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Publishers and distributors for the Ecological Society of Australia SURREY BEATTY & SONS 43-45 Rickard Road, Chipping Norton 2170, NSW, Australia Telephone: (02) 602 3888 Fax: (02) 821 1253 Australian EDITORIAL The Ultimate Inventor Natural History ife. That seemingly infinite study, classify, identify and examine structure whose boundaries we all aspects of it. We play a vital role in Published by continuously hope to conquer. its future direction for, being a part of The Australian Museum Trust L It is a kind of writhing, growing time it, we affect it, sometimes intention­ 6-8 College Street, ally, other times not. But in order to Sydney, .S.W. 2000 machine of which we are but a small Phone: (02) 339 8111 part. Mike Archer discusses his look after it, we need to understand Trust President: Robyn Williams 'Bioblob' concept of Life on p. 512. it; to know it intimately: any decision Museum Director: Desmond Griffin The beast called Life continu­ that we make about it must be based EDITOR ously changes form and develops on sound knowledge. One recent Fiona Doig new strategies in order to reach new quest for such knowledge was un­ SCIENTIFIC EDITOR dertaken by the A PWS using Aus­ Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. boundaries: fish have developed antifreeze in order to withstand tralian Museum staff to study the CIRCULATION Cathy McGahey the icy Antarctic waters (see article ecology of Elizabeth and Middleton ART DIRECTION p. 518); lizards have lost their legs Reefs (see article on p. 484). To the Watch This! Design and become snake-like (p. 524); and general populous, such a study may PRODUCTION ASSISTANT dragonflies and damselflies (see not seem to be of great conse­ Shan Wolody p. 506) have developed extraordi­ quence. Yet it is studies such as this TYPESETTING nary penis structures that ensure that that ultimately contribute towards Love Computer Typesetting Pty Ltd sperm deposited from the last the future direction of the beast. We FILM WORK mating is used to fertilise the eggs. are its guardians. South Sea International Press Ltd And we, in awe of the beast, -Fiona Doig, Editor PRI TING RodenPrint Pty Ltd ADVERTISING Voyage to Elizabeth & Middleton 484 (02) 339 8234 Reefs SUBSCRIPTIO S Pat Hutchings Annual subscription (4 issues) Supplication of the Crocodile: 490 Within Australia $A 16.00 A Curing Ritual from Papua Other Countries $A20.00 Two-year subscription (8 issues) New Guinea Within Australia $A30.00 Peter Dwyer and Monica Minnegal Other countries $A36.00 Dragons & Damsels: 506 For renewal or new subscription please An In-depth Penetration of forward credit card authority or cheque Their Sexual Strategies made payable to: David Thompson The Australian Museum P.O. Box A285 Sydney South Antarctic Fish : 518 .S.W. 2000, Australia Coping With Life In Icy Waters Subscribers from other countries please Richard Williams note that money must be paid in Life Without Legs 524 Australian currency. The Pygopodid Lizards All material appearing in Australian Michael Hutchins Natural History is copyright. Reproduction in whole or in part is not FORUM permitted without written authorisation from the Editor. Hunting: A Conservation Strategy? 498 Opinions expressed by the authors are Sid Cowling their own and do not necessarily represent the policies or views of the VIEWS FROM THE FOURTH Australian Museum. DIME SION The Editor welcomes articles or The Four-Dimensional 'Bioblob' 512 photographs in any field of Australian Called Life natural history. Michael Archer Published 1988 AUSTRALIAN WILD FOODS ISSN-0004-9840 Native Fruiting Weeds 516 Tim Low Australian atural History 111111111 is audited by the RARE & ENDA GERED aoc Audit Bureau of Circulations Extinct Plants Rediscovered 522 Front Cover Mark Richardson Surf breaking over the reef crest at Middleton Reef, one of the two REGULAR FEATURES southernmost coral atolls in the world. Letters 482 Australian Museum scientists have been Quips, Quotes & Curios 496 studying the ecology of the two reefs in Photoart 501 a research project commissioned by Poster Article 504 A PWS (p. 484). Photo: Ed Lovell. Robyn Williams 505 Books 514

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 481 LETTERS Confusion & Delusion

Algal Blues As a mere practitioner of namer. Algal cells contain a and forget what they really Can you please clarify for what scientists tell me is an nucleus and chromo­ stand for in the education me an apparent contradic­ Art as opposed to a Sci­ somes. On closer examin­ of humans and the survival tion in the Spring 1988 ence, may I be permitted ation of what were once of our environment. issue of ANH (vol. 22, no. to comment on two articles called 'blue-green algae', As for the comment on 1O) concerning blue-green in your ANH of Spring the cells were found not to reductions in grants or algae and cyanobacteria. 1988. contain a nucleus or funding, it is very amusing In his review of Evol­ In a book review, we chromosomes and thus that our politicians can eas­ ution in the Outback: Time are informed by Ken were not algae. They were ily muster enough funds to in the North-West of Aus­ McNamara that stroma­ instead photosynthetic tour the globe, yet refuse tralia, Ken McNamara tolites are not made by bacteria, hence the term to accept the importance points out that Jan Taylor blue-green algae, but by 'cyanobacteria'. Reference of things that really count "perpetrates a number cyanobacteria, which are to 'blue-green algae' only in society. of myths", specifically organisms from a com­ confuses the issue. It Congratulations on the "... stromatolites are made pletely different kingdom. should be dropped from magazine, and keep up the by blue-green algae. In Later, in an article, Ken scientific nomenclature good work. fact they are largely con­ McNamara tells us that and be replaced with structed by organisms in a stromatolites at Hamelin 'cyanobacteria'. This was -Jim Bigelow completely different king­ Pool are formed principally the point Ken McNamara Coorparoo, Qld dom, the cyanobacteria". by cyanobacteria "for­ was making in his book re­ Then some pages later, merly known as blue­ view. presumably the same Ken green algae". -C.H. Confronting Criticism McNamara says in his Is this a case of 'a rose by I found it a trifle annoy­ article on stromatolites: any other name', as with ing that Tim Flannery "These [stromatolites] at Monilia and Candida, or A Potter's Request should use his space in a Hamelin Pool are formed does Ken McNamara come I congratulate you on the book review to launch an principally by cyano­ in two sub-types? recent article concerning unnecessarily sarcastic at­ bacteria (formerly known La pita pottery (ANH vol. tack against creation sci­ as blue-green algae)".I am -Dr Grahame P. Dodd 22, no. 9) and encourage ence and the Christian left to assume that some Broadbeach Waters, Qld you to continue with more churches that teach it to finer point of definition has articles on ancient pottery. school students (ANH vol. been omitted here, one Perhaps now is the time to 22, no. 8, 1988). ot only is that I would like to know. Ken McNamara in his re­ further expand by giving us it extremely rude to refer to Apart from this point I view of Evolution in the (the readers) a full-size the well-mannered (unlike would like to say how Outback takes to task Jan poster of some of the many Dr Flannery) and well­ much I have enjoyed read­ Taylor for stating that excellent pieces available. groomed representatives ing Australian Natural His­ stromatolites are made by It would make a welcome of these churches as Paul tory. As far as I am con­ blue-green algae. He change from the usual Keating look-alikes, it is cerned I think it leaves writes "in fact they are wildlife shots. By the way, also highly contentious to other 'competitors' in the largely constructed by or­ the poster of the early Aus­ imply that the churches natural history stakes, such ganisms in a completely tralian plant drawings was that support creation sci­ as Australian Geographic different kingdom, the excellent. ence are "outlandish" or and Ceo, for dead! I think cyanobacteria". It is unfor­ -Sharon Williams "fringe". the main reason is that you tunate that such a basic Busselton, WA Dr Flannery may have cover such a wide range of error has crept into his ex­ had a bad experience with topics including items on cellent review. Those or­ religion that biases his invertebrates and suchlike ganisms formerly known as opinions somewhat, but rarely i;:overed elsewhere. blue-green algae are the this is no forum to air his The quality of photo­ same organisms that are Grants not for views. The unscientific and graphic art in the publi­ now known as cyano­ Granted emotive appraisal of the cation is outstanding; the bacteria. Ken McNamara I wish to convey my ap­ book also does little to en­ photo of the breaching should check his own facts preciation and enjoyment courage people who were Killer Whale by A. Rus before calling the kettle of Robyn Williams' article educated poorly about Hoelzel is magnificent. As black. 'What are Museums for?' evolutionary science to you can see I'm a con­ -Harold Spies (ANH vol. 22, no. 9). I fully read it. While assaulting us firmed fan and I look for­ Castlecrag, NSW support his comments. It is with his personal views of ward to future issues from unfortunate that many religious education, he has your team. people take for granted the failed to give a summary of -Leonie Andrews The term 'blue-green existence of museums or the contents or format of Kambah, ACT algae' is, in fact, a mis- institutions like the CSIRO the book, which would 482 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 australian

have been more helpful We have become very than the vilifications that disappointed, however, museum Four exhibitions now open! litter the page. that you have recently al­ There is always room for lowed the debate in your pertinent quips that indi­ pages about the two Pieces of Paradise: cate the author's bias in the theories of the origin of life relevant subject, but this to descend to the level of Pacificartefacts type of article appears of­ ridicule. If one is con­ through many eyes fensive and unprofessional vinced that another human in an otherwise enjoyable being is misguided, the and informative magazine. very best one can do is to Closes May 1989 Being Jewish and in pos­ present them with the facts session of some very good as facts, the theories as creationist jokes, I'm not theories, and let them de­ writing this letter for per­ cide for themselves. The sonal reasons! last thing one should do is -Jacky Bentel to hold them up to ridicule. School of Pathology This applies to proponents University of NSW of both sides of the debate. I am sure that both Tim Assisted by the NSW Bicentennial Flannery (ANH Books, vol. Ovulation and 22, no. 8) and Roger Secretariat and The Australian Evolution Bourne (ANH Letters, vol. Museum Society. It may interest you to 22, no. 9) would baulk at know that in the Spring criticising the Australian Sponsored by State Bank. issue of ANH there was Aborigines for teaching greater connection than their form of creationism in juxtaposition between the like terms, and yet that is Tracks Through books reviewed: Egg by what preservation of that Robert Burton, Jane Burton culture in living form must Time: The story of and Kim Taylor, and Evol­ embody. This bears further human evolution ution in the Outback by Jan thought. Taylor. Kim is my brother Concentrate on present­ and we are both zoologists ing the myriad of wonder­ Sponsored by turned nature photogra­ f u I facts, present the Blue Circle Southern Cement Ltd. phers. theories as theories, edit -Dr J.C. Taylor out the fantasy and ridicule Dalkeith, WA on every side and you will have restored the magazine's professional­ Bittersweet ism and credibility, have My parents first intro­ pleased everyone, and will duced me to Australian continue to get the case for Natural History in the mid conservation and study of All the world's a stage . . . different '60s. I was then a school Australasian natural re­ student who found it a sources across to more sec­ stages of our lives are treated in most enjoyable and accu­ tors of society. A sense of various ways because of the culture rate source of raw infor­ humour is a healthy thing mation about our own area in a scientific publication, we grow up in; Rituals looks at the of the world. I have kept all and a good vehicle for fascinating, funny and often frivol­ my copies for future refer­ social change, but not ence. Five years ago, I re­ when directed almost ous rituals in our lives. newed my long-lapsed solely at belittling people subscription to enable my who might otherwise have own school-going children been your strong allies in to enjoy the same source of other important aspects of 1lte88fyerie11ce information; the new for­ your work. The Australian Museum mat and colour illustrations 6-8 CollegeSt, Sydney 339 8111 are certainly improve­ -Andrew Spiers ments on the old. Jabiru, NT AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 483

V�1;o-, ELIZABETH & MIDDLETON

�

By PAT HUTCHINGS THE AUSTRALIA MUSEUM PHOTOS: ED LOVELL n 1987, the Australian Museum was skippered by David Tomlinson undertook a biological survey of who knew the area well, which was I Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs for particularly important as the charts the Australian National Parks and of the region are not up-to-date, and Wildlife Service (ANPWS). These the boat was equipped with a reefs are unique in that they consti­ recompression chamber to be used tute the southernmost coral atolls in in case of the bends. the world. The only coral reef further We left Sydney on 30 ovember south is the fringing reef at Lord for Coffs Harbour, where we loaded Howe, about 200 kilometres away. on board tons of gear, including These reefs have recently been de­ polydrums, alcohol, formalin, diving clared a National Marine Nature Re­ and camera equipment, collecting serve, and the Service needed infor­ and sorting paraphernalia, and an in­ mation on their fauna and flora to flatable dinghy. The personnel was prepare a zoning and management as varied and included seven people plan. from the Museum-Ian Loch (Mol­ We chartered a 97-foot research luscs), Jim Lowry and Roger Spring­ vessel called Flamingo Bay. It thorpe (Crustaceans), Patrick Filmer­ was particularly suitable because it Sankey (Echinoderms), Tony Gill and

Research vessel Flamingo Bay, the boat chartered for the expedition to Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs.

485 Sally Reader (Fish), and myself (Worms); and some non-Museum personnel-Lindsey Smith (an ama­ teur ornithologist), Duncan Lead­ bitter (now of the New South Wales Department of Agriculture and Fisheries), Ed Lovell (photographer) and Mike Cordell (journalist). We were due to sail at 4 pm on Tuesday 1 December but a strong wind warn­ ing prevented us from sailing until the following day. Early on Friday we sighted Middleton Reef, about 500 kilometres due east of Coffs Har­ bour. It was not actually the reef, but the remains of the Runic-a meat freighter that ran aground on its maiden voyage in 1961 from Bris­ bane to Auckland during calm weather. Today it is a clear reminder of the many ships that have foundered on the two reefs and rep­ resents an important roosting place for seabirds. Middleton Reef is an oval-shaped volcanic seamount on the Lord Howe Rise, as is Elizabeth Reef to the south. These seamounts and Lord Howe Island are the only ones currently at or above sea level. At least 20 other volcanic peaks are known on the Lord Howe Rise but these are all in deep water. At high tide no land is exposed on either Elizabeth or Middleton, but a small sand cay present at Elizabeth is ex­ posed during spring tides and per­ haps at higher tides under calmer conditions. Both reefs have a narrow reef crest that slopes gently on the sea­ ward side to about 20 metres and is deeply dissected by steep grooves and gutters. Often large rounded boulders are present in the gutters. They are washed up and down dur­ ing storms and effectively abrade the sea floor. Below 20 metres the reef slope drops off steeply and deep oceanic water comes close to both reefs. Inside the reef crest are well­ developed lagoons with extensive reticulated patch reefs. Strong winds blow from a variety of directions throughout the year so there is no real development of a leeward or exposed reef slope. Consequently, during our trip, we had to constantly change our anchorages. The reason coral reefs are found growing at these two southerly lati­ tudes (29 ° 56'5 and 29 ° 17'S) is be­ cause the reefs lie at the margin of

The starfish, Ophidiaster confertus, is restricted to the central-eastern Aus­ tralian coast. 486 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 label material, have lunch, and another dive or reef-walking collect­ ing trip on the reef crest. Hand-lining for some of the larger predatory fish was also carried out and samples of tissues from BlackCod were frozen in liquid nitrogen for a later comparison with populations from coastal ew South Wales. After dinner we'd have another dive, or spotlight from the back of the boat to collect pelagic species. Lindsey would be up on the top deck bird-spotting. A variable level of activity was maintained on the deck, with shouts of "what station was that specimen collected from?" or "do you want those crabs, fish etc. I collected for you this morn­ ing?" Others were photographing Sorting specimens on the back deck of material alive, before they were pre­ the Flamingo Bay during the survey. served and lost their colour. Gradu­ ally the 60-odd polydrums were filled, as was the freezer with the larger animals too big to go into the polydrums. By the time we were ready to leave, we were pleased that we'd been able to dive every day and make substantial collections of the fauna from the reefs. I was especially relieved that we had not had to use the recompression chamber, and apart from a few scratches, we were all intact as we sailed back into Syd­ ney Harbour. During the next three months, all A graceful Spanish Dancer, Hexa­ A clam, Tridacna maxima, at Elizabeth the material was unpacked and at Elizabeth Reef. branchus sanguineus, Reef. sorted, a substantial proportion identified to species, and the final re­ the warm water of the Coral Sea. The dimension. For both reefs we there­ port prepared and submitted to the warm East Australian Current (EAC), fore selected a series of transects on ANPWS. which normally flows down the east­ the outer reef, reef crest and lagoon, The major finding of the survey ern coast of Australia in summer, which, in the main, coincided with was that this area supports an inter­ returns northwards around 156 ° E those surveyed by the Australian In­ esting combination of fauna not before meandering off to the east. stitute of Marine Science (AIMS) in found anywhere else. It is dominated This eastward meandering is known Townsville in December 1981. AIMS by a tropical Inda-Pacific fauna, with as the Tasman Front. The front div­ had undertaken an extensive survey a small temperate Inda-Pacific fauna ides the warmer waters of the Coral of the hard corals, so we decided and a few endemic species. The Sea from those of the Tasman Sea to not to repeat that survey but rather dominant tropical component re­ the south. In the winter the EAC does to utilise their data and concentrate flects the circulation patterns, with not flow as far south before on collecting the crustaceans, the two reefs lying at the boundaries meandering off to the east and echinoderms, molluscs, fish and of the warm Coral Sea waters. Lord northwards. Satellite photos taken of worms. Our first dive revealed that Howe, just to the south, has a more the water masses around Elizabeth since 1981 a large percentage of the temperate fauna and half the num­ and Middleton Reefs in July indicate living hard corals had disappeared ber of coral species found on Eliz­ that water temperatures are as low as and the Crown of Thorns Starfish abeth and Middleton Reefs. 18-19 ° C, which may retard coral (Acanthaster plane,) was present. The diversity of the fauna is lower growth during the winter. In the We spent six days at Middleton than on the southern section of the summer, water temperatures are Reef and five at Elizabeth, but the Great Barrier Reef and some com­ about 25 ° C. daily routine was basically the same. mon reefal families are completely Returning to the expedition, we After breakfast we'd have a morning absent. This is certainly in part due to knew that at most we had 11 days of dive and, if the current was not too the lack of several reefal habitats on diving, possibly less if the weather strong, set up a rote none fish station. Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, such turned bad, and two very large reefs (Rotenone is a poison that paralyses as sheltered outer reef slopes and to study. Middleton Reef is approxi­ fish and other animals so that they protected reef flats associated with mately 8.9 x 6.3 kilometres and Eliz­ can be caught easily.) We'd then re­ sand cays. The low percentage cover abeth is about 8.2 x 5.5 kilometres in turn to the boat, sort, preserve and of live coral may also have contrib-

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 487 but no spawning was observed. We also collected samples of hard corals for a histological investigation of the gonads, which should clarify whether the corals are sexually active and if spawning would have occurred in January, as it did at Lord Howe Island. Much of the fauna of these two reefs is derived from pel­ agic larvae from the Great Barrier Reef but at this stage we do not know whether this includes corals. Hope­ fully funds will be made available for other surveys to be carried out, to monitor the rate of recovery from what appears to have been a Crown of Thorns outbreak. Such an out­ break would have to be a natural event, as one cannot evoke the con­ cept of a human-induced outbreak in such a remote location. In addition to preparing a biologi­ Acropora species coral from the lagoon cal survey of the two reefs, we were at Elizabeth Reef. asked by the ANPWS to comment Elizabeth Reef, extensive damage by on potential threats to the reefs. The the starfish at one site. Over 120 main threats to the reefs can be div­ hard coral species were recorded ided into two categories: accidental with reasonably high levels of live and planned. Accidental ones in­ coral cover at some sites. Six years clude additional shipwrecks and as­ later the only areas where extensive sociated oil pollution. The severe live coral cover occurs are in the la­ weather patterns operating in this goons of both reefs. On the reef area would almost certainly prevent slope, live coral colonies are any containment of an oil spill, and typically small and restricted to gut­ the reef, with its low cover of live ters or crevices. Slightly higher coral coral, would be most vulnerable. cover occurs in the surf zone, where Planned threats include the pro­ it is known to be too rough for Crown posals for a floating hotel and a The Black Cod, Epinephelus daemelli, at of Thorns. Starfish were seen outside beche-de-mer industry in the area. Middleton Reef. the reefs on all dives and were We believe that any such commer­ typically absent from the lagoons, cial activity should be discouraged; although one very large individual besides the logistic difficulty in was seen. At a couple of sites where policing and enforcing any restric­ percentage cover of live coral was tions in the area, the uniqueness of relatively high, starfish were found in these two atolls make them worthy large numbers feeding on them. of conservation in their pristine state. They were also seen feeding on soft As an afterthought, it was appro­ corals at many sites. priate that the Australian Museum The Crown of Thorns on both had been asked to undertake this reefs range from one to 20 centi­ survey, as the very first substantial metres in diameter, suggesting that collections made at Elizabeth and several year classes are present. His­ Middleton Reefs were by Mr Gilbert Whitley, a fish curator at the Aus­ Collecting Crown of Thorns Starfish for tological investigations are currently histological (structural) study and size underway to see if the starfish are tralian Museum. Whitley and others determination on Middleton Reef. reproductively active. It seems likely visited the reefs in 1936 to salvage that the starfish have been respon­ the cargo of the boat Annasona, uted in the loss of some species. sible for the loss of live coral cover, which had been wrecked on Many of the species that are present and the question now is "How long Middleton Reef. Bad weather pre­ occur in far lower numbers than in will it take for these reefs to re­ vented any salvage work being car­ comparable habitats on the Great cover?" Probably some time, as ried out but Whitley made extensive Barrier Reef. these reefs are at the southern limit collections both at Middleton and At this stage we can only specu­ of coral growth, and winter growth Elizabeth Reefs, which formed the late as to whether the Crown of may be limited to the low water basis of the first scientific paper on Thorns Starfish is responsible for the temperatures. these two southernmost atolls and loss of live coral cover on both reefs. We were at Middleton Reef a few stimulated later investigations.• In 1981, AIMS noted the presence of days after the full moon in Decem­ large numbers of Crown of Thorns at ber when some of the corals on the The Australian Museum would like to thank at least one site on both reefs and, at Great Barrier Reef were spawning,, ANPWS for making this survey possible.

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being eaten alive. To effect a cure it was necessary to supplicate the crocodile.

The Ritual Dance Through the next day bananas were harvested and loaves of sago flour cooked by women. Two dom­ estic pigs were shot with arrows; the larger as payment to Tobasi and the smaller for use in the ritual cure. That afternoon four young men vanished into the forest where they decorated each other in advance of a cer­ emonial procession to the village. They came at dusk. Echoing whoops in the distance alerted at­ tention; then silence and antici­ pation. They came nearer and whooped again. Within the village clearing, at the edge of the forest, a row of finely built young men ap­ peared, wearing fern and feather headdresses, red and white beads, shell necklaces, bamboo nose plugs, intricately designed arm bands and daggers made from cassowary bone. They carried bows and arrows and, in unison, twanged the taut bow strings. With eyes downcast, they moved forward in single file to the longhouse. Their arrival issued a challenge to the spirits that occupied and harmed the sick. Two of the young men were to dance that night. Designs in red and yellow ochre were painted onto their chests, shoulders and knees. Upper faces were jet black and lower faces red. Painted bark belts were fit­ ted and the dancers wore short front skirts and floor-length rear skirts made from palm fronds. Covering their backs were beaten bark shields with bird of paradise plumes at­ tached. Rattles of crayfish claws were attached to the backs of their belts by lengths of supple vine. The final adornments were head-dresses of cuscus fur, bird of paradise plumes and high inverted 'V's of Sulphur-crested Cockatoo feathers. Concealed within his costume, one of the dancers carried portions of liver, skin, fat, meat and entrails from the small pig killed earlier in the

To decorate and costume a dancer takes two to three hours. Designs in red and yellow ochre are painted onto the torso, shoulders and knees. The face is painted and a bark belt, shell necklace, bamboo °'w >- nose plug, feather headdress, and skirts 3: made from palm fronds, are fitted. Q c:i Torches of burning resin provide light c.: for men who create the designs.

VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 day. These symbolised parts of Gwase's body that were under siege from the crocodile spirit. They might tempt that spirit to abandon Gwase and follow the dancer. An uncooked leg of pig hung above the doorway of the dance room as an added promise to the crocodile spirit of better things to come. After midnight the dancers ap­ peared within the central room of the longhouse. Resin, burning on a stone, gave light and the ill man sat on the dance floor. A man tuned the drum while the gathering audience sat talking and laughing at the edge of the platform bed. Tobasi commenced chanting, his voice raised and high pitched. A younger man took over the chant and, stamping a staff on the floor, led the dancers around and around the sick man. The dancers held the sides of their long rear skirts, swinging them back and forth. Three other men followed, chorusing the words. The spirits were being ordered to de­ part and the dancers were sweeping them away. After ten minutes the drum was handed to the first of the dancers. He started to beat it, filling the long­ house with the deep, resonating sound. He moved in rhythm to the beat, bending at the knees, rising and falling, a slight spring at the toes, feet together and the steps slow. His head, held to the side, conveyed a mood of sadness. To people who watched he was a bird of paradise. They sang as he danced, one person leading, others chorusing, but he was oblivious to everyone, his per­ formance controlled, beautiful to onlookers and a focus of attraction to beneficial spirits. T awards dawn the mood of the ritual intensified. Again and again, each time louder and more assertive, the performers chanted and circled the sick man. They commanded the evil spirits to depart, each circuit ending with an emphatic' Ya!' (Go!.). The sky lightened. Other men col­ lected bows and arrows and stood guard at the rear of the room so the spirits could not escape that way. Suddenly, pandemonium erupted. Everyone was on the dance floor, the chanting violent, the bowmen twanging their bowstrings. The two dancers moved quickly outside, leading the spirits from the house. The bowmen raced behind, chasing Burning resin throws sparks that light a young man who dances as he beats a carved the last vestiges of malevolence from and painted wooden drum. The beauty of his costume and performance, and the the sick. resonating drum beat, attract beneficial spirits. To the audience that watches and The dancers moved a short dis- sings in accompaniment, the dancer is a bird of paradise. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 493 Kebali had recently netted and killed a large crocodile and, in so doing, released the spirit of the ani­ mal. Perhaps the crocodile spirit that harmed Kebali's son had been acting directly in revenge for the actions of the father and not as the agent of a human sorcerer. Acting without human control, the spirit of the crocodile might be uncontrollable. In addition, the skin of the croco­ dile that Kebali had killed was sold but the meat was not eaten. Kebali had declined out of concern for his son. A second man would not eat be­ cause his wife was menstruating and a third recalled that once before he had eaten crocodile and had vomited. By traditional standards this behaviour was peculiar. The flesh of crocodiles is forbidden to members of just one Kubo clan, for whom this species is the mythological ancestor, yet nowadays everyone avoids eat­ ing the animal. They do not behave this way when, for example, goanna, the mythological ancestor of another tial brides, are a focus at gatherings clan, is on the menu. where meat is exchanged, generate Thus, the status of the crocodile feelings of well-being, and play an as food has changed-so recently integral part in rituals of curing. that excuses for not eating the meat The aim of curing rituals is often must still be improvised. This change "' to supplicate the spirit of the ew is connected with the mix of emo­ >-u.., Guinea Freshwater Crocodile (Cro­ tions with which Kubo now regard 0s cody/us novaeguineae). But the form the animal. There is a feeling of ci of the rituals poses a problem. The danger that was not there before. 0.: drum that is used in supplicating the Perhaps recent history can help ex­ At dawn the dance is concluded and crocodile spirit is itself animate-it plain why. parts of the dancers' costumes are hung has mouth, jaws and a neck and is During the 1960s and 1970s from trees to discourage dangerous said to breathe; it is, almost certainly, many Kubo people died when flu spirits from approaching the village. representative of the crocodile. epidemics ravaged the population. tance into the forest where their cos­ Thus, in the form of a drum, the In the same period Europeans visited tumes were hung in trees or aban­ crocodile is needed to cure illnesses Kubo territory. They came in power doned on the ground. The spirits that were themselves caused by boats carrying firearms, killed croco­ would imagine the dancers stood in crocodile spirits. Why, in Kubo diles, took skins and left the car­ the forest and would not return past thought, should the status of the casses to rot. Was the world of Kubo this place. The dancers themselves, crocodile be ambivalent? Circum­ suddenly overpopulated with the and unmarried men who had partici­ stances connected with one curing homeless spirits of murdered croco­ pated, travelled beyond the village ceremony provide clues. diles? Did those spirits seek revenge to the place where the spirits of the The infant son of Kebali and for the actions of foreigners who had dead reside. Here, parts of the pig Yawodua had been ill for two departed, and was that revenge now that had been worn by one dancer months. Sorcery was diagnosed and enacted upon the innocent? Might were burned until nothing remained, a dance performed on behalf of the not Kubo people have connected and the leg of pig was cooked in a child, who was made to beat the these events with the mysterious and leaf oven. Some was eaten by the membrane of the drum with his tiny often fatal illness with which they men and the remainder thrown into fist and so receive its beneficial were coincidentally afflicted? the river where the crocodile that powers. Meat from a pig was also If our speculation is correct, for harmed Gwase would accept it as cooked and thrown into the river in many years to come young Kubo sufficient substitute. an attempt to appease the suspect men will dress as birds of paradise The curing ritual was complete. crocodile. Kebali did not attend the and dance through the night to sup­ Within a week Gwase was walking ceremony because, it was said, his plicate the revengeful spirit of the steadily. own life would be threatened. No­ crocodile. The resonating beat of the one declared the nature of that drum and the sad songs will reach The Spirit of the Crocodile threat because this would have beyond the village to fill the sur­ Among Kubo people, dances are raised the spectre that something rounding rainforest. The spirits of the common social events. They allow more dangerous than sorcery was dead will be aroused and will come young men to display before poten- implicated. to assist the living.• VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 494 Come cruising withLindblad Travel and experience the LindbladDifference Once upon a time cruising was all about the seagoing voyage of discovery. Lindblad Travel now brings you four wonderful voyages each with its own majestic beauty. Whether you choose to cruise the Danube, Volga, Yangtse or Nile, a panorama of history and scenery will unfold as your ship sails gracefully along in style and comfort. Our Blue Danube and Volga Don cruises will enable you to experience a rich cross-section of European culture, while you relax on deck or by the pool, dine at a window, sip a cocktail at the bar or rest in the comfort of your stateroom. Lindblad Travel has almost 30 years' experience organising the finest tours to the Near East. None are more popular than our tours of the Nile. We have engaged cabins aboard the MS Neptune for our Nile cruises, which is without doubt the most elegant and luxurious ship, now plying the river. When we pioneered travel to China in 1978, we developed tours that offered some of the world's most spectacular scenery. None more so than our Yangtse River Cruise, which will open your eyes to the exotic and wonderful world of China. The discernible "Lindblad Difference" must be experienced to be believed. It is almost intangible. It is subtle. But it makes all the difference. Join us, and we are sure you will agree that Lindblad truly offers a very special style of cruising. LINDBLADTRAVEL Inc.: tn :,..:t'" South \\';,tie, A D1\·1,mn nf LmJhlaJ-\1arc.:o Polo Tra,d l't, L1mit(·J (02) 2218378 M.L.C. CENTRE 49TH LEVEL, SYDNEY 2000 AUSTRALIA So see your travel agent today or contact us for a brochure and experiencethe Lindblad difference. , � Cordially, , /·, l./,

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Telcphone ...... UJ/88 I L ______=.._J grey field, for a food Birds of Prey and reward. The stripes were Shades of Grey similar to those used by op­ For centuries the eye­ ticians to test human eye­ sight of raptors (birds of sight. Once the birds mas­ prey) has been considered tered this task, the stripes superhuman and extra­ were made thinner and ordinary. There are many thinner. Eventually the estimates suggesting, for birds were unable to cor­ instance, that eagles can rectly distinguish between resolve detail up to eight the thin stripes and the The deep foveaof a Wedge-tailed Eagle may act as a movement times better than humans, grey field. The thinness of detector, enabling these birds to detect prey from a great dis­ or that certain owls can see the stripes was then used tance. in total darkness. Such esti­ as a measure of the limit of the Tasmanian Masked actually resolve the prey. mates are generally based the bird's ability to resolve Owl has only about one The fovea may fixate on on field observations detail. sixth. More importantly, it the prey until the bird can where a flying bird is easily The birds were tested appears that the resolving get close enough to decide lost from the sight of a over a range of power of each bird's eye what it is and whether it is stationary observer, or brightnesses typical of our can be directly related to its worth attacking. Interes­ where other factors, such daily 24-hour cycle. Hu­ structure. Resolving power tingly many prey species as the contribution of the mans were also tested on in raptors, as in humans, is freeze when they encoun­ sound of prey movement the same task and the per­ proportional to the focal ter raptors. to capture, cannot be ad­ formances of birds and hu­ length of the eye and the -Liz Reymond equately assessed. For six mans compared. In ad­ graininess of the retina. Canberra CAE years I have studied the re­ dition the anatomy and op­ So how can raptors cap­ A Case of Mistaken solving power of three tical properties of the eyes ture prey from such appar­ Identity Australian raptors-the of raptors were investi­ ently remarkable dis­ One September morning Wedge-tailed Eagle, the gated. tances? Within the eyes of in 1981, while collecting in­ Brown Falcon and the Tas­ It turns out that only the all raptors that hunt during sects in the Dongara area of manian Masked Owl-in Wedge-tailed Eagle's re­ the day is a structure Western Australia, two en­ controlled laboratory con­ solving power is superior to known as a deep fovea. It tomologists spotted a num­ ditions and have found ours. It can resolve about seems that the fovea acts ber of beetles close to a dirt some surprising results. twice as much detail as we as a movement detector road. These were male Birds were trained to fly can. The Brown Falcon has that allows birds to detect jewel beetles (family to a pattern of black and about the same resolving prey from a great distance, Buprestidae), later ident­ even though they cannot white stripes, rather than a power as humans, while ified to be Julidomorpha Only the Wedge-tailed Eagle's resolving power is superior to our own. bakewelli. The collectors' attention was drawn to these beetles not for any striking colouration-they are drab brown-but be­ cause they were apparently trying to copulate with carelessly discarded beer bottles ('stubbies') of passers-by. The beetles' genitalia were everted and they were making sore at­ tempts (no doubt quite lit­ erally) at inserting the aedeagus (penis). In fact, in a couple of cases, ants were seen biting at the soft parts of the genitalia. The beetles, however, seemed determined to complete their unrewarding tasks, only leaving the bottles when physically displaced by the collectors. The collectors, Darryl 496 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 Compiled by GEORGINA HICKEY museumaustralian For Specialist NaturalHistory Books

Wildbird D r e II Ill i II !I

• II ;s W •a:;;: Order form for books including those reviewed in this issue Quantity Title Price

The Australian Museum Environment Series: Australia's Great Barrier Reef $14.95 Australia's Seashores 14.95 This jewel beetle is being attacked by ants. The reflection of the Science & Earth History: The stubby's non-slip tubercles is similar to that of the beetle's pitted elytra. Evolution/Creation Controversy 75.00 Possums & Opossums-Studies in Gwynne (University of way as the pits on the Evolution 112.00 Western Australia) and beetles' elytra (hard wing David Rentz (CSIRO), con­ coverings). In other words, The Traditional Mode of Produc- ducted a simple exper­ the bottles were acting as tion of the Australian Aborigines 39.95 iment whereby they placed 'super females' (in etho­ Wildbird Dreaming: Aboriginal four empty stubbies in an logical terms, as super­ Art from the Central Deserts of open area away from the normal releasers of male Australia 45.00 site sexual behaviour). U. Aust. Entomol. Soc. Dreamings: The Art of Aboriginal 22: 79-80, 1983). Within Male jewel beetles con­ Australia 30 minutes the two bottles tribute little to rearing their 60.00 were being mounted by young, and the obser­ Australian Aboriginal Paintings 29.95 lovesick beetles. There was vations with the beer Australian Aboriginal Art 21.95 nothing in the bottles to at­ bottles support the theory Postage & Handling will be an additional charge tract the beetles' attention, that males with the lowest Please charge to: and a wine bottle of a dif­ parental investment are the Bankcard Mastercard Visa American Express ferent shade of brown did least selective in female D D D D Card Number Expiry Date not attract them. mate choice. In other I I It was noted that the words, they tend to make Name colour of the stubby was re­ the most 'mistakes'. It also Address markably similar to the goes to show that the im­ colour of the beetles; and proper disposal of stubbies the rows of tubercles at the not only creates a physical Signature base of the bottle­ hazard and a visual blight Post to: The Australian Museum Shop, apparently designed so that on the landscape, but can P.O. Box A285, Sydney South, NSW 2000, the stubby doesn't slip interfere with the mating 6-8 College St, Sydney. Phone: (02) 339 8150

from the hand when wet­ success of beetles. Send a letter with these details if you don't want to cul the magazine. reflected light in the same -C.H. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 497 >­ c< < c< 0::, :::; 0 l- :co c.. 1- z ---­< c<... ::, I­ < z 0 ...J �

publicly owned areas during pro­ claimed open seasons provided they are licensed. Decisions on whether a species is Hunting: hunted should primarily depend on technical conservation criteria. If hunting demonstrably jeopardises the long-term future of a species, then it should cease and any further A debate (in relation to hunting that species) is irrelevant. However de­ cisions on hunting usually involve aspects of wildlife conservation, fire­ Conservation arm use and animal welfare-com­ plex community issues. Justification for recreational hunting is usually linked to a human instinct to hunt, based on traditions Strategy? of hunter-gathering, and in modern times is related to the impact on game and non-game species. Recreational hunting can provide useful products, such as food or fur, or centuries hunting has been ing is still a feature of tribal life. Hunt­ or ornaments, such as a trophy head an acceptable form of rec­ ing was once considered the prov­ or decorative skin. Of course, the reation. Although initially for ince of the nobility, the rich or the popular Australian game species survival,F it is probable that hunting country-dweller, being conducted (duck, quail and deer) are good to for recreation and trade became im­ mainly on hunting grounds restricted eat, and this is further inducement to portant at an early stage of history. In to these users. Now anyone in Aus­ hunt. some continents subsistence hunt- tralia may, if they choose, hunt on It is valid to distinguish between

498 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 ;�� � -� ' • ' • � +- t � ,. � ,...... -�' :, J;Jniversity of Melbourne , . _

various species of wild duck. There­ feelings than to wildlife manage­ fore it is important to continually re­ ment. There are less objective data view our management tools. This on which to base judgments and de­ monitoring is particularly important cisions than those related to wildlife in ensuring that the conservation of biology. Fundamental to the animal protected non-game species, such welfare debate on hunting is the jus­ as the Freckled Duck, is not jeopard­ tification for killing animals. Whether ised by hunting. or not hunters may kill game is deter­ Useful game management tools mined by whether or not the com­ are the timing and duration of open munity allows recreational hunting. seasons, bag limits, closed areas, Governments attempt to reflect the hunting methods, and hunter edu­ prevailing community viewpoint in cation and testing. It is important that the enactment of game laws, but of we get these details right, especially course some sections of the com­ the education of hunters. It is essen­ munity may disagree. State wildlife tial that hunters not only have laws in Australia provide for a con­ necessary skills, such as the ability to scious decision to declare game identify species beyond gun range, species and open seasons. All Aus­ but also that they have a responsible tralian States have decided to allow attitude towards wildlife. Stringent recreational hunting, as well as training and testing can address the allowing other non-game animals to skills aspect but a broader education be killed for food and other prod­ process is needed to instil the right ucts, or because they are considered attitudes. Educated and responsible pests. hunters can be a powerful influence Even if the community accepts for better wildlife conservation. that game animals can be killed by It needs to be recognised that hunters, there is still the question as wildlife management is, in some re­ to whether cruelty can arise from the spects, an inexact science, and dif­ method of killing or from other hunt­ ferent conclusions can be drawn ing activity. No responsible hunter from information on breeding, condones methods that would result hunting for a useful or consumable population levels and movements of in a slow death. Indeed the whole product, and simply for trophies, and wildlife. The wildlife manager, the hunting process (game laws, hunter to debate the ethics of each. I can hunter and the anti-hunter may all behaviour and hunting equipment) understand the rationale of hunting have the common objective of long­ is based on a quick, clean and there­ deer for venison and also having the term conservation of a species. But fore 'humane' kill. This is in keeping head mounted as a trophy, but I can­ they may have different views on the with the accepted procedures in not support hunting for the trophy long-term implications of data on the other circumstances where the com­ alone. breeding, food supply or hunting munity recognises that animals are From a conservation viewpoint, events in a year. killed, for example at abattoirs or in hunting has had benefits. A great Wildlife managers recognise the pest destruction. Thus any cruelty deal of knowledge about wildlife has carrying capacity concept. At any associated with hunting should not been generated throughout the time the environment can support a arise from killing if accepted com­ world as a direct result of hunting certain population and often the munity standards are met. It is poss­ and game management. It is unlikely mortality caused by hunting would ible for hunters to avoid unnecessary that in the absence of hunting there be replaced by other less 'humane' wounding by exercising responsi­ would have been as much research kinds of mortality if hunting did not bility, such as ensuring that the game and management experience on occur. This is one argument in sup­ is well within range. major groups of game as well as port of recreational hunting but it Judgments become very subjec­ many non-game species. However must be applied with caution. Some tive when considering cruelty in re­ in Australia, as elsewhere, there is population studies on islands and lation to pursuit and disturbance. For still a need for more information on similarly isolated environments have instance, there is no doubt that many game species and hunter behaviour indicated that in the absence of non-target species such as Pelicans to monitor and refine procedures. hunting the population extremes are and other waterbirds take to the air Far more needs to be done about the greater because the resultant over­ during duck hunting and move to provision and protection of habitat, population creates severe food other waters such as refuges and especially wetlands. shortages and is more subject to sanctuaries. Is this disturbance cruel Variations in weather in Australia disease. or are the birds simply moving away and changes in land-use have a con­ The animal liberation and animal from noise, as do many humans in siderable impact on the levels of welfare aspects of the hunting de­ urban situations? wildlife populations, such as on the bate are more related to people's There are some hunting practices

AUSTRALIA NATURAL HISTORY 499 that, although not demonstrably ing or buying back wetlands, and re­ there are always some people who cruel, are questionable. For instance, storing habitats in them, partly by choose not to conform. This is evi­ while many hunters use dogs to re­ seeking government funds to match dent not only in the use of firearms trieve gamebirds, the use of dogs to their own. And while this might seem and hunting, hut also in a host of pursue game, including wounded to be self interest, it must be remem­ other activitie• : driving dangerously, animals, is difficult to defend. bered that not only have the eight or drinking alcohol to excess, robbery, But several questions still remain. so ducks on the game list benefited, tax evasion and so on. A major ques­ Should hunting be primarily a but so have the remainder of the 107 tion continually facing the com­ wildlife management issue con­ Australian birds that rely on wetland munity is "how much should we re­ cerned with the long-term survival of habitats. In Australia fees for hunting strict the activities of honest, respon­ species? Yes. Should decisions be licences and registration of hunters sible persons in order to restrict the made solely on a technical rather and their firearms contribute at least opportunities or activities of dis­ than on an emotive basis? Not solely $5 million annually to the State gov­ honest or undisciplined persons?" but certainly largely, taking into ac­ ernments. This revenue is spent at My approach to a decision on count the range of community the discretion of those governments hunting would be based on the fol­ views. And would the long-term and not of the hunters, although a lowing question: are there data to in­ conservation of a game species be proportion of these funds are dedi­ dicate that hunting of a species will any more secure in the absence of cated to wildlife conservation and jeopardise its conservation, or that of hunting? I doubt it. While the ban on not to general revenue. In Australia another species? If the answer is yes, crocodile hunting allowed the over the past three decades hunters then clearly hunting that species recovery of its populations, some have focused more attention on should not be allowed. If the answer people are now advocating their wildlife conservation, and have di­ is no, then there is a further set of control and even eradication in at rectly and indirectly resulted in more complex and interrelated questions least some parts of their habitat. Sol­ funds being devoted to wildlife in regarding hunting methods and ani­ utions in the best long-term interests general, as well as to game species. mal welfare considerations, hunting of both wildlife conservation and the However, if the hunting issue is a seasons and areas, hunter education community lie somewhere between political as well as a biological ques­ programs, and fees for the privilege total protection and uncontrolled tion, then how are the feelings and of hunting that should go towards hunting. facts evaluated to ensure that the conservation. In Australia hunting groups pio­ answer is in the best interests of the These decisions would involve neered the conservation of wetlands community and of wildlife? Obvi­ extensive consultation with many in­ decades before it became a more ously there is no simple answer to terest groups and be made in the widely popular cause. They this complex situation. Even with best interests of both the cornmunity badgered governments into reserv- wise and generally accepted laws and the conservation of wild life.•

THE NEW SOUTH WALES UNIVERSITY PRESS PU BLISHERS 0 F N A T U R A L HISTORY DEADLY LEGACY: Australian History dispels the misconceptions. and presents and Transmissible Disease what is known and probable in a clear and John Goldsmid readable manner. Within 15 months of the arrival of the First 102pp b&w illustrated $12.95 Fleet in Sydney Cove. the first cases of smallpox appeared among local Aborigines. THE WOMBAT: Common Wombats in This book is the tragic story of Australia's Australia experiences with imported diseases. and Barbara Trigg their profound impact on almost every Written in an easy-to-read narrative style, aspect of our lives. --- this lavishly illustrated book gives a full 136pp b&w illustrated $19.95 · -�;?- account of this engaging marsupial's way of life - both below and above ground. ASSOCIATIONSBE TWEEN INSECTS AND PLANTS 164pp b&w & colour illustrated $14.95 Tim New The fascinating story of the inter-play between plants THE LYREBIRD and insects. The first book to emphasise Australian Pauline Reilly examples. Here is an entertaining book about one of the � 120pp b&w illustrated $12.95 world's greatest songsters - everything you � need to know from breeding biology and c� THE KOALA behaviour to song and mimicry. o��1!,."'- A. Lee and R. Martin 116pp b&w colour illustrated $14.95. Q ...,.../ � Koalas are quintessentially Australian. and much has Box 1. Kensington 2033. been written about them which is rubbish. This book Phone: (02) 697 3403 �V �� �'�

500 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89

POSTER Weddell Seal

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ometimes called the 'champion is rarely more than 30 minutes. other when out on the ice. At some diver', the Weddell Seal (Lep­ Like most seals, the Weddell is times of the year, however, such as tonychotes weddel/i) is the primarily a fish eater, although they in the summer breeding season, mostS southerly of the Antarctic seals. are also avid feeders on various groups of pregnant females may Considering its remote and hostile crustacea and cephalopods. Wed­ form loose aggregations on the ice. habitat, it is surprising that perhaps dell Seals also use their teeth to Birth occurs anytime between mid more is known about this seal than maintain their breathing holes in the October and mid November, and many others. However, observing ice. This biting and sawing at the ice the single pup is born clothed in a and recording data on Weddell Seals eventually leads to worn incisor and greyish woolly coat with a darker is made a lot easier by their appar­ canine teeth, reducing their ability to stripe along the spine. About two ently placid nature. They appear to feed successfully. In some instances, weeks later the pup begins to moult, have no fear of humans, exhibiting seals unable to maintain air holes can a process taking about four weeks, instead curiosity. become trapped under the ice. by which time it looks very much like The Weddell Seal's remarkable Weddell Seals have been re­ the adult. Should moves go ahead ability to dive to great depths and corded making a variety of noises for wide-scale exploitation of marine stay there has received the most at­ ranging from trills, whistles and mammals in Antarctica, these ani­ tention from researchers. It has been chirrups to a rapid tooth clattering, mals will be extremely vulnerable.• recorded diving to a depth of 600 the latter particularly evident when metres and holds the record for seal seals pass each other at breathing time under water-73 minutes. The holes. They are not gregarious and -Linda Gibson average time under water, however, tend to stay at a distance from each Australian Museum 504 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 ROBYN WILLIAMS

The Nature of Australia

arly in May I went to the Mel­ ophy. First, as with 'Life on Earth', The fourth reason the series was bourne Zoo with my colleagues everyone insisted on trying for the such a success, and for me one of the from the ABC Natural History best possible shots. Co-producers most important, is that we suddenly Unit.E The time had come, after three David Parer and Liz Parer-Cook saw an Australia that few thought years of extraordinary effort, to face would spend weeks finding a pair of existed. There was a land so subtle the critics. We pushed past crowds Platypus, securing a Tasmanian pool and dramatic in its natural history. going to see the two Giant Pandas so the animals wouldn't escape, then There were plants and animals most and entered the delightful restaurant lying submerged for an eternity in of us were unaware of and there area, surrounded by water and trees, were familiar ones, like kangaroos, with small hairy monkeys leaping monotremes and Koalas, that we about and staring through windows thought we knew about but turned at us. out to be much more sophisticated Here then was the media launch, " ...the producers chose to than any of us had dreamt. Australia complete with champagne, too was revealed as more than a burnt much food and two dozen cynical tell a story. Not the Disney rock with left-over beasts. TV writers. After the speeches we kind, so beloved of Finally, as producers Dione saw a 35-minute compilation from anthropomorphising film­ Gilmour, John Vandenbeld and the the six one-hour films. It was during makers of yore... this had Parers insisted, this was going to be a this showing that I suddenly realised series that said something. The that we had a hit on our hands. The to be one of biological conservationist messages were un­ journalists sat utterly silent, some­ significance." equivocal, the main theme carried times gasping at the unbelievable throughout the series being that shots, occasionally laughing at the damage to the continent is caused by droll sequences. At the end there a lack of understanding of how it was an incredibly long pause fol­ works. In fact, the messages were a lowed by thunderous applause. freezing water to obtain unique foot­ little too strong for the BBC, which "Boy, that was powerful!" exclaimed age. dropped the odd paragraph. But in the person from the Mirror. Others Second, the producers chose to Australia no-one seemed to mind remarked how strong the messages tell a story. Not the Disney kind, (beyond the odd creationist) be­ seemed to be; "Not just furry ani­ so beloved of anthropomorphising cause the things you saw were so mals and sunsets!" they exclaimed. film-makers of yore, with our very powerful that the script did not The series went to air first in Brit­ friendly bear (which was actually seem indulgent. ain. There it headed the ratings for several different bears) growing up, And so the series has gone BBC 2, scoring 6.75-8 million having adventures and meeting life. around the world. In the United viewers per show. In Australia, de­ No, this had to be one of biological States a chap called George was spite being up against the likes of significance. Trouble was, the reality hired to re-record my words. Not be­ 'Sixty Minutes' and 'ALF' (!), 'The often stymied the plot, as when the cause, as I thought at first, the Ameri­ Nature of Australia' attracted splen­ Parers travelled to the central deserts can audience wouldn't understand did audiences and unprecedented to film an arid zone and the heavens my pronunciation. But because the critical acclaim. immediately opened with torrential States, so poor in its output of Who would have thought it? In rains and the greatest floods for a documentaries, chooses to disguise the sometimes desperate months in decade! foreign films by Americanising them preparing the documentaries and Third, they used the latest tech­ to appear homemade. Elsewhere the after all the countless films by Atten­ niques to blend location pictures broadcasts have been as they were borough and others intruding on the with indoor intimacy. This was seen in Australia. Now video most intimate moments of beasts­ usually how they achieved shots cassettes are on sale and the book by large and small-all we dared hope most viewers found incredible, like John Vandenbeld has been a best­ for was to avoid failure. Yet this ABC following a mother parrot from the seller. effort was singled out as special. sky to the tree and next finding your­ What next? For a start, I think this Why? There are several reasons why self actually in the nest among the is a lesson for natural historians (rec­ 'The Nature of Australia' worked so chicks and watching behaviour ap­ ognise the pricelessness of your heri­ well. Perhaps I can recount them parently unaffected by the presence tage); for ABC film-makers (do it well somewhat objectively because I was of a camera. Such filming invariably and the expense will be repaid); and not so closely involved in the pro­ depends on an artificial hide in a lab­ for future broadcasts (why not a duction beyond reading the com­ oratory in which animals have be­ regular natural history magazine mentary and discussing some philos- come accustomed to bright lights. program?).• AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 505 <;JJ�agons& <;Jjamsels AN IN-DEPTH PENETRATION OF THEIR SEXUALSTRA TEGlES

By DAVID THOMPSON UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL

ragonflies and damselflies are remarkable insects. They are D often beautifully coloured, both on the body and wings. They can fly forwards, sideways and back­ wards. And in the Carboniferous, some 250-300 million years ago, there were giant representatives with wingspans of over 60 centi­ metres. However, in modern times, it is not their colour or size that has brought them to centre stage in the zoological world, but rather the structure and functioning of their penes. The reproductive behaviour of dragonflies and damselflies (the order Odonata, see box) is unique in the animal kingdom. Males extrude sperm in the ninth abdominal seg­ ment as do other insects. However, unlike other insects, the male odonate transfers the sperm to ac­ cessory genitalia situated between his second and third abdominal seg­ ments by curling his abdomen round to contact them. This transfer takes place when the male arrives at the breeding site or just after he has

A Green Damselfly (Lestes sponsa) in flight (family Lestidae). This family of damselflies boasts a penis with an ex­ tensible head with which the male scrapes out sperm from previous matings before inserting his own.

506 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 °">­ L.U ;:i 0.. a:, < ::; u V> �0 ::) 0 ----< I () c.. � z z 3 � I L.U°" ;:i ...J < ...J V> "'L.U L.Uz Damselflies mating. Copulation begins I a.. when the female (left) bends her ab­ t5 domen forward to the secondary oa genitalia of the male to form the I 0.. 'wheel' position. °"< ies (including three of those found in Damselflies and dragonflies adopt a tandem position before mating. The male Australia, the Lestidae, Proto­ damselfly shown here (family Coenagrionidae) grasps the female's prothorax with neuridae and Coenagrionidae) have his c/aspers. revealed quite complex and in­ grasped the female. The male In most insects, the eggs are ferti­ triguing structures. The penis in dragonfly holds the female by her lised at egg-laying (oviposition) by these families has an extensible head head, while in the damselflies the sperm that has been stored by the fe­ with which the male scrapes out male's claspers grasp the female's male from previousmatings. When a sperm deposited in the female, prothorax. The pair then flies off in female has been mated by two or trapping it behind a flange. The base 'tandem' to copulate, usually on more males, the sperm do not of the penis is covered in backward­ some waterside vegetation. Copu­ necessarily have equal chances of pointing barbs and hairs that serve to lation begins when the female bends fertilising her eggs. In some insects, trap globules of the stored sperm. her abdomen forward to the second­ there is precedence of the sperm In other dragonflies, males do not ary genitalia of the male to form the from the last male to mate, but in scoop out sperm. Their penis head is so-called 'wheel' position. others there is lack of precedence extended and inflated in such a way with mixing of sperm from success­ as to pack sperm previously de­ ive matings. Competition among posited by other males into areas of Dragons and Damsels­ males to fertilise a female's eggs the female sperm storage organs should be especially intense among further away from the oviduct the Order Odonata those insects whose females can (where the eggs are released). This The members of the insect mate repeatedly before oviposition renders such sperm less likely to fer­ order Odonata belong to one using sperm obtained from success­ ti I ise eggs during the ensuing of three suborders, of which ive matings. This has been called oviposition period. only two are of any signifi­ sperm competition. The duration of copulation is cance (the third contains only The mechanism of sperm pre­ understandably very different be­ two species). The Anisoptera, cedence in most cases is poorly tween sperm removers and sperm commonly called dragonflies, understood, but this is not so in packers. Sperm removers require a have dissimilar fore and hind dragonflies and damselflies. The longer period of time to extract pre­ wings, are generally large, unique structure of the odonate vious sperm; whereas sperm packers fast-flying insects and usually penis enables the last male to mate need no such time-one jab and the rest with their wings open. with the female to maximise the job is done. Orthetrum cancellatum, The Zygoptera, known as probability that his sperm will be a European dragonfly species similar damselflies, have fore and used to fertilise eggs about to be laid in appearance to the ubiquitous Aus­ hind wings similar in shape, and thus promote the passage of his tralian species 0. caledonicum, may are generally more delicate, genes to the next generation. In most copulate for up to 16 minutes, but thinner, slow-flying insects, damselfly species and some the first 15 minutes are spent by the and most rest with their wines dragonflies, the act of copulation for male removing sperm. Only in the closed. In Australia, there are the male involves removing the last minute does he introduce his about 200 species of sperm of other males from the own sperm. Another European g and 100 p dra onflies s etjes of female's sperm storage organs (the libellulid dragonfly, Crocothemis The damselflies. wor1d list of spermothecae and bursa copulatrix) erythraea(a close relative of the Aus­ Odonata stands at around s before inserting his own. Scanning tralian C. nigrifrons) takes only a few S,«JO-pecie5. electron micrographs of the penes of seconds to complete copulation and members of several damselfly famil- must, therefore, be a sperm packer.

508 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 There are some species in which copulation duration can take an extraordinary length of time. The sperm-removing damselfly lschnura e/egans can take up to eight hours to complete copulation. This is much longer than would be necessary to complete sperm removal. The males may be ensuring that females will re­ fuse further copulations that day and so obtain paternity by a 'war' of sex­ ual attrition! Having gone to great lengths to ensure that the sperm currently oc­ cupying prime position in the female's sperm storage organs are his, the male of most damselfly species retains a grip on the female ('contact-guard') while she lays the >­ eggs, to ensure that other males do a< < not displace his sperm. With the ""a< dragonflies there is more variation in ::::; 0 the mate-guarding strategies. Some f- 0 I libellulid species contact-guard fe­ c.. males, like most of the damselflies. f­z Other dragonflies hover close to < ---­a< u.J ovipositing females (but not at­ ...J ...J u.J tached to them) keeping rival males ><'. at bay, while being in a good position u.Jz I to grab another female should one c.. < arrive at the breeding site un­ 0 oil attended. And a further group leaves I c.. the female completely alone after ...J < copulation. This whole complex a< range of odonate post-copulatory Closeup of a young female dragonfly's head (Austroaeschna forcipata). behaviour, over which biologists have puzzled for years, is now mak­ ing sense when viewed in the light of sperm competition and penis struc­ ture. Sperm removers are generally contact-guarders, whereas sperm packers whose sperm will eventually mix with the sperm of previous maters tend to have shorter copu­ lation times and are usually non­ contact-guarders. As well as the recent interest in the Odonata resulting from the dual function of the penis, it is becoming increasingly clear that dragonflies and damselflies are excellent study animals for the behavioural ecol­ ogist. They have a number of advan­ tages over most invertebrates in that they are relatively large, can easily be marked and subsequently watched through binoculars, and breed in relatively distinct places (ponds, la­ goons, streams etc.). Dragonflies and damselflies also score heavily over the more conventional subjects of behavioural work, the vertebrates, in The male dragonfly Pantala flavescens that they are usually far more numer­ has a penis well suited for sperm re­ ous (therefore give larger sample moval. It has a long flagellum with a sizes) and are relatively short-lived hand-like barb with which it scoops so that all their mating success can out sperm. be measured over a breeding season AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 509 variation, and stage in the breeding season had only a small effect on mating success. The most significant factor determining mating success in both male and female damselflies was the number of days they were able to spend at the breeding site (accounting for 70 per cent of the variation). 'Days spent at the breed­ ing site' is a natural rather than sexual selection factor. Chance factors ac­ counted for the remaining variation. Walter Koenig and Stephen Albano of the University of California have confirmed these general findings with similar work on a territorial libellulid dragonfly, Plathemis lydia. They provided a fig­ ure of between 11 and 1 7 per cent for the influence of sexual selection The penis ofCrocothemis erythraea, a Europeanlibellulid dragonfly. This species is a on mating success in Plathemis. sperm packer, whereby sperm from previous matings is packed into areas of the Conventional estimates based only female's sperm storage organs furthest away from the oviduct, thus ensuring his on the variation in mating success sperm will be used to fertilise the eggs. between males would have of just a few weeks. suggested a figure of around 79 per cent. The difference between these Sexual and Natural With these advantages in mind, several behavioural ecologists have two estimates constitutes the dis­ Selection used the Odonata in attempts to as­ guised influence of natural selection Darwin recognised two sess the relative importance of sex­ types of selection pressure ual selection and natural selection that might filter successful (see box) in determining repro­ from unsuccessful genes. The ductive success. One such study was more conventional form of that of Michael Banks and myself selection was that imposed by working on Coenagrion puella, a the environment, hence the close relative of the Australian C. term 'natural selection'. Food lye/Ii. We attempted to mark all indi­ shortages, predators and bad viduals that visited an isolated pond weather, for example, all limit in northern England. Over 4,000 ani­ an organism's chances of con­ mals were marked (with a number on tributing genes to future gen­ the left forewing and a dab of paint erations by shortening its life. on the thorax); they were also Dragonflies in the 'wheel' position, However, Darwin also rec­ weighed, their wing lengths and mating on a bulrush. The head of most ognised that, in those species head widths measured. Mature male dragonfly penes can be extended that reproduce sexually, com­ adults of this species do not alter and inflated in such a way as to pack petition for access to mates their breeding sites once chosen and previously deposited sperm further away from the female's oviducts, thus can also form a basis for selec­ so we could watch who mated with tion of those traits that allow rendering his own sperm more likely to whom throughout the ten-week fertilise her eggs. individuals to compete more breeding season. successfully in the sexual There was a large degree of vari­ on lifetime mating success. In other arena. This he called sexual ation in male mating success. Over words, the reproductive success of a selection. We generally dis­ 20 per cent of males in our study ob­ male depends primarily on how long tinguish between two types of tained no matings while one particu­ he can survive during the mating sexual selection. In the first, larly successful 'stud' mated 18 times season, rather than on some feature intrasexual selection, features in his adult lifetime of 29 days. Con­ of his anatomy or physiology that arise as a result of competition ventional wisdom would have it that aids his ability to acquire females. In between members of the variation in male mating success was particular, predator avoidance or same sex for mates of the op­ not only evidence for the existence high feeding efficiency, both of posite sex, for example, a of sexual selection but also a which contribute towards survival, deer's antlers are used to fight measure of its intensity. But by ana­ are likely to be major influences on other males. In the second, lysing the causes of variation in mating success. This work strongly intersexual selection, certain mating success, we were able to es­ suggests that although sexual selec­ features evolve as a result of tablish that sexual selection had a tion, through sperm competition, has attempts by members of one relatively minor role (if any) in deter­ undoubtedly shaped odonate repro­ sex to attract mates of the mining male mating success. Body ductive success in the past, it may other sex, for example the size, a parameter often implicated in not be such a potent force in deter­ plumage of birds of paradise. sexual selection studies, was shown mining current reproductive success to explain only two per cent of the as was previously supposed.• 510 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 • • lVIn •

AUSTRALIAN FLORA AND FAUNA OF AUSTRALIA Volume 8 - Lecythidales to FAUNA SERIES Batales Cat. No. 82 0857 3 Paperback $29.95 Volume lA - General Articles Liverworts of The Fauna will present, in ten volumes of Cat. No. 82 0856 1 Hardcover S39.95 Southern Australia approximately 800 pages each, a comprehensive account of the current Volume 19 - Myrtaceae - Cat. No. 86 0741 X 216pp illus. diagrs. knowledge of the biology, taxonomy, Eucalyptus, Angophora $24.95 evolution and history of discovery of the Cat. No. 88 0515 5 Paperback $44.95 Phytogeography of Eucalyptus animals which live in Australia. Cat. No. 87 0157 2 Hardcover $59.95 in Australia Volume JA is the companion for all future Cat. No. 86 0743 3 53pp illus. S9.95 volumes in this magnificent series and includes a selection of essays providing Volume 22 - Rhizophorales to Celastrales Preliminary Atlas of background information on Australia. Cat. No. 83 1575 X Paperback S24.95 Mangrove Species in This prestigious series will serve as a major reference text for scientists and Cat. No. 83 1063 8 Hardcover $34.95 Australia ameteur naturalists, for students and the Cat. No. 86 0040 9 38pp maps $12.95 community at large. Volume 25 - Melianthaceae to Cat. No. 87 0967 9 339pp illus. diagrs. Simaroubaceae Plant Indumentum - A graphs maps $44.95 Cat. No. 84 2479 3 Paperback $24.95 Handbook of Terminology Cat. No. 87 2155 X 27pp illus. diagrs. Cat. No. 84 2320 1 Hardcover $34.95 S4.95 FLORA OF AUSTRALIA When completed this series of books will Volume 29 - Solanaceae describe all the plants known to be native Cat. No. 81 2191 9 Paperback $24.95 The Banksia Atlas or naturalised in Australia. It covers not Cat. No. 87 1807 4 258pp illus. only the flowering plants but also conifers, Cat. No. 81 2165 2 Hardcover $34.95 diagrs. maps S39.95 cycads, ferns and the lower plants (mosses, liverworts, lichens, algae and Volume 45 - Hydatellaceae to Index to Type Specimens of fungi). Liliaceae Australian Lichens: 1800-1984 Flora of Australia is based on the study of Cat. No. 86 2240 5 Paperback S44.95 Cat. No. 86 2273 4 317pp $34.95 herbarium collection, published research Cat. No. 86 2239 7 Hardcover $54.95 and, in many cases, on new studies of plants in the field and laboratory. Nothofagus Cunninghamii Volume 46 - Iridaceae to (Southern Beech) Vegetation The Flora is intended for a wide spectrum Dioscoreaceae in Australia of users. Unfamiliar botanical Cat. No. 85 1775 2 Paperback S24.95 terminology is kept to a minimum and all Cat. No. 86 2391 2 69pp $9.95 terms are explained in a glossary. The Cat. No. 85 1774 0 Hardcover $34.95 Flora also provides keys for the Atlas of Elapid Snakes of identification of plants. Zoological Catalogue of Australia Australia Cat. No. 84 0766 0 115pp illus. maps Volume 1 - Introduction Volume 1 - Amphibia and Reptilia $19.95 Cat. No. 81 0957 2 Paperback $24.95 Cat. No. 831536 3 313pp $24.95 Cat. No. 81 0956 0 Hardcover $34.95 Volume 2 - Hymenoptera (Part 1) Volume 4 - Phytolaccaceae to Cat. No. 85 0188 0 381 pr: maps $29.95 To order Chenopodiaceae Volume 3 - Arachnida (Part 1) phone your credit card details to Cat. No. 84 1175 2 Paperback $29.95 Cat. No. 85 0402 1 183pp maps $24.95 AGPS Phone Shop 008-026148 Cat. No. 84 0489 7 Hardcover $39.95 on line 24 hours, 7 days a week. Volume 4 - Coleoptera (Partl) Canberra customers call 95 4861 Cat. No. 86 0793 6 444pp maps $34.95 Also available from Commonwealth Government Bookshop.§ Volume 5 - Mammalia in all capital cities. Cat. No. 86 0796 1 274pp maps $29.95 VIEWS FROM THE FOURTH DIMENSION

most certainly have-for the last 3.5 The Four-Dimensional 'Bioblob' billion years, without the aid of a Called Life mechanical Tardis. Life, the whole collosal thing that it is, was and will be, is quite literally one gigantic time-travelling creature, without a single physical or temporal break in its gigantic being. All of it, from Amoebas, Apples and Aard­ varks to Zebras, Zygomycetes and Zen Buddhists, is in reality a single shape-changing mass of trillions of pulsating cells that first evolved on Earth approximately 3.5 billion years ago. Let's personalise this four­ dimensional Bioblob concept. Your whole body, as you sit there reading this, is a mass of replicating cells, each and every one of which (less those of any parasites you may un­ wittingly harbour) are the descend­ ants of your parents' sperm and egg cells that united when you were con­ ceived. If you could see these same cells within the fourth dimension of time, you would see that the cyto­ plasm of every cell in your body is quite literally an amoeboid exten­ sion of those first two cells. Not a single cell of your body, throughout its entire history, has ever been physically isolated because along that fourth dimension every cell is in tangible contact with the one from which it arose. Further, at any point along that time-dimension axis, every one of those dividing cells is still alive. Death is an illusion of lim­ ited vision. Now let's look further back along time's axis. Those sex cells of your parents are themselves living exten­ Although it is impossible to portray the four-dimensional Biob/ob concept in two di­ sions through space and time from mensions, at the crux of the matter is the idea that all organisms-both living and the original cells that united to be­ extinct-are intimately joined, cell to cell, in space and time. come your parents' bodies, and so forth back to the first cell that gave octor Who's leggy assistants, - no creature could simultaneously rise to all subsequent life on Earth. his mechanical dogs, sonic exist at different times because, if its Hold your fingers upright in front D screwdrivers and even his future self could do something that of you. Visualise the appearance of own bodies come and go but that jeopardised the ability of its former your fingers if you could see only two dyspeptic police box, his 'hee­ self to survive, the future self might dimensions: length and width (pre­ haw'ing time-machine called the not have existed to have done what tend you're incapable of perceiving Tardis, seems to last forever. Like it nevertheless did do! height). Your fingers as you pre­ many science fiction heroes before But is this entirely nonsense? viously knew them will vanish, to be him, the two-hearted Doctor de­ Could a single living creature really replaced by isolated flat rings of soft pends on this improbable device to travel through space and time to tissue surrounding inner rings of zip him through four-dimensional emerge millions of years later at bone. Blood cells will mysteriously space in a constant battle with the some other point in the universe? appear out of nowhere in circular universe's most gruesome nasties. There is not the slightest doubt in my rings of arterial epithelium and just as Of course, it's all delightful nonsense mind that it not only could, but we instantly vanish from view. To see 512 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 by MICHAEL ARCHER

your fingers as you normally do, you at least 3.5 billion years cld. What of must (and of course can) perceive diseases? Clearly these are part of us, the third dimension: height. mindless tendrils of the same In exactly the same way, if you Bioblob exploring time and space in could see your fingers in four dimen­ response to an opportunity to more sions, as they really exist, it would be efficiently expand the creature in 1 instantly obvious that they are quite new directions. literally linked in time and space by a Next time you open the front continuous flow of flesh to the fin­ door to be confronted by a Biblical gers of an australopithecine and fundamentalist who smugly asks you those to the digits of a mammal-like "Why, if 'apemen' [australopith­ N�ture reptile and so forth back through ecines] were more 'successful' than TOURS Hollday1 with a strong millions of years of time-without a chimpanzees, didn't they survive accent on naturel history single physical break in the whole while chimpanzees did?", restrain and lndlgenou1 culture to the moil remote, moil chain of reshaping flesh. Your fin­ your urge to tell him how much your beautiful, moat prl1tlne gers, like the rest of your body, are neighbour wants to learn about his placH In Auatralla and the Pacific. tiny portions of the organism life, religion. Instead, invite him to con­ We combine the nature conscious exquisite pleasure people who want which gradually changes its shape sider that we, as the growing tip in of getting off the an economical on­ beaten track onto deplh holiday and while travelling through time. time and space of the Bioblob's the most beautiful who realise thal On the real four-dimensional australopithecine tendril, are those and UNSPOILT with a well informed country whole guide ,s the best Earth, quite literally there have never "apemen" -the product of four mil­ en1oyong the way 10 do 11. been isolated individuals of any kind lion years of evolutionary growth of a maximum level of You will travel on human comfort air-cond1tIoned apart from the single 4-0 Bioblob living tendril that physically and con­ compatible with a 4WD, eat well - nature-oriented wine is included out of whose prehistoric being we, tinuously connects Australopithecus experience and have access to as cellular extensions, have steadily afarensis to A. africanus, Homo These holidays are a well stocked designed library while grown like fingers of a hand. From habilis, H. erectus and, as the bud of specifically for !ravelling. each of these fingers, more projec­ the moment on the end of the ten­ We can also arrange airfare discounts. extra tions have developed and then still dri I, to H. sapiens, atheists and accommodation and other more from them to produce a tree­ fundamentalists alike. side trips ,t required like growth of protoplasm that con­ Earth's fossil record is the refuse tinuously expands outward through pile where discarded fragments from time and space. the Bioblob, like dandruff, have The appearance of individual been cast off during this creature's life-forms such as you, me and a gum travels through space and time. tree is caused by a simple incapacity Through study of these discarded of our sensory systems to perceive fragments, we can obtain a vision, al­ In the Western people as travellers the fourth dimension. If we had beit imperfect, of the true shape of Solomons you will rather than tounsls travel by 34 · In the Eastern another sensory organ that could the Bioblob and the undeniable dugout canoe and Solomons, Rennell launch. enjoy Island is home 10 visualise this fourth dimension, we bridge of prehistoric life that makes Melanes,an feasts. the remotest us part of this enormous creature. visit headhun1ers Polynes,an would instantly understand that the shrines and community ,n the apparent gaps between individuals Faced with the reality that we, forlresses, see war world This ra,sed canoes. stay on coral Atoll contains perceived by creatures with only the whale and the watermelon are of remote villages, the biggest body of visit subsistance fresh water in the three-dimensional v1s1on are il­ the same living flesh, metamorpho­ gardens. Pacific. ,s home to lusions. In reality, all of these illusory sing tendrils from the surface of a rainforests and 21 endem,c bird volcanoes.explore species and ,s gaps are bridged by living proto­ single four-dimensional, time­ lhe coral reel and clothed ,n raonforesl plasm of the four-dimensional, time­ travelling being that began its cosmic meet the local not yet studied travelling Bioblob. travels in the hot waters of a young MOAETHANAHOLIDAY­ AN EXPERIENCE! This heretical vision ought to at Earth-a minor planet in a relatively For further ,nformat,on please contact - least challenge common under­ small solar system on the edge of one Paul or Suska Scobie. standing about the biological world. of millions of galaxies racing through Scobie's Walkabout P/L PO BOX 43. 113 King St. For example what we perceive as the blackness of an infinite NEWCASTLE NSW 2300 'species extinction' should in reality universe-who could possibly be­ Phone: (049) 29 3025. � lieve that the whole purpose of Exist­ ht n, 2TA1979 be understood as changes in the - - � - - -- relative growth of parts of the ence (as if it needs one) revolves Please send me your free Orocl'lure Bioblob. 'Individual deaths' as we around an infantile minor cell mass now understand them are in fact il­ we call people. Name lusions. Because we are the cells of Pass the wrinkle cream and fold Address ...... , ...... •....•..•... our parents extended in time and up the Tardis; I'd far rather revel in space, no creature has ever really awesome reality than the anthropo­ died because it is a part of the four­ centric delusions of the Biblical Postcode . . . . . •...... Tel dimensional organism that is already fundamentalists.• AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 513

------�------BOOKS Editions & Traditions

'traditional'. In north­ Marxist interpretations. Unfortunately the same ern Australia, apparently, Had he a slightly more elements are also at work World War 2 was the flexible view on the way in in Australia, trying to infil­ watershed: Aboriginal so­ which culture changes, trate religious beliefs in the cieties studied before that and not been quite so rigid guise of 'Flood Geology' time were 'traditional', in his acceptance and re­ into the school science those examined after this jection of other people's curriculum. Unlike many event were not. Fortu­ data, the book may have American science books nately for Professor Rose, been much better. Perhaps where Australia never gets his own work on Groote its weaknesses reflect the a mention, Strahler dis­ Eylandt was finished just fact that he lives in Europe cusses recent Australian before the cultural earth­ far away from the main­ creationist claims, analyses quake and so stands on the stream of Aboriginal them and convincingly re­ 'traditional' side of the studies in Australia, where futes them. His "very chasm! This is a rigid view scholars are able to formu­ strange book" is thus of cultural process. True, late and exchange ideas invaluable to anyone inter­ Aboriginal society changed long before they are com­ ested in the practice and when money was adopted. mitted to print. teaching of science (not It is likely, however, that -Betty Meehan just Earth sciences) in Aus­ The Traditional Mode the changed mode of pro­ tralia. of Production of the duction maintained strong The 54 chapters, in nine Australian Aborigines links with past practices. sections, cover virtually Frederick C. C. Rose. Let us not forget that every significant aspect of Angus & Robertson, Macassan traders had been Earth sciences and related Sydney, 1987, 292 pp. visiting northern Australia evolutionary topics: sci­ $39.95. for several hundred years ence and pseudoscience; before Europeans settled creationism, its roots and This book contains a there, long before Pro­ tenets; cosmology and as­ Marxist analysis of Aus­ fessor Rose carried out his tronomy; geology and tralian Aboriginal tradi­ own fieldwork. They crustal history; origin of tional mode of production brought with them rupiya landscapes; stratigraphy written by a practising or money, as is evidenced and the fossil record; integ­ Marxist. Professor Rose by the continued use of rity of the evolutionary re­ carried out social anthro­ this term by Aboriginal cord under attack by pologica I research in people today to refer to Arthur X Suahlc:1 creationists; the rise of man northern Australia be­ Aussie dollars and cents. and emergence of the tween 1937 and 1942. He o anthropologists that I human mind; the origin of settled permanently in the know believe that they Science and Earth life on Earth-naturalistic German Democratic Re­ have observed Aboriginal History: The or creationistic? In each public in 1956 and con­ people living exactly as Evolution/ Creation section Strahler compares tinues to live there today they did 200 years ago. Controversy and contrasts the scientific where he is Emeritus Pro­ Many believe, however, evidence and how it is in­ fessor attached to the an­ that what they observe is Arthur Strahler terpreted, with equivalent thropological museum in connected to the past by Prometheus Books, creationist explanations Leipzig. 'tradition'. What happens Buffalo, ew York, 1987, based on strict literalist in­ He wrote this book be­ today has continuity with 552 pp. $75.00 approx. terpretation of biblical cause "Frequently I was the past as well as new el­ texts, especially Genesis. asked to write something ements, and can provide Arthur Strahler, a former The book presents a on the method I was using clues as to the content and Columbia University ge­ wealth of information from in dealing with traditional functioning of past ology professor, has writ­ many sources not readily Aboriginal society" (p vii). systems. ten what he admits is "a available to most readers. Rose examines only 'tra­ There is much to be criti­ very strange book", one Strahler combines an ditional' Aborigines, by cal of in Rose's book and that would have been un­ encyclopaedic knowledge which he appears to mean much to recommend. The necessary ten years ago. with an enviable ability to those whose mode of pro­ approach he adopts pro­ He wrote it after realising organise and present an duction has not been influ­ vides many opportunities the increasingly serious enormous amount of infor­ enced by foreign systems. for lively debate. His ma­ threat to science education mation in an accessible and He believes that once terialist analysis gives in the United States posed readable form. It is a 'fun' European money entered students a chance to com­ by fundamentalist religious read, packed with fascinat­ the Aboriginal economic pare this approach with groups calling themselves ing facts. In the process of system it ceased being other anthropological 'scientific creationists'. discovering why creation 514 VOL. 22 0. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 AUSTRALIA'S GREAT BARRIER 'scientists' are, in fact, REEF Australian and American use of stereopairs is es­ pseudoscientists the read­ marsupials to appear under pecially effective, with one er painlessly learns a great AUSTRAi.iNS Michael Archer's energetic reservation. For those who, deal about Earth history. SEASHORES editorship. The two vol­ like myself, cannot see Strahler also takes scien­ umes continue the multi­ these 3-D images without a tists to task for carelessness disciplinary phylogenetic viewer, I issue a plea for and arrogance in present­ -- review of marsupials be­ standardisation of lateral ing their case. _J�=-•� gun in 1982 and comple­ spacing of stereopairs. This volume is a must for ment two earlier volumes Here they range from three anyone seriously con­ on carnivorous marsupials to about 9.5 centimetres; cerned by the creationist by the same team of editor, both extremes are un­ threat to science education publisher and society. comfortable. Stereopairs in this country. It should their environment. If The catchy title (from a should ideally be between certainly be in every uni­ you're not an expert on the 1984 symposium of the five and seven centimetres versity, public and high subject, chances are that same name) doesn't ad­ apart. school library. To school you won't be able to give equately reflect the range In a publication of this librarians-it may be the them clear, accurate an­ of contributions, which magnitude and complexity best investment your swers. covers all Australian fossil errors are inevitable, but school will make this year, The books are aimed at and living diprotodont even a casual perusal even if it prevents just one stimulating children to dis­ marsupials as well as their picked up more spelling er­ promising student from cover their natural sur­ early Cainozoic South Am­ rors than one would ex- being turned away from roundings by using the skill erican counterparts. Fifty science by misguided of observation through papers by 38 Australian pseudoscience. field trips and experiments. and American contributors Strahler's book is also They help foster the devel­ provide the most compre­ strongly recommended to opment of an enquiring hensive review of mar­ anyone who sincerely be­ mind by encouraging chil­ supial evolutionary re­ lieves that creationism dren to investigate, de­ lationships in two decades. does have a place in the scribe, infer, classify and Five new marsupial famil­ science class. It may not communicate their dis­ ies and many more· new change your views but you coveries. Simple scientific species are described and will appreciate more terms and words are ex­ profusely illustrated. And, clearly why scientists ve­ plained in detail. in a major review of mar­ pect. When one encoun­ hemently and almost For teachers, this series supial phylogenetics, Aplin ters, in the space of 13 unanimously reject young­ provides a useful reference and Archer assess all pre­ lines, Wynyardia (correct) Earth creationism as a valid with pictures, drawings, il­ vious classifications since and two other versions, scientific interpretation of lustrations and suggested 1945. New information Wynayardia and Wyn­ Earth history and evol- practical activities. For presented here is incorpor­ yaridia, the editing leaves ution. parents, it can help answer ated in a new marsupial something to be desired. -Alex Ritchie some of the tricky ques­ classification. These reservations apart, tions children ask and pro­ Although the Australian Possums and Opossums is vides a starting point in the fossil marsupial record still a fine production and an The Australian quest of knowledge for the hasn't broken through the invaluable contribution to Museum Environment whole family. early Miocene barrier, the a fast-developing field of Series -Vicky Kapatos American record extends research. As Archer states, to the Cretaceous and is the flood of new ideas and Australia's Seashores by increasingly well docu­ data currently being pro­ A.}. Underwood and P.A. Possums and mented. For the early Aus­ duced means that some of Hutchings; Australia's Opossums-Studies tralian marsupial evolution, the phylogenetic concepts Great Barrier Reef by unrepresented by fossils, may rapidly be outdated. Isobel Bennett. William in Evolution. Vols 1 and 2 we are still reliant on mol­ But this merely demon­ Collins, Sydney, 7 988, strates that marsupial Ed. by Michael Archer. ecular systematics. 64 pp. $74.95 each. systematics in Australia is a Surrey Beatty Sons and Nineteen colour plates One of the greatest joys & healthy, rapidly advancing The Royal Zoological illustrate such features as of children is their inquisi­ field of science. No-one Society of New South colour variation in New tive nature. These two Guinea cuscusses; and an seriously interested in the Wales, Sydney, 7988, books, part of a wonderful imaginative (or speculat­ origins and evolution of 788 pp. $7 72.00. new series from the Aus­ ive) touch is provided by Australian marsupials can tralian Museum, deal with Possums and Opossums restorations of extinct mar­ afford not to own this fine a wide range of questions is the latest epic publi­ supial heads by Peter production. that children ask about cation on fossil and living Murray. The widespread -Alex Ritchie AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 515 AUSTRALIAN WILD FOODS byTimlow

Native Fruiting Weeds fruits, one to two centimetres long, tasting much like salty grapes. The journals of early settlers tell us that ust north of Broken Hill there is a found around many Australian coun­ Nitre fruits, known also as Wild paddock blanketed in impen­ try towns. But the shrubs in this pad­ J Grapes, were important Aboriginal etrable thickets of spiny shrubs. In dock are of interest for they are not, foods. The writer C. Wilhelmi in mall spaces between the shrubs lie as might be expected, exotic(Nitraria weeds, 1860 described bushes "so full of shards of rusting iron and the desic­ butbi /lardieri). the native Nitre Bush fruit, that the natives lie down on cated droppings of rabbits. The their backs under them, strip off the scene speaks of land mismanaged, of In summer these fleshy-leaved fruit with both hands, and do not rise the kind of rural desolation to be shrubs are covered in bright red until the whole bush has been cleared of its load". The fruits are a staple food of Emus, and the seeds from up to 1,350 fruits have been found in a single Emu dropping. J.C. Noble of the CSIRO sug­ gested that itre Bush might serve as a food crop for arid areas. But he had a sample of the fruits canned, and found they tasted bitter and astrin­ gent and scored low in vitamin C. Around Broken Hill the fruits are rarely eaten by humans (unlikeSanta/um the popularacuminatum) Quandong, but the plant is undergoing trials for mining stabilis­ ation. It may also help in halting erosion and stabilising drifting sands. On disturbed saline soils it behaves (Lantana The resplendent fruits of the Nitre Bush attract Emus, which by swallowing the seeds like a weed, forming monotypic _ _ assist their germination. Nitre Bush is common along beaches and on salme mland standscamara) much like Lantana (Chry­ plains in southern Australia. santhemoidesand moniliferaBitou Bush rotu ndata)

further east. In southern Australia it has reclaimed abandoned wheat farms and infests overgrazed pad­ docks, stock routes and river flats. It is probably more common today, es­ pecially on soils ruined by rising salt, than in pre-European times. itre Bush is but one of Austra­ lia's many native 'weeds'-plants that colonise unstable areas, such as those disturbed by wind erosion, floods and fire, and that benefit from human disturbance. Many of Austra­ lia's native weeds produce edible fruits. In(Solanum coastal regions are kangaroo apples (Rubusspecies), wild rasp­ berries (Sambucuspecies)s and elderberries species) among others. In the outback(Enchylaena there istomentosa), Ruby Saltbush (Eremo­ citrus g/auca),Desert Lime a significant weed of grazing lands(Solanum on the Darling esuriale), Downs, Nitre Bush has smothered this overgrazed paddock just north of Broken Hill to the and Quena com­ exclusion of almost all other native plants. mon along inland roads. The large number of fruit-bearing 516 species shows that, for colonising VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 Ready for anytliing. Travel is full of surprises. Paddy Pallin's range of travel gear lets you travel light and enjoy the unexpected.

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Choose sturdy walking footwear from Paddy's range. Advanced construction. Classic styling. Carry a robust travel pack that converts from stylish Coast Beard Heath is one of the beard heaths (genus leucopogon), so-named be­ luggage to fully fledged cause the small flowers have hairy petals (leucos-white, pogon-beard). This backpack. For a surprise species grows mainly on coastal headlands and dunes in southern Australia. stopover - select a cosy down sleeping bag. plants, fruits are an ideal way to dis­ Heath is now the most common See all this as well as a fruits and shrub along the Coorong Highway perse seeds. Birds eat the range of practical excrete the seeds in new patches of and the Great Ocean Road in Vic­ accessories in the disturbed soil. toria, and in bushland around Port new Paddy Pellin Along the coast of southern Aus­ Campbell and Robe. Its fruits ripen Trek & Travel tralia, Coast Beard Heath (Leuco­ mainly in summer. Catalogue. pogon parviflorus) is proving to be There are two lessons in all this. one of the most successful of native First, one cannot assume that the weeds. A shrub or small tree growing wild fruits found in bushland today one to three metres tall, it sprouts grew there in the same abundance in along roadside verges and forms pre-European times. A significant thickets where stands of Drooping proportion of fruit-bearing plants be­ She-oak (Allocasuarina verticil/ata) have like weeds, especially in such once grew. Drooping She-oak seed­ situations as rainforest clearings, lings are so intensely grazed by rab­ river banks and coastal dunes. Apart bits and cattle that the once-vast from Nitre Bush and Coast Beard she-oak woodlands of South Aus­ Heath, such food plants as the wild tralia have vanished, surviving only raspberries, wild tomatoes (So/anum as annotations on the maps of 19th­ species), pigfaces ( Carpobrotus THE LEADERS INADYENllJRE SYDNEY (City) MELBOURNE BOX HILL century surveyors. species) and Ruby Saltbush may be (02) 264 2685 (03) 670 4845 (03) 898 8596 Coast Beard Heath has been the more common now (where bush­ CANBERRA Ai>ELAIDE l>ERTH (062) 57 3883 (08) 212 7857 (09) 325 5984 main beneficiary of the she-oak's de­ land survives) than two centuries HOBART KAtoOMBA JIIIIDABYNE (002) 31 0777 (047) 82 2014 (064) 56 2458 cline. Its small creamy fruits, four to ago. Second, we must recognise that MltANDA I.AUNCESTON five millimetres long, have a sweet the changes wrought by Europeans (02) 525 6829 (003) 31 4240 lemony flavour, and were probably a to the Australian landscape have f f popular snack-food of Aborigines, been so pervasive that even a forest Write today or o ree catalogue and get reedy! although scant record of this sur­ of native plants is not necessarily a Name ______vives. They are avidly consumed by natural event.• Address ______seagulls, silvereyes, fairy wrens,

Emus and even rabbits, all of which Tim Law's book Wild Foodplants of Australia ______P/code ___ _ help spread the seeds. Coast Beard has been released by Angus & Robertson. Send to, Poddy Pollin Pty. Ltd., Unit 14F, Hordern Place Comperdown NSW 2050 AC 25624 _J AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY ------I 517 Coping with life in Icy Waters ANTARalC FI 5 H By RICHARD WILLIAMS AUSTRALIA ANTARCTIC DIVISION, TASMANIA

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f­� z 0 :f z ::::; 0 u not occur elsewhere) and, among /cefish caught for research in Admiralty Bay, King George Island. the Notothenioidei, this rises to 97 per cent. ost people's mental picture treme isolation has meant that the The Antarctic notothenioids con­ of Antarctic fauna is domi­ fauna consists of a relatively small sist of five superficially dissimilar nated by penguins, seals number of distinctive species. families, but their relationship is well andM whales, for which the region is The fauna is dominated by the demonstrated by shared skeletal and justly famous. They may also know suborder Notothenioidei, a group of anatomical characters such as the something of Antarctic Krill benthic (bottom-living) perch-like lack of a swim bladder to regulate (Euphausia superba), the crustacean fishes, which probably invaded the buoyancy. Most of the species have that is so abundant and important as area from the Patagonian region at special proteins in the blood to pre­ food to many of these larger animals. the time Australia split from vent freezing, have lost the red Antarctic fishes are largely unknown, Antarctica about 40 million years blood pigment haemoglobin to except to the few scientists who ago, when the cold circumpolar some degree, and share other study them, despite their import­ ocean circulation commenced. Only physiological and behavioural traits ance in the ecosystem and their about 200 species of benthic fishes such as the production of a relatively sometimes unique adaptations to have been described from the Ant­ small number of large yolky eggs. the extreme environment in which arctic regions (inciuding the sub­ The family Nototheniidae has the they live. Antarctic islands south of the Con­ most species (52) and is the most Despite being surrounded by vergence), compared with the widespread and common group. vast tracts of ocean, coastal Ant­ worldwide total of about 20,000 They are commonly known as Ant­ arctica, from a fish's point of view, is known fish species. The noto­ arctic cods, and the more general­ extremely isolated. The relatively thenioids comprise about 58 per ised members of the family are prob­ shallow seas normally associated cent of the species but over 90 per ably similar to forms that originally with continental shelves are where cent of the numbers of the fauna, colonised the Antarctic regions. Sev­ the greatest production and diversity with the other main groups being the eral of these generalised species re­ of fishes generally occur, but around generally deeper-living and sparsely main today in Patagonia, and this Antarctica the shelf is narrow and distributed Liparididae (snail fishes), family is found from the coast of the significantly deeper than elsewhere. Zoarcidae (eel-pouts) and oc­ Antarctic continent to the relatively This results from the weight of the casional representatives of the warm seas surrounding the sub­ ice cap depressing the continent. Rajidae (rays), Bothidae (armless Antarctic islands, and as far north as The Antarctic continental shelf is flounders), and assorted deepwater the southern tip of New Zealand. physically separated from the neigh­ species from such families as Like the northern cods after which bouring shelves by great distances of Macrouridae (rat tails) and Moridae they were named but to which they deep ocean, and further isolated by (deep sea cods). The degree of iso­ are not closely related, most species the Antarctic Convergence-a com­ lation and specialisation imposed on are moderately active bottom­ plex of fronts where the water tem­ the Antarctic fish fauna is illustrated dwelling fishes that feed on a variety perature decreases rapidly as the by the degree of endemism: about of benthic invertebrates. cold Antarctic waters meet the 88 per cent of all species are en­ Three other families, the Harpa­ northern subtropical waters. The ex- demic to the region (that is, they do giferidae, Artedidraconidae and

518 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 Bathydraconidae, contain few species (six, 19 and 16 respectively) and are specialised for a more strictly benthic habitat. Their bodies are more compact and dorso-ventrally compressed, and some have quite heavy armour or spines associated with the head. Members of these families are usually small and not very common. The harpagiferids or plunder fishes are most common in the sub-Antarctic regions. They are small, naked, spiny fishes that oc­ cupy the littoral and shallow shelf waters. The closely related artedi­ draconids, also called plunder fishes, are more characteristic of the colder Antarctic shelf waters, from the coast to the deepest parts of the shelf. Bathydraconids (deep dragon fishes), as their name implies, are often, although by no means always, found in the deeper waters of the Antarctic continental shelf and slope, and some of the offshore sea Around the Antarctic continent, the fish faunais limited to a few characteristic types. mounts. They are moderately slen­ Samples from a catch near Australia's Davis Stationshow the main types. Clockwise Bathyraja maccaini, Trematomus der fusiform (spindle-shaped) fishes from the top are: the ray the Antarctic cod lepidorhinus, the plunder fish Artedidraco sp., the dragon fish Prionodraco evansii, like the Antarctic cods, but are the Antarctic Silverfish, an icefish Chionodraco myersi, and another Antarctic cod characterised by the presence of Trematomus eulepidotus. The scale bar is graduated in one-centimetre and five­ only one dorsal fin. centimetre intervals. The final family, the Channi­ chthyidae or icefish, is one of the some of which support commercial manner similar to the classic case of most important and interesting fisheries, and to their ecological role Darwin's finches on the Galapagos groups. Although containing only 16 as predators of Antarctic Krill. They Islands, to an adaptive radiation of species, its importance is due to the are of great scientific interest be­ some of the originally benthic abundance of many of its members, cause they are unique among ver­ notothenioids to a secondarily pel­ tebrates in completely lacking the agic habit. This has happened par­ red blood pigment haemoglobin and ticularly among the Antarctic cods its associated muscle respiratory pig­ and icefish, in which a range of ments. They also virtually lack red species from strictly benthic through blood cells (erythrocytes) and, for occasionally pelagic to fully pelagic these reasons, have characteristi­ can be identified. cally cream-coloured organs (such as This adaptation has led to some gills, heart and liver), which in other fundamental physical changes in the fishes are bright red. In spite of this fishes. The benthic species are apparent disadvantage, the family is typically robust, relatively heavy and widespread and common, although lack a swim bladder whereas the pel­ not generally found in the warmer agic species have to be neutrally A resource of the past: the Marbled waters of the region. Many members buoyant and are usually more slen­ Rockcod was once the mainstay of the der and manoeuvrable. The Antarc­ large fisheries around South Georgia retain their benthic habit but some and lies Kergue/en. Harvesting this have become at least semi-pelagic, tic cods have achieved this transition species is now totallybanned. occupying the water column and in the absence of a swim bladder by feeding on Antarctic Krill or other reducing the mineralisation of the zooplankton. Many grow quite large skeleton (and thereby its weight), re­ (40 or more centimetres long) and ducing the weight of muscle to a cer­ some species (notably the Mackerel tain extent and, most significantly, by lcefish, Champsocephalus gunnan) lowering the specific gravity as a re­ form dense aggregations that are ex­ sult of increasing the lipid content of ploited commercially. the body-either as fat deposits The isolation and extreme en­ under the skin and between the vironment of Antarctic waters have muscle blocks (for example, the resulted in a marked lack of fishes in­ Antarctic Toothfish, Dissostichus habiting the pelagic (upper water) mawsom), or as subcutaneous oil zone, such as the herrings and tunas sacs (Antarctic Silverfish, Pleura­ One of the most colourful Antarctic fish of warmer seas. No representative of gramma antarcticum). is the inshore-dwelling Magel/anic typically pelagic families occurs in A series of species can be ident­ Rockcod, Paranotothenia magellanica. the shelf zones. This has led, in a ified with increasing specialisation

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 519 and also derive protection (at least during the juvenile stages) by hiding I in the ice crevices. For this cryopelagic habit they also need a fairly slender shape, neutral buoy­ ancy and cryptic colouration, and hence skeletal reduction and lipid deposits are also seen in this species, along with a moderately streamlined shape and pale colouration. ormally a fish's body fluids freeze at about -1 °C, yetsome Ant­ arctic fishes have to withstand tem­ peratures below -2 ° C. Without pro­ tection, a fish will become super­ cooled and vulnerable to freezing if . it came into contact with ice, as do ::ttrJmri-ml!'!���:...J some species. Protection is provided by special molecules (glycoproteins) in the fish's blood and tissues, which act as an antifreeze by binding to the surface of an ice crystal and blocking further binding of water molecules. In essence, glycoproteins are 'anti­ bodies' against ice. As one might ex­ pect, those species experiencing the lowest temperatures, or most ex­ posed to ice, such as coastal and shallow water species, have the greatest freezing resistance; those species from deeper water where the extra pressure depresses the freezing point, or from lower lati­ tudes, have less antifreeze. At the other extreme, fish such as Grey Rockcods (Notothenia squamifrons), "' 0 which only occur around the rela­ V, L. tively warm sub-Antarctic islands, have no antifreeze proteins at all. Jhe amount of cryoprotection seems to be genetically fixed: after pro­ Remnants of a catch of icefish cover the deck of this Soviet trawler, fishing near longed acclimation to higher or Heard Island. The size of the net indicates the enormous capacity of these modern lower temperatures, antifreeze boats. Large bobbins are used to prevent the net from being snagged onthe bottom. levels do not change in individual fish. It has been suggested that these for a pelagic habit. Among the Ant­ cod, superficially resembles a her­ antifreezes (or at least similar syn­ arctic cods, the Emerald Rockcod ring in being a medium-sized (up to thetic reproductions) could be use­ (Pagothenia bernacchit) is an ex­ 30 centimetres long) streamlined fish ful to humans in such fields as food ample of a completely benthic with silvery, easily detachable scales. processing, where much of the spoil­ species, with a fully ossified (bony) Its diet is even similar, feeding on age due to freezing food is caused by skeleton, well-developed muscle small planktonic crustaceans such as ice crystals disrupting the cell blocks and fewlipid deposits. It has a copepods and larval krill. In this fish structure. relatively short, thick-set body and is the skeleton is very much reduced, lcefish lack haemoglobin and cryptically coloured blotchy brown there are large intervertebral spaces functional red blood cells entirely, and reddish. The Antarctic Toothfish filled with a jelly-like substance, and while Antarctic cods have about a 35 is a semi-pelagic form with inter­ obvious subcutaneous and per cent reduction in these. It is hard mediate characteristics. The skel­ intermuscular oil sacs. This species is to identify an obvious selective ad­ eton is much weaker and muscle the only wholly pelagic Antarctic vantage, especially considering the blocks are relatively smaller with fish. potential disadvantages in the re­ considerable lipid deposits between Another group of Antarctic cods duction of respiratory efficiency, but them and also subcutaneously. The has undergone similar adaptations the consequent reduction in blood body has become longer and more for slightly different reasons. Fish viscosity and thus the relative ease of streamlined and is a uniform brown­ such as the Bald Rockcod (Pago­ pumping it around the body may be ish colour. The trend towards pelagic thenia borchgrevink,) live under the a signficant advantage in a cold en­ specialisation reaches its full ex­ sea ice, where they capture the small vironment. The icefish still have pression in the Antarctic Silverfish, crustaceans that feed on the micro­ functional gills and have a large which, although still an Antarctic scopic algae on the ice undersurface blood volume to compensate for the 520 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 lack of red blood cells. They appear agic larval and juvenile stages, even national jurisdiction and in both to acquire sufficient oxygen by though the adults may be strictly cases the history was the same. In­ simple dissolution into the plasma benthic. Because of the low water itially the highly valued Marbled through the naked skin, gills and temperatures, hatching times can be Rockcod was taken in huge quan­ lining of the large mouth. This is three months or more, and low tities, with catches declining rapidly helped by the greater solubility of growth rates may mean the juvenile in the first few years. Subsequently, gases in fluids at low temperatures pelagic stages last two years or more. other species have been harvested and by the behaviour of the fish. Studies by Australian and Polish and have suffered a similar fate, and Most icefish are rather sluggish pred­ scientists have shown that these other areas, notably around the tip of ators that capture their prey by quick young fishes are often associated the Antarctic Peninsula, have been lunges requiring only short bursts of with Antarctic Krill swarms, and can fished. More recently the Kerguelen energy and high oxygen consump­ constitute up to five per cent by Plateau has come under the jurisdic­ tion. Many are so sluggish that they weight of Antarctic Krill catches. This tion of France (around lies Ker­ can easily be caught by hand. means that a large Antarctic Krill fish­ guelen) and Australia (around Heard Although often unseen and rarely ery (currently almost 500,000 tonnes Island) by the establishment of 200- remarked, fishes are important in the per annum) could have a serious ef­ mile exclusive economic zones in Antarctic ecosystem. As scientists at­ fect on these fish populations with 1979, which has resulted in more tempt to unravel the complexities of their low reproductive rates. stringent control. the Antarctic marine ecosystem, the Recent work by Australian scien­ Since the establishment of the role of fishes is seen as more and tists at Davis Station has demon­ Commission for the Conservation of more important, even though they strated the value of fishes, particu­ Antarctic Marine Living Resources do not have the sheer biomass of, larly the pelagic Antarctic Silverfish, (CCAMLR) in 1981, a more general say Antarctic Krill, or the visibility to birds and seals. Adelie Penguins regulation and management of the and appeal of the birds, seals or take up to 40 per cent by weight of region's living resources has been at­ whales. their diet as fish while feeding young tempted, although progress on such Fish as a group originally were chicks, and Emperor Penguins and a complex subject has necessarily not considered to be important several of the smaller petrel sp.ecies been slow. The CCAMLR was in­ predators of Antarctic Krill, with also feed on fish from time to time. itially established because of con­ most attention being paid to the Weddell Seals feed mainly on fish, cern about the potential damage to whales and seals. During the last 20 taking a mixture of bottom-living the ecosystem of harvesting large years, as commercial fisheries have species as befits its reputation as one amounts of Antarctic Krill. However, developed and studies on fishes of the deepest diving animals the most pressing problem has be­ have increased, the importance of known, and Antarctic Silverfish. come the management of the fin Antarctic Krill in the diet of many fish Crabeater Seals, although best fisheries, because of the serious pos­ species has been realised. For ex­ known for their Antarctic Krill diet, ition of some of the species. The ample, the two species that have also take Antarctic Silverfish, per­ convention under which CCAMLR constituted the bulk of the catch haps incidentally while pursuing operates is unique because it re­ around South Georgia at various Antarctic Krill. quires an ecosystem approach times-the Marbled Rockcod Because of the narrow continen­ to management, unlike all other ( otothenia rossi,) and Mackerel tal shelf providing relatively little fisheries-type agreements that gen­ lcefish, both feed largely on Antarc­ suitable habitat, and the ice and bad erally deal only with the target tic Krill. weather providing little opportunity, species. Thus, while accepting that Most Antarctic fishes have pel- the Antarctic continental margin has conservation includes rational use of not to date supported a major fish­ living resources, the convention re­ ery. The more temperate sub­ quires that harvesting be conducted Antarctic islands and the Antarctic in such a way that dependent and re­ Peninsula, however, have supported lated species are not unduly affec­ fisheries for almost 20 years. These ted, and changes to the ecosystem locations are the only extensive that are not potentially reversible are areas of relatively shallow shelf (less avoided. Unfortunately the lack of than 500 metres deep) in the sub­ historical data on the fisheries and ig­ Antarctic zone, and are close to the norance of the biology of most highly productive region of the Ant­ species have made it difficult to arctic Convergence. In spite of the agree on the best procedures. In the relatively brief history, nearly all last couple of years, however, some stocks have suffered heavy fishing important regulations have been in­ followed by a marked decline in troduced, such as a total ban on stock size and catches. catching Marbled Rockcod and, for Over 95 per cent of the total fish Mackerel lcefish around South catch has been taken by the Soviet Georgia, a total catch limit and ban Union, with the balance being taken on harvesting during its spawning by Poland, East Germany and Bul­ season. While much work still needs The large Soviet fishery is supported by a garia. The shelf around South to be done to resurrect the stocks of considerable research effort. Here re­ some species and control the exploi­ searchers inspect the gonads of samples Georgia was the first to be fished in from a catch taken nen Heard Island to 1969, closely followed by the tation of others, jurisdiction is at least assess the reproductive condition of the Kerguelen Plateau in 1970. No lo­ now in place to conserve these inter­ fish. cality at that time was under any esting and valuable animals.• AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 521 RARE & ENDANGERED 'Extinct' Plants Rediscovered

n Australia, a plant is presumed extinct if it has not been found in I recent years despite thorough searching, or it has not been col­ lected for at least 50 years having previously been known from areas that are well settled. Since the arrival of Europeans in Australia 200 years ago, more than 1 30 plant species are presumed to have become extinct. Occasionally, however, a species presumed ex­ tinct is rediscovered. Such redis­ coveries occur not only in remote, seldom-surveyed areas, but also in the midst of urban development. Two such species recently redis­ covered in New South Wales are Haloragodendron lucasii and an undescribed species of Zieria. Haloragodendron lucasii is a member of the Haloragaceae, a fam- ily of herbs and shrubs found throughout the temperate areas of the world, but having its greatest di­ versity in Australia. It is a bright green shrub that grows to about two metres in height. Opposite pairs of oblong serrate leaves are arranged with adjacent pairs at right angles; and creamy white flowers, which are relatively large compared with most others in the family, are grouped together in a leafy inflorescence. The species was named after Arthur Henry Lucas (1853-1936), a head- ; master of Sydney Grammar School � and honorary algal specialist at the :f Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney, � and was originally recorded in 1908 � from a small area now in the north­ eastern suburbs of Sydney. searching. Fortunately, the plants so Line drawing by Margaret f/ockton from The species was unsuccessfully far discovered are within a reserve, the Proceedings of the Linnaean Society, searched for in 1969 and, as it had which will improve the species' 1909, ofHaloragodendron lucasii. last been collected in 1926, was pre­ chance of survival. However, the sumed extinct. It was thought that 1,000 or so plants are in a small area urban development was most likely (150 x 25 metres) and are more or the cause of its extinction. Searching less even-aged with few seedlings. for the species was made difficult by Given the population structure, the the limited amount of information species is still regarded as en­ that had previously been recorded. dangered. It is particularly threat­ Its locality on one herbarium speci­ ened by encroaching weeds (privet, men, for example, was recorded as camphor-laurel, crofton weed, rhus, "a wild gully near Gordon". wandering jew and lantana) from the By chance, in 1986, a local resi­ surrounding urban areas. There is dent and amateur botanist collected also a degree of 'people pressure' in a specimen of H. /ucasii near St Ives the area since there are a number of in Sydney only 100 metres from small walking tracks passing close to houses. This is most likely near the the plants. site of the original collection and The second species to be re­ Rediscovered Zieria species found near similar gullies in the area are worth moved from the 'presumed extinct' Nowra, New South Wales. 522 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 HY DID THE DINOSAURS DIE? ARE THERE MAR­ INE MONSTERS? HOW list is an undescribed species of search in 1987 relocated the species. CAN MALE SEA­ 0 Zieria. The genus Zieria belongs to This site is near owra, ew South HORSES BE MOTHERS? the family Rutaceae-perhaps best Wales, within view of a suburban de­ known for its edible citrus fruits (or­ velopment and only a short distance WHEN DID THE anges, lemons, grapefruits) and, in from a major water pipe. MISSIONARY POS­ Australia, for such plants as Boronia, Although not an outstanding ITION ARRIVE? WHY Correa and Eriostemon. plant in any aesthetic sense, DO BATS HANG This rediscovered Zieria species, biologically the population is very in­ UPSIDE-DOWN? HOW which had previously been referred teresting. When discovered, cuttings CAN A SPIDER WEB to as the more widespread Zieria were taken from five of the 120 STOP A BULLET? cytisoides (Downy Zieria), will be plants. Tests carried out at the Aus­ WICHH MAGAZINE described in a forthcoming revision tralian ational Botanic Gardens HAS EVOLVED INTO A of the genus. It is an open shrub showed little if any genetic variation VERTEBRA TE? growing to about half a metre high between the plants sampled. Further with small grey-green heart-shaped samples were collected from plants ROM THE NEXT leaves and small pink-white flowers. up to 50 metres apart and still no ISSUE, A NEW, It was originally recorded in 1883 variation was detected. The possi­ GENETICALLY EN­ from a population on the "lower bility that the population has devel­ GINEERED SPECIES OF Shoal haven". A search in 1976 using oped from vegetative or asexual re­ AUSTRALIAN NATU­ 0 locality information from a later col­ production is strengthened by the RALHISTORY lection made in 1943 failed to re­ finding that pollen collected from EVOLVES ... locate the species and it was pre­ the flowers within the population is MORE PAGES, MORE sumed extinct. Fortunately, a recent 95 per cent sterile. The lack of gen­ etic diversity not only makes this COLOUR, MORE FAS­ population more vulnerable to dis­ CINATING ARTICLES turbance, but also means that factors TO DEMYSTIFY THE other than its morphological charac­ NATURAL WORLD. teristics will have to be taken into ac­ GET IT. count when considering its status as GOT IT? a species. Like H. lucasii, this species GOOD! of Zieria is still considered en­ dangered and the site of the popu­ lation has been nominated for pro­ tection through the Register of the ational Estate. Since their rediscovery, both Haloragodendron lucasii and the Zieria species have been brought into cultivation by the Australian ational Botanic Gardens. This is part of the Garden's program to es­ tablish an Endangered Species Col­ lection to provide plant material for research and education and, by so doing, hopefully prevent overcollection from wild popu­ lations. The work at the Gardens is to be expedited by a grant from the World Wildlife Fund. While it is likely that many of those plants currently presumed ex­ tinct are truly gone forever, it is highly probable that a number still z 0 await rediscovery. Rediscoveries of V, Haloragodendron � plants such as a, /ucasii and the Zieria species will � continue to keep our hopes alive.• Q Missing, presumed extinct: Halorago­ -Mark Richardson dendron lucasii recently rediscovered Australian National alive and well in Sydney suburbia. Botanic Gardens

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 523 hen we think of evolution, we normally think of sys­ Wtems becoming more complex. But there are cases in Lite Without Legs which nature simplifies rather than elaborates. A spectacular example is provided by Australia's unusual pygopodids, also called snake­ lizards or legless lizards. THE PYGOPODID Pygopodids superficially re­ semble snakes. The body is elongated, the forelimbs are com­ pletely absent, and the hindlimbs are LIZARDS small and scarcely noticeable­ mere flaps usually carried closely against the body. Vestiges of limb bones, however, are present, indi­ By MICHAEL HUTCHINS and BARBARA SLEEPER cating that ancestral forms had four EW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY legs. 524 VOL. 22 0. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 The family Pygopodidae is frequently confused with snakes, this harmless Hooded Scaly-foot, a legless lizard, thought to be closely related to draws back its head and bends its neck into an 'S' when threatened. Should the threat geckos (so much so that some persist, it hurls its head forwardlike a striking adder. people prefer to include them in the family Gekkonidae). There are eight often mistaken for venomous snakes belly scales on legless lizards occur genera and 32 species, two of which and killed. Several characteristics, in two rows and are only slightly occur outside Australia-in New however, readily distinguish them broader than the other scales of the Guinea. If indeed pygopodids war­ from snakes. Unlike snakes, most body. rant their own family status, it is the legless lizards have a tail that is three Despite these differences, the only reptile family endemic to the to four times longer than the body, snake-lizards are deserving of their Australian region. Highly variable in and all have a broad, fleshy tongue. name in that they do have several both size and colouration, these liz­ Most species also have external ear characteristics, both structural and ards inhabit deserts, as well as coastal openings. In contrast, snakes have behavioural, which are similar to forests throughout Australia-with no external ear openings, a tail that is those of snakes. In addition to their the notable exception of Tasmania. usually less than a quarter of the leglessness and elongated bodies, Virtually all areas of mainland Aus­ body length, and a deeply bifurcated pygopodids have lidless eyes with > tralia contain at least one species. or forked tongue. In addition, vertical pupils, which remain perma- C' When encountered by the casual whereas snakes have a single row of nently open behind a clear covering ! observer, these harmless lizards are widened scales under the body, the called the 'spectacle'. Like the :;; AUSTRALIA ATURAL HISTORY 525 Legless lizards have an immovable trans­ parent scale or 'spectacle' over the eye, z similar to that found in snakes. Unlike 0 V'> snakes, however, they have broad, flat I- a w"' tongue and usually an external ear open­ co "'0 ing, as in this Common Scaly-foot. w"' 1- terior of Australia. Scaly-foots, how­ w 0.. ever, are more variable in their habits. For example, the Hooded The vestigial hind/imb of the Common Scaly-foot illustrates the ancestry of Scaly-foot, like Delma species, pre­ pygopodids from the limbed lizards. fers arid, sandy habitats and is pri­ marily nocturnal and insectivorous. geckos, the pygopodids 'clean' the not retreat the scaly-foot hurls its But the Common Scaly-foot (P. 'glasses' over their eyes by licking head forward like a striking adder. In /epidopodus) tends to live in cooler, them with their tongues. situations like this, it is little wonder wetter habitats, is active during the Apart from their serpentine loco­ that this species is confused with day and at twilight, and has a highly motion, which consists of a sideways snakes and often persecuted. specialised diet of spiders, especially undulation, some pygopodids be­ Snake-lizards often move about large, burrowing forms. have like venomous snakes when in search of food at twilight and at In contrast to the active feeding threatened. The Hooded Scaly-foot night. Delma species are primarily strategy of Pygopus, Delma and (Pygopus nigriceps), for example, insectivorous, feeding on various other pygopodids, Burton's Legless draws back the head and bends the arthropods, ants and termites and Lizard (Lia/is burtonis) is a 'sit and neck into an 'S'. If the enemy does are found throughout the arid in- wait' predator that feeds day and night almost exclusively on other liz­ ards such as small skinks and geckos. This cryptically coloured species, which may reach a length of 70 centimetres, lies in wait and then ambushes its unsuspecting prey, seizing it with a rapid snap of the jaws. If the prey is not killed outright by the bite, it suffocates as it is swallowed head-first. The sharply pointed teeth, rather long and with a slight backward curve, serve well to overcome large prey. It has also been known to consume the oc­ casional snake. The feeding habits and adapta­ tions of the genus Lia/is are remark­ ably similar to those of snakes. Such similarities probably arose through z 0 convergent evolution. In this pro­ V'> I- cess, distantly related species evolve w"' co 0 comparable adaptations because "' they exploit similar ecological w"' 1- w niches. A key specialisation of 0.. snakes is an ability to ingest very Lialis burtonis emerging from shell. Pygopodids generally lay two soft-shelled eggs, large prey; this ability is extremely usually hidden in a sheltered site beneath cover or in the soil. Afterlaying, the female important in elongate animals be­ displays no maternal care. cause they have heads that are small

526 VOL. 22 NO. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 relative to their body size (and hence energetic requirements). Some snakes also do not eat very often, thus making it important that large prey be ingested as they become available. Indeed, snake jaws are hinged in an elastic fashion (cranial kinesis), so that they can open widely and allow something as big or even bigger than the body to pass into the digestive system. Their teeth are also pointed, recurved and sometimes hinged in such a way that they point backwards when pushed from the front but remain erect when pushed from behind. Pygopodids of the genus Lia/is possess similar mor­ phological adaptations, and their diets are nearly identical to those of elapid snakes that live in the same area.· Unlike Lia/is, however, most small lizard-eating elapids are noc­ turnal and search actively for sleep­ ing lizards. The snake-lizards best adapted to burrowing life are those of the genus Aprasia. These small, thin, worm-like lizards spend most of their time underground. Their hindlegs are the most reduced of all pygopodids, consisting of only a single scale, and the external ear opening is often completely absent or much reduced. Little is known about their natural history, although they are thought to feed exclusively on ants and ter­ mites. Female pygopodids appear to be larger than males of the same species. This trend is also evident in many species of geckos. All pygopodids are oviparous (that is, lay eggs) and the usual clutch size is two. Ovulation typically occurs in spring and early summer and females are gravid (that is, carry eggs) until midsummer. The cylindrical eggs are extremely thin and elongated, and are encased in a parchment-like shell. The phenomenon of limb­ lessness raises some interesting evol­ utionary questions. The anatomy of pygopodids clearly indicates that they once possessed limbs. So, why did they lose them? As it turns out, elongation of the body and

Skinks beware! Lialis species are formi­ dable predators of small lizards and have a specialised skull morphology for z handling such prey. The elongate upper 0 V, jaw is 'hinged' across the centre be­ z I tween the eyes, allowing it to bend u ..... around lizards and hold them securely. :::i Prey are captured, subdued and suffo­ I """' cated by pressure from the jaws-and < swallowed whole. �

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 527 >­ ..J :5 I >­ z 0 I f­ z <

Among the smallest of pygopodids, Aprasia species rarely exceed 15 centi­ metres in length. They are burrowing liz­ ards and may have highly specialised diets. This species, Aprasia inaurita, is believed to feed only on the eggs of small black ants, Aphaenogaster sp.

constraints and were presumably able to evolve a greater diversity of body shapes than the endothermic mammals. The Hooded Scaly-foot has a highly Based on his studies of modern limbless reptiles, Gans suggested A Fragile Tale specialised diet of spiders, especially large burrowing forms like this wolf that body elongation may have been When handling a snake­ spider. the first step towards the reduction lizard, one must take care not and eventual elimination of limbs. to grasp it by the tail. Except limblessness have evolved indepen­ The initial advantage of elongation for chameleons, monitors, dently in a wide variety of reptilian would have allowed ancestral bearded lizards (agamids) and families worldwide, including the pygopodids to use narrow crevices a few others, most lizards­ skinks (Scincidae), blind lizards to obtain food, for thermoregulation, including pygopodids-can (Dibamidae) and anguid lizards or for shelter, and therefore exploit a voluntarily shed (autotomise) (Anguidae). Indeed, the snakes niche that was heretofore un­ their tails when attacked by a themselves are thought to have orig­ available to other lizards. Once the predator. This behaviour inated from a monitor-like ancestor; initial advantage was established, reaches its pinnacle in the the inability to regenerate a tail (see further selection may have occurred Australian Marbled Gecko box), the narrow and deeply bifur­ both for greater elongation of the (Christinus marmoratus). It cated tongue, and certain aspects of body, loss of limbs, and serpentine will slowly undulate the verti­ skull and tooth structure are com­ locomotion or burrowing. This hy­ cally erect tail from side to mon to both groups. pothesis is supported by several lines side, presumably to draw the Noted herpetologist Carl Gans of of evidence, including the fact that predator's attention. The tail, the University of Michigan has long modern geckos have a tendency to once shed, continues to been fascinated by the evolutionary use cracks and crevices, and that wriggle convulsively for sev­ trend toward elongated bodies and some pygopodids, such as Aprasia, eral minutes, distracting the reduced limb size in reptiles and am­ are highly adapted to a burrowing predator while the tailless phibians. Although common among lifestyle. lizard makes a quick get away. ectothermic ('cold-blooded') ver­ During Australia's long isolation Fracture planes in one or tebrates, the phenomenon is rare from other landmasses, the con­ more of the vertebrae makes among endotherms ('warm­ tinent's animals have pursued their this startling feat possible. A blooded' vertebrates). This pattern is own courses of evolution, producing wall of connective tissue or thought to be due to heat conser­ many strange and wonderous forms. cartilage passes through each vation restraints. Elongated bodies The region's unique wildlife makes it vertebra, creating a weak generally have larger surface areas, an important laboratory for biologi­ point, where muscles and thus making it more difficult and en­ cal scientists. Indeed, Australia's blood sinuses have been ergetically expensive to maintain legless lizards have taught us much modified to allow an easy high temperatures. Ectothermic rep­ about the evolutionary process. In break. A new tail slowly re­ tiles and amphibians, which regulate losing their legs, they appear to have generates if the break occurs their body temperature primarily gained a niche-an essential pre­ along a fracture plane. through behavioural rather than requisite for winning the evolution­ physiological means, are free of such ary game.•

528 VOL. 22 0. 11, SUMMER 1988-89 Ho" will the greenhouse effect change our lh·es? Can "e stop erosion and salting of our land'! What are the real links What are the prospects for between diet and health? solar energ) and alternative Can we san� Australia's fuels? endangered animals and plants? Ho" serious a threat is the Antarctic •ozone hole'?

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