loss, loss of technologies integrate information with biodiversity related to flora and fauna their location (x and y coordinates). The overexploitation, coastal erosion and capacity of geo-information technologies conflicts arising from incompatible to integrate information make them very productive activities. Although the useful tools to support ICZM [5]. situation cannot be compared with the global situation, population growth along The present document shows the results the Colombian Caribbean has been the from diverse studies on Integrated most significant at the national level. Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) carried Barranquilla, Santa Marta and Cartagena, out at various locations of the Colombian the main urban areas have shown a coastal zones between 2000 and 2010. considerable population growth. In those studies geographic information technologies such as Geographic The ICZM process in Colombia has been Information System GIS and remote developed using the Environmental sensing, have been successfully applied Coastal Units (UAC by its Spanish acronym) for collecting, organizing, visualizing and which are defined as: environmental integrating marine and coastal information units, geographically continuous, with [6-12]. We present as well the advance clearly defined ecosystems, that require of environmental and management units a unique visualization and management knowledge and the progress of ICZM in order to bring together local and sub application. regional territorial entities. Currently the Colombia coastal zones are divided into 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS ten UAC (Figure 1), five in the continental Caribbean, one in insular Caribbean and 2.1. Study area four in the Pacific coastal zones.

There are 3.882 km of shorelines along 2.2. Methods the Colombian Pacific, Caribbean and insular zones; the Caribbean shoreline The method applied promotes the is 1642 km. [13]. There are several adoptions of ICZM in Colombia and types of ecosystems including mangrove proposes an environmental approach to forests, beaches, coastal lagoons, coral coastal zone planning. This methodology reefs, sedimentary sea beds, sea grasses, is compound by the following steps:

87 1) Preparation: this step includes based on Lozano-Rivera [14], is used the definition of boundaries of study mainly for land cover identification. Basic area; setting technical and scientific steps are images acquisition, atmospheric objectives; institutional arrangement, and geometric corrections, mosaic, field team conformation and stakeholder visit, region segmentation of image, identification. 2) Characterization and classification and vector edition and map diagnosis: inventory and description coverage elaboration. The integration of biophysical, socioeconomic and of information is carried out using the government characteristics; trough ecological landscape concept [15], an integral analysis and identification where characterization of study area of critical problems. 4) Environmental is stored by components, integrating zoning: definition of criteria and units of geomorphology, land coverage, management units. 5) Formulation of associated fauna, land use and productive guidelines plans: proposal of programs systems and governance. All components and management actions. As transversal are integrated in a GIS database that tools, besides GIS and remote sensing, allows calculating ecological landscape the methodology proposes participatory units (geomorphology + coverage + land actions of community and institutions and use). These units in conjunction with results divulgation and socialization [2]. whole compiled data (geodatabase) are the starting place for rating of zoning criteria and elaboration of environmental zoning.

Data capture and storage

Digitalization R emote Sensing Normalization Field work

• Atmospheric and geometric correction • Mask and mosaic • Segmentation • Classification • Map edition

Units creation

Geomorphology Coverage L and use Fauna

L andscape ecology units

R ating of zoning criteria

Preliminary zoning map

Zoning map no is Criteria review consistent?

yes

Zoning and thematic maps

Fig. 1 - Study area Fig. 2 - Geotechnologies methodology for ICZM

Use of geo-technologies includes 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION digitalization of existed geographic data, satellite images and aerial The advantages of using GIS tools are photographs processing, standardization commonly recognized, based on its easy and normalization of alphanumeric and ‘integration’ of different type of data from geographic data, field work, GPS locations, different disciplines. The term ‘integration’ GIS implementation and thematic maps in ICZM can be related to many aspects: elaboration. The Remote sensing method, integration of different levels in a

88 government, integration of government more effort to be completed. and non-government agencies and institutions, spatial integration of land- The main GIS request from scientists, based activities and marine issues, and technicians or decision makers is an integration of science and management. inventory of areas. Table 1 describes the These different types of integration require total area of Colombian coastal zones, large sets of data from several disciplines. emerged and submerged areas; it shows A substantial amount of this data has a as well the percentage of advance in ICZM spatial component and GIS becomes an by UAC. essential tool for supporting information analysis at the different levels. Moreover, We identified along the Caribbean the GIS allows incorporating field data and following geomorphology units: dunes historic information in a fast and efficient fields, beaches, alluvial fan, alluvial way and supports most of ICZM steps. plain, coastal lagoon, swamp, mangrove swamp, salt marsh, sandbanks, sand bars, There are some inherent technical ancient beaches, hills and mountains, limitations from the application of continental shelf, marine terraces, spurs, geoinformation tools that we had to solve and escarpments. Along the Pacific trough the development of the ICZM coast the geomorphology is dominated projects. Usually we had to use different by escarpments, cliffs, beaches, deltas, types of remote sensing products sandbars, alluvial valleys, swamps and according to information requirement mangrove swamps. Land cover units and satellite images availability, causing include urban and suburban areas, bare dissimilarities between spatial, temporal soil, grasslands, crops, aquaculture ponds, and spectral resolutions. Governmental stubbles, shrub vegetation, swamps, information availability is frequently of mangrove forest, tropical rain and dry limited access or in an inadequate format forest, forest plantation, herbaceous forcing time for adapting or creating vegetation, water bodies, salt marshes, data in order to incorporate into GIS. sedimentary and reef bottoms with coral In addition we observed difficulties to formations, rocky coastline, beaches and estimate areas due to the combination of beach vegetation. multi scale and multi source information. Land use units are mostly agricultural, Currently, we have worked on nine UAC livestock, aquaculture, artisanal and along the Colombian coastal areas. The industrial fisheries, transport, tourism, advance on this process during 2000- general services and trade, hunting, and 2010, is shown in Figure 3; there are only port development. two UAC where the entire ICZM process has been concluded (characterization, diagnosis, zoning and guidelines for a Management Plan). In three UAC the planning process is completed; in four UAC the characterization process has begun; and in one UAC the process has not started. If these results are express in terms of percentages of area, ICZM studies have achieved near of 22% of Colombia coastal zone, including emerged and submerged areas. Along the Caribbean and the Pacific coasts the advance is 15% and 74%, respectively. In the Caribbean the low advance can be explained by the presence of insular marine area (UAC-CI), which will require

89 UAC-LLAS

Pacific coastal UAC-MB zone UAC-RBRD

UAC-AC

UAC-CI

UAC-D

Caribbean coastal UAC-MS zone UAC-RM

UAC VNSNSM

UAC-AG

0 Characterization1 Diagnosis2 Zoning3 Management4 Plan

Fig. 3 - ICZM progress in Colombia by UAC

Table 1 - Areas of ICZM progress by UAC

Environmental zoning units have been ecosystems have not been significantly classified in five categories: 1) Protection distorted. Main recommended activities on zones: areas indexed into the National protected areas are ecotourism, scientific Protection Area System or areas research and educational programs. 2) susceptible to be protected. These zones Strategic ecosystems recovery zones: allow their ecologic auto regulation and show high deterioration conditions,

90 low auto regulation capacity, land use activities of ICZM, INVEMAR has developed conflicts and potential community a structured information system where agreement for recover activities. 3) geographic and alphanumeric data is Sustainable use zone, these areas have available for users. This system has high natural resource supplies which allow evolved during the past 10 years since the rational use trough traditional productive production of printed thematic maps to techniques. Main recommended activities the development of internet map services in these areas are subsistence activities (www.invemar.org.co). for rural populations, improvement of live conditions trough activities such as 4. CONCLUSIONS transport, artisanal fishing or aquiculture. 3) Sustainable production zone: these After these 10 years of work on ICMZ using areas are suitable for economic productive GIS, we conclude that the characterization development due to their aptitude and of coastal areas according to their biotic, potentialities (e.g. agriculture, livestock physic and governance characteristics is and forest extraction). These zones foresee one of most important contributions. The higher technological level and high natural opportunity to offer useful information resource intervention. 4) Industrial, port (e.g. environmental indicators, thematic and service development zone: these cartography) to decision maker is another areas are related with infrastructure, significant result from this process. ports and services activities or present In addition, GIS successfully supports these potentialities. These zones selection, definition and criteria rate to be require efficient social, economical and used on environmental zoning, facilitates environmental activities development. 5) and makes more dynamic the generation Urban and rural development zone: urban of environmental units making them more areas and population settlements. Main coherent and realistic, helping on planning activities are commercial, business and and decision making development. services. GIS allows us processing large amount of (spatial) data in a structured and Through geoinformation analysis organized way, integrating different types and participatory activities were also and sources of data using location as a identified environmental problems along common identifier. the coastal zone. Such problems are integrated to GIS trough landscape Nevertheless, there are limitations when ecology units. The main problems using GIS for ICZM. Some of those identified were: water contamination, limitations include availability of baseline coastal erosion, population settlements cartography, historical data and satellite on risk areas, deforestation, habitat images (adequate spectral, temporal loss, land use change, inappropriate and spatial resolution) as well as the productive techniques for resource dissimilarities on temporal and spatial extraction, unsustainable productive and scale of data sources. extractive activities, over exploitation of hydro biological resources and wild We consider the ICZM process in Colombia fauna, loss of natural landscape, deficient is still in progress although this national tourism development, unsuitable urban experience has taught us lessons on the growth, deficient income distribution, application of geo-technologies. Further land property concentrated in few, work will include the study of those areas poor productive project investment, without ICZM progress and more detail on deficient community and institution submerged zones. management participation, deficient coordination between institutions and, low 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS environmental planning, among others. The authors wish to thanks the Marine and As part of the divulgation and socialization coastal Research Institute especially to the

91 Coastal Management Research Program Colombia, 2003. team and the Ministry of Environment, [8] INVEMAR, CRC and CORPONARIÑO, Housing and Territorial Development and Unidad Ambiental Costera de la Llanura Environmental regional authorities. Aluvial del Sur: Caracterización, Diagnóstico Integrado y Zonificación 6. REFERENCES Ambiental, in: A. López (Ed.), Santa Marta, Colombia, 2006. [1] B. Cicin-Sain, V. Vandeweerd, P.A. [9] INVEMAR, CRC, CORPONARIÑO and Bernal, L.C. Williams and M.C. Balgos, IIAP, Formulación del Plan de manejo Meeting the Commitments on Oceans, Integrado de la zona costera del complejo Coasts, and Small Island Developing de las bocanas Guapi Iscuandé, Pacífico Status Made at the 2002 World Summit colombiano. Fase I Caracterización y on Sustainable Development: How Well Diagnóstico, in: P. SierraandA. López Are We Doing?. The Global Forum on (Eds.), Instituto de Investigaciones Oceans, Coasts and Islands Co-Chairs’ Marinas y Costeras INVEMAR, Santa Report, Third Global Conference on Marta, Colombia, 2003. Oceans, Coasts, and Islands: Moving the [10] INVEMAR, GOBERNACIÓN DE Global Oceans Agenda Forward UNESCO, ANTIOQUIA, CORPOURABA and Vol. 1, Paris, p. 65 2006. CODECHOCO, Formulación de los [2] D. Alonso, P. Sierra-Correa, F. Arias- lineamientos y estrategias de manejo Isaza and M. Fontalvo, Guía metodológica integrado de la Unidad Ambiental para el manejo integrado de zonas costeras Costera del Darién, in: A.P. Zamora, en Colombia, manual 1: preparación, A. LópezandS.-C. P.C. (Eds.), Serie de caracterización y diagnóstico, 2003. Documentos Generales INVEMAR No. 22, [3] MMA, Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. Santa Marta, Colombia, 2008. Política Nacional Ambiental Para el [11] López. A.C., P.C. Sierra-Correa, J.C. Desarrollo Sostenible de los Espacios Rodríguez and J.L. Freyre-Palau, Plan de Oceánicos y las Zonas Costeras e manejo integrado de la zona costera del Insulares de Colombia – PNAOCI, 2001, complejo de las bocanas Guapi Iscuandé, p. 95. Pacífico colombiano – Fase, II Serie de [4] R. Steer, F. Arias-Isaza, A. Ramos, P. Documentos Generales INVEMAR No. Sierra-Correa, D. Alonso and P. Ocampo, 17, INVEMAR-CRC-CORPONARIÑO- Documento base para la elaboración de IIAP. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda la “Política Nacional de Ordenamiento y Desarrollo Territorial, Santa Marta, Integrado de las Zonas Costeras Colombia, 2003. Colombianas”. Documento de consultoría [12] A. López-Rodríguez, J.C. Rodríguez- para el Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, Peláez, G. Arteaga-Morales, L.M. Prieto, Santa Marta, 1997. G. Almario, S. Espinosa and P.C. Sierra- [5] T. Moore, K. Morris, G. Blackwell, Correa, Unidad Ambiental costera de S. Gibson and A. Stebbing, “An Expert la Llanura Aluvial del Sur (UAC-LLAS), System for Integrated Coastal Zone Pacífico colombiano: Plan de manejo Management: A Geomorphological Case integrado de la zona costera. , Serie de Study”, Marine Pollution Bulletin 37, 1998. Documentos Generales INVEMAR No. 23, [6] INVEMAR, Ordenamiento Ambiental INVEMAR – CRC – CORPONARIÑO, Santa de la Zona Costera del Departamento Marta, Colombia, 2006. del Atlántico. Informe Final, in: A. López [13] INVEMAR, Informe del Estado de los (Ed.), INVEMAR – CRA, Santa Marta, Ambientes y Recursos Marinos y Costeros Colombia, 2007, p. 588 p + Cartografía en Colombia: Año 2008, Santa Marta, Anexa. 2009. [7] INVEMAR, CARSUCRE and CVS, [14] P. Lozano-Rivera, Técnicas Formulación del plan de manejo integrado de percepción remota y sistemas de la Unidad Ambiental Costera Estuarina de información geográfica para la del Río Sinú y Golfo de Morrosquillo, delimitación de bosques de manglar, Caribe colombiano, Santa Marta, Reporte final, orden de servicio No. 107-

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93 GOVERNANCE ISSUES FOR OCEAN SUSTAINABILITY: APPROACH TO AZOREAN MARINE JURISDICTIONS L. Paramio

CIBIO- Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources University of Azores, 9500-855 Ponta Delgada, Portugal. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT governance now appears as a way to establish the foundations of institutional Ocean governance issues had developed mechanisms, policies and programs disconnected approaches, the actual for current approaches to this process. interest about resolving the depletion Problems arising from current ocean uses of the environmental system and patterns seriously threaten the viability of implications at global development scales the marine environment, leading different leads us to seek new forms to improve countries to reconsider the governance ocean sustainability. Apply “sustainability systems of ocean uses [1] perspectives” at the ocean governance, is a crucial challenge, to design and develop Actual political developments at regional a sound ocean governance model. This and national level for integration at a paper describes the initial stage for Azores holistic level the marine affairs, are in ocean governance system, through the top of the ocean global agenda. general marine issues and presents These advances seek to establish national developing and existent institutional and ocean frameworks in coherence with the legal structures. The initial goal of these Law of the sea Convention (UNCLOS) structures will be identifying strategic dispositions. In this sense, the actual priorities for making adequate sustainable great interest is promoted in part by and integrated policies for marine Azorean the UNCLOS, based in the article 76º of development. the LOS, that have invited all assignant countries to presented proposal for Index Terms— Ocean Governance, extend their marine jurisdictions (beyond Sustainability, Ocean issues, legal dimension, the actual 200 nautical miles) and institutional dimension. consequently its resources exploration.

1. INTRODUCTION Other actual concerns, such as climate change and global financial crisis, showed Recently, human use of the ocean at implications at different governance global level has increased exponentially levels, threatening political structures reflecting a pattern of intensification and relations. For the ocean these of historical activities, as well as the implications affect the strategic priorities emergence of new uses. Following and measures; one example could this tendency to use the ocean is the be limited financing and exploration concentration and a significant population necessities. This entire situation has growth near the ocean, with increasing implications for the role of the ocean demand for food, energy and economic and the way it is governed, possible opportunities. The cumulative impact threats to sustainability, and a need to of these developments increases the raise awareness concerning approaches number of conflicts between ocean uses capable of maintaining ocean systems areas and is an imminent threat to ocean and where necessary restoring them [2] ecosystems sustainability. Moreover, this intense use of the oceans and seas by all 2. GOVERNANCE FOR OCEAN sectors, combined with climate change, SUSTAINABILITY powers the pressure exerted on the marine environment. Structuring ocean Actual ocean governance looks to the

94 sea as a global resource [2]. Ocean management and governance concepts are not synonymous, governance not only includes management process, but all other mechanisms and institutions that serve to alter and influence human behaviour [3]. Governance draws upon fundamental objectives and institutional processes for the basis of planning and decision making. Management, by contrast, is the process by which humans and resources are deployed to achieve a defined objective within an institutional Fig. 1 - Ocean Governance dimensions & structure known. Governance sets the Sustainability perspectives. stage at which management occurs. Governance is constituted by institutions, The features associated at the ocean formal and informal agreements and system (3D, flux, interconnectivity, behaviours, how resources are used, how complexity) are not the unique constrains the problems and chances are assessed, for sustainable oceans. Some problems about actions permitted or prohibited; interconnected to ocean sustainability and the regulation and sanctions that are occur as consequence of failures in applied [4]. governance. Some challenges that governance have to overcome are: The growing interdependence and the inadequate responses international 1. Zonal approach given by instruments policies are accorded, have lead to the as a Law of the Sea (LOS) and defined emergence of political rules with only and adapted ocean system boundaries partial success at local and regional level. are controversial; In this context, governance is seen as a policy synonymous of “adaptive” because 2. Role of the oceans at the global it currently goes beyond the political ecological system, and how to limit the dimension, as it integrates the idea of use and take conservation measures; “social-ecological resilience” [5]. This concept thus introduces the importance 3. Open access and common property and implications that policy decisions characteristics, special attention should may have on society and on ecological be given to regulate access and take systems, including response to the the decision for allocation, regulation, precautionary principle. monitoring and enforcement of rights of use, ownership, and stewardship to Sachs [6] described the dimension of marine resources. Providing effective sustainability applied to natural resources: means to prevent and reduce disputes; social (equity), economic (efficiency), ecological (carrying capacity and 4. The intergenerational and interspatial resilience), spatial (compatibility areas) effects of the use of ocean resources, and cultural (heritage and knowledge). specially the accumulative impacts and For ocean system the application of these where (special goals) and when (temporal perspectives is related to governance goals); dimensions (legal, institutional, mechanism of implementation, and 5. Uncertainty about the behavior of the decision-making behaviours and system; dynamics) is the approach aimed to achieve sustainability of the oceans 6. Consider and integrate the social value (Figure 1). of ocean and the services that could be develop starting from assets and required ways to guide behaviors . 95 international level specially, security and 7. Consider globalization because ocean surveillance. sometimes it ignores environmental externalities. Ocean use is particularly As a political unity autonomous regions susceptible to this problem. [7] have some powers related to the management of marine resources and 3. APPROACH TO AZORES SEA the use of ocean space, institutional arrangement is based in a autonomy 3.1. Characterisation framework that implies the exercise of their own legislative and executive powers, The Azores Islands in the North Atlantic as well as administrative and financial Ocean, located between 36º to 41º N autonomy [8] always in coherence with and 25º to 31º W, are an archipelago the rights approves by Azores statutes. composed by nine volcanic islands divided into 3 groups: eastern group (S. Miguel On the other hand Azores is considered and Sta. Maria), central group (Graciosa, in EU as an Ultraperipheral Region (UPR), Terceira,S. Jorge, Pico and Faial) and which benefits from the EU and its western group ( Flores and Corvo). With a institutions on the basis of a special effort total land surface of 2325 km2 and a sea to adapt policies and actions that have an territory that represents the biggest sub- impact on these regions according to their area of Portugal Economic Exclusive Zone unique conditions. In this respect some being the largest sub-area in Europe with political incentives are given with a goal 953,633 km2 [9]. Azores is an autonomous to integrate at community level in sectoral region of Portugal with a fair degree policies such as fisheries are always in of political and financial leeway. The negotiation state. geographical and administrative features mark the basis of governance regimes, 3.2. Azorean Ocean Issues for Azores peculiarities showing important implications in ocean governance. Some Different sea issues are highlighted below of them are: to provide a general characterization of the Azorean sea, all are interrelated and Insular regions have an important focus only in main characteristic points: component of isolation, this characteristics is remarked by own history, distance to 3.2.1. Culture and heritage the mainland, furthermore by territorial From the beginning of Azorean history, fragmentation, these peculiarities are the islands served as supply bases and reflected in a different temporal scale stopovers for ships in their long ocean for the development and in the society voyages to the New World. This provides dynamic. historic ties with influence on culture and society: for example, whaling was The inherent oceanic character of island an important activity for the Azorean groups has an influence on governance population which have a important regime, which should be clearly oriented relation with migratory flux. towards the sea environment on which they depend for development. An 3.2.2. Fisheries important privilege is given by this Fisheries are an important economic allocation and the unique biophysical and activity on all islands. Fishing methods environmental conditions being a research are highly traditional among Azorean platform in different areas, oceanography, fishermen,. The sizable EEZ, has access geology, biology. Other characteristics are conflicts boundaries and measures to implicit at this point as a geo-strategical manage this area. Demersal fishing is allocation in the Atlantic, as a boundary/ the most important fishery at economic bridge between America and Europe, with level, besides tuna which supports the difference political implications at the canning industry, In this sense research

96 projects search for measures to mitigate In the beginning Azores marine research impacts. [10] Fisheries and its industry had been carried out by foreign scientists, have important export value. studies by Azorean scientist started to increase in the early 1980s when the 3.2.3. Marine Conservation University of Azores was created [10]. This The Azores Ecosystem is part of the issue has great potential, at the moment Macaronesia bio-geographical region. we may consider that research in Azores Conservation priorities are supported by seas is mainly developed in the University the great number of instruments that of Azores by Oceanography and Fisheries exists to manage natural resources. Department (DOP), and by other research Oceanographic conditions from the gulf centres at the University of Azores. stream generate an arm nominated Several international projects have Azores Current which brings unique cooperation with the Azores University conditions as it transports water of and its research centres. Research needs equatorial and tropical origin into the focus not only offshore, coastal research colder northern waters, with high salinity studies have great importance too. , high temperature and low nutrient regime [11]. For marine biodiversity the Azores was proposed as excellent platform marine fauna and flora has a low number to support oceanographic research in the of endemic species, with the majority wider Atlantic [12]. A proposal to create a of the Azorean coastal and marine biota centre for resources and sustainability is being very modern and comprising under consideration.. species that have arrived predominantly from the eastern Atlantic, especially 3.2.5. Transports the area between southern Europe Maritime transport is the principal (Lusitanian Region) and northwest Africa entry for goods at the islands but the (Mauretanian Region), including the maritime transportation structure is not Mediterranean, but also contains species consolidated, especially between islands. from other Atlantic sources. Azores Azores is one of the desirable destinations. archipelago is considered as important areas for several species of marine birds, 3.2.6. Recreation species of marine turtles occurs in Azores. Maritime leisure activity has seasonal In terms of marine mammals, the region characteristics, influenced by climacteric is a privileged location for sighting whales conditions, developing primarily between and dolphins. [10] the months of May and October. [11]

All this natural heritage is protected by The importance of the Azores for sailing an innovative conservation instrument, is particularly important at Faial island. the regional network of protected areas, Whale watching started in 1993; since that conveys a homogeneous status on thenactivity has been continuously all existing legal areas (including Natura growing and has now become a successful Network) and no legal environmental industry in the Azores. The conversion of figures (Ramsar and Important Bird whale fisheries to whale watching tourism Areas), with a management unit for in the Azores has been a successful each island (included territorial waters, initiative, with whalers providing much 12 nautical miles) and one more for aid and expertise to scientific researchers, all. ”Azorean marine waters” (EEZ), even to the extent that former whalers denominated Azores Marine Park. are employed by many of the whale watching companies [12]. Diving is a Other legal specific instruments exist to growing activity protect and manage coastal and marine areas and species. Research tourism is an activity in practice at Azores, some restriction are being 3.2.4.Research developing at the moment specially in

97 marine protected areas as hydrothermal manganese were found at continental shelf vents and banks. south of the Azores. Marine biotechnology is a young sector of knowledge and 3.2.7. Maritime infrastructures and therefore should be considered as part of defense research and development. Life around deep hydrothermal vents has a wide Ports have core of military along of history range of potential applications: antibiotic, with the capitanias that have competence catalyzes, etc [11]. of defense and management of ports and marinas. In Azores there are two principal 4. AZORES GOVERNANCE SYSTEM ports, Ponta Delgada and Angra de Heroismo but there is a growing interest To make the approach to Azores ocean in the construction of ports and harbours governance framework is necessary to for coastal development [11]. consider it at an international, regional and national level (Table 1). At international 3.2.8 Coastal system level the development and evolution of Coastal areas have occupation, especially ocean governance are sustained in: in small Islands. For ocean development 1. A first global framework based on the role of the coastal areas has a great principles of international law: the Law importance to support the activities of the Sea (LOS); Chapter 17 of Agenda and the governance process (distance, 21, Action Plan (1992) at the United infrastures, etc.) Other coastal problems Nations Conference on Environment are associated such as erosion, and the and Development (UNCED) and Plan of rise of sea level. Implementation adopted at World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 3.2.9 Areas beyond national jurisdiction Johannesburg in 2002, which establishes These areas provide a challenge to the general principles and rules for global governance, with limitations to control application. and management, both in terms of physical conditions and at legal level. The 2. A second framework comprising Portuguese task group for continental regulatory regimens consisting in a variety shelf extension presented a proposal of instruments for the implementation for extension with two particular areas of general rules at the global level: for that correspond to hydrothermal vents, example, regulatory tools that address Lucky Strike and Rainbow, with a great specific sources of pollution; multilateral importance in resources (mineral and environmental agreements and regional biological) [11] and at this moment are levels, for example, Regional Seas being clasificated as Natura Network Conventions. Sites. Actually this point is a challenge at legal level, between European directives At regional level for Atlantic and for Azores and Law of the Sea disposition. to the conventions are: Agreement on the implementation of conservation measures 3.2.10..Future uses: of offshore resources, adopted by the Some potential uses could be: FAO Conference in 1993, states marine Allocation of wind farms needs research. biological resources and sets international Islands have a high potential of wave conservation and management. OSPAR energy due to fairly regular waves Convention is one of the regional generated by wind movement and even instruments that have most contributed stronger. A tentative enterprise was to the preservation of Azores marine developed at Pico Island but proved environment designating marine unsuccessful. protected areas and elaborate measures to conservation. Prospecting is one potential sector, iron magnesia nodules, with high composition We have to take in consideration

98 European Community (EC) level. Two (Figure 1) a clear Institutional structure driving instruments exists to implement need coherence with a legal dimension. the protection and use of marine waters, Azores institutional ocean governance Water Framework Directive, for coastal is framed at the National structure. At water quality and Marine Strategy the beginning of 2010 Azores approved Framework Directive, for the rest of EEZ its own institutional schedule that of each member State. Natura Network by would allow coordinate of affairs for an “Birds” and “Habitats” Directives reports integrate governance of the Azorean protection on coastal and marine habitats sea. Some of the principal competences for 19 Special Areas of Conservation of the coordination group CIAMA are: (SAC) and 15 Special Protection Areas support European Marine Strategy and (SPA) harmonization with regional instruments, relation with national structures (see At national level, Portugal have developed figure 2), coordination, implementation sectoral rather than unified policies and monitoring measures at cross-policies for coastal and ocean domains, only related with maritime affairs, develop a after 2004 and following the European marine spatial plan (POEMA). recommendations were out two documents outlining strategies, the bases for the National Integrated Coastal Zone Management Strategy and the National Strategy for the Oceans.. National Programme for Territorial Planning policy (2006) is the overarching instrument to regulating the organization and utilization of national territory. Two other types of instruments at higher level are the special land-use plans, comprising among ocean domains: coastal zone management plans, protected areas, and the sectoral plans that have territorial incidence, as marine spatial plans [13].

At the regional level, Azores ocean governances system are now developing as the basis for ocean governance. Nevertheless, some sectoral instruments related to ocean domain have already been developed. These are supported by jurisdiction and spatial domains, in this way territorial planning is assured by means of regional territorial management plans; In particular coastal zone management plans (CZMP) are developed practically for the nine islands. Azores Maritime Spatial Plan (AMSP) begins now to be elaborated. These instruments, together with the Azores Regional Protected Area Network, including Azores Marine Park, will be a spatial legal framework for all Azorean Marine waters (Table 1).

In accordance with the perspective of sustainability and governance process

99 5. CONCLUSIONS

Table 1 - Legal Framework to support ocean governance structure for Azores.

Establishing structures with a legal of designing such programmes and they dimension of ocean governance are a must be development in a strategic way critical first step towards sustainable to ensure the sustainability of the sea development and an ecosystem approach of Azores. The unique component of However, it is necessary to define the the Azorean archipelago must be well mechanism and dynamics for such a understood to allow policy makers scope process. Azores is now in the early phases to give these proper emphases.

100 Fig. 2 - Institucional structure for support ocean governance in Azores (Council of Regional Government Resolution 8/2010 (15/01/2010))

11. REFERENCES 2008. 32(6): p. 1090-1093. [6] Sachs, I. “Transition Strategies for [1] T. P. Hughes, et al. New paradigms the 21st Century.” Nature and Resources for supporting the resilience of marine (Paris) 28 (1992), no. 1. ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & [7] Costanza, R., et al., Ecological Evolution. Vol:20(7). 380-386(2005. economics and sustainable governance of [2] Borgese, E.M.. The Oceanic Circle – the oceans. Ecological Economics, 1999. Governing the Seas as a Global Resource. 31(2): p. 171-187. United Nations University Press, Tokyo, [8] Suárez de Vivero, J.L., Atlantic Japan 1998 archipelagic regions: self-government [3] Juda L, Hennessey T. Governance and ocean management in the Azores, profiles and the management of the Madeira and Canary Islands. Ocean & uses of large marine ecosystems. Ocean Coastal Management, 1995. 27(1-2): p. Development and International Law 47-71. 32:41-672001. [9] Regional Government of Azores, [4] Juda L.. Consideration in developing Azorean contribution to a Future a functional approach to the governance European Maritime Policy. Maritime Green of large marine ecosystems. Ocean Paper, 2006. Position, downloaded at: Development and International Law http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/ 30(2):89-125. 1999 contributions_post/31azorean_en.pdf [5] Cheong, S.-M., A new direction in [10] Santos, R.S., Hawkins, S., Monteiro, coastal management. Marine Policy, L.R., Alves, M., Isidro, E.J. (1995).

101 Marine research and conservation in the Azores. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, vol. 5, pp. 311- 354. [11] SaeR/ACL,2009. O Hypercluster da Economia do Mar. Um domínio de potencial estratégico para o desenvolvimento da economia portuguesa [12] O’Connor, S., Campbell, R., Cortez, H., & Knowles, T., 2009, Whale Watching Worldwide: tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits, a special report from the International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth MA, USA, prepared by Economists at Large. Downloaded: http:// www.ifaw.org/Publications/Program_ Publications/Whales/asset_upload_ file639_55365.pdf [13] Carneiro, G., The parallel evolution of ocean and coastal management policies in Portugal. Marine Policy, 2007. 31(4): p. 421-433.

102 GIS APPLICATIONS IN MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: EXAMPLES OF SPATIAL MANAGEMENT MEASURES FROM BERMUDA J.M. Pitt1 & M.L. Shailer2 1Department of Environmental Protection, P.O. Box CR52, Crawl CRBX, Bermuda 2Department of Conservation Services, P.O. Box FL588, Flatts FLBX, Bermuda. E-mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT permanently or on a temporary basis, has long been an important tool in GIS technologies have many roles in both terrestrial and marine resource marine resources management. This paper management. In the marine context, discusses their role in the delineation of the practice goes back millennia, with closure areas for spatial management of the customary tenure systems of Pacific resource extraction, providing examples island communities often involving areas of different types of closures with various that were closed to fishing [1]. Closing objectives in a variety of locations. The areas of the sea as a technical measure to benefit of being able to calculate the control fishing has a relatively long history exact size of closed areas in order to in the west as well [2], and Bermuda’s first further the case for closure and measure Fisheries Act in 1912 included provisions progress towards management goals is for closing specified areas to fishing [3]. noted. The role of GIS in communicating management measures to the public is Spatial closures can be utilized to address also highlighted, focusing on the timely a variety of fisheries management creation of readily understandable maps objectives, but their effectiveness that can be distributed electronically depends on the life history of the stock and the production of data that can be as well as regulations in place outside of combined with navigational instruments. the closure area. For relatively sedentary These improvements in communications stocks, closing an area to harvest activities also promote adaptive management and creates a refuge that protects a portion assist enforcement. of the biomass, as a kind of insurance in case other management measures fail [4, Index Terms - Marine resources 5, 6]. However, it is generally recognized management, spatial management, time / area that closing areas to fishing may simply closures, GIS, Bermuda lead to the redistribution of effort without reducing fishing mortality, and that, if 1. INTRODUCTION harvest reduction is required, the use of closures should be one tool in a suite of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) management measures that control catch technologies have many roles in marine and effort [2, 4, 5, 6, 7]. resources management. They provide a powerful tool for storing, manipulating, The theoretical benefits of harvest analysing and comparing spatial data to refugia, also known as fishery reserves, enable the assessment and monitoring go beyond the protection of individuals, of marine resources, as well as patterns as the population inside the closed areas of resource use. For resource managers, may then supplement the stock outside an important output application of GIS is via the supply of recruits or through in the spatial management of extractive the migration of adults (spillover) once activities. densities reach certain levels [6, 8]. However, the evidence supporting these Closing off certain areas to extractive benefits is somewhat equivocal, with activities, whether it be fully or partially, positive results dependent on life history

103 of the species, status of the stock, other closure may be a viable alternative that management measures and a range of still permits some degree of harvest other variables [8]. For complex, multi- [2, 6, 7]. Seasonal closure of spawning species fisheries and data-poor situations, aggregation sites is now common in fishery reserves may be the best available coral reef ecosystems, where many management option, but the caveats of species come together in large groups the previous paragraph must apply [8, 9]. at defined locations and predictable Building on harvest refugia by working to times to reproduce [13, 14, 15]. Indeed, limit other damaging uses of the marine Bermuda was the first place to enact such environment and address contamination management measures in 1976, and issues can help restore ecosystem has three seasonal closures operating at integrity and function, thus promoting present [3, 14, 15]. The North Sea ‘Plaice resilience and contributing not only to the Box’ was a good example of a time / health of fish stocks but also that of the space closure that afforded protection to wider ecosystem [6, 7]. This approach the aggregated juveniles of a harvested tends to focus on biodiversity and species [16]. However, broader ecosystem ecosystem conservation goals however. changes encouraged the spread of the juveniles to other areas, and this case For fisheries, spatially-based management illustrates that such measures must be measures are frequently a tool for carefully applied and monitored [17]. resolving conflict, whether the conflict is between certain gear types and habitat Rotating spatial closures can be useful for types, or between different user groups. building up stocks of sessile organisms An example of the former is the closure of such as bivalves, where pulsed fishing over 1000 km2 of deepwater Oculina coral can allow the stock to recover to densities habitat on the Florida shelf to trawling, that allow harvesting to be more cost- dredging and benthic longlines in order effective [2, 6, 7]. The primary advantage to protect the structurally complex coral of rotating closures over seasonal harvest habitats and their associated fauna [10]. bans or straightforward pulsed fishing The intent of this type of measure is (e.g. in alternate years), is that the supply epitomized by the Habitat Preservation of product remains consistent, and this Zone of the Great Barrier Reef Marine form of closure was common in traditional Park zoning system [11]. An example of community-based management [6, 7]. In conflict resolution between user groups addition to giving populations of target is the Inshore Potting Agreement, a organisms time to increase, this strategy long-standing voluntary separation of can also allow the rest of the benthic static potting gear and mobile trawling community to recover to a greater extent and dredging activities off the south if the intervals between fishing pulses coast of England [12]. This community- are sufficient [12]. However, the use based management initiative benefits of rotating closures as a management both sectors of the local fishing industry strategy requires timely and effective by reducing gear damage and loss, and communication with stakeholders as the also has benefits for the environment, in closed areas change, and such closures that there are some areas of the benthos have been somewhat underutilized as a that are not subjected to trawling where result [6]. However advances in GIS and faunal communities can co-exist with the GPS technology may lead to an increase in less destructive fixed potting gear [12]. the use of rotating closures in the future. What does the advent of GIS mean For many fishery species, a closed for spatial management measures in season aimed at protecting reproductive practice? First, it must be noted that the organisms or new recruits is applied in influence of GIS cannot really be separated the form of a total ban on harvest, but from that of its sister technology, GPS. for species that reproduce or recruit in The joint impacts of these technologies relatively defined areas, a time / space can be categorized under delineation,

104 communication and enforcement. compliance, and GIS facilitates this in several ways, from paper maps to web- In Bermuda, at least, boundaries of based maps and downloadable data closed areas were traditionally based layers. Using a variety of proprietary and on distances that had to be estimated open source software, GIS data layers can visually, compass bearings and lines of be converted into formats for use with sight from landmarks, depth contours that Google Earth and many commonly used required continuous monitoring of a depth GPS chartplotters. Provided the converted sounder for compliance, and intervals data adheres to appropriate standards of latitude and longitude as marked on of accuracy, incorporation of closure Admiralty Charts. These limited options boundaries into onboard GPS devices can often resulted in closures that were larger also aid enforcement. In highly developed than strictly necessary, with ambiguous fisheries utilizing vessel monitoring boundaries which were awkward to systems (VMS), GIS can also be used to enforce. However, while GIS can be analyse VMS data for compliance with used to delineate complex boundaries closed areas [18]. based on conceptual definitions, closure areas should be easy to recognize and 2. DESCRIPTION OF CASE STUDY enforce, and the use of visible features LOCATION to help define boundaries is desirable. Unfortunately, in the absence of man- Bermuda is a small pseudo-atoll island made markers, distinguishing features of chain located in the western north Atlantic the marine environment are usually under at 32° 20’ N and 64° 45’ W. It is the water and often not visible to those on the location of the northern-most coral reefs surface. Remote sensing products such as in the Atlantic Ocean. For the purposes aerial photos and satellite imagery can be of managing marine resources, Bermuda used in a GIS to digitize these features waters are divided into the shallow and put closure areas in a spatial context platform which tops the ancient volcano that users can understand and recognise that created the island, and offshore while on the water. waters. The official delineation between these areas is considered to be the break Another advantage of GIS technology is at the 200 m depth contour, at which point the ability to calculate the exact extent of the sides of the volcanic pedestal slope closure areas, and express these areas as steeply to depths of 1000 m and greater a percentage of the total area available. over a lateral distance of 2 - 5 km. The Such figures can be used to further the area of the shallow platform is 991 km2, case for closure or evaluate progress and this compares to a total land area of towards habitat protection goals. 53.7 km2 (Figure 1). These proportions illustrate the importance of the marine Informed consultation on proposed environment and its associated resources management measures, and compliance to the Bermudian people. with existing ones, are both difficult to achieve when the system is too complex An interesting feature of the Bermuda for stakeholders to understand [18]. platform is the series of algal-vermetid Perhaps the most important role of GIS cup reefs, or ‘breakers’, that ring the in marine resources management is in platform in the vicinity of the 10 m depth the creation of maps to clearly explain contour [19]. These reefs frequently existing, changing and newly proposed break the surface, forming a visible regulated areas to members of the public, natural delineation between the shallower along with their underlying rationale [18]. and deeper areas of the platform (Figure Using layers, options for the location and 1). Of the total platform area, 545.6 km2 dimensions of proposed closures can be is shallower than 10 m, while 445.4 km2 is readily compared and evaluated. at depths of 10 – 200 m (Figure 1). Sharing quality mapping data improves

105 popular activity. The legislation protects plants and animals that are attached to the seabed from harvest or damage. The total area encompassed under this designation is 131 km2, or 13 % of the Bermuda platform. These areas are now largely redundant since the protection of all hard and soft coral species from harvest under a Protected Species Order. They are, however, a classic illustration of the traditional methods for delineating closed areas based on latitude and longitude lines on the Admiralty Chart (the North Shore Preserve) and lines of sight from Fig. 1 - The Bermuda Platform, delimited by terrestrial landmarks (the South Shore the 200 m depth contour and showing the 10 Preserve) (Figure 2). m depth contour to illustrate the approximate distribution of the ‘breaker’ reefs.

3. SOFTWARE AND METHODS

All Bermuda’s current marine closure areas have now been digitized using ESRI’s ArcGIS Desktop software (version 9.3.1). Based on boundary descriptions from the relevant legislation, or direct communication with staff of the Marine Resources Section, polygon shapefiles of each area were digitized using standard GIS techniques, and are stored and managed within the Department of Conservation Services’ file-based spatial information infrastructure. When a Fig. 2 - The north and south shore coral reef boundary description included reference preserves (hatched areas) and Protected to an existing feature, such as a shipping dive sites (circles). Note the concentration of the protected dive sites in the vicinity of the channel or depth contour, a scanned ‘breaker’ line. and georeferenced version of the U.K. Hydrographic Office’s Admiralty Chart 4.2. Protected dive sites number 334 was used as the reference layer. The GIS database also includes a Beginning in the late 1980s and georeferenced aerial photograph from culminating in 2000, a series of 29 2004 for reference. popular dive sites were closed to all fishing and collecting activity. Two factors 4. EXAMPLES influenced these closures. First, there was a need to install permanent moorings at 4.1. Coral Preserves the most popular sites in order to reduce the amount of damage being done to the Designated in 1966 under the Coral Reef coral reef by the anchors of the various Preserves Act, the two coral reef preserves dive and tour boats that used these sites. (hatched areas in Figure 2) are the oldest Second, it was felt that some separation regulated marine areas currently in force. of marine tourism and fishing activities Their goal was to protect corals and the was warranted, and that unless the areas structural integrity of important areas around the moorings were closed to of coral reef habitat when the advent of harvesting, then fishing boats would use SCUBA diving made collection of corals a them as well. 106 Since the moorings were the starting irregularity of this zone, and noting that point for this initiative, they were also the total area encompassed under this used as the basis for the closure areas. management measure is 244 km2, or 25 Depending on the location and primary % of the Bermuda platform, reinforces uses of the different sites, closures were the extent of the area. This also provides designated based on a radius of between a counter argument for those who 100 m and 1 km. Most sites have a radius would like to see greater restrictions. In of 300 m, five sites have a radius of 500 addition, having the GIS layer available to m or 600m, and there is a single site distribute to users makes it possible for with a 1 km radius of protection (Figure them to compare the GPS co-ordinates 2). For the purposes of developing maps of their fishing locations with those of the for public distribution, polygon layers of management zone in order to confirm these protected areas were generated that their activities are not infringing on with an ArcDesktop buffer analysis using the zone. the designated radius for each site. The GPS co-ordinates of the buoy at each dive site were used as the input point for the buffers.

The total area encompassed under this management measure is 13.7 km2, or just 1.4 % of the Bermuda platform. That the percentage of the platform under full permanent protection is so small, and that most of this area falls within a single habitat zone (Figure 2), are primary motivating factors for developing comprehensive marine spatial planning.

4.3. Management of Spearfishing Fig. 3 - The 1 nm / 1.85 km spearfishing exclusion zone around the islands. The nearshore zone in which spearfishing 4.4. Management of the Spiny Lobster is prohibited is a longstanding Harvest management measure which removes spearfishers from swimming areas in The spiny lobster fishery has both order to reduce the likelihood of injuries commercial and recreational components. to swimmers. As with many measures As such, the management of harvesting that separate conflicting user groups, activities needs to focus not only on the there is also an environmental benefit in target organisms but also needs to include that the fish species particularly targeted some spatial separation of conflicting by this method enjoy at least a partial user groups. Both types of harvest harvest refuge in this area. However, require a licence from the Department although banning spearfishing within of Environmental Protection, and minor 1 nautical mile (1.85 km) of the island changes to management measures can be is theoretically simple, the complex instituted through changes in the Terms coastline results in this measure being and Conditions associated with these less clear cut that it might at first seem. licences. This approach allows a more The spearfishing exclusion zone was timely response to any changes noticed generated in ArcGIS using a 1 nautical mile in the stock, and facilitates adaptive (1.85 km) buffer analysis of the existing management. This approach would not be Bermuda islands shoreline shapefile, feasible, however, without the availability available from the Ministry of Works and of GIS to create and distribute revised Engineering. The visual representation maps. helps spearfishers appreciate the

107 % plus 18 % of the shallow platform area inside the 10 m depth contour.

4.5. Evolution of seasonal spawning aggregation closures off the east end

Seasonally protected area closures were established in the 1970s to protect spawning aggregations of Red hinds, Epinephelus guttatus [15]. Initially these areas were cones based on lines-of-sight and compass bearings (hatched areas in Figure 5) but this system unnecessarily restricted activities in areas close to shore Fig. 4 - Inshore areas where lobster harvest when the important spawning activity is not permitted at all (light grey), and the needing protection was taking place close additional reservoir area where commercial to the edge of the platform. Use of the lobster fishing is not permitted (dark grey). 200 m depth contour as the outer limit of the closures still permitted trolling along Spiny lobsters undertake significant the platform edge, however. The two migrations across the Bermuda platform, areas off the east end of the island were but are known to settle in inshore waters redesigned in 2005, following the 2004 [20]. Accordingly, the lobster fishing discovery of a Black grouper, Mycterperca exclusion area, where no harvest is bonaci, spawning aggregation in the area permitted, follows the entire inshore line between the two original cones.The 200 of the islands and extends northward to m depth contour remains as the outer the South Channel (light grey area, Figure limit, but the amalgamated site is now a 4). band whose inner margin is a straight line approximately 2 km in from the platform Recreational harvesters noose lobsters edge, with the northern and southern while free-diving, so this activity is limited boundaries simply delimited by sets of to relatively shallow waters, and the co-ordinates (solid area to the right in commercial lobster harvest is reported Figure 5). The area now covered by the based on offshore versus inshore areas, Northeastern Seasonally Protected Area delineated by the ‘breaker’ line at the 10 is 36.9 km2, all of which lies between 20 m depth contour. The Lobster Reservoir, m and 200 m. This compares to a total of where commercial lobster trap fishing is 58.2 km2 covered by the former northeast not permitted but recreational harvest and southeast areas. Evolving from may take place, was digitized according the cone system to the more technical to the specifications of the Senior offshore band opens up a lot of nearshore Marine Resources Officer, using the U.K. space where fishing may now take place. Hydrographic Office Admiralty Chart While not having a visible feature to number 334 as a reference. It is directly set the boundaries against could make adjacent to the northern boundary of the enforcement more complicated, with lobster fishing exclusion area, and follows almost every vessel equipped with GPS the North Shipping Channel for much of technology, users can easily determine its boundary (dark grey area, Figure 4). where they are in relation to this closure The eastern margin follows the boundary area, so this was considered a reasonable of the North Shore Coral Preserve (see approach. 4.1), previously established along longitude line 64° 50’ W. Spiny lobsters The southwestern seasonal closure area therefore receive full protection from has been left as a line-of-sight cone harvest in 81.7 km2 of inshore waters, covering 112.5 km2. Of this, 21.2 km2 and protection from commercial harvest lie within the shallow area inside the in an additional 96.1 km2, equating to 15

108 breakers, while 91.2 km2 are in waters of The total area encompassed under this between 10 m and 200 m depth. GIS was management measure is 1.7 km2, or 0.2 used to create maps for distribution when % of the Bermuda platform. the areas were changed in 2005. The total area presently managed through these annual seasonal closures is 149.5 km2, or 15 % of the Bermuda platform.

Fig. 6 - Blue striped grunt Fish Aggregation Area.

5. DISCUSSION Fig. 5 - Current (solid) and former (hatched) Seasonally Protected Areas to the east and west The designation of closed areas is an of Bermuda. attempt to balance the wants and needs of the resource users and the mandate of 4.6. Blue striped grunt Fish managers to ensure that the resource is Aggregation Area closure used wisely. The use of GIS, in conjunction with available GPS technology, improves An example of a nearshore seasonal flexibility in the delineation of closure closure, the Blue striped grunt Fish areas, as in the case of the northeastern Aggregation area has been closed for the seasonally protected area (see 4.5), months of May and June each year since reducing unnecessary closed areas and 2007, and is regulated using a provision improving stakeholder equity. of the Fisheries Act 1972 which enables the temporary prohibition of fishing GIS also facilitates enhanced in any area demonstrated to be a fish communications with stakeholders aggregation area for up to 90 days at a by providing a visual representation time, based on published notification in the of the issues and assigning numbers Official Gazette. This temporary measure to previously nebulous areas (see is being used pending confirmation of the 4.3). This can improve stakeholder exact nature and spatial extent of what is understanding and help generate support almost certainly a spawning aggregation for management measures. GIS has a [21], at which time a permanent Protected key role in communicating management Areas Order may be created under the measures to the public, because it Fisheries Act. The area extends from the facilitates the timely creation of readily shoreline and utilises existing features understandable maps that can be printed such as the navigation channel and a line or distributed electronically. This is critical of sight to the Bermuda Radio tower. This for adaptive management, as illustrated closure area was digitized in accordance by the case of the lobster fishery (see to the boundary descriptions published in 4.2), for efficient changeover to new the official gazette, using the Admiralty regulations (see 4.5), and for utilizing Chart number 334 as a reference layer temporary closure measures, as for the for the location of the shipping channel Blue striped grunt Aggregation Area (see and the land based reference points. 4.6).

109 More efficient and effective communication Herpetologists Special Publication No. 4, in turn improves compliance. Electronic Allen Press, Kansas, U.S.A., 1999. maps illustrating management changes [4] Sumaila, U.R., S. Guenette, J. Alder, can be made available instantly over the D. Pollard and R. Chuenpagdee, Marine internet and, as Government increasingly protected areas and managing fished takes its services online, electronic ecosystems, Chr. Michelsen Institute for distribution fits in with new business Development Studies and Human Rights, processes. With up-to-date maps of Bergen, Norway, 1999. management areas readily accessible, [5] S.N. Murray, R.F. Ambrose, the onus is now on users to ensure that J.A. Bohnsack, L.W. Botsford, M.H. Carr, they stay informed and abide by the G.E. Davis, P.K. Dayton, D. Gotshall, D.R. regulations. A recent agreement with Gunderson, M.A. Hixon, J. Lubchenco, leading GIS software provider ESRI will M. Mangel, A. MacCall, D.A. McArdle, permit the development of a web-based J.C. Ogden, J. Roughgarden, R.M. Starr GIS to share this information in an and M.J. Tegner, “No-take Reserve interactive manner. Networks: Sustaining Fishery Populations and Marine Ecosystems”, Fisheries, vol. Having these closure areas captured in a 24, pp. 11-25, 1999. GIS assists enforcement by making the [6] Jennings, S., M.J. Kaiser, and J.D. closure boundaries, converted into .gpx Reynolds, Marine Fisheries Ecology, files or tracks, available for incorporation Blackwell Science, Oxford, U.K., 2001. into the GPS navigation systems of both [7] King, M., Fisheries Biology Assessment fishers and wardens (J. Edmunds, pers. and Management, Second Edition, comm.). This simplifies judgement as to Blackwell Publishing, Victoria, Australia, whether or not fishers are in violation. 2007. While vessel monitoring systems (VMS) [8] Russ, G.R., “Yet another review have many benefits, Bermuda is not yet in of marine reserves as reef fishery a position to implement such a measure. management tools”, Chapter 19 / pp. Lastly, the separate maps shown here 421- 443 in P.F. Sale (editor), Coral Reef illustrate the complex nature of the Fishes, Elsevier, California, U.S.A., 2002. various spatial management measures [9] C.M. Roberts, and N.V.C. Polunin, in existence in Bermuda. The next phase “Marine Reserves: Simple Solutions to will be to use GIS to incorporate the Managing Complex Fisheries?” Ambio, management measures discussed here vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 363-368, 1993. into a new, integrated marine spatial [10] J.K. Reed, “Deep-water Oculina coral management plan over the course of the reefs of Florida: biology, impacts, and next 10–15 years. management, Hyrdobiologia, vol. 471, no. 1-3, pp. 43-55, 2002. 6. REFERENCES [11] J.C. Day, “Zoning: lessons from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park”, Ocean & [1] R. E. Johannes, “The Renaissance Coastal Management, vol. 45 pp. 139–15, of Community-based Marine Resource 2002. Management in Oceania,” Annual Review [12] R.E. Blyth, M. J. Kaiser, G. Edwards- of Ecology and Systematics, vol. 33, pp. Jones and P.J.B. Hart, “Implications of a 317-340, 2002. zoned fishery management system for [2] Waugh, G., Fisheries Management: marine benthic communities”, Journal of Theoretical Developments and Applied Ecology, vol. 41, pp. 951–961, Contemporary Applications, Westview 2004. Press, Colorado, U.S.A., 1984. [13] Y. Sadovy de Mitcheson, A. Cornish, [3] Smith-Vaniz, W.F., B.B. Collette and M. Domeier, P.L. Colin, M. Russell, and B.E. Luckhurst, Fishes of Bermuda: K.C. Lindeman, “A Global Baseline for History, Zoogeography, Annotated Spawning Aggregations of Reef Fishes”, Checklist, and Identification Keys, Conservation Biology, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. American Society of Ichthyologists and 1233–1244, 2008.

110 [14] B.E. Luckhurst, “Evaluation of 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS fisheries management and conservation measures taken to protect grouper The authors would like to acknowledge spawning aggregations in the wider the assistance of Dr. Tammy Trott, Senior Caribbean: Case studies of Bermuda, Marine Resources Officer, during the Belize and Cayman Islands”, Proceedings preparation of this manuscript. of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, vol. 58, pp. 281-282, 2007. [15] B.E. Luckhurst and T.M. Trott, “Seasonally-Closed Spawning Aggregation Sites for Red Hind (Epinephelus guttatus) : Bermuda’s Experience over 30 years (1974–2004)”, Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, vol. 61, pp. 331-336, 2008. [16] G. J. Piet and A. D. Rijnsdorp, “Changes in the demersal fish assemblage in the south-eastern North Sea following the establishment of a protected area (“plaice box”)”, ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil, vol. 55, no. 3, pp.420-429, 1998. [17] O.A. van Keeken, M. van Hoppe, R.E. Grift and A.D. Rijnsdorp, “Changes in the spatial distribution of North Sea plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) and implications for fisheries management”,Journal of Sea Research, vol. 57, no. 2-3, pp. 187-197, 2007. [18] Carocci, F., G. Bianchi, P. Eastwood, and G. Meaden, Geographic Information Systems to support the ecosystem approach to fisheries: Status, opportunities and challenges, F.A.O. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 532, F.A.O. Rome, 2009. [19] A. Logan, “Holocene reefs of Bermuda”, Sedimenta, vol. XI, 63 pp., 1988. [20] B.E. Luckhurst, T. Trott, N. Simmons and S. Manuel, “Movement Patterns of Tagged Spiny Lobsters Panulirus argus on the Bermuda Reef Platofrm”, Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, vol. 53, pp. 76-82, 2002. [21] T.M. Trott, J.M. Pitt and B.E. Luckhurst, “Occurrence and Management of a Spawning Aggregation of Blue striped grunt (Haemulon sciurus) in Bermuda”, Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, vol. 62, in press.

111 ASSESSMENT OF WATER-LOGGING EXTENT USING RS AND GIS TECHNIQUES AND ITS POSSIBLE REMEDIAL MEASURES AT THE KOPOTAKSHO BASIN AREA, BANGLADESH S. Rahman1*, S. H. Rahman2 & Md. W. Ullah3 1*Junior Environmentalist, Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS), House # 6, Road # 23/C, Gulshan-1, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected] 2Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka-1342, Bangladesh. 3Deputy Executive Director, Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS), House # 6, Road # 23/C, Gulshan-1, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh.

ABSTRACT remains stagnant for long time due to increased sedimentation of Riverbeds Since 2000, water-logging had been a and reduced height differential between regular phenomenon for the hundreds embankment and peak water level [1]. of villages adjacent to the Kopotaksho Water-logging has been affecting about River in Jessore and Satkhira district of millions of people in Bangladesh during Bangladesh. The analysis of satellite the past two decades leading to a large images revealed that over the years water- scale damages of crop, employment, logging problem had increased, as in 1999, livelihoods and national economy [2]. the water-logged area was about 865 Water-logging is a form of flooding within hectares; in 2000, 2003, 2006 and 2008 the embankments caused by hydro- it was about 12867, 12238, 11723 and geophysical factors where water remains 19467 hectares respectively. Upstream stagnant for long time due to increased freshwater flow reduction, unplanned and sedimentation of Riverbeds and reduced unauthorized structural interventions and height differential between embankment regular encroachment at the upstream and peak water level [3]. Water-logging and downstream of the Kopotaksho River involves deterioration of drainage were the main causes of this unwanted condition in coastal Rivers of south- prolonged water-logging. Ecological and western Bangladesh causing difficulties social environment has been degrading as towards maintaining livelihoods [4]. the people of the waterlogged area have been experiencing settlement, economic, River Kopotaksho is one of the main health and sanitation problem due to arteries of the water resources system four to seven months prolonged water- located in the south west region of logging. Alternative Drainage routes and Bangladesh. It is flowing from north to Tidal River Management (TRM) technique south over the most matured part of were suggested for the long-term possible the Gangetic delta. Its total length is remedial measures and participatory TRM around 200 kilometer from Tahirpur to its practice was identified as the best possible confluence with the Sibsa River. This River long-term remedial option to diminish drains an area of about 1,067 square water-logging problem at the Kopotaksho kilometer spread over nine upazilas in Basin Area. Jhenidah, Jessore, Satkhira and Khulna district. Numerous existing drainage Water-logging, Sedimentation, Landsat channels/khals in south-west region drain TM, Participatory, TRM out water through the Kopotaksho River. About two hundred years ago, the 1. INTRODUCTION Mathabhanga River supplied fresh water throughout the year to the Kopotaksho Water-logging is a form of flooding River [5]. Since then, the Mathabhanga within the embankments caused by River had remained a flood spill channel, hydro-geophysical factors where water deteriorating over time. The Farakka

112 barrage in upstream across the Ganges in process and the high salinity also facilitates India aggravated the deterioration of the the sediment deposition at the location of Mathabhanga River. So, the Kopotaksho tidal limit especially in the dry season. River virtually could not be fed from So, rising bed level, reducing cross- the Mathabhanga River any more, and sectional area and conveyance capacity it is now only drains flood spill from the of the Kopotaksho River aggravated the Ganges through the Mathabhanga River spillage of River water along the bank of and surface run-off generated from the the Kopotaksho River resulting flood and monsoon precipitation. After being cut- water-logging situation for four to seven off from the Mathabhanga River, the months in every year after the year 2000 Kopotaksho had been subjected to tidal [7]. domination, associated with increasing sedimentation by tidal pumping process, The main objective of this paper was to particularly in the dry season. During identify the water-logging situation over the last few decades, the flow of the the years, from the year 2000 to 2008, Kopotaksho River had been declining very with delineating root causes of water- rapidly. Tide generated from the bay brings logging problem and to proffer possible huge sediment towards the inland through participatory remedial measure at the the so-called “tidal pumping process”. As Kopotaksho Basin Area. Few villages along a result of successive siltation both in the the both bank of the Kopotaksho River upstream and downstream, the linked among hundreds of waterlogged villages up surrounding area suffers from severe had been taken to conduct participatory drainage congestion in several upazilas field surveys including questionnaire of Jessore and Satkhira district during survey. the monsoon and post-monsoon season. Due to prolonged drainage congestion, 2. PROCEDURE, MATERIALS AND both physical and social environment METHODS experiences immense degradation and the people of the congested area faces At first the study area was defined with settlement, economic and health (disease the preliminary field survey at the water- and sanitation) problems. logging affected area. The satellite images of the study area from the base year 2000 Unplanned and unauthorized structural to year 2008 were analyzed considering interventions and constructions (roads, the hydro-meteorological parameters settlement) and regular encroachment of of the study area. Extensive literature natural drainage system at the upstream review was conducted at every stages of and downstream of the Kopotaksho River this research work. With the participatory due to over-population were the main field survey and the outcomes of the causes of the unwanted and unexpected analyzed secondary data (satellite images water-logging [6]. The lower reach of the and hydro-meteorological) root causes Kopotaksho River is under the influence of the water-logging at the study area of high salinity and tidal activities which were identified. Environmental losses due bring huge sediments and get deposited to water-logging were assessed through in River conveyance channel. Fresh participatory sessions and analyzing water from the upstream pushes the the hydro-meteorological data. Social salinity towards the sea and washes degradation assessed by the participatory away the deposited sediments but due field survey, via FGD, TGD and PRA to the loss of upstream freshwater sessions. The possible remedial measures supply and connectivity with the other to mitigate water-logging problem were Rivers, the natural hydro-morphological justified at the participatory survey. balance of the Kopotaksho River had Overall participation ensures that only been depreciated. Sediments started to the local level participation can be a enter the Kopotaksho River system from sustainable way to mitigate water-logging the downstream through tidal pumping problem at the congested area of the

113 Kopotaksho basin (Fig. 1). pattern of the waterlogged area and athwart dispersal of water over the years Fig. 1 - Steps of the research work using digital image processing software, ERDAS Imaging 8.6.

At first, the collected satellite images were transformed into Bangladesh Transverse Mercator (BTM) projection to conduct analysis with ease. After georeferencing with collected GPS data and projecting the images into the same projection parameters (BTM), images of different years were overlaid to extract the real situation of the water-logging condition at the Kopotaksho Basin Area from the year 2000 to 2008. The collected images were mainly classified with unsupervised classification. Then the waterlogged area from the year 2000-2008 was identified with subsequent expert discussions and experience gained from the participatory field visits. Congregated Local knowledge from the questionnaire survey and participatory sessions were incorporated to delineate the waterlogged area of the year 2008 as very coarse resolution Temporal Satellite images of different MODIS images (MODIS: Moderate resolutions were used and analyzed to Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer) identify the water-logging extent over the were analyzed to delineate waterlogged years from the year 2000 to 2008. The area for that year. following satellite images (Table 1) were analyzed to conclude the extent of water- All the GIS layers used in this study were logging over the years at the Kopotaksho derived from the analysis of collected Basin Area. images exporting as coverage files using Table 1 - List of satellite images used in this aforementioned digital image processing study software and then transformed into shapefile (.shp) layers using GIS software, ArcGIS 9.2. Illustration of final Satellite Resolution Date Source Image (m) maps and waterlogged area calculation Landsat were conducted in ArcGIS 9.2 platform. 30 15.11.1999 USGS 7 ETM+ Landsat 30 28.11.2000 CEGIS 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5 TM Landsat 30 16.12.2003 USGS Human interventions such as construction 7 ETM+ Landsat of bridges narrowing down the River 30 27.02.2006 SPARRSO TM sections, construction of cross-dams MODIS 15- for different purposes over the years 250 USGS Image 29.10.2008 aggravated the situation. Adams Williams (1919) in his book on the History of the 2.1. Processing of Satellite Images Rivers in the Ganges Delta warned that any interventions considered for the tidal Digital image processing of satellite River system should be done cautiously images (from year 2000 to 2008) was [5]. According to the local people there executed to visualize the overall change were no water-logging problem in 1994

114 at the Kopotaksho Basin Area but this during dry season. According to Uttaran was started from 1999. In 1999, it was (2008) [10], about 50 thousand water- in small scale (8.65 km2) but in the year logging affected people were taken into 2000 waterlogged area had increased asylum at the adjacent shelter centers. significantly (Figure 3a). The main reason People of the surveyed area were not of the flooding in the year 2000 was an prepared for such extent of water-logging unusual upstream water supply and in the year 2008 and about 210 villages heavy rainfall over the south-west region of the Kopotaksho Basin Area were of Bangladesh. Sudden flood of the year severely get affected by flood and then 2000 in the south-western region of four to seven months prolonged water- logging (Figure 2a & 2b). According to the participatory survey, in the year 2008, the extent of the water-logging had been increased significantly comparing the year of 2003 (Table 2).

Table 2 - Comparison of water-logging problem in the year of 2003 and 2008

Fig. 2 - (a) People’s initiative, wooden overpass Damage/ to cross at Saraskathi Bazaar; (b) Water- 2003 2008 Loss logging at the study area (Inundated Eid-Gagh Jessore, Satkhira at Sarsa) Jessore and District and Khulna Satkhira Bangladesh had increased the intensity (part) of water-logging at the Kopotaksho Basin Jhikargacha, Jhikargacha, Manirampur, Area [8]. Upazila Manirampur, Keshabpur, According to the participatory survey, the Keshabpur Kolaroa, Tala cross dams built after the flood in 2000 and Paikgacha might be liable for further deterioration of Union* 16 55 the River through siltation in the Riverbed Affected 73 426 and causing the drainage congestion. Since Villages* Waterlogged 2000, widespread drainage congestion 126.87 223.89 Area* (km2) turned into a regular phenomenon along Affected 101800 845000 the long stretch of the Kopotaksho River People* starting from Jessore district in the north to Satkhira district in the south. The worst [Source: * Participatory Social Survey, Uttaran] victims of this prolonged water-logging problem were the people of Jhikargacha, The main problem was not only the Manirampur and Keshabpur upazilas of rainfall, as in 2007, total rainfall reduced Jessore district and Kalaroa, Tala upazilas about 20% from the year 2000 and in of Satkhira district in Bangladesh. Due to the year 2008 it was 35% low to that of huge sedimentation at the downstream the year 2000. Before the water-logging and non-availability of upstream flow in occurred in 2008, the people of the the dry season, the Kopotaksho River had study area had experienced a prolonged been facing water-logging problem [9]. drought from the last two years which had a significant impact on agriculture The main causes of water-logging were sector of the Kopotaksho Basin Area. The increase of sedimentation rate on River climatic variability was quite apparent bed due to upstream fresh water flow reduction, increase of sedimentation process due to construction of adversely affecting bridges, sluice gates and other local constructions along and over the Kopotaksho River, decrease of tidal dominant area due to downstream polders 115 Fig. 3 - Waterlogged area over the years from 2000 to 2008; (a) Waterlogged area in 1999 and 2000; (b) Water-logging extent in 2003; (c) Waterlogged area in 2006; (d) Waterlogged area in 2008

116 from the last few years and asymmetrical of Tala upazila and about 22 km from behavior of climatic variables (rainfall, Patkelghata to Paikgacha (Kopilmoni) temperature) indicated a sign of changing is about to be abandoned due to high climatic pattern of the study area. sediment deposition (Figure 4).

3.1. Comparison of water-logging Figure 4: Temporal tidal water extent at the Kopotaksho Basin Area from 2000 to 2008

Before the year 2000, water-logging was not a concern for the Kopotaksho Basin Area. Analyzing satellite images, in 1999, it was found that about 8.65 km2 of land inundated at a limited scale, which rose up to 128.67 km2 in 2000 (Figure 3a). Due to the continuous sedimentation and distribution limit in the Kopotaksho River improper human interventions aggravated If this decrepit scenario of Kopotaksho the bed level inclination of the Kopotaksho River continues, within next decade, River. The water-logging situation in 2003 the Kopotaksho River would have been 2 (122.38 km ) was as resembling as the abandoned up to the Sibsa reach at its 2 year 2000 (128.67 km ) with some extent downstream. Most of the khals over the of Keshabpur upazila area was inundated waterlogged area were used to drain in 2003 (Figure 3b). into the Kopotaksho River. Khals of the waterlogged area in some locations were After the flood 2000 and over the last getting deeper than the River so natural seven-eight years water-logging has been flushing of water stopped. Fish barricades emerged as a serious problem even in the (Komar and Patta) causes silt deposition dry season. The extracted information on Riverbed which stimulate water- from the Landsat TM image for the year logging. As the drainage capacity has 2006 revealed that as it was about 117.23 declined over the years, the floodwater 2 km (Figure 3c). But the water-logging could not drain out properly and water- condition of year 2008 was quite unusual logging occurs every year (Figure 5). compared to the year 2000, 2003 and 2006 (Figure 3d). The affected area due According to the social survey, from 2 to water-logging was about 194.67 km the year 2005 to 2008, rapid mount of and was identified using coarse resolution Kopotaksho River bed level had been image (MODIS image) and participatory observed at the Surighat of Keshabpur social survey (Table 3). to Kopilmoni of Paikgacha, 25 km of the Kopotaksho course-way. Formation of Table 3 - Extent of inundation over the years (1999-2008) at the Kopotaksho Basin Area sediment humps at the middle reach (44 derived by analysis of satellite images to 130 km) of Kopotaksho River impede tidal penetration and now tidal influence couldn’t reach up to the upstream as before Water- Year logging (Figure 4), and at downstream, Riverbank Extent 1999 2000 2003 2006 2008* erosion and tidal water dispersion at local report divulged about 189 villages (92 Waterlogged area 8.65 128.67 122.38 117.23 194.67 (in km2) locations of 134 km River course-way) were affected by water-logging in the year of 2008. In 2008, about 200.00 km2 [* Participatory Survey] land of 41 unions, 75,000 households and 0.4 million people were severely affected About 50 km of Kopotaksho River had by water-logging in Jessore and Satkhira already been dilapidated from the Jhapa district [10]. of Manirampur upazila to Patkelghata

117 Fig. 5 - Planform changes of Kopotaksho River Fig. 6 - (a) Possible TRM Basin Location; (b) over the years (1772-2006) Alternative drainage routes of Kopotaksho River

The Kopotaksho River still get connected with Mathabhanga and Bhairab River at the monsoon. An alternate drainage route at the upstream of the Mathabhanga with the Ganges River had been suggested as if the water flow subsists permanently the water flow of Kopotaksho River fluxed away the deposited sediment at the lower reach of its path (Figure 6b). Harihar River and Upper-Bhadra River were connected with Kopotaksho in recent past. But due to the changing flow regime and rapid About 50,000 people were subsisted in sedimentation these inter-linking Rivers shelter center due to the loss of settlement get was separated from the main channel for three months. Jessore-Satkhira of the Kopotaksho River. highway was inundated up to a month. About 90% respondents of the water- 4. CONCLUSION logging affected area in participatory sessions suggested implementing Tidal The Kopotaksho River has been in a River Management (TRM) technique in declining state from the last two decades Jethua and Krishnakathi beel (Figure 6a), due to the reduction of upstream freshwater “beels are to act as tidal storage basins supply; obstructions created by the local which allow natural tidal flows up and people and accelerated siltation plugged down in the River system. During high in by tidal pumping process. The extent tides, the large volume of water flows into of water-logging over the years, from the beels and huge sedimentation occurs the year 2000 to 2008, had been found in the beels area. This sedimentation increasing with satellite image analysis would have been occurred into the and participatory field survey. Three Riverbed if the beels are not being to six months elongated water-logging utilized for storage. This tidal storage imparted significant negative impacts on basin makes River alive by keeping tidal the natural and social environment of the flow characteristics in the downstream Kopotaksho Basin Area. According to the River system and thereby prevents silt people’s view and ecological perspectives, deposition in the river bed” [11], to revive participatory TRM technique will be the the flow of Kopotaksho River to eradicate best possible long-term remedial option water-logging problem. to revive the previous water flow regime of the Kopotaksho River and to reduce the water-logging up to a great extent at that

118 Kopotaksho Basin Area, some people also Baseline of Re-excavation of Kopotaksho had suggested River dredging in specific River Project, Center for Environmental locations with khal excavation, inter- and Geographic Information Services linking with adjacent Rivers and establish (CEGIS), Bangladesh Water Development re-connectivity with the Mathabhanga Board (BWDB), Dhaka, June, 2004. River, etc. [8] SWMC, Late Monsoon Flood in the South West Region of Bangladesh, Flood ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Report, November, Bangladesh Water Development Board, Ministry of Water Authors are thankful to Mr. A.Z.Md. Resources, Dhaka, 2000. Zahedul Islam, Principal Scientific Officer, [9] Kranti, Feasibility Study of Re- SPARRSO, Mr. Golam Rahman, Principal Excavation of Kopotaksho River, Final Scientific Officer, SPARRSO and Mr. Md. Report, Bangladesh Water Development Fazlul Haque, Principal Scientific Officer, Board (BWDB), Desh-Upadesh Limited, SPARRSO, for their generous supports. 2000. [10] Uttaran, Water logging in the South REFERENCES West Coastal Region of Bangladesh, Water Logging in News Media, Khulna, 2008. [1] Islam, S., Fakir, H.A., Ahmed, F.H. [11] Ullah, W. M. and Rahman, R., and Shawpan, S.S.A., 2004. Bangladesh Tidal River Management: A Sustainable Dakkhin Paschim Upokul Anchaler Solution to Drainage Congestion in the Jolaboddhota O Koroniyo ( in Benglali), Coastal Region, Bangladesh Environment, Uttaran, Satkhira, p65-72. 2002, pp. 1022-32, 2002. [2] Mirza, M.M.Q., Ahmad, Q.K. and Ahmed, A.U., Adaptation Options for Managing Water Related Extreme Events under Climate Change Regime: Bangladesh Perspectives, Climate Change and Water Resources in South Asia, Balkema Press, Leiden, pp. 255-278, 2005. [3] Islam, S., Fakir, H.A., Ahmed, F.H. and Shawpan, S.S.A., Bangladesh Dakkhin Paschim Upokul Anchaler Jolaboddhota O Koroniyo (in Bangla), Uttaran, Satkhira, pp. 65-72, 2004. [4] Rahman, A., Beel Dakatia: The Environmental Consequences of a Development Disaster, University Press Limited, Dhaka, 1995. [5] Williams, C.A., History of the Rivers in the Gangetic Delta (1750-1918). Netherlands Engineering Consultants (NEDECO), Calcutta, Bengal Secretariat Press, pp. 40-43, 1919. [6] Rahman, S., Rahman, S.H. and Ullah, W. M., Assessment of Environmental Degradation due to Water-logging and its Possible Remedial Measures at Kopotaksho Basin Area (Unpublished M.S. Dissertation), Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka-1342, 2009. [7] CEGIS, Environmental and Social

119 IDENTIFICATION OF MARINE IMPORTANT BIRD AREAS IN PORTUGAL I. Ramírez1, J. Andrade1, A. Meirinho1, P. Geraldes1 & B. Lascelles2

1 SPEA – Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves, Avenida da Liberdade, nº 105, 2º Esq., 1250-140 Lisboa, Portugal. E-mail [email protected]. 2 BirdLife International – Girton, 3-4 Wellbrook Way, Cambridge CB3 0NA, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT gathering, migration and/or roosting. The world’s oceans are open and dynamic The Important Bird Areas (IBA) systems that pose few physical barriers programme of BirdLife International to the dispersal and migration of many seeks to identify, document and seabirds: seas are not separated as are conserve sites that are key for the the continents. Seabird conservation long-term viability of bird populations. issues need therefore to be addressed BirdLife International has successfully globally, which led BirdLife International implemented a network of terrestrial IBAs to establish a Global Seabird Conservation and has obtained general recognition that Programme in 1997. Understanding the these sites represent prime sites for bird at-sea movements of seabirds requires a conservation. This European network of multidisciplinary approach that combines IBAs has formed an important scientific direct and indirect data gathering reference for the designation of Special methods with statistical analyses and Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Wild spatial distribution prediction models. The Birds Directive of the European Union. combination of direct and indirect data, The identification of marine Important plus the development of a standard IBA Bird Areas started in the early 90’s [1] identification criteria, allows scientists to [2] but had a major boost in 2004 thanks identify hotspots of seabird activity, and to the approval of two major LIFE-funded also to draw limits (the IBA approach is Projects in Spain and Portugal [3] [4]. To site-based and therefore should only be assist with tackle some of these issues, applied to those bird species for which a and to draw together existing experience, site-based approach is appropriate) and several workshops were organised by apply numerical thresholds that will later BirdLife during the period 2004-2010 at define the marine IBA national networks. a national and regional level to develop Portugal posses the eleventh’s largest guidance and propose methodologies. EEZ of the world, and therefore has a These methodologies have been just very important role to play in the field of now compiled into a single document seabird conservation. In 2004, and over a [5]. This paper summarises the marine 4-year period, the Sociedade Portuguesa identification methods proposed by para o Estudo das Aves (SPEA), BirdLife BirdLife International using the example parntner in Portugal, coordinated a of the marine IBA PTM02 (Berlengas). LIFE-funded Project that ended with the Index Terms - seabirds, IBAs, publication of the first Portuguese marine conservation, Berlengas IBA inventory in 2008 [3].

1. INTRODUCTION The Berlengas archipelago is mainland’s Portugal only known seabird colony. It Seabirds come in many shapes and holds important populations of Cory’s sizes, from the very small storm petrels shearwater Calonectris diomedea to the great albatrosses with the biggest borealis with 800 pairs, approximately wingspan in the bird world. Despite these 2.400 individuals (Miguel Lecoq personal differences, all seabirds depend greatly communication, unpublished data), on the marine environment for food Madeiran storm-petrel Oceanodroma

120 castro and, being relatively close to distribution of seabirds occurring at mainland Portugal, represents a unique the Berlengas archipelago are shown, scenario for the application of the marine different data-collection methods are IBA methodology. presented and a final IBA proposal is In the present study, spatial and temporal made.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Individual tracking of Calonectris diomedea borealis

Table 1 - Summaries of Cory’s shearwater tracked with compass-loggers and GPS-loggers at Berlengas colony between 2005 and 2008.

Year No. of birds Compass-logger GPS-logger No. of tracks

2005 16 16 0 24 2006 43 17 23 44 2007 59 32 18 85 2008 5 5 0 15 Total 123 70 41 168

Cory’s shearwater was the only species of occurrence of the trip duration; b)For fitted with tracking devices in Berlenga. compass-loggers data were used the birds’ Two different types of devices where actual diving locations to perform the used: compass-loggers and GPS-loggers kernel analysis. It was possible to filter the (for a detailed description of each device feeding events thanks to the temperature please see [5]). Only one device was sensor on these devices; c)For GPS- attached per bird and per trip, but the loggers (which don’t have a temperature same bird can carry it more than once sensor) were used positions where speed during a breeding season. As detailed was measured as less than 10km/h (again in Table 1, a total of 168 tracks were based on the frequency of occurrence obtained in Berlenga from 123 birds. of the foraging speed distributions) to Compass-loggers were set to record data identify the areas of most interest at-sea every 5 seconds for the duration of a trip, (these included areas where birds were while GPS-loggers were programmed to landing, on the water’s surface or taking record a position every 10 minutes. These off, i.e. feeding); d)A kernel analysis was settings were chosen according to the preformed for each single campaign and devices memory or battery-life and so then joined the kernel density contours as to achieve the desired precision while into a single shapefile (p.e. at Berlengas maximising data collection. Cory’s did not 6 different shapefiles were produced show any particular abnormal behaviour with the 50% kernel of birds´ dives from while carrying the devices. Each individual the short trips and then intersected to was weighted before and after logger produce one single shapefile); e)Rafting deployment to assess the body-mass and locations were selected by filtering both over 90% of birds returned with same or compass and GPS-logger locations higher body-weight. These data is similar (using the temperature sensor registry to that of [6]. for the compass, and locations with an Some prior assumptions on the instantaneous speed of 0 km/h for the arrangement of the data: a)Data-sets GPS-loggers) prior to returning to their were divided the into short (less than breeding colonies. Again kernel analysis 4 days) and long (more than 5 days) were conducted for each campaign and foraging trips, based on the frequency then joined into a single shapefile.

121 Significant tracking data Kernels for these sites where used as follows: a)75% contour density kernel The team agreed that significant data of diving positions during short trips (meaning having enough data to consider (compass-loggers); b)50% contour defining a marine IBA solely on the basis density kernel of diving positions during of the tracking data) was achieved when long trips (compass-loggers; with the any of the following conditions were only exception of offshore IBAs); c)100% reached: >20 different birds tracked; >30 contour density kernel of rafting locations. bird trips recorded; >1 year of tracks from the same colony; >2 different tracking 2.2 Aerial surveys efforts for more than 10 different birds at one colony. The areas/islands considered A total of 24 aerial surveys were carried as having significant tracking data where: during the LIFE Project, totalling 4143 Corvo and Faial in Azores and Berlengas km, during the 2005-2007 period [3]. in mainland. These surveys were carried out in coastal areas and up to 20 nautical miles Kernels of bird activities for these sites offshore, following the methodology where used as follows: a)50% contour defined by [7]. This type of survey density kernel of diving positions was mainly directed towards migrating during short trips (compass-loggers); populations, as its fast execution allows b)50% contour density kernel of diving vast areas to be assessed for density and positions during long trips (compass- specific diversity in a short space of time. loggers); c)50% contour density kernel Specific surveys were also carried out on of foraging/resting positions (GPS- local wintering populations, to determine loggers) by selecting the lower speed more accurately the use of these areas. periods of the GPS-logger tracks; d)50% The main objective of aerial surveys was contour density kernel of foraging/resting to complement the information obtained positions obtained from long trips (GPS- from marine surveys, mainly the coastal loggers); e)100% contour density kernel zones between 0 and 20 nautical miles of rafting locations (both for compass and from the coast. Areas nearer the coast GPS-loggers). (generally between 0 and 3 nautical miles) are not easily covered by marine The 50% figure requires fewer tracks to surveys due to the draught of the ships reach a stable maximum value, which used in investigation and so aerial is an important asset when identifying surveys complement these data. Another Marine IBAs, nevertheless, it is important advantage is the ability to travel long to have a good sample size of tracks to distances in a relatively short period of make sure the hotspots identified by each time. This makes it a suitable tool for single track coincide and do not vary too assessing migration routes or the main much. wintering areas of seabirds present along the continental coast. A more thorough Non-significant tracking data assessment of both methods (aerial and marine surveys) can be found in [7]. The team agreed that if none of the above Data obtained from aerial surveys was conditions occurred, the site should be not modelled because it was collected in classified as having no-significant tracking a different grid format than that used in data. However the data available in these boat surveys (due to speed differences). other locations should be used only as an Instead, the available aerial data was indication of likely locations of birds and used to calculate population sizes per used to complement other sources of sector of the mainland coast and mean data. densities for seasons when aerial surveys had taken place (See aerial sectors in Fig. Areas included in this category where: Vila 1). islet and Praia islet (Azores) and Desertas and Selvagens islands (Madeira). 122 order. The 95th percentile means that 95% of occurrences have a value below the selected standard, in other words, 5% of the highest occurrences in the sample.

2.3 Boat surveys

Marine and air surveys of seabirds were the main method for data collection at sea. The Marine IBA LIFE Project based its marine surveys on boats, under the European Seabirds At Sea (ESAS) methodology [7]. Data was collected in transects defined by a period of time (normally 5 to 10 minutes) and were expressed in density (birds/km). All birds in contact with the water inside the pre-defined transect were counted. Birds in flight were counted by carrying out regular snapshots, so as not to over- estimate the density. Fig. 1 - Sectors and strips analysed with aerial In order to make proper use of the ESAS surveys. Sectors North, West, SouthWest and methodology, the presence of the seabirds South. Strips < 3Nm (A), < 15 Nm (B) and < must not be influenced by the presence of 3000 m bathymetry (C). the observer’s vessel. Therefore, the use of fishing boats was avoided, as they could attract seabird presence and bias the final Direct observations counts obtained from results. Trained observers were placed the aerial surveys were used to help on board of as many vessels as possible, define marine IBA boundaries and to following an opportunistic approach and complement other data sources. The direct therefore using different platforms, from observations were presented as densities oceanographic cruises to hired big-game per km2 for each specie, and the final fishing medium-sized boats. An extra maps used in the marine IBA delimitation effort was made to collect data during process included only the observations breeding periods and, whenever possible, belonging to the 95 percentile of number surveys were repeated in order to obtain of birds recorded for each species robust sequential data for later analysis of (more detailed direct observations from the distribution of seabirds in space and European Seabirds At Sea). Percentile is time. a value that divides the total frequency Table 2 presents the total number of into 100 equal parts put into ascending surveys carried within the project.

Table 2 - Summary of boat surveys carried out during the period 2004-2007.

Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2004-2007

Total nº of birds observed 1154 43824 68221 72808 186007

Distance travelled (km) 259 13207 19729 30148 63343

Area (km2) 78 3962 5923 9062 19025

Hours of observation 14 794 1105 1889 3802

Nº of bird species identified 12 64 62 81 102

123 2.4 Environmental data and Statistical versatility, they have recorded satisfactory Modelling results for the type of data analysed, which contains a large number of zeros Seabirds depend on trophic resources (observations points with no birds). These and tend to concentrate in areas of GLMs are designed to determine whether higher productivity. These are often any explanatory variable(s) (called associated with characteristics of physical predictive variables, and in this case they variables (e.g. surface sea temperature are environmental variables) influences – SST, salinity); oceanographic the behaviour of another variable (that is, variables (e.g. currents, upwelling); the dependent variable, bird density); the topographical variables (e.g. bathymetry, intensity of this influence (represented by seamounts); or biological variables parameters); and how this is manifested (e.g. primary productivity determined (represented by the relationship between by the concentration of chlorophyll- parameters). As a general rule, the GLMs CHL, availability of prey). The analysis explain only a small part of the total of these environmental data was an variation observed, as in the modelling essential factor in drawing up coherent process there are predictive variables proposals for marine IBAs, as it allowed that may be important in explaining the a measurement of which variables have distribution and numbers of different the greatest influence in the distribution species but that are not measurable of seabirds and allowed an interpretation (such as real-time distribution of biotic and interpolation to non-sampled areas. variables, like different types of potential The use of statistical modelling in marine prey). In some cases, it was possible surveys was designed to understand to combine estimates from GLMs with whether the spatial distribution of a geostatistical estimates obtained by particular bird at sea was significantly kriging, thus adding further spatial influenced by some environmental information to the seabird distribution variable(s) and, if so, estimate the bird estimate. All calculations were carried out density outside the sampling points using R software-package. and within the study area. Statistical modelling was applied only to priority Taking into account the different seabird species for the Marine IBA LIFE behaviour of each species according to its Project having a minimum number of phenology, one model (on average) was records to enable modelling. performed for each breeding month (in the case of breeding birds) and for each For each model, only the most relevant wintering month (in the case of wintering environmental variables available at each birds). For some species, in an effort to area were considered (See Table 3). The maximise the data obtained, modelling information from the marine surveys and was performed using data from two or on environmental variables was analysed more years and/or aggregate months, using Generalized Linear Models (GLMs). considering the species phenology. Table GLMs are mathematical extension of 3 presents the more significant variables classical linear models. Due to their encountered at mainland Portugal.

124 Table 3 - Summary of significant variables identified by statistical modelling at mainland Portugal per species.

Species Year Period Significant variables

Depth 2005 June-August Puffinus Distance to shore mauretanicus Distance to shore 2006 June-August Sea Surface Temperature Chlorophyll-a concentration Depth December- Morus bassanus 2005 Distance to shore February Chlorophyll-a concentration Depth Calonectris 2005 June-August Sea Surface Temperature diomedea Chlorophyll-a concentration

2.5 Data Analysis In order to identify primary or supplementary layers, the following The steps followed to identify a marine criteria were defined: IBA site when undertaking a marine IBA Primary: a) Tracking datasets with large programme, once data was collected is sample sizes collected over multiple presented below: seasons/year; b) At-sea survey data collected in a systematic way recording a) Creation of Geographical Information presence/absence; c) Land-based counts System (GIS) layers of these data on a collected over multiple years. species by species basis. Environmental Supplementary: a) Tracking datasets with variables and seabird distributions at sea small sample sizes (e.g. <5 tracks from should be organised to allow comparison one season/year); b) Bycatch data; c) between different months/seasons. If it is At-sea distribution data collected from not possible to convert data into a GIS- fishing boats or from ad-hoc surveys; d) compatible format, these can still be used Habitat suitability models. as supporting information. Only once suitable weightings were b) Determine which layers should be been applied it was possible to begin regarded as primary and supplementary site identification. Overlaying the data for identification and delineation (apply layers will identify areas of commonality weightings as appropriate). and hence the most likely sites; these c) Identify candidate sites for each species sites were then assessed against IBA (using the methodologies and guidance thresholds. As a general rule, no marine that follows to ensure a consistent IBA should be identified on the basis of approach). supplementary quality data alone, and d) Apply IBA criteria and thresholds to that sites identified where two primary candidate sites on a species by species data layers coincide or overlap are the basis, to confirm they merit being strongest cases for recognition as IBAs. identified as marine IBAs. See [5] for more details. e) Delimit final boundaries for sites triggering IBA criteria. When appropriate, 3. RESULTS overlap sites for different species located in the same area to merge them into a As for the Berlengas Marine IBA, the single marine IBA. Re-apply IBA criteria species that triggered IBA criteria was for the final delimited area as required. the Cory’s shearwater. The main source of f) Produce IBA site description and data used to define this IBA were density propose IBA in the World Bird Database. kernels obtained from data-loggers (see g) IBA reviewed and confirmed or rejected Figure 2). Direct observations obtained by BirdLife Secretariat. from ESAS boat surveys were used in two different ways: densities – nº birds/

125 km2 (Figure 3) and birds on water – nº birds feeding or resting (Figure 4). The 95 percentile threshold of observed densities for this specie was 26 birds/km2. This threshold wasn’t applied to the “birds in water” layer, as this layer was used just to check what the main spots where birds were observed feeding or resting overlapped with the other data layers. The most significant GLM for Calonectris diomedea in this area was for the summer of 2005. This was also the most robust model, and was based on the most data obtained within the Cory’s breeding season (Figure 5).

Fig. 3 - ESAS Direct Observations for Calonectris diomedea – Density (P95 Threshold = 26 birds/ km2).

Fig. 2 - Analysis of kernels derived from data- loggers in Calonectris diomedea in Berlengas showing areas used for rafting, short trips and long trips.

The last data source used to identify this MIBA was aerial census, also the 95 percentile was used, totaling 2 birds/ km2. Finally, all primary layers were overlaid using ArcGIS 9.3 and limits Fig. 4 - ESAS Direct observations – Number of birds on water (Calonectris diomedea). were drew following the two-independent layer approach. Before final publication, a straight sided polygon was defined As for marine IBA criteria application, a instead of the irregular one defined population estimate of the total IBA area by the overlaying technique. This was was defined using data from bibliography decided as to facilitate easy navigation and direct at-sea censuses. and management by the relevant authorities. See Figure 6 for final results.

126 in order to filter out the significant data from a vast dataset. If planes and boats are not widely available for observers to board, the prediction models used will be weak, as well as population assessments, that will later be the base for the marine IBA criteria threshold definition.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the Marine IBA LIFE Project team, particularly the bird Fig. 5 - Prediction model for summer 2005 (P95 Threshold = 10 birds/km2). observers and Vitor Paiva, Martin Poot and Peter van Horssen; this project was financed by the EU (LIFE04NAT/ PT/000213).

6. REFERENCES

[1] H. Skov, J. Durinck, M. F. Leopold & M.L. Tasker, “Important Bird Areas for seabirds in the North Sea”. BirdLife International, Cambridge. Copenhagen. 1995. [2] J. Durinck, H. Skov, F. P. Jensen & S. Pihl, “Important marine areas for wintering birds in the Baltic Sea”. Ornis Consult Report. Copenhagen. 1994. [3] I. Ramírez, P. Geraldes, A. Meirinho, Fig. 6 - View of the Core Area Marine IBA P. Amorim & V. Paiva, “Áreas Importantes proposed for Berlengas. para as Aves Marinhas em Portugal – Important Areas for seabirds in Portugal”. 4. DISCUSSION Projecto LIFE04 NAT/PT/000213 – Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Results shown above suggest that it is Aves (SPEA). Lisboa. 2008. possible to map the at-sea behavior of [4] J. M. Arcos, J. Bécares, B. Rodríguez most of the seabird species occurring & A. Ruiz, “Áreas Importantes para la in Portugal. It also shows that a site- Conservación de las Aves marinas en approach is feasible for many Portuguese España”. Projecto LIFE04NAT/ES/000049 areas within the EEZ. There are two – Sociedad Española de Ornitología (SEO/ major limitations to the abovementioned BirdLife). Madrid. 2009. protocol: a) Seabird size could prevent the [5] BirdLife International. Marine deployment of data-loggers and therefore Important Bird Areas toolkit: standardised a “tracking” layer won’t be available for techniques for identifying priority sites medium or small-sized birds that so far for the conservation of seabirds at-sea. cannot carry tracking devices without BirdLife International, Cambridge UK. compromising their own safety; b) At-sea Version 1.1: May 2010. direct data (e.g. boat or plane census) [6] J. M. Igual, M. G. Forero, G. Tavecchia, must be large. J. Gonzalez-Solis, A. Martinez-Abrain, K. Hobson, X. Ruiz & D. Oro, “Short As explained above, the identification of term effects of data-loggers on Cory’s the 95 percentile proved quite essential shearwater Calonectris diomedea”. Marine

127 Biology 146, 619 - 624. 2005. [7] C. J. Camphuysen & S. Garthe, “Recording foraging seabirds at sea: standardised recording and coding of foraging behaviour and multi-species foraging associations”. Atlantic Seabirds 6(1):1-32. 2004.

128 DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY TO EVALUATE THE FLOOD RISK AT THE COASTAL ZONE P.D. Raposeiro1,2, C.J. Fortes2, M.T. Reis2, J.C. Ferreira1 1 Universidade Nova de Lisboa – FCT/DCEA 2 Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil – Núcleo de Portos e Estruturas Marítimas. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The greater or lesser exposure of infrastructure or the population to This paper illustrates the methodology events that may cause harm is crucial developed to evaluate the risk of for risk assessment. This is important flooding of a coastal area, as well as because it is possible to identify coastal the application of such methodology areas with a high degree of vulnerability to Vale do Lobo beach, situated in the to energetic activities of the sea, but Loulé Municipality, a Portuguese coastal without major risks due to lack of area under significant touristic pressure. human occupation, equipment or natural The methodology is based on four main resources, or otherwise, that is, areas of steps: a) division of the study area into low vulnerability index, but high human sub-areas with similar characteristics in occupation, which confers a high risk. terms of coastal defense; b) determining Within this context, the term risk is the probability of exceedance of pre-set defined as the probability of an adverse thresholds of flood levels for each study event multiplied by its consequences, [2] area; c) establishment of qualitative and [16]. factors related to the consequences of exceedance of pre-set thresholds of flood The extent of the Portuguese coast, the levels; d) combination of the above steps severity of the sea conditions and the for expeditious assessment of flood risks. concentration of population and economic The determination of flood levels follows activities in its coastal zone, justify the the methodology presented in [10] and importance of carrying out wave induced [11], which is based on the transference risk studies. For a correct assessment of of the Faro wave-buoy regime to the these risks, the determination of shares study area by using the SWAN model of flooding is essential. integrated in a geographic information system (GIS). Indeed, emergency situations caused by adverse sea conditions are frequent and Index Terms — Geographic information put in danger the safety of persons and systems, numerical models, coastal planning goods, with a negative impact for society, and management, risk and vulnerability, Vale economy and natural heritage. do Lobo beach The detailed research on the sea waves, 1. INTRODUCTION currents and tide levels at the local level is essential to improve the methodologies The impact of climate change on coastal for risk assessment, increasing the zone has manifested itself in different reliability of results and enabling timely ways, including the rise in sea level issue of alerts and the preparation of and increase in number and intensity of mitigation plans. phenomena causing risk of flooding. Given the geographic location and concentration Thus, in this paper, a methodology to of people and infrastructure along the evaluate the risk associated with the coast, these phenomena are revealed flooding of coastal areas is proposed, today as genuine challenges in managing which is essential for the proper planning the Portuguese coast.

129 and land management. The final goals methodologies to automatic support risk are: assessment studies. The work presented - to provide simple instructions for here represents the development of a use by the authorities to increase methodology for assessing flood risk and their effectiveness in responding to its application to Vale do Lobo beach, emergencies produced by floods whose Municipality of Loulé, Portugal. cause is directly related to the sea; After this introduction, section 2 presents - to provide information to decision a general characterization of the area makers on the extent of risk exposure under study. Section 3 briefly describes facing the coastal areas, contributing to the methodology for determining the run- the mapping of areas with high degree up and flood levels at the study area. In of flood risk; section 4, a risk assessment is provided. Finally, section 5 contains the main - to assist those responsible for conclusions of the work and the future managing the infrastructure of coastal developments. protection and minimize risk associated with them. 2. CASE STUDY

It is in this sense that the system GUIOMAR Vale do Lobo is located at Loulé [7] was developed based on a geographic Municipality, in the Algarve region. The information system (GIS) and built to beach, 2 km long, has a sedimentary support the use of sea wave propagation origin, and almost vertical cliffs. The models. Its intent is to support and be cliffs heights may vary between 2 m and part of the critical process of decision 20 m, depending on the location along making in current studies of coastal the beach. The cliffs have different layers engineering in emergency situations. At of sand from the Plio-plistocenic age and present, this system has the capability of present a medium to gross sand grain in a coordinating the use of numerical models, clay composite structure [6]. including the management of input data, computational mesh generation and Vale do Lobo beach has been affected geographical analysis of results. by a strong urban littoral expansion, with undesirable environmental and The GUIOMAR system is based on three economical impacts, particularly in the main components: one is a commercial areas of Ria Formosa and of Vale do SIG software; the second is a set of Lobo tourist resort. The main causes of numerical wave propagation models the damages have been anthropogenic and other pre and post processing factors, such as construction in the coastal programs developed in FORTRANTM; and line and coastal erosion. At Vale do Lobo, the third is a user interface, developed there are houses built right on the top of in programming language Visual Basic the cliffs, beaches with restricted access for Applications ArcGISTM. The system due to the imminent danger of a land slide was build in a modular approach, which and a weak dune system that protects Ria makes it easily expandable to allow any Formosa from the sea. inclusion/replacement of the following: a) modules for the most updated versions Vale do Lobo is an example of an of existing numerical models or other occupation in areas of high vulnerability numerical models to simulate more to sea wave attack, including flooding accurately certain physical phenomena, and coastal erosion (Figure 1). The and b) specific modules for analysis and occupations of these vulnerable areas processing of results for the functionality create risks of collapse/demise of the cliff that one might want to give to the results. (endangering homes, golf courses and The latest developments into the anyone making use of the beach) and GUIOMAR system include procedures and coastal erosion (endangering the pool and

130 the Ria Formosa of breach of the front line levels according to empirical formulas sand dunes). proposed in [4], [5], [8] and [14], implemented in programs developed in FORTRANTM language [3].

The following sections provide, as an example, some of the characteristics of the local wave regime in Vale do Lobo beach and the calculation of run-up and flood levels.

3.1. Characteristics of the local wave regime at Vale do Lobo beach

The characteristics of the local wave Fig. 1 – Vale do Lobo Beach Resort (EPRL/IGP) regime were based upon the 9 years records measured at the Faro wave-buoy, 3. RUN-UP AND FLOOD LEVELS which were transferred to Vale do Lobo beach by using SWAN model through an To calculate the run-up and flood levels interface developed for the GUIOMAR at Vale do Lobo beach, it is necessary to system [7] and the module REGIMES/ characterize the offshore and local wave SOPRO [9]. Calculations were performed regimes. In this respect, the methodology taking into account a sea-level of +4.64 presented in [10] and [11] was used and m (CD), which results from the sum of it may be summarized as follows: the maximum high-water mark recorded • - Use of the wave in Lagos during 2009, with the estimated parameters measured at Faro by value with 100-year return period to the WAVERIDER directional buoy account for rise in sea level due to of the Portuguese Hydrographic extreme meteorological conditions (value Institute. The buoy is located at based on studies carried out under the -93 m (CD), at 36° 54’ 17’’ N, Project SIAM II [12]). 07° 53’ 54’’ W. In normal conditions, the data acquisition is carried out every 3 hours In particular, the wave characteristics for a period of 30 minutes. During storm – the significant wave height, the zero- conditions (conditions with a significant crossing wave period and the wave wave height which exceeds 3 m), the data direction - were established in 16 points acquisition period is reduced to every 10 along 3 profiles across the beach (Figure minutes. The period of records considered 2). in this work corresponds to 1986 to 1995. With these values, a Faro wave-buoy regime is established;

- Transfer the data from the wave-buoy to Vale do Lobo beach using the wave generation, propagation and dissipation model SWAN [1], through the GUIOMAR system [7]. In this work, a sea water level of +4.64 m (CD) was considered;

- Establishment of the local wave regime at several points along different cross-sections of the beach based upon Fig. 2 - Location of the 16 points in the three the above data; different cross-sections perpendicular to the beach. - Calculation of run-up and flood 131 To illustrate the calculations performed for predicted by harmonic analysis, which the run-up and flood levels, the authors is the superposition of many sinusoidal have only considered in this work the components with amplitudes and results obtained for Point 6 (cross-section frequencies determined by a local analysis A1) and Point 9 (cross-section A2), of the measured tide. located just upstream of the surf zone. The meteorological elevations may be 3.2. Run-up analyses for Vale do Lobo obtained from the difference between the beach values of the water level measured by tide gauges and the corresponding ones The calculation of the run-up on estimated for the astronomical tide. These beaches is done in most cases by using elevations are considered to be induced essentially empirical formulations based by strong or long duration winds and/ on field measurements or tests on two- or by abnormal high or low atmospheric dimensional scaled models of constant, pressures. smooth and impermeable slopes (beaches) [15]. In previous work, [10] In this work, due to the lack of tide gauge and [11], and herein, the run-up on the data for the period between 1986 and beach of Vale do Lobo was estimated using 1995, we extrapolate the two full years of the formulas proposed in [4] and [5], recorded tide, RT, for the whole period of developed on the basis of physical model nine years under study. test results, and also in [8] and [14], R-values considered correspond to the developed based on field data (Figure 3). estimates of Rmax obtained with the Note that the formula presented at [14] is methods presented in [4], [8] and [14] based on field data collected specifically for the conditions of sea waves for the for the study area considered in this work. period 1986 to 1995.

Cross-section A1 - Série de JAN 1989 a MAR 1989 7 Mase (1989) Table 1 shows the maximum values of FL in the 6 Nielsen & Hanslow (1991) 5 Teixeira (2009) cross-sections A1 and A2 for the conditions 4 3 mentioned above. Table 1 shows that the

Rmax (m) Rmax 2 1 maximum value of FL is very similar for 0 23-12-1988 12-01-1989 01-02-1989 21-02-1989 13-03-1989 the methods described in [8] and [14] Date and much lower than the value obtained Fig. 3 - Run-up values, Rmax, obtained at cross- by the methodology shown in [4], since section A1, for the series of wave data between the later is based on tests on impermeable January and March 1989, using the formulations slopes. For the methods presented in [8] of Mase (1989) - [4], Nielsen & Hanslow (1991) - [8] and Teixeira (2009) - [14], all with the and [14], the contribution of Rmax for FL wave conditions at Faro wave-buoy. is less than the contribution of AT+MS, while for the method in [4] it is not. 3.3. Calculation of the flood levels Table 1 – Maximum flood levels estimated with Once the run-up values for given wave different methodologies for cross-sections A1 conditions have been estimated, the flood and A2. levels, FL, can be determined assuming Cross- Rmax FL Methodology that they result simply from the sum of section (m) (m CD) the contributions of the astronomical tide, MASE (1989) A1 6.60 9.56 AT, of meteorological elevations, MS, and - [8] A2 6.91 9.87 of the run-up, R: NIELSEN & A1 2.71 6.40 HANSLOW A2 2.88 6.57 FL = AT + MS + R (eq. 1) (1991) - [10] TEIXEIRA A1 2.70 6.39 (2009) – [11] The astronomical tide can be accurately A2 2.87 6.56 estimated for the majority of the locations. In general, tides can be

132 4. RISK ASSESSMENT 4.2. Probability

4.1. Methodology Table 2 shows a preliminary classification of the probability of exceedance of pre-set For the development of the methodology thresholds of flood levels. for assessing the risk of flooding of coastal areas three tables have been used: i) Probability Description Level a table of probability of occurrence of (Guidelines) an adverse event, as the wave induced Improbable 0 – 1% 1 flooding; ii) a table with the consequences Remote 1 – 10% 2 of flooding; and iii) based on the two Occasional 10 – 25% 3 previous tables, a table of risk of coastal Probable 25 – 50% 4 flooding. The contents of these tables is Frequent > 50% 5 supported on earlier studies, [2], [16] Table 2 – Probability of exceedance of pre-set and [13], taking into account that, since thresholds of flood levels. the 90’s, the coast under study reveals a lower resistance, to episodes of storm 4.3. Definition of critical coastal or episodes of tides, which shows the regions beginning of a new cycle timer. The methodology is based on four main Table 3 shows a preliminary description of steps: the consequences of exceedance of pre- set thresholds of flood levels. 1. division of the study area into sub- areas with similar characteristics in This table takes into account the intrinsic terms of coastal defense; importance and sensitivity of the coastal area to the occurrence of flooding. It 2. determining the probability of aims to identify natural resources values, exceedance of pre-set thresholds of cultural-socio-economic and man- flood levels for each study area; made high sensitivity areas. The criteria consider the recognition of ecologically 3. establishment of qualitative factors valuable habitats, land use, density of associated with the consequences in construction and location of buildings in terms of property damage in each sub- relation to the proximity of the element area, caused by exceedance of those potential culprit, the permanence of thresholds of flood levels; houses and other unique values whose loss would be irreparable. The values of 4. combination of the above steps in the level of consequences were assigned order to proceed to the expeditious so that it is possible to calculate the risk assessment of flood risks. level (section 4.4) taking into account the importance of risk in relation to its The series of the significant wave heights, control and prioritization. For example, run-up and flood levels from 1986 to it is important to distinguish between an 1995 in Vale do Lobo beach were used to event with high probability of occurrence illustrate the application and validation of but with low level of consequences and methods that identify those areas which an event with a low level of probability of are associated with the most serious occurrence but with a very high level of consequences of flooding and greatest consequences. risk.

133 Table 3 – Consequences of exceedance of pre-set thresholds of flood levels.

Description Consequences (Guidelines) Level

Places with geotechnical characteristics relatively stable, natural sand beach, Insignificant squats in habitats of low ecological value; local paths or drainage ditches 1

Sites with soil geotechnical characteristics of weak or processing any type of Marginal woody vegetation or other that would give some stability, areas occupied by 2 habitat conditions weak plant Places to infrastructure and coastal protection, local structures relevant to economic activities, local geotechnical characteristics very weak, unstable and Serious low resistance to breakdown, areas occupied by some habitats with ecological 5 interest. Places with permanent human habitation (urban planned); local geotechnical characteristics very weak, very unstable and very low resistance to breakdown, Critical without stabilizing vegetation, sites with natural elements of great value whose 10 loss would be difficult to compensate.

Places with permanent human occupation; sites absolutely unique and of Catastrophic tremendous value, the loss would be irreparable, beach-dune system. 25

4.4. Risk

Risk is the product of the probability of an adverse event by the value assigned to its consequences. The methodology presented here is a qualitative assessment of the risk of flooding being the degree of risk the product of the probability of flooding (Table 2) by the consequences of flooding (Table 3). The array provided by the product of these two variables is presented in Table 4 while Table 5 describes the assessment and acceptability of the obtained level of risk.

Table 4 – Risk level.

Consequences Risk Level 1 2 5 10 25 1 1 2 5 10 25 2 2 4 10 20 50 Probability 3 3 6 15 30 75 4 4 8 20 40 100 5 5 10 25 50 125

Table 5 – Assessment of the acceptability of the risk level.

Level Description Risk Mitigation (Guidelines)

Insignificant risk; no further consideration 1 – 3 Negligible needed.

Risk can be considered acceptable/tolerable 4 – 10 Acceptable provided the risk is managed.

Risk should be avoided if reasonably practicable; detailed investigation and cost/programme 15 – 30 Undesirable benefit justification required; top level approval needed; monitoring essential.

Intolerable risk; it is mandatory to undertake risk mitigation (e.g. eliminate the source of risk, 40 – 125 Unacceptable change the probability and/or consequences, transfer risk).

134 After the assessment of the risk impact - Scenario 1 - Occurrence of flood levels into the areas affected by the flooding, exceeding the threshold of +3 m (CD); the use of the GIS and its database, allows a quick, precise and efficient - Scenario 2 - Occurrence of flood levels creation of flood maps, and its respective exceeding the threshold of +6.5 m risk maps. For the creation of the flood (CD). maps, it is required to identify the areas below the pre-set threshold of flood level, Figures 4 to 7 present the flood and risk while its respective risk map provides the maps for these two scenarios, for cross- associated risk level for each sub-zone of section A2. As it can be seen, at the the areas of study. central part of the beach, where the cliffs have a lower crest level, the risk level is In this work and for illustrative purposes higher than at both ends of the beach. only, two scenarios were considered:

+0 m (CD) +0 m (CD)

Fig. 4 - Flood level +3 m (CD). Fig. 5 - Flood level +6.5 m (CD).

+0 m (CD)

Atlantic Ocean

Cliffs line 50

Fig. 6 - Risk map +3 m (CD). Fig. 7 - Risk map +6.5 m (CD).

135 5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE planning and sustainable management DEVELOPMENTS of coastal zone. The development of a system for flood forecasting and warning Effective coastal management, based on for coastal areas and ports is one of the the assessment of vulnerable areas and future steps in the development and associated risks, should allow preventing application of this methodology. degradation and irreversible loss of natural resources. This paper presents 11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the latest results of the development of a methodology for assessing flood risk The authors would like to acknowledge and its application to Vale do Lobo beach, the support provided by Fundação para Municipality of Loulé, Portugal. a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal, through project PTDC/AMB/67450/2006. The methodology presented here is a qualitative assessment of the risk of 12. REFERENCES flooding, considered as the product of the probability of flooding by its [1] Booij, N.; Ris, R.C.; Holthuijsen, L.H. - consequences. A Third-generation wave model for coastal regions, Part I, Model description and Based upon the local wave regime and validation. J. Geoph. Res., 104, C4, 1999, the corresponding series of run-up and 7649-7666. flood levels from 1986 to 1995 in Vale do [2] Ferreira, J.C. - Coastal Zone Lobo beach, it was possible to assess the Vulnerability and Risk Evaluation. A Tool risk, using the new methodology, taking for Decision-Making (Example In The into account two scenarios: occurrence Caparica Littoral - Portugal). J. Coastal of flood levels exceeding the threshold of Res, SI 39, 2004. +3 m (CD) and of +6.5 m (CD). Using [3] Fortes, C.J.E.M.; Reis, M.T.; GIS tools, the corresponding flood and Raposeiro, P.D. - Programas em FORTRAN risk maps were constructed. para Cálculo do Espraiamento. Relatório GUIOMAR 01/2010 - LNEC, 2010. The application of this methodology to [4] Mase, H. - Random wave runup height the beach of Vale do Lobo has shown its on gentle slope. Journal of Waterway, potentialities, namely its fast and efficient Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, capacity to evaluate risks and moreover it 115, 5, 1989, 649-661. can be easily extended to other locations. [5] Mase, H.; Hedges, T.S.; Shareef, M.; The GIS is an essential tool in the analysis Nagahashi, S. - Wave overtopping formula of land use and the creation of maps and for gentle slopes incorporating wave run- related flood risk maps. up. Proc. Coastal Engineering, 50, 2003, 636-640. However, it is very important to continue [6] Moura, D.; Boski, E.T. - Unidades the development of the content of the litostratigráficas do Pliocénico e tables that describe the probability of Plistocénico no Algarve. Comunicações do flooding and its consequences. The Instituto Geológico e Mineiro, 86, 1999, contents of these tables are essential 85-106. to obtain realistic and reliable results. [7] Neves, D.R.C.B; Zózimo, A.C.; It is also important to determine the Pinheiro, L.V.; Fortes, C.J. - GUIOMAR: occurrence of flooding based not only on desenvolvimentos recentes e aplicação the calculation of run-up but also on the ao caso de Sines. Proc. 6ªs Jornadas calculation of wave overtopping. Portuguesas de Engenharia Costeira e Portuária, PIANC, Funchal, 7 e 8 de Current work is being performed on the Outubro, 2009. incorporation of this methodology and [8] Nielsen, P.; Hanslow, D.J. - Wave run- software into the GUIOMAR system in up distributions on natural beaches. J. order to make it an effective tool to support Coastal Res., 7, 4, 1991, 1139-1152.

136 [9] Pinheiro, L.; Fortes, C.J.; Santos, J.A.; Neves, M.G. - Caracterização de regimes de agitação marítima utilizando a ferramenta SOPRO. Proc. 8º Congresso da Água, APRH, Figueira da Foz, 13 a 17 de Março, 2006. [10] Raposeiro, P.D.; Reis, M.T.; Fortes, C.J.E.M.; Ferreira, J.C. - Methodology for estimating run-up and flooding at the costal zone using the GUIOMAR system: application to Vale do Lobo beach. CoastGis2009, Brazil, 30 Sept-2 Oct, 2009. [11] Raposeiro, P.; Reis, M.T.; Fortes, C.J.E.M.; Ferreira, J.C. - Análise de cotas de inundação na praia de Vale do Lobo. 10º Congresso da Água, APRH, Alvor, 22 a 24 de Março, 2010. [12] Santos, F.D.; Forbes, K.; Moita, R. (Eds.) - Climate Change in Portugal: Scenarios, Impacts and Adaption Measures – SIAM. Gradiva, Lisboa, Portugal, 2002. [13] Simm, J.; Cruickshank, I. - Construction Risk in Coastal Engineering. Thomas Telford, London, 1998. [14] Teixeira, S.B. - Demarcação do leito e da margem das águas do mar no litoral sul do Algarve. Administração da Região Hidrográfica do Algarve. Faro, 2009. [15] USACE - Coastal Engineering Manual. Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Miss., 2003. [16] Varnes, D.J. – Landslide hazard zonation: a review of principles and practice. UNESCO, Paris, 1984.

137 DATA REQUIREMENTS AND TOOLS FOR MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING K.A. Stamoulis University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Geography Department. E-mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT summarize coastal and marine spatial planning (CMSP) as “a public policy Marine spatial planning (MSP) is an process for society to better determine international initiative to address how the oceans, coasts, and Great Lakes conflicting objectives of conservation are sustainably used and protected and resource development and usage now and for future generations.” CMSP in marine spaces. At this time MSP encompasses nearly identical concepts as exists more as a concept then a well MSP and may be more accurate given that defined framework, therefore continued coastal and marine space and processes development of theory and methods is are inextricably linked and should not essential. A critical component of marine be considered as distinct in a planning spatial planning is spatial data collection process. For the purpose of simplicity and analysis. Geotechnology has made however, the more widely used term of this data more accessible and provided MSP will be used in this paper. tools to organize, analyze, and integrate it into the MSP process. A review of the A primary goal of marine spatial planning current literature reveals the technological is to support current and future uses and methodological tools that are best of ocean ecosystems and maintain the suited for marine spatial planning as well availability of valuable ecosystem services as suggests areas for further research in for future generations [2]. An MSP order to better inform this process. process also addresses the legal, social, and economic aspects of governance, Index Terms— marine, spatial, planning, including the designation of authority, data, tools stakeholder participation, financial support, enforcement, monitoring, and 1. INTRODUCTION adaptive management. Key steps include defining and analyzing existing and Marine spatial planning is a concept that is future conditions and preparing a spatial rapidly gaining momentum. Regional MSP management plan [1]. These critical steps projects are currently underway in the are facilitated by the use of software tools United States and abroad. According to or other well-defined spatially-explicit the United Nations Educational, Scientific, methodologies which we will collectively and Cultural Organization, “marine spatial refer to as “tools”. They fall into three planning is a public process of analyzing major categories as relevant to MSP and and allocating the spatial and temporal will be the basis upon which this review distribution of human activities in marine is organized. The categories are: 1) data areas to achieve ecological, economic, and collection; 2) data management and social objectives that are usually specified analysis; and 3) decision support. through a political process” [1]. In June of 2009 the Obama administration created The practice of marine spatial planning a Task Force to develop a framework for is made possible by the increasing coastal and marine spatial planning. In availability of high quality spatial data. December of that year, the US Interagency Various software and other tools allow Ocean Policy Task Force released an for the management and analysis of this Interim Framework for Effective Coastal data and give practitioners the ability to and Marine Spatial Planning. They create alternate management scenarios

138 upon which planning decisions are made. information. An area that is less developed It is important to remember that MSP is and often represents a knowledge gap not a simple linear progression but rather in MSP is (spatial) information about a dynamic process with many feedback human activities [4]. With the current loops. Analyses of existing and future proliferation of MSP initiatives this conditions will evolve as new information “missing layer” is increasingly becoming is identified and incorporated into the addressed through various techniques. A planning process. Understanding and critical consideration for the collection of utilization of the proper tools is essential for data for MSP is the issue of scale. Data successful MSP endeavors. The purpose of sets should be of similar scale as the this review is to present and describe the planning units. It is often unproductive kinds of tools that are available for MSP to collect fine-scale data sets for small and provide examples from the current parts of the management area, because literature. Much discussion has occurred when put together they are frequently not regarding MSP policy, frameworks, and compatible [1]. Types of spatial data that best practices. A comprehensive review are necessary for marine spatial planning of data requirements and available tools include administrative, ecological, is timely. environmental, and human use. Each of these main data types will be discussed 2. DATA COLLECTION in turn along with key sources and tools utilized for their collection. The collection of pertinent spatial data is critical to the marine spatial planning 2.1. Administrative process. For the purpose of this review we will make a distinction between Administrative data includes jurisdictional the tools and technologies used for boundaries and government regulations. collecting primary data and the tools Maritime boundaries and limits delineate utilized by MSP practitioners to define, the extent of a nation’s exclusive rights manage, and analyze this information. and control over the maritime areas off its Ehler and Douvere [1] identify five coast. The boundaries may include a 12 primary sources for MSP relevant data nautical mile territorial sea, a 24 nautical which include scientific literature; expert mile contiguous zone, a 200 mile exclusive scientific opinion or advice; government economic zone, and the continental sources; local knowledge; and direct shelf. Government regulations regarding field measurement. Most spatial planning coastal and marine areas apply to specific efforts rely heavily on the first three legislative and jurisdictional zones and can sources; however local knowledge is be represented as spatial footprints. The increasingly recognized as an important combination of jurisdictional boundaries source of information. Direct-field and the regulations that apply to the areas measurements are typically outside they delineate are essential for MSP. the scope of MSP practitioners, though are sometimes necessary if significant The Multipurpose Marine Cadastre is knowledge gaps are identified. Current an online spatial database provided technology and methods have made by the NOAA Coastal Services Center available a great deal of spatially-explicit (CSC) and the US Minerals Management data for use in MSP, especially in terms of Service [5]. It is a useful tool for the ecological and environmental information. retrieval of administrative layers needed Palumbi et al. [3] describe the application for MSP efforts including jurisdictional of some of the tools currently used in boundaries, restricted areas, laws, and oceanography and marine ecology to marine infrastructure. The Legislative inform the design of ocean reserves atlas is a component of the Digital Coast which have implications for all aspects produced by the CSC and provides the of MSP. Remote sensing data is a major spatial footprint for a range of coastal source of ecological and environmental and ocean laws, policies, and regulations

139 [6]. Both of these tools are accessible via remote sensing from satellites records the the internet. They share an online GIS, same data on the scale of whole ocean in which a user zooms into and selects basins. On a much smaller scale, land- their area of interest to identify available based remote sensing techniques, such data resources for that region which they as Coastal Ocean Dynamics Application then have the option to download. A Radar, allow precise measurements of GIS application is necessary to view and surface currents within a few kilometers analyze the downloaded spatial data. of shore [3]. Marine environmental and circulation patterns are important for 2.2. Ecological determining different uses for marine spaces. In addition, knowledge of ocean Ecological data necessary for MSP include currents can allow us to infer dispersal biodiversity, animal distributions, and patterns for marine larvae, which is habitat information. This data is essential particularly important for the design of for identifying sensitive or ecologically marine reserves. Oceanographic maps for important areas, otherwise known as different parameters at appropriate scales biological valuation. In most cases these are useful for MSP. These are obtainable types of data are collected by scientific through US government agencies such as and/or government organizations. Various the NOAA National Ocean Service (NOS) methods are used to generate ecological and the NASA Physical Oceanography distribution and biodiversity data as part Distributed Data Archive Center (PO. of inventory and monitoring projects. DAAC). The scale and extent of these datasets however, are often small and patchy, 2.4. Human Use making them unsuitable for larger scale MSP endeavors. Benthic habitats are also Data regarding human activities in marine important indicators of ecological value. spaces is instrumental for marine spatial This information is increasingly obtained planning. The social seascape however, through remote sensing methods, allowing is largely undocumented and often data collection on large scales (see Diaz represents a “missing layer” in decision et al. [7] for a review of methods). Recent making [4]. Human uses of ocean and research has focused on the relationship coastal areas encompasses a broad between benthic habitat and marine life range of activities which can include: assemblages [8-10]. Studies indicate that fishing (commercial and recreational), benthic habitat parameters may be used aquaculture, marine transportation and as predictors for diversity and abundance shipping, oil and gas development and of fish and corals [11-14]. This has exploration, sand and gravel mining, important implications for MSP as it offshore renewable energy, military represents large scale, low cost means of operations, scientific research, as well collecting information useful for biological as a range of recreational activities. valuation. Some of these activities are site specific and can be mapped fairly easily, others 2.3. Environmental such as fishing and recreational uses, can be variable in time and space. Due The marine environment is dynamic to the proliferation of ecosystem-based and complex, and patterns and trends management and marine spatial planning, exist on different time scales. An researchers have begun to focus on understanding of ocean and near shore quantifying and mapping these activities. physical parameters is important for MSP. Vessel monitoring systems (VMS) are Oceanographic information can include used to define principle areas for fisheries sea surface height, temperature, ocean [15-17]. Participatory mapping draws on winds, circulation, currents, and water stakeholder and local knowledge to locate chemistry. While historically much of this fishing communities at sea [4] as well as data was collected directly by ships, today collect other MSP relevant information

140 [18]. Questionnaire surveys [19] and [5]. These are valuable resources for shipboard surveys [20] have been used obtaining MSP relevant data which are to collect information about marine updated on a continual basis. recreational activities. Analyzing existing and future conditions represents another critical part of the 3. DATA MANAGEMENT AND MSP process. Various tools have been ANALYSIS developed for this purpose, all of which fall under the realm of Geographic Data management is nearly as important Information Science (GISc) which is the to successful marine spatial planning as foundation of Geographic Information are the data themselves. Information and Systems (GIS). Of the four primary data data collected and created in the MSP types discussed previously, ecological process may remain underused without and human use data require additional careful management. Organizing and analysis to maximize their usefulness managing spatially-explicit databases is in a MSP framework. These analyses typically the most time-consuming aspect include mapping important biological and of planning activities. Data models and ecological areas, human use mapping, other resources exist to assist practitioners and the assessment of possible conflicts during this phase. A well organized and compatibilities among human inventory of available data facilitates activities. Second order analysis draws on analysis and subsequent planning steps. ecological, human use and environmental It should be refined during the planning data to assess possible conflicts and process to reflect modified objectives and compatibilities among human activities new sources of information. and the natural environment.

A geodatabase or spatial database is Biological valuation mapping (BVM) is designed to store, query, and manipulate a type of analysis that compiles and geographic information and spatial data. summarizes all available biological and This is the preferred method for managing ecological information for a study area, MSP data specific to a particular area and allocates an overall biological value to or project. Guidance on the theory and subzones. BVM provides a baseline map practice of designing geodatabases is of biological and ecological information provided by Arctur and Zeller [21]. A and calls attention to areas which have data model such as ArcMarine provides particularly high significance. This a basic template to implement a MSP informs provision of a higher degree geodatabase, and facilitates the process of risk aversion for those areas in a of extracting, transforming, and loading MSP process [1]. Derous et al. [26-28] data. Users can build upon the common provide a framework for marine biological marine data types provided by the valuation based on a review of existing model to suit the needs of their project criteria and the consensus reached [22]. Regional and national initiatives to by a discussion group of experts. This manage and make accessible coastal and concept was developed and utilized to MSP relevant data, utilize spatial data conduct a biological valuation map of the infrastructures (SDI) [23,24]. An SDI is Belgian part of the North Sea [29]. The a system or framework that facilitates Commonwealth of Massachusetts adapted the exchange of spatial data. Benefits of this concept to produce a biological value developing SDIs include improved access map for its waters as part of its ocean to data, reduced duplication of effort in management plan development process collecting and maintaining data, better [30]. availability of data, and interoperability between datasets [24]. Examples of SDI’s Human use data that is obtained as part of for the United States include the NOAA a MSP process needs to be standardized Coastal Services Center - Digital Coast into spatial layers that can then be overlaid [25] and Multipurpose Marine Cadastre in a GIS to identify existing or potential

141 conflicts between human activities. These management strategies [33]. They can are complex processes across a variety also be made available online to further of scales and to be properly represented facilitate user collaboration. The primary should integrate a temporal as well as benefits of good DSS are the ability to a spatial component. Unfortunately, centralize and manage spatial data, little research has been conducted on the speed of processing those data, the social or human geography of the and the ease of use and clarity for the oceans and it may well be necessary for users. Governing bodies must still make MSP practitioners to utilize some of the decisions among alternative solutions, techniques presented in the previous but these alternatives can be defined and section to generate appropriate data. Ehler understood more quickly and easily. The and Douvere [1] suggest a matrix method need for DSS increases with the number for identifying conflicts and compatibilities of planning objectives and potential among existing human activities. The tradeoffs. Conversely, the amount of next step would be to integrate this data, technical challenges, and cost of information into maps of human-uses to tool implementation also increase [33]. locate conflict areas and for comparison with other spatial attributes. Spatial Development of DSS has been primarily analysis of human activities is a critical for the purpose of conservation and more part of MSP and a proportional amount of specifically, for the sighting of marine effort should be spent on this phase. reserves. There are multiple examples Assessing conflicts and compatibilities from the literature that describe the between human activities and the use of DSS to produce and evaluate natural environment follows, informed by marine reserve placement scenarios. previous analyses of ecological and human Airame et al. [34] used a computer- use data. A framework for evaluating the based siting tool (DSS) called SITES to interactive and cumulative impacts of generate potential options for the no-take human activities is provided by Halpern reserve network in the California Channel et al. [31]. In a related study, Halpern et Islands. The computer used previously al. [32] generated a global map of human compiled geographic information to impacts on marine ecosystems. The maps create a network of randomly placed produced by this research can help to reserves and then improved it slightly, inform MSP efforts, though the scale is searching progressively for layouts that likely too broad for most marine planning were closer to the specified criteria. The efforts. The analytical process however, outputs were used as a starting point for could be adapted to delineate human discussions about where to implement impacts at a finer scale. individual reserves, and what trade- offs would be necessary in different 4. DECISION SUPPORT potential network configurations. Other examples demonstrate the effectiveness Another key step in the MSP process of combining siting tools and GIS data in is identification and evaluation of designing marine reserves in the Gulf of alternative management measures. It is Mexico [35] and the Florida Keys [36]. in this capacity that interactive decision These studies make it clear that there support systems (DSS) have played an are multiple approaches to implementing increasingly important role. Decision marine reserves in a particular area. support systems constitute a class of Sarkar et al. [37] provide a review of interactive computer-based information conservation planning tools that can help systems that support decision-making inform potential users about their theory activities. Interactive DSS can integrate, and utility. Almost all of the theory for share, and contrast many people’s spatial conservation planning has been ideas about planning options and focused on identifying no-take reserves. help managers and stakeholders to This trend has been translated into tool visualize tradeoffs between different development such that most available

142 DSS are designed to identify one type of has been under constant development zone (ie. marine reserves). Marine spatial over the last quarter of a century [43- planning seeks to develop multi-use 46]. During this time the approach has zoning schemes for which a broad range grown to become the most widely applied of objectives are represented. Therefore, ecosystem modeling technique [47]. The an optimization tool or framework that most recent version of Ecospace (EwE6) allows for multiple zones is necessary. incorporates a new optimization module Marxan is the most widely used based on a seed cell selection approach, conservation planning software in the where the spatial cell selection process world [38]. It uses the simulated annealing is influenced by geospatial information algorithm [39] to minimize the total cost [48]. The new sampling procedure of a reserve system, while achieving a set may be complementary to the Marxan of conservation goals. Similar to other approach in that Ecospace provides a reserve siting tools it provides two zoning robust evaluation of ecological processes, options for each planning unit: reserve including spatial connectivity, due to its and non-reserve. A new extension called trophic modeling foundation. These topics Marxan with Zones generalizes this are not fully developed in the Marxan approach by providing multiple zoning analysis. Christensen et al. [48] advocate options for each planning unit. Each zone that the two approaches, with their then has the option of its own actions, unique advantages and limitations, be objectives and constraints. The purpose applied in conjunction. Further research is to minimize total cost while ensuring should reveal the efficacy of the updated a variety of (user-defined) conservation Ecospace approach and how it compares and multi-use objectives [38]. Marxan with the already well established Marxan provides a flexible approach capable of with Zones. incorporating large amounts of data and use categories. It is computationally 5. CONCLUSIONS efficient, and lends itself well to enabling stakeholder involvement in the site Technological advances have enabled us selection process [40]. This tool has to gather and share information about our been used for the design of multiple-use environment at an unprecedented rate. marine parks in both Western Australia We use geographic information science and California [41]. Currently Marxan to manage and explore this wealth of with Zones is being utilized to produce spatial data. Marine spatial planning is planning scenarios for a MSP effort led by a marriage of geographic information The Nature Conservancy in the Birds Head science, environmental management, Seascape, Indonesia [33]. and land use planning. It is a complex, data intensive process. Spatial analysis One shortcoming of the Marxan approach lies at the heart of MSP and is surpassed is its inability to deal with issues of in importance only by stakeholder demographic connectivity. Marxan participation. To a large extent, the considers that including into a reserve success of a MSP effort depends on the system a site that contains a particular abundance and quality of its data, and the feature will ensure the persistence of that capacity for its analysis. Various tools can feature, even though surrounding sites enable and facilitate different aspects of may not have the same protection, and may MSP. It is in the interest of all involved therefore be ecologically compromised to make the best use of the technology [36]. For this reason, the evaluation of available. the ecological components and tradeoffs of alternate planning scenarios may The scope and scale of the data collected be better provided by another freely for MSP are important considerations, available DSS, Ecospace [42]. Ecospace is and should as much as possible match the spatial component of Ecopath which the scope of the planning area and the is an ecosystem modeling approach that scale of planning units. Given that many

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147 WORKING TOWARD A MULTIPURPOSE MARINE CADASTRE IN THE U.S. TO SUPPORT MARINE SPATIAL PLANNING D. Stein1, C. Fowler1, C. Taylor2, B. Smith3 & A. Bode4

1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Coastal Services Center (CSC), Charleston, South Carolina. E-mail: [email protected]. 2 U.S. Minerals Management Service, Herndon, Virginia. 3 IM Systems Group, Charleston, South Carolina. 4 The Baldwin Group, Charleston, South Carolina.

ABSTRACT energy, marine aquaculture, commercial and recreational fishery products, Multiple U.S. federal agencies are maritime commerce and trade, national collaborating to build a marine information security operations, and other activities. At system called the Multipurpose Marine risk is the health of our ocean ecosystems Cadastre (MMC). The MMC is a multiagency and the benefits they provide to coastal effort to build a GIS-based marine communities and national economies [1]. information system for U.S. waters that provides authoritative geospatial data and There is a compelling need to develop supporting information to inform decision- the capacity—in data, tools and policies— making on a range of ocean issues. At its to manage the full range of current and core, the MMC contains marine cadastral emerging ocean uses in U.S. waters [1]. data, which encompass the spatial extent, usage, rights, restrictions, and responsibilities of marine areas, as well as other framework data needed to support planning, management, and conservation of submerged lands and marine spaces. The combination of marine cadastral, biological, geo-physical, ocean use, and legal authority data provides users with Fig. 1 - MMC Web Map Viewer – Southeast the spatial context needed to address Coast [2] issues such as alternative energy siting, aquaculture, submerged lands leasing, Recent policy developments such as the marine conservation, and marine Energy Policy Act of 2005 have mandated spatial planning (MSP). This paper will the development of a mapping and demonstrate how spatial data are being information systems to support renewable organized and integrated into the MMC; energy development in U.S. waters. and how the MMC can be used to support Additionally, the Interim Framework MSP. for Effective Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning (2009) calls for a national Keywords - Marine Cadastre, Marine Spatial information management system to inform Planning, Decision-Support Tools, Marine Spatial Data Infrastructure marine spatial planning. In direct response to the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the 1. INTRODUCTION U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) Marine Boundary Working Group Human uses of ocean resources are developed the Multipurpose Marine increasing dramatically, outgrowing the Cadastre (MMC). The project is being laws, policies, and human resources co-led by the U.S. Minerals Management needed to manage them. More frequent Service and the National Oceanic and conflicts are unavoidable as demands Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The to use the oceans increase for offshore MMC, through its Web map viewers and

148 spatial data portal, is intended to address several agencies to combine resources the need for accessible and authoritative and dedicate staff members to long-term data and science-based decision- support development and maintenance of the tools. The MMC’s purpose is to serve as project. a planning and screening tool to inform decisions on ocean uses, specifically to provide the spatial context needed to Authoritative and Trusted Data Sources make decisions about where suitable At its core, the MMC contains the official areas exist for offshore activities and U.S. Marine Cadastre and is the only place where to avoid development (see figure where users can visualize all the official 1). U.S. marine boundaries on one map. Similar to the nation’s land-based parcel The following sections will describe how system, a marine cadastre is a system the MMC is being developed, managed, that enables the boundaries of maritime and used by the ocean planning and rights and interests to be recorded, management community. Furthermore, spatially managed and physically defined this paper will address the technical in relationship to the boundaries of other challenges and opportunities that are neighboring or underlying rights and foreseen as the U.S. engages in marine interests [3]. Additionally, to encourage spatial planning. multisector use, the following data themes are included in the MMC framework (see 2. THE FRAMEWORK FOR A figure 2): MULTIPURPOSE MARINE CADASTRE Georegulations: Includes geographical Inherent in any spatial data infrastructure extent of federal laws and policies. (SDI) are the people, technologies, Agency Regions: Includes geographical extent of federal agency regions and policies, and standards needed to develop planning areas. and share geographic data among users. The MMC employs each of these Navigation and marine infrastructure: SDI concepts through key partnerships Includes common navigational and among data providers, a commitment to infrastructure data such as shipping obtain and make available authoritative lanes, fairways, wrecks and obstructions, data, and the development of interactive and oil platforms. mapping tools. Key components of the MMC include the following: Human uses: Includes active and proposed oil and gas and alternative energy sites Partnerships Marine habitat and biodiversity: Includes biological data directly tied to U.S. federal Many federal agencies have been working statutes, such as the Marine Mammal collaboratively through the Marine Protection Act and Endangered Species Boundary Working Group (MBWG) over Act. the past decade to organize, standardize, and make readily accessible national Geology and seafloor: Includes marine boundary data—also referred bathymetric contours, undersea to as the U.S. Marine Cadastre. This placemames, physical substrate samples, venue has provided the opportunity for and small-scale geological maps. multiagency collaboration and strategic partnerships which have culminated in All data in the MMC originate from the the development of the MMC. Formal appropriate authoritative source1. These agreements have been made between organizations are responsible for data

149 updates and maintenance; whereby in the development of web services, the the MMC serves as a trusted source2 by state of current technology and partner visualizing, value adding, and providing capacity necessitates an intermediate step: data harvesting. Data harvesting is direct access to the authoritative sources the process of accessing and downloading through a national web map viewer and a data on an agreed-upon schedule. To spatial data portal. ensure that the content contained within the MMC is current and up-to-date, data Data Management are harvested, or collected from the MSP planning and decision making relies source, on a periodic basis. Since this heavily on the availability and analysis of approach to project data management timely geospatial information originating involves multiple roles and interactions from the authoritative sources. Users between partner agencies, a data update of tools like MMC must be confident the and maintenance plan was created to information they have is current and define the general pattern of data flow accurate. Consequently, good data between providers and consumers. management is paramount to the success Beyond defining the general flow of data of the project and substantial resources from provider to consumer, the plan also are devoted to this activity. defines a proposed update frequency schedule for harvesting, and guidelines for data inclusion in both the national Web map viewer3 and spatial data portal4.

While it will take many years to fully build-out the MMC with authoritative and other data relevant to MSP, the project team is taking a strategic approach by populating the national viewer with statutorily mandated data first; then prioritizing other data needs based on user requirements. Fig. 2 - Marine National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) Data Themes Data Standards

The long-range goal of the project is to All data in the MMC are critical for coastal build a distributed Web mapping system and ocean planning. However, since the that utilizes web services to consume backbone of the project is the U.S. Marine spatial data directly from the authoritative Cadastre, the project team has gone to source. Realizing this vision will enable great lengths to ensure that this data interoperability and enhanced use of theme is regularly updated, standardized these data across multiple platforms. and available in multiple data formats. This technology provides efficiencies for Two federally endorsed content standards all levels of government and contributes have been used in the construction of the to a more dynamic coastal and marine U.S. Marine Cadastre database. They are spatial planning framework. the Cadastral Data Content Standard and the Governmental Unit Boundary Data While data providers and the MMC project Content Standard. The data produced team are making incremental progress using these content standards have also

1Authoritative Source – An entity that is authorized by a legal authority to develop or manage data for a specific business purpose. The data this entity creates is authoritative data [4]. 2Trusted Source and Trusted Data – A service provider that publishes data from a number of authoritative sources. These publications are often compilations and subsets of the data from more than one authoritative source. The provider is “trusted” because there is an “official process” for compiling the data fromauthoritative sources [4].

150 been made available in Open Geospatial 3. THE MULTIPURPOSE MARINE Consortium endorsed transfer standards, CADASTRE AS A DECISION-SUPPORT including Web Map Service5 (WMS) and TOOL: CASE STUDIES Keyhole Markup Language (KML). MMC was designed to be used as a Additionally, all data contained in the screening tool for offshore activities. Two web map viewer includes metadata early implementing agencies are the NOAA using the FGDC Content Standard for National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Digital Geospatial Metadata, as well as and the U.S. Minerals Management data sheets which provide a laypersons Service. The NMFS Habitat Conservation overview of each data set. Division, located in Santa Rosa, California, is using the MMC to evaluate Data Visualization and Analysis ocean energy projects in California; and the U.S. Minerals Management Services Data visualization is another key is using the MMC as a screening tool for component of the MMC effort. A renewable energy projects. Additionally, comprehensive Web mapping application coastal states engaging in MSP efforts was built on the ESRI ArcServer platform are using the MMC’s authoritative data that enables viewing, analysis, and map- to support their planning efforts and making. The Web mapping application industry is beginning to use the MMC to was designed to visualize the data in identify areas suitable for development. the MMC and is currently being used by regulatory agencies to review permits 3.1 Permit Review for Hydrokinetic for offshore activities and by coastal Activities states engaging in coastal and marine spatial planning. Some of the custom In evaluating a license application for functionality includes point, line, and an ocean energy project in northern polygon buffering; measuring tools; California, the NMFS Habitat Conservation coordinate input; screen capture; and Division used the MMC to determine the freehand drawing (see figure 3). proximity of the proposed project to a variety of marine species and habitats. The tool is being used to evaluate whether these projects would impact a number of ecological resources, which include designated essential fish habitat and threatened- and endangered-species habitat. The agency’s findings were as follows: the project, as originally proposed, would impact numerous salmonid species and marine mammal species protected under the Endangered Species Act; it would be located within designated essential fish habitat and a habitat area of particular concern; and it would be situated within the migration Fig. 3 - MMC Functionality–Coordinate input corridor for several important species that [2] and Get URL are part of the West Coast commercial salmon fishery. As a result of the findings,

3National Web Map Viewer – Web map viewer for the MMC that visualizes the U.S. Marine Cadastre and other nationally relevant spatial data. www.csc.noaa.gov/mmc/ 4Spatial Data Portal – Catalog of spatial data found in the web map viewer, plus additional data sets that are relevant to MSP. The portal refers users directly to the authoritative source. www.csc.noaa.gov/mmc/ 5Web Map Service – The OpenGIS Web Map Service Interface Standard (WMS) is an HTTP interface for requesting geo-registered map images from one or more distributed geospatial databases.

151 the division created a variety of maps a state, provides landmark reference using the MMC-supported information, points, shows potential issues for the and four conservation divisions worked siting of renewable energy development, cooperatively to provide comments and highlights information gaps between recommendations in response to the federal agencies and state agencies, application. and provides an interactive tool the task forces can use to discuss and visually illustrate concerns and issues. As more In a similar example, a preliminary information is added, the utility of the permit application was filed for a wave MMC will continue to grow in this area. energy project to be located off the California coast. When the NMFS Habitat 3.3 Industry Interaction with the Conservation Division compared the MMC proposed project area to the data included in the MMC Web map viewer, the agency The Renewable Energy Program of the found that the proposed project footprint U.S. Minerals Management Service has extended into a major shipping lane and introduced the MMC to state and industry into two national marine sanctuaries. The planners interested in developing wind U.S. Coast Guard and NOAA’s Office of and wave energy projects in state and National Marine Sanctuaries were notified federal offshore waters. of these potential conflicts. As a result, the NMFS worked cooperatively with NOAA To date, industry has been able to Sanctuaries to write a joint comment use the MMC to provide an overview of letter and motion of intervention. The potentially important issues associated applicant corrected the coordinates of with the siting of an offshore wind the proposed project as a result of these facility. For instance, a manager within documents and comments submitted by a development company can visualize the U.S. Coast Guard (see figure 4). the location of shipping fairways where development is unlikely and determine the proximity of a proposed development to various resources without engaging technical staff members or vetting contracts. This allows managers to identify if studies may be needed at the onset of a project plan or to quickly determine if the area is not conducive for development. As offshore wind and wave energy development in the U.S. becomes a reality, there will be many opportunities to engage with this sector.

3.4 MMC Use in Incident Response Fig. 4 - Wave Energy Proposals in northern California [2] The MMC is being used by the U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS) 3.2 State and Regional Interaction and other federal agencies to view and with the MMC download authoritative data sets during the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Specifically, The MMC has recently been utilized as a the MMC is being used by MMS, NOAA, part of the Minerals Management Service’s and the U.S. Coast Guard to combine state renewable energy task forces largely map services with other data sets being because of the increase in processing used by some of the incident response speed of the MMC application. The MMC teams. Although the MMC was originally visually illustrates the offshore areas of envisioned as a tool for renewable energy

152 planning, it is turning out to be invaluable Ocean Council, regional planning bodies, for oil and gas incident response. and other agencies to develop a regional engagement strategy in keeping with the 4. IMPLICATIONS FOR MARINE Interim Framework and any resultant SPATIAL PLANNING policy.

On December 14, 2009, President 5. FUTURE DIRECTION Obama’s Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force released its Interim Framework Successful planning and delivery of for Effective Coastal and Marine Spatial products and services for MSP requires Planning, which offers a comprehensive, coordination between national-scale integrated approach to planning and priorities and capabilities and local- and managing uses and activities. The regional-level practitioner needs. The Ocean Policy Task Force defines coastal MMC is in a position to bridge the gap and marine spatial planning as a between national and regional data comprehensive, adaptive, integrated, priorities by providing authoritative data ecosystem-based, and transparent spatial and technical support to enable regional planning process, based on sound science, entities as they engage in MSP. However, for analyzing current and anticipated uses a substantial level of effort must be of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes areas devoted to maintaining existing data and [5]. Under the Framework, coastal and developing new data and products that marine spatial planning would be regional meet diverse user requirements while in scope, and developed cooperatively building the National Marine Spatial Data among federal, state, tribal, and local Infrastructure. The following are data and authorities, and regional governance tool enhancements that are envisioned as structures, with substantial stakeholder the project moves forward. and public input [5]. As the MMC becomes more widely known, It is envisioned that the MMC could be and regional groups and states adopt their used in multiple steps of the MSP process, own sets of tools, the MMC team envisions as defined by Ehler and Douvere in their that the authoritative data provided step by step approach to marine spatial within the MMC will be ingested directly planning [6]. Ready access to authoritative into an increasing number of specialized foundational data layers is essential viewers and decision-support tools. To for defining and analyzing existing and support this use, it will become imperative future conditions, preparing coastal and that existing data be maintained and marine spatial plans, and monitoring and updated on a frequent basis; that new evaluating plan performance. As MSP data be included that enhance regional becomes formalized in the U.S., these applications; and that data be provided process steps will be supported by a host in multiple formats, including Web Map of visualization and analysis tools. Services.

Additionally, the Interim Framework In addition to the above data for Effective Coastal and Marine Spatial enhancements, MSP will require Planning calls for national CMSP innovative, intuitive, and flexible information management system along decision-support tools enabling ocean with centralized or regional portals that managers and stakeholders to visualize connect to CMSP information [5]. The and compare the ecological and MMC can play a key role by integrating socioeconomic implications of alternative regional data into its map viewers, and scenarios for siting ocean uses across conversely, by providing framework areas, depths, and time. These include data to regional viewers and desktop analytical and visualization tools that applications. The MMC project team plans enable MSP planners and stakeholders to to work closely with the U.S. National (1) understand, visualize, and evaluate

153 the consequences of alternative ocean use Administration scenarios under varying environmental Infrastructure Requirements,” UN-FIG and socioeconomic conditions and over Conference on Land Tenure and Cadastral multiple time horizons; (2) facilitate Infrastructure for Sustainable compatible uses; and (3) monitor and Development, Melbourne, Australia, evaluate effectiveness of coastal and (1999). marine spatial plans [1]. [4] FGDC Subcommittee for Cadastral Data “Authority and Authoritative To meet the diverse requirements of Sources: MSP and renewable energy planning in Clarification of Terms and Concepts for the U.S., the MMC team will focus on the Cadastral Data Version 1.1,” (2008). following future activities: [5] The U.S. White House Council for Environmental Quality, Interim Framework - Development of tools to enable users for Effective Coastal and Marine Spatial to locate optimal marine space for ocean Planning, (2009). activities based on weighted criteria [6] Ehler, Charles, and Fanny Douvere, Marine Spatial Planning: a step-by- - Development of tools to identify all step approach toward ecosystem-based spatial data within a user-defined marine management, Intergovernmental space Oceanographic Commission and Man and the Biosphere Programme, IOC Manual - Development of standardized marine and Guides No. 53, ICAM Dossier No. 6 base maps to promote consistency in Paris: UNESCO, (2009). “look and feel” across multiple platforms

- Engagement in cross-sector demonstration projects focused on decision support tools to facilitate the MSP process

It will take a suite of practical decision support tools and authoritative data to meet the objectives of MSP. It is envisioned that through the work of the MMC and the continued development of related decision-support tools, managers and practitioners will have the necessary data and analytical capabilities to foster proactive decision- making in the marine environment.

1. REFERENCES

[1] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “NOAA Internal Reports on Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning,” (2009). [2] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS), Multipurpose Marine Cadastre Website – http://www. csc.noaa.gov/mmc/ (2010). [3] Robertson B., Benwell G., and Hoogsteden C., “The Marine Resource:

154 A PICTURE IS WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS-USE OF GPS ENABLED CAMERA IN GEOSPATIAL MAPPING A. Wadwani Applied Field Data Systems Inc, Houston, TX, USA. E-mail: [email protected].

ABSTRACT of the animal? Won’t that make your job much easier and more efficient? After For geospatial mapping, use of GPS is all as they say “A PICTURE IS WORTH A very common. However, the receivers do THOUSAND WORDS”. Due to this reason not provide adequate information on the and the availability of low priced digital condition of the feature. The availability cameras, GIS professionals are capturing of high resolution GPS enabled camera actual pictures of condition of the assets is allowing users to take photographs to prove/disprove something or show the of features along with location, date/ actual condition. However in the past, time and transfer directly into GIS. The it has been difficult to link the actual photographs are embedded with attribute photograph to the location data and bring information allowing scientists to actually the data into GIS software. review the feature in GIS and Google Earth.

Keywords - GPS, GPS Enabled Camera

1.INTRODUCTION

The primary reason for collecting GPS/ GIS data is to find the location (WHERE), date and time (WHEN) and feature and attribute information (WHAT). I call it the 3 W’S of GPS/GIS Data collection. While the latest GPS receivers with memory and appropriate software capture the attribute and feature information, a lot Fig. 1 - Large Size Wildlife Data Collection of feature description and information is left to operator’s judgments. For example if you are collecting data on wildlife, the operator may fill in under attribute column “LARGE” for size of animal (See Figure 1). Or data collection operator may say several penguins in the colony but has to write long texts to say how many are standing, how many are sleeping (See Figure 2). Or describe the size of wingspan as medium (See Figure 3).

Now imagine you are the scientist and are viewing this data in the office and trying to interpret how “LARGE” is large, or how many penguins are standing. Of course, you will try to make the best Fig. 2 - Populations Data Collection estimate in your mind of the attribute data but what if you had an actual picture 155 For marine applications one can use this package in studying pollution, wildlife, coastal zones, water quality sampling, bio diversity, ecology, etc. All one has to do is to take the picture and enter the associated attribute data on the picture for further analysis in the office. The data can also be imported into GIS for additional analysis in studying pollution, wildlife, coastal zones, water quality sampling, bio diversity, ecology etc.

Below are some examples of how the actual pictures with GPS and other attributes data will look like.

Fig. 3 - Medium Size Wildlife Data Collection

Over the last few years high resolution digital cameras have been introduced with GPS and Compass options and software to link actual photographs to GIS AND GOOGLE EARTH directly. The position data with date and time is printed on the picture itself. For example, one can embed the species of the penguins, air temperature, water temperature, wind speed, etc. All the data required to study the migration pattern of penguins. So instead of reading notes, the scientist can look at the pictures and analyze the data. Fig. 4 - Example of Wildlife Geo-referenced Some of the cameras have video and Photo recording option and capability to add tele-photo lens, The GPS modules are WAAS enabled so in the USA one is able to get 2 meter accuracy. For better accuracy, one can use a standalone GPS receiver offering better accuracy and transfer the position data to the camera via the BLUETOOTH option.

These cameras are an excellent tool for handling the 3 W’S of GPS / GIS data collection. With this package one can actually see the condition of the feature on a PC without having to go to the field or ask operators further questions. It allows one to prove or disprove something. This package has become a necessary tool for various MAPPING applications. Fig. 5 - Example of Environmental Monitoring Geo-referenced Photo

156 The pictures above show the position data, data and time and also OPERATOR NAME (AW), WATER QUALITY (CLEAN OR DIRTY), WHAT IS THE POLLUTANT (HOUSEHOLD / STORM WATER) AND NO ACTION is required. All these attributes are embedded in the picture for anyone in back office to review and make decisions.

2. CONCLUSION

In conclusion the use of GPS enabled camera is increasing rapidly. Several GPS manufacturers are now offering a camera built into their hand held units. The use of this package is rapidly growing in all areas of GIS mapping. With more manufacturers introducing this type of technology, a user has additional wider selection of products and in the long run prices will drop. Over all this technology will very soon become a mandatory tool for GIS mapping.

3. REFERENCES

[1] Ricoh 500 SE Manual 2010

157 ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF BRINE DISCHARGE INTO SHALLOW BRACKISH BAY - A CASE STUDY OF PUCK BAY, BALTIC SEA A. Wochna Institute of Oceanography, University of Gdansk, Al. Pilsudskiego 46, 81-378 Gdynia, Poland. E-mail: agnieszka. [email protected].

ABSTRACT oceans, as there is no restrictions about its quality nor brine production efficiency In coastal area of Poland an Underground and lowest costs are involved [15]. In the Gas Storage in salt domes is planned to be case of introduction of brine into natural formed. Brine from salt caverns lixiviation receiver the influence of the inflow of is planned to be disposed to the Puck Bay highly salinated water on the ecosystem – an inert bay of Baltic Sea included in must be known and considered. As there NATURA 2000 protection network. In the is a number of desalination plants in article theoretical considerations about parts of the world with poor freshwater potential environmental impact of brine resources, many research was performed on natural waters are presented. The on ecological effects associated with influence of salinity increase on organisms brine discharge from this process [among living in specific conditions of brackish others: 26, 17, 11]. Research on the waters is discussed. In conditions of weak environmental impact of brine discharge water dynamics the stratification may be from lixiviation of underground gas formed, creating density gradient by the storages were performed by Quintino bottom. In the simultaneous situation et al. [21]. The experiment showed of high productivity in surface layer and that not only increased salinity but also connected high mineralization of organic the ionic composition of the brine has matter by the bottom, conditions of influence on organisms living in affected oxygen depletion may occur. A threat environment. Effects of brine discharge of hypoxia conditions in the investigated on environment depend not only on area is identified. A location of a discharge the physico-chemical properties of the site with higher water dynamics and effluent, but also on hydrographical lesser biological value is proposed. and biological features of the receiver. Shallow and enclosed bays, especially Index Terms— Brine disposal, brackish with abundant in wildlife are recognized waters, coastal eutrofica tion, hypoxia, semi- as sensitive to brine introduction due to enclosed bay limited water exchange. Locations with the lowest sensitivity – exposed open 1. INTRODUCTION sea, are characterized by high capability of brine dilution and dispersion, by rapid Brine is a highly salinated water produced water exchange and high energy [8, 1]. during several processes, most often sea Brine plume dispersion in natural waters water desalination and cavern leaching. was modeled and described, inter alia, in This technological effluent, usually reports: [6], [10], [12] and articles: [1], produced in great amounts, may be [27], experimental observations were disposed in different ways depending presented by Shiau et al. [27]. Zemke et on location of the investment, costs and al. [31] described alternative solution of capabilities. Brine of high quality, highly brine disposal in geological structures by saturated and with low level of impurities, injection into deep aquifer. This method may be used in chemical processing and the use of evaporation ponds are for Na and Cl or table salt production. useful opportunity in the inland areas [2, However, most often brine is discharged 3]. into natural waters: rivers, seas or

158 In Poland there are plans of creating an for brine spreading are poor, the investor Underground Gas Storage facility in the is obliged to discharge brine with the coastal region, and brine produced during usage of diffusers initially diluting brine cavern leaching is going to be discharged with sea water. The diffusing system will to the Puck Bay, a semi-enclosed bay consist of 48 nozzles for proper dilution of a Baltic Sea. In twelve years 14,96 of the highly salinated water outflowing million m3 of brine with salinity 250 PSU the pipeline, the maximum allowable will be introduced to the bay. Baltic is discharge rate is 300 m3 per hour, what an example of brackish sea and average gives 7200 m3 per day. With brine salinity salinity in the Puck Bay is on the level of 250 kg/m3, 1800 tons of salt may be daily 7,5 PSU [14], more than 30 times lower introduced to the bay. Theoretically brine than brine salinity. Even though degraded induced salinity should not exceed 0,5 by great amounts of nutrient introduced PSU, as restricted in permission of brine with sewage, rivers and atmospheric discharge to this protected area, what was deposition in previous century, the confirmed by modeling results [25]. For environment of this semi enclosed bay brine dispersion in Puck Bay periods with is characterized by the highest aquatic different hydrological and meteorological biodiversity in Polish coast. Specific conditions were chosen, however, most hydrological conditions in different parts of simulations lasted 10 days and none of the bay allow for coexistence of marine exceeded two months, what seems very and fresh water organisms in one basin. short comparing the planned period of The state of bay waters improved after discharge – twelve years. The modeling building the wastewater treatment plants results were not verified as no brine have and discharge of part of treated wastes to been introduced to the reservoir. the open sea, however, the eutrofication and resulting algae blooms are still every For cavern lixiviation a treated wastewater year problem [14]. will be used, so together with brine some amounts of organic matter will be As Puck Bay is one of the most biologically released. In the neighborhood of pipeline valuable areas in Poland [9] and is included transporting brine, another pipeline, in EU environmental protection network - introducing treated wastewater from Natura 2000, acute investigation of the nearby treatment plant, will be placed influence of highly salined water on this (Fig. 1). As outflows of pipelines will be important and unique marine life need to in a distance of 500 meters, the inflow of be conducted. In the article the impact of positive buoyancy wastewater must be increased salinity on organisms living in considered in the environmental impact and around the Puck Bay is discussed and analysis. As described later this may potential threats connected with brine significantly influence oxygen conditions discharge to this specific environment in the area of brine discharge. are identified. At the beginning a short description of parameters of discharge is given, at the end brine disposal location with lower environmental risk is proposed and its advantages and disadvantages are presented.

2. BRINE DISCHARGE TO THE PUCK BAY - GENERAL REMARKS

Brine will be discharged to the bottom of the Puck Bay to the depth of 8 meters, 2300 meters from the coast, in the period of twelve years. Since the bay is a sheltered reservoir and natural conditions Fig. 1 - Facilities involved in brine discharge to the Puck Bay.

159 3. INFLUENCE OF SALINITY INCREASE ON PUCK BAY ECOSYSTEM

Waters of the Puck Bay are characterized by low salinity, from 3.84 to 8.00 PSU, what creates specific conditions for organisms. The number of species occurring in this range of water salinity is much lower comparing to ocean and fresh waters (Fig. 2). The specific ecosystem of the Puck Bay is represented by species originating from ocean waters that were able to adopt to low salinity, freshwater and migratory species [14]. The salinity rise due to brine, if on the planned level (0,5 PSU), should not have significant influence on organisms of the Puck Bay. Fig. 2 - Dependence of number of species on There may be some changes in species the salinity of water [adopted from 22]. composition but probably they will be in the range of natural variations, alike 4. POTENTIAL INFLUENCE OF the primary production of phytoplankton BRINE ON WATER CONDITIONS - [13]. The occurrence of freshwater FORMATION OF STRATIFICATION species is connected with inner Puck Bay and with river inflow areas where Due to higher density than naturally the brine effects should be the least. occurring waters brine, even diluted, Still, no laboratory experiments were will follow towards the bottom. In the performed, and effect of a continuous conditions of weak water dynamic, exposure of organisms living in Puck brine spreading and mixing may be Bay to changed conditions is unknown. low enough for stratification formation. The laboratory research should give the Accumulation of brine by the bottom and knowledge of salinity tolerance limits of resulting stratification may have severe organisms of the bay and investigate the consequences as it limits vertical mass and influence of the ionic composition of the gas exchange between water if difference brine, that slightly differs from the bay of density is high enough. Stratification waters. Such studies would enable proper forming and consequent hypoxia effect predictions of changes in marine life of resulting from brine discharge to shallow the Puck Bay, accurate assessment of bay was investigated by Hodges et al. the risk to this ecosystem. The Puck Bay [10] and Ritter and Monatagna [23, 24]. and its surrounding are very important From the field studies Hodges et al. [10] for birds and an indirect effect of brine concluded that a thin-layer stratification on birds by changes on their food base can occur in a shallow embayment (3-5 (fishes, benthos, underwater plants) meters), which is generally vertically should be considered. Nevertheless, if the mixed, and may induce hypoxia. Hypoxia influence on marine organisms will not be events are determined by the length of critical this indirect influence should be time sediments are isolated from the insignificant [13]. ambient water by the saline layer. The scheme of the processes that may occur when high-salinity water is introduced into a shallow embayment is illustrated in figure 3. Described hypoxic events were intermittent, usually overnight or early morning, local and persisted rather for hours than days or weeks. It

160 was indicated in that under well-mixed discharge that may limit vertical mixing conditions, development of low oxygen and prevent dissolved oxygen from conditions is generally attributable to penetration through the water column excessive nutrient loading. what will enhance depletion of available dissolved oxygen. The phenomenon of salinity stratifications and resulting problem with dissolved Crucial in this consideration is whether oxygen by the bottom was widely shallow Puck Bay would remain well- described in the estuary areas, where mixed in the presence of a brine fresh, usually nutrients rich waters discharge. The modeled salinity increase interact with saline ocean waters [16, (0,5 PSU) is much lower than the one in 29, 19]. Usually the bottom hypoxia and mentioned research [10], however the anoxia occurs in summer due to additional, depth at which brine will be released is except saline, thermal stratification [30, bigger. The model results show that there 28] and excessive primary production may be a situation when brine will remain – algae blooms [18, 4], even in shallow by the bottom, with salinity differences areas potentially well mixed. between bottom and surface on below 1 PSU. Effler et al. [7] documented the river In case of brine discharge to the Puck Bay salinity stratification induced by the ionic it is crucial that in a distance of 500 meters pollution related impacts on dissolved from the end of discharging pipeline there oxygen. During the inflow of ionic will be a wastewater released. A great pollution the salinity difference between amount of nutrients to the surface waters upper and lower layer was 1,9 PSU and will be introduced in the area around the severe DO depletion in the lower river brine discharge. This will lead to high layer occurred. Few years after the inflow primary production (algae blooms) and of pollution finished the salinity gradient high biomass of chlorophyll A in the late remained at the level of 0,4 PSU and was spring and summer and consequently high enough for stratification formation high amounts of organic matter by the and oxygen concentration depletion even bottom. to 1 mg/L. Hypoxia conditions occurred only during low flow of the river and had shorter extend, but was not eliminated [7].

As hypoxia creates physiological stress that is poorly tolerated by most animals and may significantly decrease quality of biological conditions in Puck Bay, the Fig. 3 - Conceptual development of thin-layer dissolved oxygen content of bottom gravity currents and hypoxia in shallow estuary. waters should be constantly monitored Development or avoidance of hypoxia depends during brine discharge, at least in the on wind-induced mixing [10]. period of the biggest risk of oxygen depletion occurrence. According to observations the oxygen saturation of the The period of higher vegetation Puck Bay waters is very unstable [5]. corresponds with weak winds and Authors suggests that the oxygen balance small water dynamic, what will result is seriously disturbed. On the shore in weak conditions of brine spreading. the situation is most unstable: during Phytoplankton may cause the dissolved summer intense phytoplankton blooms oxygen supersaturation in surface layer occur in the pelagic layer and oxidation of (enhanced bubble formation and release the deposited organic matter occurs. The of oxygen into the air), but in deeper salinity stratification limiting the transport parts of the basin a lot of oxygen will be of oxygen to bottom layers may intensify needed for mineralization processes of problems with oxygen balance. the great amount of organic matter. Brine

161 The oxygen measurements should be performed rather in the distance of few kilometers around the diffusing system, as brine is going to be oxygenated so at the beginning there will be enough of oxygen for organic matter mineralization.

5. BRINE DISCHARGE TO THE OPEN BALTIC SEA

More environmentally safe solution would be to discharge brine to the less sensitive site than the inert, biologically important bay. The exposed open sea site on Polish coast was proposed by the president of Section of Sea Ecology of Fig. 4 - Near bottom current in Polish marine areas. The circle marks the proposed brine Ecological Committee of PAS, prof. J.M. discharge site [9]. Węsławski. This location is presented on the figure 4 and marked with a circle. The velocity of currents in this region is much 6. SUMMARY higher than in Puck Bay, and generally this region is one of the most dynamic In Poland 3,6 million tons of salt form along the coast [9]. This solution would underground caverns in the form of introduce brine into a big reservoir of the brine will be introduced to the Puck Bay south Baltic Sea, and the impact of brine - shallow enclosed part of the Baltic Sea on the natural environment would be safe with brackish waters. This basin, the and insignificant. Moreover disturbance most biologically significant on Polish of waters and habitats that protected coast, is included in the EU protection net by Polish law (Seaside Landscape Park) NATURA 2000. Brine will be introduced and European environmental protection in the bottom of the bay by the diffusing net Natura2000 would be eliminated. system initially diluting highly salinated On the other hand this would require with natural waters. The restrictions were building over a 20 kilometer long pipeline imposed that the salinity increase cannot through the Seaside Landscape Park and exceed 0,5 PSU, what will probably have increase significantly the costs of the insignificant influence on organisms in investment, that is why this alternative brackish water ecosystem. Nevertheless in was rejected by the investor [raport]. In shallow and semi-enclosed bay, in periods such circumstances precise and objective of low water dynamics a stratification monitoring of the state of Puck Bay may be formed due to accumulation of waters and life should be conducted, higher density water by the bottom. The and any possible means of minimizing co-existence of excessive algae blooms at environmental risk should be undertaken. the surface at the same time may result in oxygen depletion in the bottom layer, as high amounts of oxygen used in the intensive organic matter mineralization will not be supplied from atmosphere due to limitations of gas exchange through layer of the density gradient [10]. As in a 500 meter distance, treated wastewater rich in nutrients will be released, the spring and summer algae bloom will probably occur in surface layer in the brine discharge site. The oxygen depletion may have severe consequences to aquatic

162 bottom life, so the constant monitoring of Energy, Office of Petroleum Reserves, dissolved oxygen level in the period of Washington, DC, 2006 vegetation (V-X) is needed. The constant [7] S.W. Effler, S.M. Doerr, E.M. Owens, observations of salinity increase will “Effect of reduced salinity input on river enable to stop the brine discharge if it stratification and dissolved oxygen”, would exceed allowable value of 0,5 PSU Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 95, 45–58, in respect to natural salinity changes. 1997 [8] R. Einav, K. Harussi, D. Perry, “The The safest way of brine discharge to footprint of the desalination processes natural waters in Poland would a release to on the environment”, Desalination, Vol. the open sea, where high dynamics and no 152, pp. 141–154, 2002 protected areas are present. This variant [9] G. Gic-Grusza, L. Kryla-Straszewska, is however connected with higher costs J. Urbański, J. Warzocha, J.M. Węsławski, as over 20 kilometers long pipeline would Atlas of Polish marine area bottom have to transport brine. Considering high habitats. Environmental valorisation of storing potential of salt deposits in the marine habitats, Broker-Innowacji, 2009, region, and probable future investments Gdynia this solution may appear as the best and [10] B.R. Hodges, P.S. Kulis, C.H. David, worth bearing additional costs. Desalination brine discharge model. Final report, Center for Research in Water 7. REFERENCES Resources, University of Texas at Austin, 2006 [1] I. Alameddine, M. El-Fadel, “Brine [11] Th. Hopner and J. Windelberg, discharge from desalination plants: a “Elements of environmental impact modeling approach to an optimized outfall studies on coastal desalination plants”, design”, Desalination, Vol. 214, pp. 241- Desalination, Vol. 108, pp.11–18, 1996 260, 2007 [12] S. A. Jenkins and J. Wasyl, [2] M. Ahmed ,W. H. Shayya, D. Hoey Oceanographic Consideration for and J. Al-Handaly, “Brine Disposal from Desalination plants in Southern California Inland Desalination Plants. Research Coastal Waters, Scripps Institution of Needs Assessment”, Water International, Oceanography Technical Report No. 54., Vol. 27, Issue 2, pp. 194 – 201, June 2002 Marine Physical Laboratory, University of [3] M. Ahmed ,W. H. Shayya, D. Hoey, California, San Diego, 2005 A. Maendran, R. Morris and J. Al- [13] L. Kruk - Dowigiałło, J. Nowacki, Handaly, “Use of evaporation ponds for A.Osowiecki, R Opioła., T. Wandzel, R. brine disposal in desalination plants”, Dubrawski, P. Brzeska,”Supplement Desalination, Vol.130, Issue 2, pp. 155- to the Report on the Environmental 168, 2000 Impact Assessment of the construction [4] D.L. Bergondo, D.R. Kester, H.E. of Underground Gas Storage Kosakow”, Stoffel, W.L. Woods, “Time – series Arch. of Marine Institute, Gdańsk, 2008 observation during the Low Sub-surface (in Polish) Oxygen Events in Narragansett Bay [14] K. Korzeniewski, The Puck Bay, UG, during summer 2001”, Marine 1993, Gdańsk (in Polish) Chemistry, 97, 90-103, 2005 [15] A. Kunstman, K. Poborska-Młynarska, [5] Bolałek J., Falkowska L., Korzeniewski K. Urbańczyk, “Construction of storage K., Oxygen conditions [in] The Puck Bay, caverns in salt deposits-geological and ed. Korzeniewski K., UG, 1993, Gdańsk mining aspects”, Prz. Geol., Vol. 57, No. (in Polish) 9,pp. 819-828, 2009 (in Polish) [6] Brine Plume Modeling of Strategic [16] A.Y. Kuo, B. J. Neilson, “Hypoxia and Petroleum Reserve Expansion Sites, salinity in Virginia” Estuaries 10, 277– Appendix C, [in] Site Selection for the 283, 1987 Expansion of the Strategic Petroleum [17] S. Lattemann and Th. Hopner Reserve, Final Environmental Impact , “Environmental impact and impact Statement, V ol. 2, U.S. Department of assessment of seawater desalination”,

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