PROFESSIONAL AWARENESS AS A CORRELATE OF JOB SATISFACTION AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN RIVERS STATE OF NIGERIA

BY

OBISIKE, IHEANYI OSONDU PG/Ph.D/06/40994

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

OCTOBER, 2011

TITLE PAGE

PROFESSIONAL AWARENESS AS A CORRELATE OF JOB SATISFACTION AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN RIVERS STATE OF NIGERIA

BY

OBISIKE, IHEANYI OSONDU PG/Ph.D/06/40994

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

OCTOBER, 2011

2 APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis has been approved for the Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

______Prof. Uche Azikiwe Dr Eucharia N. Nwosu Supervisor Internal Examiner

______Prof. Cordelia Anadi Prof. Ike Ifelunni External Examiner Head of Department

______Prof. S.A. Ezeudu Dean of Faculty

3 CERTIFICATION

OBISIKE, Iheanyi Osondu, a postgraduate student in the Department of Educational Foundations, with Registration Number PG/Ph.D/06/40994 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology of Education. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this, or any other university.

______Obisike, Iheanyi Osondu Prof. U. Azikiwe Student Supervisor

4

DEDICATION

To my wife, Mrs. Mary Obisike and my children - Miss Chidinma and Master Chioma.

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher thanks the Almighty God for giving him the faith and strength to accomplish this work, and for granting good health and wisdom to all those who have assisted him passionately. He is grateful to his supervisor, Prof. (Mrs.) Uche Azikiwe (MFR), in whom he found God’s favour. The researcher cannot thank her enough for being patient with his inadequacies, giving support and encouragement. Profound thanks also go to Dr. Eucharia N. Nwosu, Mr. John Agah and Chizoba Obikwelu for their contributions towards the realization of the researcher’s goals. Immense gratitude goes to Dr. J.C. Omeje, Dr. (Mrs.) T.O. Oforka, Dr. B.C. Madu, Prof. Emeka Ozoji, Dr. Ann Okoro, Dr. E.O. Ede, Dr Victor Nwachukwu, Prof. U.N.V. Agwagah, Dr. U.N. Eze, Prof. F.A. Okwor and Dr. D.U. Ngwoke for their useful and pertinent contributions that gave direction to this work. This work would have been more tedious if Dr. Jonah Nwogu had not made his library and intellectual assistance available. The researcher is grateful to him for being a brother and mentor. Dr. Goodness Orluwene is acknowledged with thanks for analyzing the data. The researcher is thankful to Mr. Ebere Nwala, Mr. Promise Nwonuala, Mrs. Peace Anunobi, Mr. Nweke Oluikpe, Mrs. Jonah Nwogu, Mrs. Ngozi Ibim, Mr. Clement Nwogu and Mrs. Iroegbu Happiness for their assistance during data collection. Thanks also go to the researcher’s friends and colleagues: Mr. Christian Egbunefu, Dr. Bede Nwosu, Dr. Michael Nwala, Mr. Peter Abraham Musa and Mr. Noel C. Nkado for being supportive. Appreciation goes to the researcher’s wife, Mrs. Mary Obisike and his parents, Chief Sir & Lady I.S. Obisike for their prayers. Finally, the researcher shares the joy of this work with his uncle, Mr. Matthew Obisike and his brothers who supported him morally and spiritually.

Obisike, Iheanyi Osondu.

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE i APPROVAL PAGE ii CERTIFICATION PAGE iii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v TABLE OF CONTENTS vi LIST OF TABLES viii ABSTRACT ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background to the Study 1 Statement of the Problem 9 Purpose of the Study 9 Significance of the Study 10 Scope of the Study 11 Research Questions 12 Hypotheses 12

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Conceptual Framework 14 Concept of Profession 14 Development of Teaching Profession in Nigeria 18 Social Status of Teaching Profession in Nigeria 25 Concept of Professional Awareness 31 Concept of Job Satisfaction 33 Relationship between Professional Awareness and Job Satisfaction 35 Gender and Professional Awareness 37 Number of Years of Experience and Professional Awareness 38 Location of School and Professional Awareness 38 Gender and Teachers’ Job Satisfaction 39 Number of Years of Experience and Teachers’ Job Satisfaction 40

7 Location of School and Teachers’ Job Satisfaction 42 Theoretical Framework 43 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory 43 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 46 Empirical Studies 47 Empirical Studies on Professional Awareness 48 Empirical Studies on Job Satisfaction 49 Summary of Literature Review 53

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD Research Design 55 Area of the Study 55 Population of the Study 55 Sample and Sampling Technique 56 Instrument for Data Collection 56 Validation of the Instrument 57 Reliability of the Instrument 57 Method of Data Collection 58 Method of Data Analysis 58

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND RESULTS 60

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Discussion of Results 75 Conclusion 82 Educational Implications 82 Recommendations 83 Limitations of the Study 85 Suggestions for Further Research 85 Summary of the Study 85 REFERENCES 89

APPENDICES 102

8 LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page 1 Mean rating and standard deviation of the respondents’ responses on the indicators of professional awareness 60

2 Mean rating and standard deviation on the respondents’ responses on job satisfaction 61

3 Correlation between teachers’ professional awareness and job satisfaction 62

4 Mean rating, standard deviation and t-test analysis of male and female teachers on professional awareness 63

5 Mean ratings, standard deviations and t-test analysis of the responses of teachers who are <10 and >10 years of experience on professional awareness 65

6 Mean rating, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the responses of rural and urban teachers on professional awareness 67

7 Mean ratings, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the male and female teachers responses on job satisfaction 69

8 Mean ratings, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the teachers’ responses on job satisfaction based on their years of working experience 71

9 Mean ratings, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the responses of teachers on job satisfaction based school location 73

9 ABSTRACT

The study investigated the relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Rivers State of Nigeria. Nine research questions and seven null hypotheses were generated to guide the study. The population of the study comprised the 3,460 teachers in the public secondary schools in Rivers State. The sample consisted of 692 teachers who were selected through proportionate stratified random sampling technique based on location and gender distribution of the teachers in the population. The questionnaire was used for collection of data. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, while the t-test and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient statistics were used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings of the study revealed moderate professional awareness among the teachers. The respondents did not show satisfaction with their job. A significant low positive relationship existed between professional awareness and job satisfaction. Gender and years of experience had no significant influence on the teachers’ professional awareness rating scale, while school location showed a significant difference in their ratings. Gender influenced the ratings of the teachers on job satisfaction, while years of experience and school location did not. The implication of the findings is that teaching is yet to enjoy the status and prestige which other professions enjoy seventeen years after the establishment of Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN). This situation could be one reason for the problem of education in Nigeria. Among the recommendations made were: TRCN should control the mode of entry and period of training of teachers to ensure high standard of entry. Recruitment of teachers should be based on certification by the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN). The Rivers State Government should implement the Teachers Salary Structure (TSS) and ensure good working conditions and promotion opportunities for the teachers.

10 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background to the Study The attainment of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the series of changes in the global economy have called for commensurate reform initiatives in the educational sector. This is because education holds the key to sustainable development. Education is a process of development, which includes the three major activities of teaching, training and instruction. Teaching is a social as well as a professional activity. Within the context of formal education, teaching “is to cause the child to learn and acquire the desired knowledge, skills and also desirable ways of living in the society” (Singh, Sharma and Upadhya, 2008: 158). Hence, Ogunlade (2007) sees a person who is given the responsibility of teaching a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills to students or pupils as a teacher. Though the process of socialization in the school system goes beyond teaching in terms of latent function, most of the curricular activities are structured and planned for the students. Teaching therefore becomes an organized process aimed at changing or acquiring some skills, attitude, knowledge, ideals or appreciation of a thing. Achimugu (2001) and Musa (2004) cited in Ogunlade (2007) agree with the opinions of Anadi (1997) and Okeke (2004) that teachers form the nucleus of our educational system. They contend that the teacher holds the key to national development because through teaching, economic, social, political, cultural, religious and scientific transformations are achieved. Therefore, it can be deduced that the pivotal position of the teacher in education system cannot be disregarded since he determines the success of the nation’s educational goals; an opinion which is based on the recognition which the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004:39) has given teachers, that “…no education system may rise above the quality of its teachers.…” The graduated nature of schooling (from pre-nursery - university) makes teachers the most variegated members of an occupation. The FRN (2004:39) explicitly uses the nomenclature “teacher” to designate teachers at all levels of education in Nigeria in the following declaration: “All teachers in our educational institutions, shall be professionally trained.”

11 These levels of education have brought about different calibres of teachers with varying social status in such a way that upward mobility in the occupation becomes obvious; primary school teachers aspire to become secondary school teachers and the later aspire to become tertiary education teachers. Consequently, new accolades have emerged: tutors, lecturers (academics) to give prestige to teachers who find themselves in secondary and tertiary institutions. Whereas there is a gap between the recognition of secondary school teachers and tertiary education teachers, the social status of primary and secondary school teachers is not widened (Okeke, 2004:61). A lot of factors are responsible:  both primary and secondary school teachers have one union – Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT), while the tertiary education teachers, for example, have a different union, Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU).  the level of autonomy exercised by teachers at the primary and secondary levels is different from what is obtained at the university level.  there are different salaries and allowances, which in turn result in different social lifestyles.  university teachers have at present a minimum of Master’s degree while primary and secondary school teachers need at least an NCE. The foregoing explanation suggests that the university teacher has better reputation than teachers in primary and secondary schools who, in the eye of the public, are “teachers” and are treated as such. Therefore teaching as a profession can best be analyzed from the experiences of primary and secondary school teachers. Again, these teachers operate at the basic education level. Globally, basic education is being accorded serious priority in the attainment of Millennium Development Goals, and teachers (academic personnel) at this level should be given their pride of place since no educational system can be successful without teachers. According to Olabisi (2007), the empowerment of teachers in the knowledge, skills, values and methodology of sustainability principles is bound to have a multiplier effect on learners in both the formal and informal education sectors.

12 To a large extent, this is predicated upon professionalism, that expert knowledge to determine the needs of those whom the profession serves (Uche, 1984). He further states that the concern of sociologists is to look at the concept of professionalism as it affects teachers. A profession can be defined as an occupation which requires some specialized training and some sort of certification; and is self regulating, has some standard of behaviour for members (Ogunlade, 2007). Ezewu (1983:126) sees a profession as a body of persons engaged in certain occupation and whose members:  are specially prepared for the occupation by a prolonged training;  practise the occupation freely, guided by a code of conduct;  benefit from well spelt-out conditions of service;  come under one umbrella as a union or an association;  are clearly seen by the public as enjoying some prestige. Every worker would like to be acknowledged as a professional. Such acknowledgement is generally a desirable goal because professionals enjoy some benefits which find expression in power, economic position, and prestige (Ritzer, 1996). Teachers therefore cannot be an exception; they would not only like to be addressed as professionals but would also like to enjoy the gains of professionalization (Ornstein and Levine, 2003). There are arguments on the professional status of teaching. Azikiwe (2007), Okeke (2004), Ornstein and Levine (2003), Anadi (1997), Musgrave (1983) and Morrish (1978) opine that teaching is yet to assume full professional status having weighed teaching against the check-list of criteria of a profession. Azikiwe (2007:34) was more assertive when she said: “teaching in Nigeria cannot be referred to as a profession until it has been subjected to thorough examination in order to establish to what extent it has met the criteria or characteristics of a profession”. These criteria include body of knowledge, autonomy, code of conduct, control of entry, professional organization, and condition of service, professional training and being seen as performing essential services by the public which it serves. A professional’s knowledge and fluidity of mind can help him to tackle new situations with interest and lack of fear. Such consciousness embodies self-assurance, self-confidence and satisfaction in the course of discharging his professional duties.

13 Such frame of mind is characteristic of professional awareness which Musgrave (1983:179) has defined as “awareness of membership of, and of the issues of concern to a profession”. Professional awareness helps in the development and advancement in knowledge, skill, attitude and experience needed for sustainable performance of both the profession and its members. Professionalism involves a successful claim that only members are qualified to provide particular services which is often backed by an enabling law. Hence in Nigeria, for example, a series of laws have given doctors and lawyers the sole right to practise medicine and law respectively. These monopolies have helped professionals to control rival occupational groups, which might threaten their dominance of a section of the market (Ogunlade (2007). Doctors and lawyers have, on several occasions, prosecuted unqualified persons for practicing medicine. Unfortunately, in the case of teaching, no body is prosecuted for practising teaching without the minimum approved qualification. By adopting the strategy of professionalism, certain occupational groups are able to extract high rewards from the market. The consideration of teaching as a profession in Nigeria from the background of the characteristics of a profession is not enough. In the words of Musgrave (1983): The case has sometimes been made that the existence of any profession merely depends upon recognition by the public. If the majority of teachers consider themselves to be members of a profession, and on the whole the public and the authorities treat them as having that status, then the principle of the self- fulfilling prophecy will operate in the case of the teaching profession (p.178).

There are occupations that the general public recognizes and refers to as professions. Lawyers and doctors are in this category. This view by Ritzer (1996) does not only presuppose that there are occupations that are not recognized as such but it also gives social impetus to the occupations so recognized. This public’s view has compelled members of an occupation to seek professional status. The result of the increasing passion for professionalisation is the emergence of newer professions such as engineering, accountancy, nursing, etc. Today, teachers are not left out in the number of those claiming to be members of a profession.

14 Issues relating to the social and professional statuses of the teacher have for a long time attracted series of arguments. Comparing teaching with elitist professions such as medicine and law, Musgrave (1983) opines that the market positions of these occupations are different from teaching. In his words: Teachers are much in the power of the state, which is indirectly their main employer… Furthermore, there is a range of types of teachers with rather different status so that both the teachers themselves and the general public are in some doubt how to define the membership of any grouping. Because of this there is no one set of behavioural expectations into which all teachers are socialized. The range of behaviour accepTable as a teacher is wide and probably wider than the range into which doctors or lawyers are socialized (p.190).

In the same vein, Anadi (1997) posits that the teaching profession is capable of competing on equal terms with other professions if higher standard of entry and qualification and adequate remunerations are made. However, she was not mindful of the job situation of teachers which the public sees as a “compulsory social service to all …which is taken for granted as a normal process in the lives of all children between the ages of five and sixteen” (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). As a result, the public rather treats with respect the services of doctors, engineers, and lawyers because they are seen as essential services, which often are desperately needed. This fact explains why most parents are ready to spend much money on health and law issues and pay lipservice to education of their children. They fail to realize that education is the hallmark of life. This public’s disposition towards teaching finds further explanation in the United Nations “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” which proclaims in article 26 that: “…Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory …” ( Eheazu 1998:6). Without remedial actions from governments and international organizations such as free education policy, Education Trust Fund (ETF) and foreign grants, teaching would be relegated to the background. In fact, the neglect which the education sector suffers is a clear evidence of the multiplier effect of teacher’s low social status accorded him/her by the very public which he/she serves.

15 This low prestige accorded the teaching profession may find explanation in the mode of entry or period of training, which has made the roll call of teachers the most populous and permeable occupation (Okeke, 2004). This mode of entering has made teaching a second class occupation such that there are teachers who enter the occupation because they were unable to find employment in their first choice (Ezewu, 1983). It has also made teaching profession susceptible to the economic principle of supply and demand as noted by Ornstein and Levine (2003:5): “When the supply of people in an occupation exceeds demand, their salaries tend to decline. Conversely, high demand and low supply tend to increase salaries. … supply and demand also affect the social status and prestige accorded to a particular occupation”. The issue of who becomes a teacher in Nigeria, especially at the primary and secondary schools level, is being addressed by the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria. This council was empowered by Decree No 31, 1993 which became operational in June, 2000. It has the mandate to promote excellence in education through effective registration and licensing of teachers; and to promote professionalism through accreditation, monitoring and supervision of teacher training programmes, mandatory continuing professional development and maintenance of discipline among teachers at all levels of the education system. The implication of this mandate is that teaching will enjoy the status and prestige which other professions such as Law, Medicine, Engineering, Pharmacy, etc enjoy. According to TRCN (2005: 3), the mandate “can be appreciated by the fact that the content of the TRCN Act is one and the same with the contents of the Acts that established the Councils that regulate and control the professions of Law, Medicine, Engineering, Pharmacy, etc.” However, it seems worrisome that after years of operation, the gap of remuneration, prestige and conditions of service between teaching and these other professions has not been narrowed hence the vision behind the establishment of TRCN appears to be an unfulfilled prophecy. Thus, the bid to define members of the teaching profession appears to be meeting brick walls, as many teachers are yet to register with the Council even though it is an integral part of the process of becoming a profession. Reasons for this lukewarm attitude are not far-fetched. Teachers feel that the Teachers Registration Council (TRC), like the NUT, is not capable of bringing them to the front burner with regard to other professions.

16 Again, at present, the emphasis on registration of teachers begins and ends with in- service teachers. New teachers are not recruited on the basis of accreditation with the TRC. This is not the practice among other professions. Nurses, for example, have mandatory registration with Nursing/Midwifery Council of Nigeria on graduation (Okeke, 2004; Ogunlade, 2007). Consequently, this mandatory registration has provoked high professional awareness among members of the nursing profession. Professional awareness has been ranked alongside job satisfaction as veriTable determinants of educational success and performance (Filak and Sheldon, 2003). These factors occur when one feels effective in one’s job; hence they are related to efficacy. Consequently, Ololube (2003) concludes that the achievement of the objectives of the school is, to a large extent, dependent on the teacher’s feeling and attitude towards his job. It is possible that the teacher’s satisfaction from his job results in his commitment and dedication to work, which are catalysts for achievement of objectives. This suggests that the secondary school teacher in Nigeria and Rivers State in particular should have a favourable disposition towards his job in order to ensure efficient and effective teaching service which are some of the hallmarks of professional awareness and job satisafaction. Professional awareness, in this context, is defined as the knowledge of one’s profession which finds expression in the professional’s attitude to work, perception of work, work satisfaction and job protection by the professional body and job satisfaction is the ability of teaching job to meet the needs of the teachers and improve their job performance. At present, the level of professional awareness and job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Rivers State appears to be misty. It is possible that the present generation of public secondary school teachers in Rivers State are not aware of their profession and also not satisfied with their jobs because of some socio-economic factors. Economically, cost of living seems high in Rivers State given the fact that it is one of the rich oil states in Nigeria (Peterside, 2010). The teacher is struggling on daily basis to find his feet in an environment dominated by oil company workers, rich politicians and businessmen. This situation is sometimes complicated by delay in payment of salaries and other entitlements, non implementation of Teachers Salary Structure (TSS) and low prestige accorded teaching by the public.

17 Kemjika (1999) opines that good working conditions like adequate lighting, ventilation, physical comfort of the office and residence have much to do with people’s satisfaction from their jobs. This could be the case of current teachers in Rivers State, who are grappling with relatively poor working conditions. Ihua-Maduenyi (2003) agrees with the opinion of Kemjika when he said that the working conditions of teachers are not up to what obtains in other working sectors and ministries. One social factor that might influence the teachers’ professional awareness and job satisfaction is gender. Ozaralli (2003) has noted that improved organizational performance is achievable if gender interest is considered in workplaces. The discrimination, parity and inequality between men and women in our society have provoked interest in the study of influence of gender in the school system (Alvesson and Billing, 1997). In the case of teachers in Rivers State, it is not certain that gender has no significant influence on their knowledge of the profession and job satisfaction. Experience also is another social factor that is capable of affecting a teacher’s perception of, and satisfaction with his job. McMillan (1998) opines that experience is related to teachers’ perception of their job. According to McMillan, more experienced teachers are likely to show more positive attitude towards their job than less experienced teachers. It is possible that the case of teachers in Rivers State may be different. Location is yet another social factor that may influence professional awareness and job satisfaction of teachers in Rivers State since work attitude depends on individuals and their environment (Collard, 2000). This factor cannot be disregarded in any study on teachers in Rivers State since the state already has a location-based divide (rural and urban teachers) in its educational system. The foregoing opinions and trend of events have made it worthwhile to find out the level of professional awareness and job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Rivers State. Certainly, professional awareness and job satisfaction are important phenomena in the life of every teacher because teachers’ efficiency and effectiveness in the school system hinge on them.

18 Statement of the Problem Recent agitations for improved teaching service is an indication of poor professional awareness and job satisfaction among teachers, and this development should attract the sympathy of anyone who really knows that the achievement of school objectives is a sine qua non for national development. The realization of this fact underscores the synergy of professional awareness and job satisfaction especially in occupations that have been fully professionalized. Unfortunately, teaching has not been accorded the type of social status and prestige which other professions enjoy from the public despite the fact that the TRCN which has this mandate has existed for over a decade. Teachers themselves have divided opinion on the professional status of their occupation. They do so because a consideration of teaching alongside other professions reveals an asymmetrical relation in terms of remuneration, freedom of practice, mode of entry, motivation, and a viable monolithic union which are the hallmarks of a profession. Thus, the teachers themselves see teaching as a second-class occupation hence there are teachers who entered the occupation because they were unable to secure employment in their most preferred occupation, and such teachers are not likely to handle the teaching-learning process with the required passion. It, therefore, seems that the TRCN and NUT which are relevant forces behind full professionalization of teaching have not created high professional awareness and job satisfaction among the teachers. This, perhaps, is the missing link in our quest for a viable teaching service in Nigeria. It is therefore necessary to find out the correlation between professional awareness and job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Rivers State and how they have been affected by their gender, experience and school location.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to provide evidence for the relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Rivers State. It would specifically: 1. identify the teachers’ knowledge of indicators of professional awareness. 2. determine the level of job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Rivers State.

19 3. find out the extent of correlation between professional awareness and job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Rivers State. 4. find out how the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness and job satisfaction based on gender. 5. find out how the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness and job satisfaction based on years of experience. 6. find out how the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness and job satisfaction based on school location.

Significance of the Study The study would be of immense benefit to teachers, parents, NUT, TRCN, Rivers State Government and Schools Board and indeed all stakeholders in the education industry. The teachers’ benefit from this study is underscored by the fact that professionalization has been noted as a stimulant of job satisfaction, hence every occupation desires it. The underlying issues which have undermined full professionalization of teaching would be exposed by this study. Again, the importance of job satisfaction has made it the most frequently studied variable in organizational behaviour. Even though job satisfaction varies, researchers have suggested that the higher the prestige of the job, the greater the job satisfaction. The significance of any research, such as this study, which is aimed at professionalization cannot be over-emphasized because this study would enable the teachers find out whether their individual perception of the profession is in congruity with the general perception of the profession. The findings would essentially improve teachers’ job awareness and, job status, as well as move their employers to have a re- think about their work conditions to ensure their satisfaction. The parents would also benefit from the study since their children’s educational success is largely contingent upon the commitment, dedication, efficiency and effectiveness of the teachers, which apparently have a link with professional awareness and job satisfaction. It has been noted that no educational system can rise above the caliber of its teachers hence the feeling of teachers towards the profession can affect the standard of education and the overall performance of students.

20 Thus, with highly motivated teachers, parents can be sure that the educational successes of their children are guaranteed. The NUT and TRCN would also benefit from this study because its findings will help the organizations deal better with teachers and further strengthen them. This study would help the TRCN in particular, which has the mandate of ensuring that teaching is fully professionalized and as competitive as other professions, to establish the factors militating against the actualization of its mandate with a view to evolving suiTable measures that would bring teaching at par with other professions. The order of relative importance of the determinants of jobs satisfaction varies among workers. To some people, economic factors are very important. To others, social factors are more important. The study will therefore clarify the issue of relative importance of job satisfaction factors in the case of current Rivers State secondary school teachers. This would then help the Rivers State Government and schools board in particular in deciding the forms of incentives to be provided for the teachers in order to motivate them. The findings of this study would sensitize indeed all stakeholders and researchers in the education industry to organize conferences for teachers to determine, among other things, the extent to which behavioural tendencies of teachers are dependent on their professional awareness and job satisfaction. Such conferences would serve as a catalyst for the improvement of the teaching profession. The theoretical foundation of this study is built on the need-based approach theories of motivation. The need-based theories explain the factors that are believed to influence a person’s desire to work or behave in a certain way. A powerful way to gain insights about teachers as individuals in the school social system is to examine their needs, beliefs, goals, and motivations. To a large extent, these theories would help in the development of questionnaire for the present study.

Scope of the Study The study is limited to government owned secondary school teachers in Rivers State and the relationship between their professional awareness and job satisfaction.

21 It also examined the influence of gender, experience and location on the professional awareness and job satisfaction of the teachers.

Research Questions The following research questions guided the study: 1. What is the level of teachers’ knowledge of the indicators of professional awareness? 2. What is the level of job satisfaction among the teachers? 3 What is the extent of correlation between professional awareness and job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Rivers State? 4. How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on gender? 5. How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on years of experience? 6. How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on school location? 7. How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on gender? 8. How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on years of experience? 9. How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on school location?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested for significance at 0.05 level. Ho 1: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ level of professional awareness and that of job satisfaction. Ho 2: There is no significant difference between the male and female teachers’ mean ratings on professional awareness. Ho 3: There is no significant difference between teachers of less than 10 years of experience and above 10 years in their mean ratings on professional awareness.

22 Ho 4: There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers on professional awareness. Ho 5: There is no significant difference between the male and female teachers’ mean ratings on job satisfaction. Ho 6: There is no significant difference between teachers of less than 10 years of experience and above 10 years in their mean ratings on job satisfaction. Ho 7: There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers on job satisfaction.

23 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter reviewed works which have relevance to the topic under study. The review was organized under the following sub-headings: Conceptual Framework  Concept of profession  Development of teaching profession in Nigeria  Social status of teaching profession in Nigeria  Concept of professional awareness  Concept of job satisfaction  Relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction  Gender and professional awareness  Number of years of experience and professional awareness  Location of school and professional awareness  Gender and teachers’ job satisfaction  Number of years of experience and teachers’ job satisfaction  Location of school and teachers’ job satisfaction Theoretical Framework  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory  Herzberg’s two-factor theory Empirical Studies  Empirical studies on professional awareness  Empirical studies on job satisfaction Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework Concept of Profession Different writers have developed varying meanings for the term, “profession”. These meanings and concepts of the term have towed the lines of thought adopted and perceived by different schools of thought engaged in the study of professions.

24 Gordon, Sockett and Hoyle (1983:12) see the term as “an especially desirable and defined occupation with an implication of intellectual training and a largely mental expertise”. It is again an occupation, which performs an important social role. The exercise of this role requires considerable degree of training and skill. This knowledge is exercised in situations which are not wholly routine but in which new problems and situations have to be handled (Hoyle, 1980). Anadi (1997) also opines that professions render essential services to the society based on their training. In her words, a profession is any prestige holding occupation that renders an essential social service, embodies a systematic body of knowledge, requires long academic and practical training, enjoys high degree of autonomy and enforced conditions of service, possesses a code of conduct prescribed by members and for themselves, has a representative organization as well as provision for professional development (p3).

For Hornby (2006:1159), a profession is “a type of job that needs special training or skill, especially one that needs a high level of education: the medical, legal, teaching, etc. profession” In the case of Commonwealth V. Brown, 20 N.E 2nd 478, 481 cited in Garner (2004), the term “ Professions” are characterized by the need of unusual learning, the existence of confidential relations, the adherence to a standard of ethics higher than that of the market place, and in a profession like that of medicine by intimate and delicate personal ministration. Traditionally, the learned professions were theology, law and medicine; but some other occupations have climbed, and still others may climb, to the professional plane (p.1246).

The foregoing definitions of profession show that professions could be analyzed on the basis of: nature of services provided, nature of relationship with clients, mode of entry, nature of training, degree of control over members, services rendered, and an established regulatory body. Whether teaching can be considered a profession in the fullest sense has been a great concern to educators for many decades.

25 A number of educators have tried to identify the ideal characteristics of professions and, by rating teachers on these items, determine whether teaching is a profession (Ezewu, (1983), Anadi, (1997), Okeke, (2004), Ornstein and Levine, (2003). Azikiwe, (2007). Here are characteristics of a full profession based on their works:  a sense of public service; a lifetime commitment to career  a defined body of knowledge and skills beyond that grasped by laypersons  a lengthy period of specialized training  control over licensing standards and/or entry requirements  autonomy for making decisions about selected spheres of work  an acceptance of responsibility for judgements made and acts performed related to services rendered; a set of standards of performance  a self-governing organization composed of members of the profession  professional associations and/or elite groups to provide recognition for individual achievements  a code of ethics to help clarify ambiguous matters or doubtful points related to services rendered  high prestige and economic standing.

The general consensus is that teaching is not a full profession in the strict sense of the assessment of a profession because it does not possess some of the above characteristics. Ornstein and Levine (2003), therefore conclude that teaching may be regarded as a “semi-profession” or an “emerging profession” that is in the process of achieving these characteristics. They support this assertion by stating that teaching seems to lag behind professions like law and medicine in four important areas: (a) a defined body of knowledge and skills beyond that grasped by laypersons, (b) control over licensing standards and/or entry requirements, (c) autonomy in making decisions about selected spheres of work, and (d) high prestige and economic standing. Perhaps, it was for this reason that the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria was set up, to fully professionalize teaching in Nigeria.

26 However, a consideration of the varying meanings, concepts and features proffered by different writers leaves no one in doubt that a chase for an ideal-type of profession that meets all the characteristics of a profession may be as illusive as chasing a shadow (Okeke, 2004). Again, all the professions do not have the same category of members in terms of mode of training, period of training, remuneration, type of service and social status. However, an occupation could be identified as a profession inasmuch as it has met the basic attributes of a profession. It could also be seen as such based on the recognition it enjoys from the society it serves. According to Musgrave (1983), the existence of any profession depends largely on the recognition by the public, and such occupation assumes the status of a profession if on the whole the public and the authorities treat it as such. Another approach to the study of professions is the professionalization model. Using the term “professional project”, Macdonald (1997) sees the process of making an occupational group an accepted profession as a complex and continuous struggle. The process according to him requires the development of a strategy of “social closure” which is an attempt to stop others from practicing their profession. This was what the Nigeria Bar Association (NBA) did. The association had stopped Universities from operating part-time programme leading to the award of Bachelor of Laws (LLB) because of the unprecedented increase in the number of lawyers in the last decade. Chauvinism sometimes affects the membership of a profession. This explains why some professions are dominated by one sex. Witz (1992) has given a feminist approach to the study of professions. Using health as an example, she argued that it is noticeable that many of the health care providers who were either squeezed to the margins or placed in subordinate paramedical professions such as nurses and midwives were women. She believes that such arrangement is not coincidence but a result of the process of occupational closure based partly on gender inequalities. She concludes that the consideration of gender dimension would help to understand the process of professionalization.

27 Indeed, occupation is a societal phenomenon. The stance of Witz has given impetus to the development of the concept of “semi-professions”, which does imply that there is a demarcation between what might be called “full profession” and “semi- profession” as such, with the later term referring to an occupation possessing some but not sufficient professional traits to accord it the designation: “full-profession”. However, the above assessment is not enough to deny an occupation the status of “full-profession” especially if one considers the position of nurses in Nigeria today.

Development of Teaching Profession in Nigeria The history of the development of teaching profession in Nigeria is bound up with the history of colonialism in the country. This history is not bereft of phases of evolution of education in the country, which, according to Fafunwa (1995), were master-minded majorly by the missionaries. These phases of evolution, though gradual, moved steadily and systematically towards the realization and recognition of teaching as a profession for the attainment of national goals. The knowledge of these antecedents would help to place the discourse of the development of teaching profession in Nigeria in its proper context. The antecedents are arranged into two periods: missionary and post independence periods.

(a) Missionary Period Before the introduction of western education into Nigeria, there existed some form of education which the societies used for the transmission of their cultures from one generation to another. Europeans did not meet on arrival an “empty society”; they saw an avalanche of crafts – vases of clay, wooden spoons, baskets, iron hoes, fishing nets, leather works, axe, etc which are an expression of an existence of a teaching – learning system. Apart from the family, other persons in the community with different degrees of specialization in areas like trading, medicine, religion, farming, entertainment, divination, etc contributed in the socialization process. Apprenticeship was the hallmark of the system hence there are claims that it was not formal. Consequently, these specialists constituted a “teaching group”.

28 Okeke (2004) has made a classification of the above teaching group:  the mothers who taught the child to speak and to walk, to eat and to dress.  The fathers and the male relatives who taught the boys how to fish, to hunt, to fight, and care for domesticated animals (the master craftsmen and the ancestors of our vocational teachers;  the priests or men who initiated the young men into the societal lore and culture (the precursors of our academic teachers in university and secondary school) P.19.

According to Okeke, the first group of teachers were subordinated to the second group hence they did not enjoy high social status, and there was no possibility of promotion from one group to the other in the system. Making a comparison between the first group of teachers with the lowest esteem (the mothers) and the primary school teachers dominated by women, argued that the preponderance of women at this basic level is accounTable for the relatively low esteem now accorded to teachers at that level. In conclusion, he said It was not thought that all the three performed essentially similar functions. The third group enjoyed a privileged status in the society. From the above demarcations of the “teachers” into three distinct groups from the very beginning, one can appreciate why it is difficult for the public, including teachers, to foresee the primary school teachers, secondary school masters, and academic teachers or lecturers as belonging to the same profession (p. 19).

Before the declaration of the southern and northern protectorates, the activities of the three civilizing agents – Christianity, commerce and colonialism were felt on the educational life of the natives. Among the three, the missionaries, according to Igwe (1987), were most vigorous with education because they used the school as a means of conversion and expansion. They had more success in the south than in the north because Islam was already on ground in the latter. The Islamic education before the dawn of western education did not enjoy high recognition; the teachers were not respected because of the perception held by the very society they served. According to Fafunwa (1995), Islam enjoins its adherents to teach the religion to others without expecting any reward hence the teachers at this basic level depended for their living on charity.

29 “This noble principle, which was successfully applied in the early stage of the development of Islamic education, reduced the status of a teacher (Mu’allim) to that of a beggar: he came to occupy socially a rather low status. He had to wander from place to place looking for chariTable Muslisms to patronise him and give him food and shelter.” (p.49). However, the higher grade of teachers, the “Ulama”, who had specialized in esoteric knowledge were respected and enjoyed higher social status than the “Mu’allim”. With the coming of the missionaries, there was a clear departure from the traditional setting for teaching – learning process. However, this departure did not immediately write off the low social status of teachers; it was evolutionary and gradual. This owns explanation to the fact that the first step for the missionary was to win acceptance within the target communities, seek their consent before preaching. To achieve this, they used education as a tool for the spread of the gospel. Abernethy (1969) succinctly captures the scenario when he said: The first classes were often held in the missionary’s home: some of the students’ parents were paid a small amount by the missionary for allowing their children to board with him and attend his school. Pupils were provided free clothes, copy books, and slates, and liberal prizes for good performance, were offered to motivate them to study diligently (p. 34).

The foregoing discourse so far has reviewed that teaching at the basic level from the very beginning did not command much respect from societies. This situation, to a large extent, is a reflection of the rather low prestige which teachers at basic level of our educational system are accorded by the people they serve. It seems that if parents were not persuaded, their children would not attend school. Yet, according to Fafunwa (1995), some parents who were not convinced to send their children tried to appeal to the whims of the missionaries by sending their slaves, or in their absence, their lazy offsprings. After this initial phase of deriding attitude toward the new culture, education and its messengers: the early mission teachers, a new chapter was opened in the development of teaching profession. This new phase came with the eventual establishment of schools by different missions.

30 This achievement was not at the beck and call of the missionaries; they had to convince the natives about the benefits of education vis-à-vis the new religion – Christianity. Obi (1985) corroborating this fact, states It is true that the natives of Eastern Nigeria welcomed the friendship, cordiality, gifts, medical care, workshops where young people were taught some trades, nursery and primary schools offered by the missionaries. Through the means the missionaries reached the hearts of the people. However the greatest problem facing the Catholic missionaries … was how to convince the natives that they needed another religion – new religion different from that of their ancestors! (p. 40)

Having convinced them and obtained permission to preach and establish schools. It became apparently clear that a few persons sent to Nigeria from Europe or the United States could not do the job alone; the natives were needed since the future of the church depended on the development of a class of indigenous teacher – catechists. With so much depending on the production of teacher – catechists, the missions had to tackle the problem of teacher training. At a start, the missions established a “monitorial system of pupil-teachers” in a school and employed the school’s graduates. These primary school graduates had no pedagogical experiences (Abernethy 1969). As the number of educated Nigerians increased, teacher training classes were set up. Hope Waddell Training Institute, Calabar and St. Andrew’s College, Oyo were the first set of teacher training schools. The increasing need for teachers to effect mass conversion, together with the economic rewards which teaching offered, rapidly increased the number of Nigerians engaged in the vocation. By 1921, there were 3, 860 teachers in Southern Nigeria alone (Abernethy 1969:44). This eventually marked the development of teaching profession in Nigeria. As noted earlier, the coming of the whites into the Country changed the focus of socialization, from the “Old kind of community education to western education” (Okeke 2004:18) and attempts were made in a hurry to mass produce teachers that would man the ever-increasing mission schools. Consequently, educational plans and policies were evolved to satisfy the whims and caprices of the forebearers; they focused much on the four Rs (Reading, Writing, Arithmetic and Religion).

31 There was an attempt to produce an avalanche of teachers in a very short time, which in the western world took generations to achieve. As a result, the early teachers did not undergo full teacher training. In fact, most of them were called “pupil-teachers”. It is on this premise that one can appreciate the problems and processes of the development of teaching profession in Nigeria and its attendant social implications. During this period under review, there was no clearly government educational policy, hence education was at the mercy of the missionaries who used it as a tool for evangelization. The absence of “an official educational policy” resulted in the lack of overall supervision of schools and suiTable teachers in schools. By the turn of 1900, the government requested that the pupil who had passed through the older established primary schools” should not only be employed but should also receive further training. This, however, did not stop the production of unqualified teachers because the number of schools increased rapidly. The Educational Ordinance of 1909 came to address the need for improved status and training of teachers. It was strengthened by the 1916 Education Code. The main thrust of this code was to improve the economic status of the teacher (Solaru 1964). It was the Katsina Training College, which was established in 1920 for a five-year training course for teachers, that developed the teacher professionally. The Phelps Stokes commission’s report was yet another catalyst in the development of the teaching profession. It presented a case for supervision of instruction; professional training of teachers, and recognition of teaching as a profession by the government (Fafunwa, 1995). It specifically demanded that “the profession of teaching should receive some government recognition in addition to a living wage so that the profession might attract capable youths and also exert a great influence on country life” (Okeke 2004:27). The 1926 Educational Code seems to be more assertive in the direction of development of teaching as a profession. The Code, among other things, “required that teachers must be registered as a condition for teaching in any school in Southern Nigeria (Colony and Southern Provinces)” (Fafunwa, 1995:132). By 1929 when Mr. E.R.J. Hussey became the Director of Education, the development of teaching profession took a new dimension; he made an over haul of the entire educational system he met on ground and made proposals for its expansion.

32 These proposals resulted in, among other things, the establishment of Teachers’ Training Colleges, the improvement of the status of teachers and the formation of the Nigerian Union of Teachers (Anadi 1997).

(b) Post- Independence Era With the establishment of more schools, more teachers were produced. However, the recommendation of the Ashyby Commission that “B.A. (Educational) degree courses should be offered in all universities and that the Federal Government should undertake the sponsorship of teacher training programmes, initiated the rise in the production of quality teachers for different levels of education. According to Okeke (2004:35), the commission premised its recommendations on the fact that “there was a state of emergency in teachers’ training in Nigeria and that the primary and secondary schools were insecure because the greater majority of teachers had neither enough education to qualify them to teach nor adequate professional training”. Before this time, the teaching profession in Nigeria was dominated by the holders of TC II. By the turn of the 70s, the country had witnessed rapid growth in educational pursuits with the establishment of more universities, colleges of education and polytechnics. This period also saw the establishment of the National Teachers’ Institute (NTI) which was in response to the long felt need by the Federal Government to up-grade teachers professionally. The higher institutions helped to take teachers to their next levels – to acquire Associateship Certificate in Education (ACE) or Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) or university degree in Education. The drive to give teacher education a priority in the scheme of things made the Federal Government to state in The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004:39) that “… teacher education shall continue to be given major emphasis in all our educational planning and development” because, “no education system may rise above the quality of its teachers.” The policy went further to legally and publicly recognize teaching as a profession and the setting up of Teachers’ Registration Council which will ensure accreditation, certification, registration, discipline and regulations governing the profession. The council came on board in 1993 with the enactment of Decree No. 31 which empowered it. The TRC has begun the registration of teachers for the actualization of Teachers Salary Structure (TSS).

33 The NUT in June 2008 issued a warning strike of three days to the Federal Government of Nigeria over the implementation of TSS. The implementation of different salary structure will go a long way in giving teaching profession a pride of place On the issue of professionalization of teaching, the NUT maintains that teaching is a profession hence it has continuously fought for the dignity of Nigerian teachers through dialogues and strikes. One noTable achievement of the NUT is the implementation of the Teachers’ Salary Structure (TSS) in some states in Nigeria (Nwideeduh and Obasi, 2004). On the contrary, Ozurumba (1996) argues that it is a common knowledge that the NUT has no effective voice in the admission of people into the profession, and does not have the machinery to impose discipline on its members. He traces this discordant position of the NUT to the fact that teachers tend to organize themselves into other sub-groups such as the All Nigeria Conference of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS), Conference of Primary School Heads of Nigeria (COPSHON), Conference of Secondary School Teachers of Nigeria (COSST), etc. History of unionism in Nigeria has it that the NUT was one of the three pioneer unions. It was inaugurated on 8th July, 1931. According to Uvieghara (1984:17), at the first meeting the aims of the NUT were agreed to be:  to study, promote and improve conditions affecting the teaching profession in Nigeria;  to create a better understanding among the teachers in Nigeria;  to submit to the government the opinions of teachers on matters directly or indirectly affecting the teaching profession in Nigeria;  to establish a central working body for, and to unite, all the unions of teachers in Nigeria; and  to co-operate with the Education Department and various missionary bodies on matters educational. From the above aims of the NUT, it is clear that the organization has the responsibility of creating professional awareness among teachers. The extent to which this responsibility has been carried is reflected on the professional status of teaching in Nigeria. Perhaps, the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria would galvanize forces to ensure full professionalization of teaching in Nigeria.

34 The Teachers Registration Council was established by the Act. No 31 of 1993. The Federal Government in appreciation of the critical role of the teacher and his seemingly dwindling status made the establishment of the TRC as one of the strategies to reposition teachers in the scheme of things. The primary responsibility of the TRC is to professionalize and sanitize teaching in Nigeria. In order to carry out this responsibility, the TRC produced a Code of Conduct to define the standards expected of professional teachers in terms of thoughts, words and actions. The objectives of the Teachers Code of Conduct (TCC), according to TRC, (2004: 1-2), among others, are:  Re-awaken the sense of self-esteem, dignity, honour, selfless service and moral rectitude in the teacher.  Protect the teachers’ age-long position of nobility and leadership in the social, moral, and intellectual world.  Build a strong moral foundation for the actualization of an educational system that can compete favourably in the global community.  Boost public confidence in the ability of the teaching profession to regulate itself and to bequeath to the nation products that are capable of making maximum contribution towards the development of the nation in particular and the world in general.  Provide objective yardstick for the assessment of the teachers’ conduct and discharge of professional duties.  Help to guarantee the safety of the professional and spell out the type of relationship that should exist between the teachers on one hand and severally their colleagues, students and other persons who would interact with them from time to time.

Social Status of Teaching Profession in Nigeria The status of teachers in Nigeria has suffered different shades of discrimination and low opinion. This public attitude has been made complex by the variegated nature of teaching. Again, the drive by various governments towards mass education has not helped matters.

35 Schooling has become an all-comers affair hence the turning out of poorly motivated, “uneducated” graduates whose behaviours have become a challenge to the teaching profession (Igwe, 1987). It is believed that teachers determine the success of an educational system hence the products of the system can undermine the integrity of teachers (Ezeocha, 1985). Therefore the teacher is entrusted with the responsibility of fashioning the future and destiny of a society, and the social status which he enjoys corresponds with the dignity and sacredness of the responsibility. According to Okeke (2004:10), “teaching as an occupation had been denied the much deserved honour and commensurable status by the public”. Teaching as an occupation has witnessed a long reign of social discrimination. The public had adopted ungrateful attitude and posture to teaching. The status accorded to teaching varied with the levels of operation. There is traditional distinction between teachers operating at the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels of the educational system. Teaching which is regarded as the oldest profession cannot compare favourably with other professions such as medicine, law, architecture, accountancy, etc not because it is inferior in nature or academically low in quality but essentially because it is basically a public service. This was equally the concern of Enaohwo and Eferakeya (1989) when they advised that class teachers should be guided by appropriate code of conduct when dealing with students. They say “since teachers are engaged in the school as agents of the State Ministry of Education or government in a master – servant relationship, their acts are guided by the “principle of vicarious liability”. Consequently, teachers are reluctant to deal with students in many cases for fear that they may not be protected by their employer, the government. Apart from the “principle of vicarious liability”, economic and social pressures also affect teachers in terms of the quality of their teaching and in terms of the leadership role they are expected to play in the school and the larger society, hence there is low morale in most schools which have affected the teacher’s status (Ezeocha, 1985). While other professions regulate their fees and review same when they so desire, issue license to their members to practice after registration, determine their code of ethics and discipline members, the teaching profession does not.

36 The teaching profession is one that tolerates non-professionals to practice. Many see teaching as a stepping stone to more lucrative jobs ( Anadi, 1997; Okeke, 2004; Azikiwe, 2007). The above scenario inadvertently created a range of types of teachers with rather different status so that both the teachers themselves and the general public are in some doubt how to define the membership of any grouping. Because of this there is no one set of behavioural expectations into which all teachers are socialized. The range of behaviour accepTable as a teacher is wide and probably wilder than the range into which doctors or lawyers are socialized. Within this range available to teachers those with different motives for teaching are able to create very different biographies and still be known as teachers. According to Musgrave (1983:191), “few will wish to behave in a manner beyond this range. It is these teachers who may ultimately be seen by other teachers and the public at large, on the one hand, as creative and innovative or, on the other hand, as deviants who must be sanctioned and forced to behave in an accepTable way”. Not all those employed in the field of education have the same social status. Those administering education are in a very different social position from teachers, since they are far removed from the teachers’ clients, the children, and, furthermore, they are in a very different market situation from the teachers whom they often tell what to do. There are also teachers in other educational situations, for example, in universities or colleges. Their position is harder to assess until we have examined what determines the status of individual teachers within the occupation as a whole. Musgrave (1983) has considered four main determinants of the status of individual teachers. They are: sex, the status and age of the pupils taught, subject taught and the social origin of the teacher. The struggle for emancipation for women and the subsequent fight for equal pay for women in many occupations affected the position of women teachers. Today, there is the same salary scale for both sexes in teaching. But, since there were men in more highly paid post of headteacher or principal, the average earnings of women teachers are lower than in the case of men, opines Musgrave (1983). Women teachers may be on the same salary as men, but they do not seem, despite recent feminist claims and equally opportunity campaigns, to have the same status in the schools.

37 This position is further complicated by the fact that few women today expect to follow a career unbroken by motherhood. They therefore in effect seem to lose their position on the scale of seniority and normally expect to forfeit their chances of occupying certain positions of responsibility. Headteachers appear to prefer male teachers to handle labour, disciplinary, social and sports matters in schools, an indication that male teachers enjoy more status than female teachers. There is an immense range of status of school from university demonstration schools such as University of Port Harcourt to community schools in rural area. The status of the pupils attending these schools covers an equally wide range and to a great extent the status of the pupils affects the status of those who teach them. According to Musgrave (1983), there was a difference enshrined in two terms in common usage – “the teacher” and “the schoolmaster”. The letter was applied to those who taught in grammar or private schools, while the former was given to the lower-status elementary school. The schoolmaster was usually a graduate of a university, while the teacher had been to a training college. A degree has always had a higher status than the teacher’s certificate. Even though, the term “elementary” has been erased, it is still the term when considering teachers with low socio-economic status. With the introduction of primary and secondary teachers in Nigeria, it is doubtful whether the general public can or does distinguish amongst teachers in general. The only differentiation, according to Olabisi (2007), seems to be that they sometimes use the term “tutor” in the case of those who teach in secondary schools. Again, this little differentiation appears further complicated by the introduction of Universal Basic education, which allows uninterrupted nine years of education from Basic One (Primary 1) to Basic Nine (JS3). Both Primary and Junior Secondary Schools are run by the various Local Government Education Authorities through State Universal Primary Education Boards. In May, 2008, some primary school graduate teachers in Rivers State were transferred to Junior Secondary Schools by various Local Government Education Authorities. This development is changing the picture of differences in status between public primary and secondary school teachers since both have the same salary scale.

38 Despite the common salary scale, differences seem to occur not only between those teaching pupils of different status as mentioned earlier, but also between those teaching children of different ages (Olabisi, 2007). Those who teach the younger children in the primary schools earn less on average than those in secondary schools because a greater number of teachers who fall below grade level eight are found in primary schools. This seems to be a measure of a difference in status, which is partly connected with the fact that there are far more women in primary schools than in secondary schools. Such internal differences in status are important, since they may act to prevent structural change in the educational system. Some teachers realize that they cannot claim individual status from the profession as a whole; they therefore cling to the status of the institutions to which they belong (Haralambos, Holborn and Heald, 2004).

Today, senior secondary school teachers may, at least unconsciously, oppose any change to a comprehensive system of education that would lump secondary and basic education together. This was the case in 2006 when some secondary school teachers in Rivers State were transferred to junior secondary section as required by the implementation strategy of Universal Basic Education Programme. The teachers protested the transfer because they felt that their status was being lowered even though there was common salary scale. In the nineteenth century, the place given to science in the public schools was very low and those who taught science were often considered to be of a lower status than those who taught the classics. Today the situation has changed radically. For example, in Rivers State of Nigeria, the Post Primary Schools Board pays N1, 000.00 allowance to science or language teachers. To some extent qualification has come to be tied up with the status of subjects. In primary schools, teachers tend to be general practitioners, most of whom have the same qualification, the teacher’s certificate even though some have got NCE or B.Ed through sandwich programmes, and therefore status cannot be accorded by the subject taught. But in secondary schools specialists are the rule. Musgrave (1983) was of the opinion that the status of teaching and the social background of teachers appear to have risen. This may be true of the profession as a whole, but circumstances may be different for given individuals. The proportions of

39 teachers from various social classes do vary by type of school. According to Musgrave, the proportions of teachers from working class homes were higher where the status of the school was lower and, conversely, the proportions of teachers with parents of higher social status rose as one went from the lower to the higher status schools. In a society that has a relatively high rate of social mobility the social status of any occupational group tends to be given to all its members despite their social origins. This is more likely where geographical mobility is high, since in most cases no one will be given according to socio-economic position that is achieved. Many teachers move to obtain new posts and this may be an additional force in obscuring the influence of social origins on the status of the individual teacher.

In another study of the social status of the teaching profession, Ezewu (1983) opines that the perception of the teacher by the public is relative, because teachers are held in very high esteem in some areas and not in others. In the rural areas, the teacher is held in very high esteem while in the urban areas, the teacher’s status is not very high because of the presence of other professionals. Ezewu has given reasons for the supposed poor social status of the teacher in Nigeria. One of them is the number of teachers. Teachers, unlike other professionals, are present in all the rural areas of the country. They are very common employees of the government. The government is unable to satisfy the needs of the teeming population of teachers because of limited resources. Another reason is that Nigerian society tends to accord a profession or any official job a high status if such a position provides opportunities for people to derive some benefits. Other professions, say the medical profession, enjoy patronage and esteem because people value their health and doctors come to their aid in moments of illness. A banker or an engineer could be approached for one valued assistance or the other by the public. When admissions into secondary schools were difficult, teachers enjoyed some air of importance, but today, the trend has changed because admissions are free and easy. Therefore, teachers do not seem to enjoy high esteem among the Nigerian public. Another fact is that most of the education policy makers are not teachers by profession, for example, Education Boards are constituted by non-professionals hence the affairs of teachers are not taken seriously.

40 Concept of Professional Awareness The concept of professional awareness is as broad as the concept of profession, and has many different meanings and connotations within many different contexts. Generally, professional awareness is related to professionalism which is the hallmark of a professional. According to Registered Nurses’ Association of Ontario (2007), there is a close a relationship between professionalism and knowledge, and that knowledge provides the basis for professional practice, a central aspect of professionalism. The association goes further to state that professional awareness enables professions such as nursing, to define the nature of problems and solutions, make independent decisions and use discretion within the profession. From the perspective of RNAO (2007:28), professional awareness is the “understanding of or information about a profession which has been obtained by experience or study”. Swick (2000:64) sees professional awareness as the “knowledge of the nature of nature of medical profession, what physicians actually do and how they act, individually and collectively. This professional consciousness would help to maintain the difference between medicine as a profession and medicine as a commodity. From the legal perspective, The Florida Bar Association (2005) in Raymond (2006) sees professional awareness for lawyers as follows:  a commitment to serve others;  being dedicated to the proper use of one’s knowledge to promote a fair and just result;  endeavouring always to enhance one’s knowledge and skills;  ensuring that concern for the desired result does not subvert fairness, honesty, respect, and courtesy for others with whom one comes into contact, be they fellow professionals, clients, public officials, including members of the judiciary, or the public;  contributing one’s skill, knowledge, and influence as a lawyer to further the profession’s commitment to serving others and to promoting the public good, including efforts to provide all persons, regardless of their means or the popularity of their causes, with access to the law and the judicial system;  educating the public about capabilities and limits of the profession, specifically when it can achieve and appropriate methods of obtaining those results; and

41  accepting responsibility for one’s own professional conduct as well as others in the profession, including articulating a desire to uphold professional standards and fostering peer regulation to ensure each member is competent and public-spirited (p.16).

In his own view, Socket (1990) emphasizes that the dependence of professional practice is built upon an intellectually respecTable knowledge base. This position explains why IEEE organizes a professional awareness conference for student engineers. The conference explores the subjects that affect engineers’ careers, regardless of how well engineers prepare themselves technically (IEEE, 2011). Professional awareness in this context is the knowledge which engineers acquire to make them proficient, professionally astute, and clearly aware of their responsibility to society. In the vein, Raymond (2006) states that professional awareness is key to any profession. Thus, professional practice rests upon a body of knowledge which is applied to practical problems. Many education theorists and sociologists investigate into the medical and legal professions to see how these professions describe the concept of professionalism. According to Strike (1993), there are clear guidelines for professionalism and achievement of professional awareness in the professions of law and medicine, and these guidelines have certain explicit characteristics, one of which is the prominence on ethical principles. Thus, professional awareness, as an essential part of any profession, is achieved through the enforcement of ethical standards. These ethical standards are what Teachers’ Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN) is attempting to achieve. National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) is also aiming to achieve professionalism by attempting to frame and define its systematic accreditation of teacher education (Raymond, 2006). Professional awareness focuses on theoretical matters that all teachers face daily and for which they can always use additional support: school morale; relationships with parents, administrators, and colleagues; and the promotion of specific teaching strategies and management skills pertaining to students’ interactions in the classroom. Descriptions of teachers as professionals and many arguments for the importance of professionalism in teaching prompted Tichenor and Tichenor (2005) to conduct an empirical study of teachers’ perceptions of professionalism.

42 They report that the teachers’ comments fit into well established categories of teacher professional awareness and qualities of effective teaching. Discussions of professional awareness in teaching have an impact on teachers’ status because how teachers view themselves in relation to professionalism can affect how they work. Morrow (1988:90) sees professionalism as “the degree to which one is committed to the profession” and believes that “ individuals vary in their support of the profession’s values”. Consequently, researchers of educational change and teacher education have argued that it is essential that teachers reflect on their own theory about teaching, which relates to their values, knowledge, competence and behaviour. Teacher education should combine high academic standards with sound professional knowledge. Future teachers should be given awareness about the content and complexity of the teaching profession and the conditions under which it is performed. Their professional development is also affected by their life, environment, gender, personality, age, family situation, working environment, and the policy and aims of government. Moreover, differences among teachers and their different professional competences depend on the ideologies they hold.

Concept of Job Satisfaction Certainly, people engage in different jobs from which they may derive satisfaction. This means that secondary school teachers in Rivers State could be satisfied or dissatisfied with their Jobs. However, what is job satisfaction? Different writers have given different definitions of job satisfaction based on their perspectives. Despite their differences, there seems to be an area of agreement in their definitions. This area of agreement has to do with the positive feelings people get from their jobs. It is generally recognized in the organizational behaviour field that job satisfaction is the most important and frequently studied attitude (Mitchell and Lason, 1987).

Evans (1997) has viewed job satisfaction as “a state of mind determined by the extent to which the individual perceived his/her job-related needs to being met”. Job satisfaction can be viewed from the lenses of two factors: intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

43 The intrinsic factors are associated with satisfiers, such as achievement, autonomy at work, professional prestige and development; while the extrinsic factors are related to work condition, pay or benefits (Bogler, 2001). To Luthans (1998), there are three important dimensions when one is considering job satisfaction:  Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation. As such it cannot be seen; it can only be inferred.  Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcome meets or exceeds expectations. For instance, if organization employees feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but are receiving fewer rewards they will probably have a negative attitude towards the work, the boss and or co- workers. On the other hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive attitude towards the job.  Job satisfaction represents several related attitudes which are the most important characteristic of a job about which people have effective response. These to Luthans are: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and co- workers. Job satisfaction of workers naturally depends on the economic, social and cultural conditions in a given country (Ebru, 1995). A teacher who cannot get a sufficient wage will be faced with the problem of maintaining his or her family’s life. This problem puts the teacher far from being satisfied. Low wages and lack of status and social security affect motivation. Job satisfaction cannot be considered where there is absence of motivation. Ejiogu (1985) has defined job satisfaction as the sum total of a person’s feeling regarding the extent to which his needs have been met on his job. In the same vein, Amold and Feldman (1986) hold that job satisfaction is the amount of overall positive feelings that individuals have towards their jobs. Hoy and Miskel (1991), focusing on educators, see job satisfaction as a present and past oriented affective state of like or dislike that results when the educator evaluates his or her work role. According to George and Jones (1996), job satisfaction is the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current jobs.

44 Job satisfaction is so important in that its absence often leads to lethargy and reduced organizational commitment. Lack of job satisfaction is a predictor of quitting a job (Jamal, 1997). Sometimes, workers may quit from public to the private sector and vice versa. At the other times, the movement is from one profession to another that is considered a greener pasture. The later is common in countries grapping with dwindling economy which is expressed in poor conditions of service and late payment of salaries (Nwagwu 1997). The nature of job satisfaction is such that it is controlled by factors described in Adeyemo’s (2000) perspectives as external to the worker. Based on this premise, satisfaction on a job might be motivated by the nature of the job, its pervasive social climate and extent to which workers peculiar needs are met. Other inclusions are the availability of power and status, pay satisfaction, promotion opportunities, and task clarity (Bolarin 1993). On the other hand, MacDonald (1996) agrees in favour of the control of job satisfaction by factors intrinsic to the workers. His argument is based on the fact that workers deliberately decide to find satisfaction in their jobs and perceive them as worthwhile. Job satisfaction of the teacher who has an important role in the development of a country will affect the quality of the service he renders. In this respect, the question of how the material and moral elements affect the job satisfaction of teachers become important (Olabisi, 2007). Consequently, for one to understand or describe a person’s job satisfaction, one should understand the person’s entire personality and value system in relation to the person’s job. It means that for one to say that workers including secondary school teachers in Rivers State are satisfied with their jobs, the workers like and value their jobs and have positive feelings towards their jobs. This study, therefore, views job satisfaction as the feeling of contentment which an employee derives from his job. In other words, teachers’ job satisfaction is the ability of teaching job to meet the needs of teachers.

Relationship between Professional Awareness and Job Satisfaction Specific workers’ attitudes relating to job satisfaction and organizational commitment are of major interest to the field of organizational behaviour and practice of human resources management. Attitude has direct impact on job satisfaction.

45 Professional awareness on the other hand, focuses on their attitude towards the entire organization or profession. Studies of professional awareness and job satisfaction of workers seem to consistently show that there is a relationship between professional status and job satisfaction (Filak and Sheldon, 2003; Peretomode, 1991 and Whawo, 1993). High levels of job satisfaction are observed in those professions that are of good standing in society. Age is one factor that affects both professional awareness and job satisfaction. According to Davies (1988) and Kose (1985), old workers are more satisfied with their profession. Again, in the studies of Sadker and Sadker (2005) and Hamshari (1989), age and professional experience are powerful factors towards job satisfaction and professional awareness. However, Hamshari (1986) and Well-Maker (1985) agree that a worker’s educational level is yet another strong factor that should be considered when weighing job satisfaction and professional awareness. This education includes pre-service and in- service trainings of the worker. For Vaugan and Dunn in Adeyemo (1997), level of wages is top priority factor since most people engage in a profession because of its financial reward. Workers use their wages to meet their basic needs of life hence a rewarding and satisfying job capable of provoking professional awareness is that one which meets the life needs of the professionals. No wonder St. Lifer (1994) reported that salaries and benefits are related to job satisfaction and professional awareness. To the researcher, the strike by the NUT which commenced on 1st July, 2008 for the implementation of the Teachers’ Salary Structure was a welcome development; it would help to create professional awareness, job satisfaction and professionalism among teachers. It would also jolt up teachers to register with the TRC since the TSS is meant for certificated teachers duly recognized by the TRC.

Effects of Demographic Variables on Professional Awareness and Job Satisfaction Some demographic variables (personal characteristics) often have influence on professional awareness and job satisfaction of employees including those in the educational setting. Several studies have provided evidence for such relationships.

46 Teachers’ demographic characteristics to be reviewed in relation with professional awareness and job satisfaction are gender, number of years of professional experience and location of school.

(a) Gender and Professional Awareness More and more interest had been stimulated in the areas of gender and professional awareness since it has been empirically proven that professional awareness improved organizational performance and outcomes, the school inclusive (Ozaralli, 2003). This interest was triggered off by gender reform feminist theories that underscored the discrimination, parity and inequality between men and women in the society (Alvesson and Billing, 1997). Some previous scholarly analysis of the relationship between professional awareness and gender in the school system revealed men as more conscious than the women (Limerick and Anderson, 1999; Tacey, 1997). However, some studies had displayed high level skepticism regarding male teachers’ professional awareness (Grogan, 2000; Coleman, 1998). Collard (2001) confirms in his analysis that gender differences in professional awareness was not consistent across school levels. At primary level, female teachers were found to be more sensitive to professional issues and students’ needs, either as individuals or as in groups (Collard, 2001). Describing gender sensitivity from this point of view, one would assume that female teachers were more attuned to professional issues than male counterparts. On the contrary, male teachers in secondary schools were found to be more conscious of professional issues than female teachers (Collard, 2001). Hence it would mean that professional awareness was more pronounced at the school level where men were grater in number. In addition to this, Collard (2001) views relationship between gender and professional awareness as being dependent on multiple factors, such as school location, type of school and the socioeconomic nature of the place of school location. This would mean no conclusive evidence of one directional statement on the relationship between gender and professional awareness. This is consistent with the views of Kark (2004) that the answer to the question varied.

47 (b) Number of Years of Experience and Professional Awareness In his analysis of the relationship between length of professional experience and professional awareness, McMillan (1998) propounds that length of years of professional experience positively related to teachers’ perceptions of the job. This gained the support of the work of Thomas and Cheese (2005), which notes that experience had positive relationship with professional knowledge and effectiveness. However, this revelation was not in agreement with Fiedler’s (2001) work which pointed out that there was no significant relationship between professional experience and teachers’ professional efficiency and awareness. This position is similar to the work of Vanderhaar, Munoz and Rodosky (2006), whose empirical evidence revealed that principals who had between eighteen and thirty-two years of professional experience performed worse than principals who had between nine and eighteen years of professional experience. This study was meant to unveil the relationship between principals’ professional experience and principals’ perception of their ability to exhibit transformational leadership behaviours.

(c) Location of School and Professional Awareness School location is another demographic variable that its effect on professional awareness of employees cannot be disregarded since work satisfaction depends on the individuals and their environments. Collard (2000) states that school location is one of the multiple factors that affect one’s professional awareness. By location, he meant the socioeconomic nature of where is a school located which could be urban or rural. He discovered that teachers in the urban areas where more conscious of the profession than the ones in the rural areas. Carless (1998) reveals that there was no significant difference between school location and teachers’ professional awareness. It would also be of interest to find out what the results of this study would show regarding the relationship between location and professional awareness of teachers.

48 (d) Gender and Teachers’ Job Satisfaction Sex is one of the demographic variables that its effect on job satisfaction of workers has been studied by many researchers. The effect of sex on the job satisfaction of workers (including teachers) has been a controversial issue for years. Some job satisfaction studies involving the demographic variable of sex showed significant difference between males and females while some other studies did not show any significant difference. This could be why Newby (1999) reported that there is little practical significance between males and females in job satisfaction. However, differences or otherwise strongly hinge on the circumstances of the workers. Some studies are given attention hereunder. There are studies showing that males are significantly more satisfied than females in their jobs. One of such studies is that of Forgionne and Peters (1982) who studied job satisfaction of male and female managers. Their study revealed that male managers were more satisfied with their jobs than female managers at the same managerial level. Amachree (1996) studied job satisfaction among secondary school principals in Degema Local Government Area of Rivers State. One of his findings revealed that the sex of the principals was closely associated with their levels of job satisfaction, with the balance apparently tilting towards the male principals. Furthermore, Patitu (1991) cited in Newby (1999) found that male educational administrators showed higher job satisfaction than the females. This was on the basis of higher mean score of the males in relation to opportunities for promotion. On the other hand, there are studies which show that females are significantly more satisfied than males in their jobs. One of such studies was carried out by Frieson, Holdaway and Rice (1983) which concluded that female principals had higher job satisfaction and professional awareness than their male counterparts. Similarly, Fansher and Buxton (1984), Vaughn-Wiles (1987) and Newby (1999) studied job satisfaction of principals. The findings of these studies projected female principals as being more satisfied with their jobs than the male principals. Sloane and Williams (2000) assert that despite differences in pay that favoured men more than women, women seemed to be more satisfied at their work place than men. Clark (1997) posits that it was because women had low expectations that could easily be fulfilled.

49 This assertion gained the support of Witt and Nye (1992), when they said that female employees had lower expectations than their male counterparts and so could easily be satisfied with their job. Consequently, they derived more satisfaction at work place than men. The studies considered so far indicated that either males or females were more satisfied with their jobs. There are studies that did not show significant difference in job satisfaction of male and female employees, implying that both sex groups were equally satisfied with their jobs. For instance, Asika (1985) studied job satisfaction among Nigerian bank employees. Results of the study indicated that there was no significant effect of sex on job satisfaction of the bankers. Furthermore, Nestor and Leary (2000) found from their study that sex had no effect on job satisfaction of their male and female respondents. From the foregoing, some studies revealed that males were more satisfied with their jobs than females. Contrarily, other studies showed that female respondents were more satisfied than the males. Yet, there are studies that indicated that males and females were equally satisfied with their jobs. The true position in relation to Rivers State male and female secondary school teachers in terms of who are more satisfied would be revealed by this current study.

(e) Number of Years of Professional Experience and Teachers’ Job Satisfaction. Working experience is the third demographic variable that its effect on job satisfaction of employees is given attention in this study. As the literature reveals, there is controversy regarding the effect of working experience on job satisfaction of employees. As in the cases of gender and number of years spent in the same school variables, some studies revealed more job satisfaction for experienced workers, while some others indicated more satisfaction for inexperienced workers. Yet, there are studies producing neutral results or findings. One of the studies indicating more satisfaction for experienced workers was conducted by Deleon and Taher (1996). In their analysis, they confirmed that workers with higher level of professional experience were significantly more satisfied with their job than those in the low level range of professional experience.

50 In their analysis of training and motivational factors in relation to job satisfaction, Cross and Wyman (2006) alerted that positive perceptions of one’s training and professional experience would significantly predict job satisfaction. Musick and Stott (2000) hinted that continuous growth in professional experience was positively related to job satisfaction. In the same vein, Cytrynbaum and Crites (1988) report that their experienced respondents were more satisfied than their inexperienced mates. Explaining their finding, they opine that the experienced respondents had achieved confidence and success as they progressed in their careers. The findings of Newby (1999) in a study of middle school principals were in congruity with those of Cytrynbaum and Crites above. This finding was supported by that of Nestor and Leary (2000) in a similar study of extension faculty workers. Some studies did not show significant difference in job satisfaction of experienced and inexperienced employees, implying that both experience groups were equally satisfied with their jobs. For instance, in their study of job satisfaction among school teachers in Cyprus, Zembylas and Papanastasiou (2004) highlighted that the number of years of teaching experience did not account for a significant variance in the job satisfaction level. According to them, the more the number of years of teaching experience, the less the level of satisfaction. This is consistent with the empirical findings of Ladebo (2005), which noted no significant relationship between length of service and teachers’ job satisfaction. Kniveton (1991) asserted that the number of years of professional experience did not account for a significant variance in teachers’ job satisfaction. This investigation supported an earlier study by Borg and Falzon (1989), which revealed no positive relationship between number of years of teaching experience and job satisfaction. In another setting, Asika (1985) concluded from a study on job satisfaction of Nigerian bank workers that experience had no effect on the bankers’ job satisfaction. Bogotch and Reidlinger (1991) carried out a study on job satisfaction of new (inexperienced) and experienced principals. Their result from a t-test analysis indicated no significant difference in job satisfaction between the inexperienced and experienced principals.

51 In support of this finding, Dinham and Scott (1996) report from their study on teacher job satisfaction in New York that length of service (working experience) had no effect on job satisfaction of the teachers. The current study would reveal whether or not working experience of Rivers State secondary school teachers has effect on their job satisfaction.

(f) Location of School and Job Satisfaction School location is another demographic variable that its effect on job satisfaction of employees has been given attention in the literature. It is worth pointing out that in many cases what motivates employees to work depends on the individuals and their environments. This is to say that the motivation and job satisfaction of employees (Rivers State secondary school teachers) could be functions of their personalities and geographical locations or environments. The obvious import is that either of the subgroups of employees namely, those in urban and those in rural areas, could be more satisfied with their job, depending on the individuals and their locations. In other words, a satisfied employee in an urban area may go to a rural area and become dissatisfied and vice-versa. From the results of his investigation, Arubayi (1981) maintains a similar argument. He stresses that employees in urban areas are much likely to derive greater job satisfaction than their rural counterparts, as was the case with Bendel-State headmasters he studied. Stressing his point further, Arubayi states that urban headmasters might have less workload than their rural mates. This according to him is because most urban schools have more than one assistant headmaster, who often does a greater part of the headmaster’s work. The same trend could hold regarding Rivers State secondary school teachers, as most urban schools have more teachers. Also, Finley (1991) studied job satisfaction of high school principals in Tennessee, in relation to their school locations. The respondents were studied in urban, sub-urban and rural settings. The results showed that school location had significant effect on job satisfaction of the principals in the areas. It showed that principals in urban and sub-urban schools were significantly more satisfied than those in rural schools. The findings of Newby (1999) in another study on job satisfaction of principals in urban, sub- urban and rural area were largely in support of Finley above.

52 On the contrary, Ikenwe (1982) reports that geographical location does not have effect on job satisfaction of workers. The results of his study on job satisfaction of Bendel-State principals in urban and rural areas of the state indicated that school location had no significant effect on job satisfaction of the principals. The current study of Rivers State secondary school teachers should reveal the true position regarding the effect of school location on their job satisfaction.

Theoretical Framework Essentially, a theory explains how something works. This work was also anchored on two theories of motivation: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Herzberg’s Two-factor theories. According to Scarpitti (1980), the work which people do influence many aspects of their lives such as the material comforts at their disposal, the community in which they live, the schools their children attend, the quality of health care they receive, life expectancy, and self-esteem. These need areas are things that motivate people to work and emphasize the importance of work.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

This theory was developed on the basis of motivation being seen in terms of a chain of relatively separate, distinct, yet interrelated drives. The overriding idea of this theory is that there is a hierarchy of human needs that require fulfillment. The theory suggests that human behaviour is influenced by this set of needs. In other words, as a person fulfills a lower need, the next higher need becomes his or her preoccupation, directing his or her thoughts and actions. Maslow’s five steps of needs were ranked in the following order of importance (Maslow, 1970).  Physiological needs such as air, water, food, sleep and sex.  Safety and security needs such as shelter and economic security.  Companionship and affection needs such as family, friends, and group membership (social needs)  Self-esteem and status needs such as having self-respect, a feeling of accomplishment, and the recognition of others (ego needs).

53  Self-actualization needs such as becoming all that one is able to become by developing a unique self. George and Jones (1996) view a need as an essential requirement for the survival and well being of an individual. Satisfaction of human needs is largely a catalyst for effective motivation of employees. It is no wonder then that employers motivate their employees by striving to satisfy their needs. According to Ndu, Ocho and Okeke (1997) and Newby (1999) Maslow holds that needs at a level in the hierarchy have to be satisfied before the next higher level need could motivate people. The seemingly implication is that once lower and more basic needs are satisfied they no longer motivate people; the next higher level needs emerge and seek satisfaction. It is much likely that Maslow’s framework of need satisfaction could apply to secondary school teachers in Rivers State.

Consequently, this theory is considered to be an important contribution to modern motivational theory. The needs identified by Maslow could be applied to all human beings. This has an explanation in the fact that motivation is the hallmark of a person’s behaviour. Therefore the behaviour pattern of a worker in any organization is driven by the type of need the worker wants to fulfill (Ejiogu, 1990). Accordingly, Francis and Milbourn (1980), applying Maslow’s theory to human behaviour and needs in the work environment conclude that one’s employment should provide:  Wages or salary to pay for food, shelter, clothing plus exercise and rest (physiological needs).  Job security, safe working conditions, and economic well-being provided by insurance, pensions, and other fringe benefits (safety needs).  Co-worker friendship, membership in a close knit department, participation in departmental activities, and participation in organizational activities (social needs).  Praise and recognition from co-workers, supervisors, and managers, job competence, setting own goals, and making own decision (ego needs).  Opportunities for a sense of accomplishment, for a sense of challenge and for fulfilling one’s potential by doing excellent work and feeling good about oneself (self-actualization needs).

54 Maslow’s theory has enjoyed, to a large extent, some degree of support. Ololube (2007), in his support for the theory, states that the urge to satisfy a particular need would continue to serve as a motivator of the person’s behaviour until the need is satisfied, and consequently the next level of need becomes the focus of motivation for the behaviour of the individual until the person reaches what Ololube calls “pinnacle of one’s calling”. Another support comes from Alderfer’s (1960) ERG theory of needs as reported by Ejiogu (1985), Ukeje, Okorie and Nwagbara (1992), George and Jones (1996) as well as Ihiegbulem (2006). In his need theory, Alderfer grouped human needs as existence (E), relatedness (R) and growth (G) needs, for which the “ERG” abbreviation emanates. He sees Maslow’s physiological and safety needs as existence needs and refers love and belongingness needs as relatedness needs. He grouped the esteem and self-actualization needs of Maslow as growth needs. Alderfer’s support for Maslow’s theory is in terms of needs being classified and seen as motivators of human behaviour. However, this theory has been criticized based on two facts which are obvious. First, the strength of human needs largely varies with individuals. Second, many people differ in the extent to which a need is met before they become ready to meet the next higher need. In this direction, the reports and findings of Porter (1964), Lawler and Suttle (1972), Griffin (1990) and others show little or no evidence of needs being hierarchical. They point out that needs do not follow a hierarchy, especially when lower-level needs of employees are reasonably met. Thus, it may not be expected that Rivers State teachers should always crave for affection and belongingness, for instance, before societal esteem. The criticisms of Maslow’s theory not withstanding, his ideas continue to be reasonably favoured among writers. His theory has tremendous effect on behavioural science research, especially on the behaviours of employees. No wonder then Ukeje et al (1992) reported that educational administrators have largely recognized the issue of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Based on this, superordinates in the educational system should aim at meeting the hierarchy of needs of teachers in order to reduce issues that may arise as a result of non-satisfaction of their needs and demands.

55 Herzberg et al.’s Two- Factor Theory This theory, which is also called “motivation-hygiene theory, two-factor theory, dual-factor theory, and simply Herzberg’s theory” (Hoy and Miskel 2008:140), is widely accepted by administrators and policy makers. It is closely related to Maslow’s theory. Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman’s (1959) two-factor theory is heavily based on need fulfillment because of their interest in how best to satisfy workers. The theory holds that the personality feeling about an employee’s work and immediate work environment relate to his or her job satisfaction. According to them, job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not really opposites; they must be seem as two different ways of evaluating the working experience. For example, job dissatisfaction may be caused by inadequate pay, poor supervision, and undesirable conditions. Such circumstance can be reduced. Pay could be raised. Supervisors can be trained to be more efficient and more considerate of workers. Working conditions can be improved. But, Herzberg et al say, these actions alone will not produce employee’s satisfaction. According to them, such actions would merely reduce dissatisfaction. An employee’s satisfaction depends more on opportunities for workers to have feelings of accomplishment, responsibility, challenge, and self-esteem. Workers’ satisfaction depends on workers receiving recognition for their contributions on the job. They conclude that dissatisfaction is related to the work environment while satisfaction is related to the work’s content and meaning (Ejiogu 1985, Hoy and Miskel 2008, Ukeje et al. 1992). In their two-factor theory, Herzberg and his associates referred to another (the second) group of factors as dissatisfiers or demotivators or hygienes. According to them, these factors include organization policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal (social) relationship, working conditions, salary, status, and job security. As reported by Koontz et al. (1984), Ukeje et al (1992) as well as George and Jones (1996) the presence of dissatisfiers (hygienes or demotivators) in the job environment demotivates, producing neither job satisfaction nor dissatisfaction. Contrarily, their absence produces job dissatisfaction of the employees. Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory seems to be compatible with the needs hierarchy of Maslow, as Koontz, O’Donnel and Weihrich (1984) report. While Maslow talks about needs, Herzberg and his associates talk about the incentives tending to satisfy the needs.

56 For instance, pay and fringe benefits are hygienes (dissatisfiers) that tend to satisfy physiological and safety needs. Interpersonal relationships and supervisions are hygienes tending to satisfy love and belongingness needs. Achievement and recognition are motivators (satisfiers) tending to satisfy esteem needs. Also, increased responsibilities and advancement (growth in the job) are motivators that tend to satisfy self-actualization needs. From this theory, one can also conclude as Okonkwo (1997) points out that the factors of dissatisfaction of an employee relate to the situation in which he works. In other words, if an employee works where there are good organization policies, interpersonal relationship, salary, job security, among other dissatisfiers, he will unlikely be dissatisfied with his job. Also it will augur well for the teachers if the Rivers State Government recognizes this fact when dealing with them. Through the educational administrators in Rivers State Ministry of Education and schools board, the government can make use of the two-factor theory in handling the affairs of the teachers. They can do this by bearing in mind that the presence of satisfiers in the job promotes job satisfaction and motivates, while the absence of dissatisfiers leads to job dissatisfaction (Ajagbonwu, 1997). The import of this is that the government should ensure that both satisfiers and dissatisfiers are present in the teachers’ jobs. For instance, the government should provide the teachers with satisfiers by giving them the opportunities to meet their needs for recognition, achievement and advancement, among others. Also, the government can prevent the teachers’ dissatisfaction by providing them with dissatisfiers like good supervision, cordial working relationships, adequate and regular salary as well as well as job security.

Empirical Studies Various empirical researches were reviewed in the course of this work. In this subsection, the empirical studies shall be examined under works on professional awareness and job satisfaction.

57 Empirical Studies on Professional Awareness Working on perception of teaching profession, Everton, Tumer, Hargreaves and Pell (2007), investigated public perception of the teaching profession in the UK. It was undertaken as a part of a broader DIES funded longitudinal project that has been using a mixed methodology to explore individual teacher’s perceptions of their status of teaching as viewed by education stakeholders and the general public. Whilst the survey confirmed many previous findings about the way in which teaching is viewed, it also produced some surprises. First 50% of respondents deemed teaching to be an attractive career, a higher percentage than expected. Second, men, especially older men, were more likely than women to see teaching as an attractive career. Third, the survey found no obvious differences in the comparative status accorded to primary and secondary school teachers. This is in sharp contrast to the views of many writers in this field who have argued that traditionally the younger the children taught, the lower the occupational status of their teachers. Overall, the findings suggest a positive change in the public perceptions of teaching particularly amongst the younger age-range. Sadker and Sadker (2005) reported that a structured attempt to assess teachers’ views on their career was carried out by the National Education Association (NEA) and the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), part of the U.S. Department of Education. It was a survey research. Teachers from around the nation were asked to give their opinion on the professional status of teaching. The questionnaire consisted of twelve items which are the criteria for a profession listed in a publication of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE). In the NEA and NCES survey, the vast majority of the teachers, about 80 percent, agreed that teaching did not meet the criteria for a profession. However, 96 percent opined that they loved teaching. The teachers gave their high scores on job security and intellectual challenge of their work. The report recommended that teachers should be given more autonomy and control over their career, and should be treated with more respect.

58 The question has often been asked: “do teachers see themselves as professionals?” In one Australian study (noted Musgrave, 1983), teachers were asked in an open-ended interview whether they saw themselves as professional; the majority said that they did not do so, but went on to depict attitudes indicating their feeling that they were members of a high-status, expert group of the type to which traditionally the term, profession, has been applied. In another study which measured the degree of professional awareness amongst samples of Australian and British teachers in government schools, some interesting differences were found. Professional awareness was higher amongst Australian than British teachers and amongst those with longer service. Being a male and having higher qualifications also had some influence on the degree of awareness shown. Furthermore, one specific attitude seemed to be an influential variable; professional awareness was more pronounced amongst teachers holding reformist rather than conservation attitudes on educational questions. It would, therefore, seem that in Australia and Britain teachers are divided in their minds about whether or not they are members of a profession, and tend nowadays to feel themselves to be members of an occupation of some status who can act in industrial negotiations in the same way as blue-collar workers do.

Empirical Studies on Job Satisfaction Ololube (2007) studied job satisfaction of teachers in a work : Teachers job satisfaction and motivation for school effectiveness: Assessment. The study examined the differences and relationship between the level of teachers’ job satisfaction, motivation and their teaching performance in Rivers State of Nigeria. A questionnaire titled: “Teachers’ Job Satisfaction, Motivation Questionnaire” (TEJOSAMOQ) was used to collect data for the study. The population consisted of all the teachers in Rivers State with a sample size of 680 who were randomly selected. The respondents were asked to rank some possible items on job related sources of satisfaction and motivation from the most important 1,2,3, … to the least important 10, 11 and 12. Section B2 contains items of job related sources of dissatisfaction and was constructed along a four-point Likert type scale of not dissatisfied (1), not so dissatisfied (2), dissatisfied (3), and strongly dissatisfied (4).

59 In the analysis, using the SPSS, a Cronbach alpha reliability of 0.89 was obtained. Several sets of statistical analyses were performed: mean point value, standard deviation, variance and t-test of significance. One-way-analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to test the relationship between variables and respondents’ background information. The descriptive analysis revealed significant relationships among facets of job satisfaction, performance and motivation factors. Of the 12 variables of teaching related sources of job satisfaction and motivation related factors measured in the study, teachers were most motivated by both the job context and content, that is, job security and working conditions, the work itself, reaching one’s potential and personal growth. Teachers tend to be satisfied if these factors are present in their teaching job and believe that they will positively impact their job performance. The study equally revealed that opportunities for advancement, achievement and standards for excellence, recognition by others and authorities and independence were next in the rank of job satisfaction needs. Status, importance and influence ranked as the least likely to give satisfaction. Pay and fringe benefits ranked 10th. This result showed that both the hygiene factors and motivators are important in different ways in predicting teachers’ job satisfaction. In another related study, Adetayo (2008) examined job satisfaction of teachers in a study captioned: Level of teacher’s job satisfaction in Ogun State secondary schools. The study determined the level of job satisfaction in any secondary school teacher in Ogun State. Four research questions were raised to guide the study. The descriptive survey research method was used. Four hundred teachers were randomly selected to participate in the study from Ijebu-Ode Local Government Area. The researcher designed and validated an instrument captioned “Teachers Job Satisfaction Questionnaire” (TEJOSQ) for data collection. The descriptive statistics, t-test of significance, analysis of variance and post-hoc analysis were used to analyze the data collected for the study. The outcome of the study revealed that majority of the teachers were satisfied with their teaching job and that the teachers differed significantly by gender, age group and qualification in their levels of job satisfaction.

60 The researcher, therefore recommend that there was need for continuous effort by the government to ensure that policies that will promote better maintenance and improvement of satisfaction of teachers were put in place at all times in the state. Perie and Baker (1997) in a research titled: Job satisfaction among American teachers: Effects of workplace conditions, background characteristics, and teacher compensation, examined the effects of characteristics of the school, the workplace, the teacher’s background, salary, and other benefits on job satisfaction of teachers in America. The study revealed among others that (1) Private school teachers tend to be more satisfied than public school teachers and elementary school teachers tend to be more satisfied than secondary school teachers, but this relationship is not nearly as strong as the finding that teachers in any school setting who receive a great deal of parental support are more satisfied than teachers who do not . (2) In public schools, younger and less experienced teachers have higher levels of satisfaction than older and more experienced teachers. In private schools, the relationship is bipolar – the very youngest and very oldest teachers had the highest levels of satisfaction as did the least and most experienced teachers. (3) Although certain background variables, such as teacher’s age and years of experience are related to teacher satisfaction, they are not nearly as significant in explaining the different levels of satisfaction as are the workplace condition factors, such as administrative support, parental involvement, and teacher control over classroom procedures.

Ihiegbulem (2006) carried out a study on Correlates of job satisfaction among secondary school principals in Imo State of Nigeria: Implications for counseling. It was a survey research which had a sample of 100 principals. Four research questions were raised and five null hypotheses based on the demographic variables investigated were tested. A questionnaire of 40 Likert-type items was used to collect data. Data analysis involved the use of mean scores and percentages to answer the research questions.

61 The t-test of significance difference between two independent group mean scores, supported by F-tests of homogeneity of two independent group variances were used to test the hypotheses. Results from the data analysis showed that: (1) Imo State principals were satisfied with their jobs at a moderately high level. (2) Intrinsic, extrinsic, social and professional competence factors promoted job satisfaction of the principals while economic factor did not. (3) Intrinsic factors are relatively most important in promoting job satisfaction of the principals, followed professional competence, social, extrinsic and economic factors in that order. (4) Sex, age, experience and school location had no significant effects on job satisfaction of the principals, while academic qualification had a significant effect in favour of high degree principals. In another related study, Adeyinka, Ayeni and Popoola (2007) examined job satisfaction in a work entitled Work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of library personnel in academic and research libraries in Oyo State, Nigeria. It was a descriptive survey and 200 library personnel in academic and research libraries in Oyo State constituted the sample. They developed four research questions to guide the study with a 15-item questionnaire using a Likert scale which has responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The items were adapted from Work Motivation Behaviour Scale of the Akinboye’s 2001 Executive Behaviour Battery. The findings of the study revealed that a correlation existed between perceived motivation, job satisfaction, and commitment, although correlation between motivation and commitment was negative. No difference was observed in the perceived motivation of professional and non-professional library personnel. The findings also showed that differences existed in the job satisfaction of library personnel in academic and research libraries, and that no relationship existed in the organizational commitment of library personnel based on their years of experience.

62

Summary of Literature Review The review of literature indicated that a profession could be analyzed on the basis of nature of services provided, nature of relationship with clients, mode of entry, nature of training, degree of control over members, services rendered, and an established regulatory body. The general consensus is that teaching is not a full profession in the strict sense of the assessment of a profession because it does not possess some of the characteristics of professions like law and medicine. The review also indicated that professional awareness, as an essential part of any profession, is achieved through the enforcement of ethical standards. These ethical standards are what Teachers’ Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN) is attempting to achieve because teachers need professional awareness for the achievement of educational objectives and the overall development of the teaching profession. Consequently, researchers of educational change and teacher education have argued that it is essential that teachers reflect on their own theory about teaching, which relates to their values, knowledge, competence and behaviour. Teacher education should combine high academic standards with sound professional knowledge. Future teachers should be given awareness about the content and complexity of the teaching profession and the conditions under which it is performed. The literature further reveals that despite the differences among writers on their concept of job satisfaction, there seems to be an area of agreement in their definitions. This area of agreement has to do with the positive feelings people get from their jobs. It is generally recognized in the organizational behaviour field that job satisfaction is the most important and frequently studied attitude. The major theories of job satisfaction that emerged from the review are Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory and Herzberg et al.’s Two- Factor Theory. The two theories attempted a comprehensive explanation of the concept of job satisfaction and how it could be applied in an effort to motivate and make a worker have a positive attitude towards his job.

63 The review showed that job satisfaction could be seen as a multi-dimensional construct, involving satisfaction with the various facets of one’s job because there are contradictions in the findings, views and opinions of researchers and authors in terms of the consistency of any one factor in promoting job satisfaction of employees. However, the review found out that most of the published research works on job satisfaction and professional awareness were carried out mostly outside the shores of Nigeria. The few research works carried out in Nigeria did not pay much attention on the influence of demographic variables on professional’s attitude. Again, the works failed to recognize the fact that professional awareness could be a correlate of job satisfaction of teachers in Nigeria. This present study is therefore an attempt to fill these gaps.

64 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHOD This chapter describes the procedure that was adopted in carrying out the study. It includes the research design, area of study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and method of data analysis.

Research Design A correlational research design, a type that allows analysis of relationships among a number of variables in a study (Gall, Borg and Gall, 1996), was used in this study. It enables a researcher to find out the extent to which a variation in one variable influences the other. The extent of such relationship is expressed as the correlation coefficient (r) (Gall, Borg, and Gall, 1996; Ndiyo, 2005; Nworgu, 2006). This design is appropriate for this study because the researcher is interested in establishing the relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Rivers State.

Area of the Study This study was carried out in Rivers State which has twenty-three local government areas. Two of the local government areas namely: Port Harcourt Local Government Area and Obio/Akpor Local Government Area constitute the urban areas of the state while the rest twenty-one are called rural areas. Rivers State occupies an area of about 32,000 square kilometers and is bounded by Bayelsa, Imo, Abia, Akwa Ibom and Delta States. The shores form part of west coastline and two-thirds of the area of Rivers State lie within the Niger Delta Basin. Rivers State contributes substantially to Nigeria’s output of crude oil. Port Harcourt the state capital is the second largest seaport in Nigeria. The people of Rivers State are traditionally fishermen and farmers.

Population of the Study The study population comprised all the 3,460 teachers in the government owned secondary schools in Rivers State. The source of this population is the current list of teachers (unpublished) obtained by the researcher from Research, Planning and Statistics, Ministry of Education, Port Harcourt.

65 There are 236 secondary schools spread in the 23 local government areas of the state with 210 schools in rural areas and 26 schools in the urban areas. A breakdown of the population shows that there are 2005 teachers (1709 male, 296 female) in the rural areas, while 1455 teachers (684 male, 771 female) are in the urban areas (appendix ii: list of public secondary schools in Rivers State and teacher enrolment).

Sample and Sampling Technique Based on the population, a total of 692 teachers were sampled. This represents 20% of the overall population. The choice of this size is in agreement with Ndiyo (2005:183) when he said: “… statistically speaking, a sample should be about 15 – 30% of the population.” Proportionate stratified random sampling was adopted in selecting the 692 teachers. The stratification was done along the variables of location and gender of the teachers with each stratum having a proportion of 20%. Consequently, three hundred and forty-two (342) male teachers and fifty-nine (59) female teachers were selected through accidentally technique from randomly selected twenty-three schools out of two hundred and ten (210) schools of rural location, while one hundred and thirty-seven (137) male teachers and one hundred and fifty-four female teachers (154) were selected from seven schools out of twenty-six (26) schools of urban location. Appendix III shows the details.

Instrument for Data Collection The instrument (appendix i) for data collection for this study is the questionnaire titled: “Teachers’ Professional Awareness and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire” (TPAJSQ). The researcher designed this instrument through information got from literature review. The questionnaire has two parts: A and B. Part A sought information on selected personal data of the respondents; and it contains 4 items. Part B sought information on teachers’ professional awareness and job satisfaction; and were broken into two sections: B1 and B2. Section B1 sought information on respondents’ professional awareness. It contains 10 items which were adapted from the work of two experts on teaching profession, Sadker and Sadker (2005:11- 12). Section B2 focused on respondents’ level of job satisfaction. It contains 10 items.

66 The items were adapted from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) cited in the work of Greenberg and Baron (2000: 173 – 174). The researcher adopted the MSQ for two reasons: (1) it is a widely used approach and as well measures various aspects of one’s job which could reflect local conditions. (2) the variables captioned in the questionnaire are in line with the two theories of job satisfaction highlighted in this study (Maslow’s and Herzberg, et al’s). A four-point rating scale with a continuum of 4 - 1 was used in scoring all the items in part B of the questionnaire. The highest score of 4 in the continuum was assigned to the “Strongly Agree” or “Very Satisfied” response, while the lowest score of 1 was assigned to the “Strongly Disagree” or “Very Dissatisfied” response.

Validation of the Instrument The instrument which was used for collection of relevant data for this study was given out to two experts in Sociology of Education and three experts in Measurement and Evaluation from University of Port Harcourt, Choba and University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Specifically, these experts were requested to critique the instrument with respect to the extent to which it appraises the professional awareness and job satisfaction of teachers. The validators were supplied with the purpose of the study, research questions and hypotheses. From their analyses, judgments and criticisms, the initial 30 items were finally modified to a 20-item questionnaire. The researcher strictly adhered to the validators’ comments for the final production of the questionnaire.

Reliability of the Instrument In order to obtain the reliability of the instrument, the researcher personally trial- tested it on randomly selected thirty teachers from (one urban and two rural) schools that were not part of the study sample. From their responses, the Cronbach Alpha was used to determine the reliability coefficient through the application of the SPSS. The rationale for the use of Cronbach Alpha method was informed by the fact that the items had no right or wrong answers as they were not dichotomously scored but based on their opinions.

67 The scores yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.63 for section B1 and 0.68 for section B2. Therefore, the instrument was reliable (appendix vii). Method of Data Collection The researcher, with the help of eight research assistants (appendix iv), distributed the questionnaire. The research assistants were prepared beforehand for the task by explaining the purpose of the research to them. Three of them assisted the researcher in collecting data from schools where there was no teacher research assistant. The rest research assistants collected data from their respective schools. The data collection was done between 5th and 19th July, 2010, that is the last month of 2009/2010 academic session. Six hundred and ninety-two (692) copies of the questionnaire were given out and all the copies were retrieved on the spot. However, in the course of arranging and collating the questionnaire, seven (7) were discarded because they were either incorrectly or partially completed. Hence, the researcher worked on six hundred and eighty-five (685) copies of the questionnaire.

Method of Data Analysis Mean and standard deviation were used to analyze data for research questions 1,2,4,5,6,7,8 and 9 while the t-test statistic was applied for their corresponding null hypotheses. For research question 3 and its corresponding hypothesis, the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was used. This technique was chosen because it is more appropriate to use it in determining the relationship between the two variables - professional awareness and job satisfaction of the teachers (Gall et al., 1996; Ndiyo, 2005). It has been very useful in providing magnitudes and statistical significance in studies that focus on relationships between variables. Koh, Steers, and Terborg (1995) used correlation analysis in their work which involved professional awareness and job satisfaction. Ejimofor (2007) also used it in identifying transformational leadership factors that could best predict job satisfaction. Hence, it is worthwhile to employ the use of correlation analysis in this study. The researcher used the values attached to the four- point scale to compute the mean scores for the items of the questionnaire.

68 A mean score of 3.50 – 4.00 was accepted as strongly agreed or very satisfied, 2.50 – 3.49 was accepted as agreed or satisfied, while 1.50 – 2.49 was accepted as disagreed or dissatisfied and 0.50 – 1.49 was as accepted as strongly disagreed or very dissatisfied. Basically, the cut off point for regarding responses to items as either positive or negative was 2.50. Data collected from the respondents were arranged, coded and analyzed at 0.05 alpha level of significance through the application of SPSS. In testing the null hypotheses, if the t-calculated is equal or greater than the t-critical, the null hypothesis is rejected. If on the other hand, the t-calculated is less than the t-critical, the null hypothesis is accepted.

69 CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND RESULTS This chapter presents the analysis and results of the study. The analysis and results of the study are presented in line with the research questions and hypotheses that guided the study.

Research Question 1 What is the level of teachers’ knowledge of the indicators of professional awareness? Data collected in respect of this research question are presented and analysed in Table 1. Table 1: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the respondents’ responses on the indicators of professional awareness.

Teachers’ knowledge of the indicators of professional awareness S/N Item statement Male (N = 472) Female (N= 213) Overall Decision mean SD mean SD mean SD

1 The teaching profession provides essential services (discipline, etc) 3.69 0.58 3.68 0.62 3.69 0.59 strongly agree 2 It possesses a unique body of Knowledge and skills 3.50 0.64 3.55 0.56 3.52 0.62 strongly agree 3 Professional decisions are made in accordance with valid principles. 3.13 0.73 2.91 1.02 3.06 0.84 agree 4 Professional associations control the actual work and conditions . 2.54 0.90 2.95 0.89 2.67 0.92 agree 5 There are performance standards for admission and continuance. 2.85 0.78 3.14 0.82 2.94 0.80 agree 6 It requires a protracted preparation programme. 3.23 0.85 2.98 0.88 3.15 0.87 agree 7 There is high level of public trust and confidence. 2.85 0.85 2.83 0.85 2.84 0.85 agree 8 Strong service motivation and commitment to competence. 2.79 0.80 2.71 0.90 2.77 0.83 agree 9 The profession itself determines Individual competence 2.77 0.83 3.17 0.82 2.90 0.84 agree 10 There is relative freedom from direct or public supervision 2.56 0.81 2.94 0.84 2.68 0.84 agree

Overall mean 3.02 0.80 agree

70 The results in Table 1 reveal that the teachers or respondents both male and female affirmed that all the 10 items are indicators of professional awareness. This is because each of the items had a cut off point of 2.50 and above. Among the 10 items, item 1 representing provision of essential services had the highest mean score of 3.69 while item 4 representing control of the actual work and conditions of the profession had the lowest mean score of 2.67. The grand mean of 3.02, indicating that the teachers’ level of knowledge of the indicators of professional awareness is moderate.

Research Question 2 What is the level of job satisfaction among the teachers? This research question sought to find out the level of job satisfaction among teachers. Mean and standard deviation were computed for each item based on the responses for the teachers. The results obtained are as summarized and presented in the Table below.

Table 2: Mean rating and standard deviation on the responses of teachers on job satisfaction.

Teachers’ level of job satisfaction N = 685

S/N Item statement mean SD Decision

1 Working conditions 2.18 0.76 dissatisfied 2 Salary 1.97 0.64 dissatisfied 3 Job security 2.57 1.01 satisfied 4 Quality of supervision 2.42 0.83 dissatisfied 5 Relationship with others 2.84 0.77 satisfied 6 Nature of the job 2.56 0.79 satisfied 7 Achievement in the work 2.60 0.84 satisfied 8 Promotion opportunities 1.88 0.66 dissatisfied 9 Chances for personal growth 2.41 0.80 dissatisfied 10 Recognition and prestige 2.10 0.79 dissatisfied

Grand mean 2.35 0.79 dissatisfied

From the Table 2, it is shown that the respondents both male and female affirmed that only four items (i.e items 3,5, 6, and 7) out of 10 items are representatives of the factors of job satisfaction. This means that factors of job satisfaction are job security, relationship with others, nature of the job and achievement in the work.

71 This is because those items’ mean scores are above the criterion mean score of 2.50. While the rest items: 1,2,4,8,9 and 10 are not representatives of factors of job satisfaction. This is because their mean scores are below the criterion mean score of 2.50. The grand mean of 2.35 indicates that the teachers are not satisfied with their job.

Research Question 3 What is the extent of correlation between professional awareness and job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Rivers State? Hypothesis 1 There is no significant relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction. This research question 3 sought to find out the extent of relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction based on the responses of the teachers in Rivers State, while the corresponding null hypothesis 1 sought to find out if the relationship that existed between them is significant or not. Hence, in order to answer this research question and test its corresponding hypothesis, mean, standard deviation, Pearson Product Moment Correlation techniques and t-test were computed. The results obtained are summarized and presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Correlation between professional awareness and job satisfaction. Variables N mean SD df r-cal t-cal t-crit Professional awareness 685 3.02 0.80 683 0.25 6.74 1.96 Job satisfaction 2.35 0.79

The results in Table 3 reveal that the relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction yielded a coefficient of 0.25, which is a low positive one. When t-test statistic was used to determine if the relationship is significant, it was found to be a significant one. This is because the calculated t-value of 6.74 is greater than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom at 0.05 alpha levels. Thus the null hypothesis of no significant relationship is rejected.

72 Research Question 4 How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on their gender? Hypothesis 2 There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean ratings on professional awareness. In order to answer this research question and test the corresponding null hypothesis, mean, standard deviation and t-test for each item were computed based on the male and female teachers’ responses. The results obtained are summarized and presented as in Table 4.

Table 4: mean rating, standard deviation and t-test analysis of male and female teachers on professional awareness. Items Teachers N Mean SD df t-cal t-crit Decision 1 The teaching profession provides male 472 3.69 0.58 683 0.25 1.96 not significant essential services female 213 3.68 0.62 683 2 It possesses a unique body of male 472 3.50 0.64 683 1.23 1.96 not significant knowledge and skills female 213 3.56 0.56 683 3 Professional decisions are made male 472 3.13 0.73 683 3.21 1.96 significant in accordance with valid female 213 2.91 1.02 683 principles and theories. 4 Professional associations control male 472 2.54 0.90 683 5.65 1.96 significant the actual work and conditions. female 213 2.95 0.89 683 5 There are performance standards male 472 2.85 0.78 683 4.38 1.96 significant for admission and continuance. female 213 3.14 0.82 683 6 It requires a protracted male 472 3.23 0.85 683 3.48 1.96 significant preparation programme female 213 2.98 0.88 683 7 There is high level of public male 472 2.85 0.85 683 0.21 1.96 not significant trust and confidence. female 213 2.83 0.85 683 8 Strong service motivation and male 472 2.79 0.80 683 1.08 1.96 not significant commitment to competence female 213 2.71 0.90 683 9 The profession itself determines male 472 2.77 0.83 683 5.81 1.96 significant individual competence female 213 3.17 0.82 683 10 There is relative freedom from male 472 2.56 0.81 683 5.63 1.96 significant direct or public supervision of female 213 2.94 0.84 683 individual practitioner

male 472 2.99 0.79 683 1.29 1.96 not significant Overall mean female 213 3.08 0.82 683

73 The results in Table 4 show that the mean ratings of the male teachers were a little higher than that of the female in items 1,3,6,7, and 8 while the mean ratings of the female teachers a little higher than that of the male in items 2, 4, 9 and 10. In testing whether the observed differences were significant, t-test analysis was used. From the Table, the results show that significant difference existed in six items which are items 3, 4,5,6,9, and 10. This is because their calculated t-values were greater than their corresponding critical t-values of 1.96 at 683 degrees of freedom and a 0.05 level of significance (alpha level). Accordingly, there was no significant difference in the mean ratings of male and female teachers on four items (1,2,3 and 4). This is because their calculated t-values were less than their corresponding critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degrees of freedom (df) and 0.05 alpha level. Finally, in the same Table 4, it is shown that the calculated t-value of 1.29 for the overall mean scores of the male and female teachers on the professional awareness scale is less than the critical t-value of 1.96 at degrees of freedom at 683 and 0.05 alpha levels. Thus, the null hypothesis of no significant difference between the male and female teachers mean ratings on professional awareness is accepted.

Research Question 5 How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on years of experience? Hypothesis 3 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers who are 10 years and above , and those that are less than 10 years in experience on professional awareness. This research question and its corresponding null hypothesis sought to find out if difference existed in the mean responses of the less than 10 years and above 10 years experienced teachers, and if the difference was significant or not. So in order to answer the research question and test the hypothesis, mean, standard deviation, t-test statistic were computed for each item and then for the aggregate. The results obtained are summarized and presented as in Table below.

74 Table 5: Mean ratings, standard deviations and t-test analysis of the responses of teachers who are <10 and >10 years of experience on professional awareness.

Item statement Teachers N mean SD Df t-cal t-crit Decision

1 The teaching profession provides <10 246 3.64 0.62 683 1.70 1.96 not significant essential services >10 439 3.72 0.57 2 It possesses a unique body of <10 246 3.48 0.64 683 1.13 1.96 not significant knowledge and skills >10 439 3.54 0.61 3 Professional decisions are made in <10 246 3.20 0.73 683 3.21 1.96 significant accordance with valid principles >10 439 2.99 0.88 4 Professional associations control <10 246 2.70 0.90 683 0.63 1.96 not significant the actual work and conditions >10 439 2.65 0.93 5 There are performance standards <10 246 2.79 0.84 683 3.59 1.96 significant for admission and continuance. >10 439 3,02 0.77 6 It requires a protracted preparation <10 246 3.29 0.86 683 3.20 1.96 significant programme >10 439 3.07 0.87 7 There is high level of public trust <10 246 2.87 0.92 683 0.77 1.96 not significant and confidence. >10 439 2.82 0.81 8 Strong service motivation and <10 246 2.85 0.81 683 1.93 1.96 not significant commitment to competence >10 439 2.72 0.84 9 The profession itself determines <10 246 2.83 0.91 683 1.46 1.96 not significant individual competence >10 439 2.93 0.81 10 There is relative freedom from <10 246 2.67 0.88 683 0.35 1.96 not significant direct or public supervision >10 439 2.69 0.81

Overall mean <10 246 3.03 0.81 683 0.16 1.96 not significant >10 439 3.02 0.79

The results in Table 5 show that the mean ratings of the teachers with less than 10 years working experience are higher than those of the teachers above 10 years working experience in items 3,4,6,7, and 8 only. While in items 1,2,5,9 and 10, the mean ratings of the teachers with above 10 years working experience are higher than those of their counterparts with less than 10 years working experience. In order to determine whether these mean differences are significant or not, t-test analysis was used. The results obtained as in the same Table 5 show that the mean differences for items 1,2,4,7,8,9 and 10 are not significant. This is because their calculated t-values are all less than the corresponding critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance.

75 Again in the same Table 5, it is shown that the mean differences of these categories of teachers <10 and >10 years working experience were found to be significant in items 3, 5 and 6. This is because their calculated t-values were greater than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 693 degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. Finally, considering the overall mean responses of the teachers with less than 10 years and those above 10 years working experience on professional awareness as a whole, it was found to be not significant. This is because the calculated t-value 0.16 is less than the critical t- value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted which indicate that there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of teachers in professional awareness based on their years of experience.

Research Question 6 How the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on school location? Hypothesis 4 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers on professional awareness. Research question 6 and its corresponding hypothesis 4 sought to find out how the mean ratings of the urban and rural teachers differ and to determine if the difference may be significant or not. So in order to do this, mean, standard deviation and t-test for each item were computed. The results obtained are summarized as presented in Table 6 below.

Table 6: Mean rating, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the responses of rural and urban teachers on professional awareness.

S/N Item statement location N Mean SD df t-cat t-crit Decision

76

1 The teaching profession provides Rural 400 3.64 0.60 683 2.33 1.96 significant essential services Urban 285 3.75 0.56 2 It possesses a unique body of Rural 400 3.48 0.64 683 1.52 1.96 not significant knowledge and skills Urban 285 3.56 0.59 3 Professional decisions are made Rural 400 3.12 0.74 683 2.03 1.96 significant in accordance with valid principles Urban 285 2.99 0.95 4 Professional associations control Rural 400 2.54 0.89 683 4.32 1.96 significant the actual work and conditions. Urban 285 2.84 0.92 5 There are performance standards Rural 400 2.86 0.79 683 2.96 1.96 significant for admission and continuance. Urban 285 3.05 0.81 6 It requires a protracted preparation Rural 400 3.19 0.85 693 1.45 1.96 not significant programme Urban 285 3.09 0.89 7 There is high level of public trust Rural 400 2.81 0.85 683 1.13 1.96 not significant and confidence. Urban 285 2.88 0.85 8 Strong service motivation and Rural 400 2.75 0.82 683 0.76 1.96 not significant commitment to competence Urban 285 2.85 2.80 9 The profession itself determines Rural 400 2.72 0.83 683 6.88 1.96 significant individual competence Urban 285 3.15 0.80 10 There is relative freedom from Rural 400 2.52 0.79 683 6.06 1.96 significant ` direct or public supervision Urban 285 2.91 0.84

Overall mean Rural 400 2.96 0.78 683 2.26 1.96 significant Urban 285 3.10 0.81

The results in Table 6 reveal that the mean ratings of the rural teachers were higher than those of the urban in only items 3 and 6, while the mean ratings of the urban teachers were higher than those of the rural teachers in items 1,2,4,5,7,8,9 and 10. In testing if the mean differences were significant or not, t-test statistics was used. The results obtained show that significant differences were found only in items 1,3,4,5,9 and 10. This is because their calculated t-values were all greater than their critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. In the same Table 6, it is shown that the mean responses of the rural and urban teachers do not differ significantly in items 2,6,7 and 8. This is because their calculated t-values were all less than their critical t-values of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom at 0.05 alpha level. Finally, the Table also shows that a significant mean difference existed in the overall responses of the rural and urban teachers on professional awareness as a whole. This is because the calculated t-value of 2.36 is greater than the corresponding critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom at 0.05 alpha level. Hence the null hypothesis of there is no

77 significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers on professional awareness based on their school location is rejected.

Research Question 7 How do the teachers differ in their responses on satisfaction based on their gender? Hypothesis 5 There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean ratings on job satisfaction. This research question 7 and its corresponding null hypothesis 5 sought to find out how the mean responses of the male and female teachers on job satisfaction differed and also to determine if the mean difference observed may be significant or not. In order to answer this research question and test the null hypothesis, mean, standard deviation and t-test analysis were computed for each item that make up job satisfaction scale. The results obtained are summarized and presented as in Table 7 below

Table 7: Mean ratings, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the male and female teachers responses on job satisfaction.

S/N Item statement Gender N Mean SD df t-cat t-crit decision

1 Working conditions Male 472 2.20 0.71 683 0.96 1.96 not significant

78 Female 213 2.14 0.86 2 Salary Male 472 2.01 0.59 683 2.26 1.96 significant Female 213 1.89 0.73 3 Job security Male 472 2.68 0.99 683 4.30 1.96 significant Female 213 2.33 1.03 4 Quality of supervision Male 472 2.68 0.99 683 2.85 1.96 significant Female 213 2.46 0.94 5 Relationship with others Male 472 2.94 0.66 683 5.37 1.96 significant Female 213 2.61 0.93 6 Nature of the job Male 472 2.62 0.70 683 2.56 1.96 significant Female 213 2.45 0.95 7 Achievement in the work Male 472 2.66 0.78 683 2.53 1.96 significant Female 213 2.48 0.96 8 Promotion opportunities Male 472 1.93 0.61 683 2.44 1.96 significant Female 213 1.80 0.74 9 Chances for personal growth Male 472 2.49 0.76 683 4.32 1.96 significant Female 213 2.21 0.86 10 Recognition and prestige Male 472 2.16 0.75 683 2.90 1.96 significant Female 213 1.97 0.87

Overall mean Male 472 2.44 0.75 683 3.00 1.96 significant Female 213 2.23 0.89

The results in Table 7 reveal that the mean responses of the male teachers were higher than those of the females in all the items. When t-test analysis was done, the results showed that the mean differences were significant in nine items, which are items 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 10. These items had higher calculated t-values than their corresponding critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. Hence, there is a significant difference in the mean ratings of the male and female teachers’ responses on the following: salary, job security, quality of supervision, relationship with others, nature of job, achievement in the work, promotion opportunities, chance for personal growth, recognition and prestige. The same Table 7 reveals that no significant mean difference existed between the male and female teachers responses on item 1, which represents working condition. This is because the calculated t-value 0.96 is less than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. Finally, in the overall mean responses of the male and female teachers on job satisfaction, the Table shows that a significant mean difference existed. This is because

79 the calculated t-value of 3.00 is greater than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference between the mean responses of the male and female teachers on job satisfaction is rejected.

Research Question 8 How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on years of experience? Hypothesis 6 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers who are 10 years and above 10 years in experience on job satisfaction. Research question 8 and its corresponding hypothesis 6 sought to find out how the mean responses of the teachers on job satisfaction differ based on their years of experience, and also to determine if the observed differences were significant or not. In order to answer the research question and test its corresponding null hypothesis, mean, standard deviation and t-test analysis were computed for each item and the overall mean responses. The results obtained are summarized and presented in Table 8 below.

Table 8: Mean ratings, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the teachers’ responses on job satisfaction based on their years of working experience.

S/N Item statement Exp. N mean SD df t-cal t-crit Decision

1 Working conditions <10 246 2.27 0.75 683 2.32 1.96 significant >10 439 2.13 0.77

80 2 Salary <10 246 2.00 0.69 683 1.06 1.96 not sign. >10 439 1.95 0.61 3 Job security <10 246 2.57 0.92 683 0.17 1.96 not sign. >10 439 2.58 1.06 4 Quality of supervision <10 246 2.60 0.86 683 4.24 1.98 significant >10 439 2.32 0.80 5 Relationship with others <10 246 2.88 0.68 683 1.32 1.96 not sign. >10 439 2.82 0.82 6 Nature of the job <10 246 2.62 0.75 683 1.32 1.96 not sign. >10 439 2.54 0.81 7 Achievement in the work <10 246 2.58 0.76 683 0.63 1.96 not sign. >10 439 2.62 0.89 8 Promotion opportunities <10 246 1.93 0.67 683 1.37 1.96 not sign. >10 439 1.88 0.65 9 Chances for personal growth <10 246 2.51 0.76 683 2.61 1.96 significant >10 439 2.35 0.82 10 Recognition and prestige <10 246 2.26 0.82 683 3.94 1.96 significant >10 439 2.01 0.77

Overall mean <10 246 2.42 0.77 683 1.67 1.96 not sign. >10 439 2.32 0.80

The results in Table 8 show that the mean ratings of the teachers with less than 10 years working experience were higher than those of the teachers with above 10 years experience in their responses in items 1,2,4,5,6,8,9 and 10, while in items 3 and 7, the mean ratings of the teachers with more than 10 years working experience were higher than those of the teachers with less than 10 years working experience. When t-test analysis was used to determine if the observed mean differences were significant or not, the results obtained indicates that there was no significant mean difference in the responses of the teachers (<10 years and >10 years) in items 2,3,5,6,7 and 8. This is because their calculated t-values were all less than their corresponding critical t- values of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. This indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers (based on their years of working experience) on salary, job security, relationship with others, nature of the job, achievement in the work and promotion opportunities. Again in the same Table 8, it is revealed that a significant difference existed in the mean ratings of the teachers (<10 years and >10 years working experience) on items 1,4,9 and 10. These items represent working conditions, quality of supervision, chances

81 for personal growth, recognition and prestige. In considering the overall mean responses of both categories of teachers (<10 years and >10 years working experience) on job satisfaction as a whole, it was found not to be significant. This is because the calculated value of 1.67 is less than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. This indicates that the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers on job satisfaction is accepted.

Research Question 9 How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on school location?

Hypothesis 7 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers on job satisfaction. Research question 9 and its corresponding null hypothesis 7 sought to find out how the mean ratings of teachers based on their location differ, and also to determine if the observed difference are significant or not. In order to answer the research question and test the null hypothesis, mean, standard deviation and t-test analysis were computed for each item on the job satisfaction scale and the mean difference in their overall responses was also determined. The results obtained were summarized and presented in the Table 9 below.

Table 9: Mean ratings, standard deviation and t-test analysis of the responses of teachers on job satisfaction based on school location.

S/No location N Mean SD df t-cal t-crit Decision

1 Working conditions Rural 400 2.25 0.74 683 2.65 1.96 Significant Urban 285 2.09 0.79 2 Salary Rural 400 2.01 0.62 683 2.10 1.96 Significant Urban 285 1.91 0.66 3 Job security Rural 400 2.68 0.96 683 3.27 1.96 Significant Urban 285 2.42 0.06

82 4 Quality of supervision Rural 400 2.44 0.78 683 0.78 1.96 Not significant Urban 285 2.39 0.91 5 Relationship with others Rural 400 2.92 0.68 683 3.41 1.96 Significant Urban 285 2.72 0.87 6 Nature of the job Rural 400 2.68 0.70 683 4.49 1.96 Significant Urban 285 2.41 0.87 7 Achievement in the work Rural 400 2.69 0.81 683 3.07 1.96 Significant Urban 285 2.49 0.88 8 Promotion opportunities Rural 400 1.87 0.60 683 0.90 1.96 Not significant Urban 285 1.92 0.74 9 Chances for personal growth Rural 400 2.40 0.78 683 0.13 1.96 Not significant Urban 285 2.41 0.83 10 Recognition and prestige Rural 400 2.10 0.77 683 0.11 1.96 Not significant Urban 285 2.10 0.83

Overall mean Rural 400 2.40 0.74 683 1.77 1.96 Not significant Urban 285 2.29 0.83

The results in Table 9 show that the mean ratings of the rural teachers were higher than those of the urban teachers in items 1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7. In items 8 and 9, the urban teachers had higher mean scores than their counterparts in the rural area. While in item 10 they have equal mean scores. When t-test analysis was used to determine whether the observed mean differences were significant or not, the result showed that a significant difference existed in items 1,2,3,5,6 and 7. This is because their calculated t-values are all greater than their critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. Again, in the same Table, it was found that there was no significant mean difference in the responses of the urban and rural teachers on items 4,8,9 and 10. This means that no significant difference existed in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers on quality of supervision, promotion opportunities, chances for personal growth and recognition and prestige. This is because their calculated t-values are less than their critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. Finally, when the overall mean scores of the rural and urban teachers on jobs satisfaction were statistically compared, it was found that no significant difference existed between them. This is because the calculated t-value of 1.77 is less than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 683 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. Hence, the null

83 hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers in their responses on the job satisfaction scale is accepted.

Summary of Major Findings Results presented in this chapter reveal the following: 1. All the indicators tested revealed professional awareness among the teachers. 2. The teachers were not satisfied with their job. 3. A significant low positive relationship existed between professional awareness and job satisfaction. 4. Gender and years of experience had no significant influence on the teachers’ professional awareness rating scale, while school location showed a significant difference in their ratings. 5. Gender influenced the ratings of the teachers on job satisfaction, while years of experience and school location did not.

CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter focuses on the discussion of major findings of the study, their educational implications and recommendations. Included in this chapter also are suggestions for further study and summary of the study.

Discussion of Results The findings of this study were discussed in line with research questions and their corresponding null hypotheses.

84 The teachers’ knowledge of the indicators of professional awareness Results of this study revealed that all the ten profession variables investigated are indicators of professional awareness among secondary school teachers in Rivers State. This finding is not consistent with some previous studies in Nigeria (Ezewu, 1983; Nwaenyi and Egbezor, 2001; Okeke, 2004) which revealed that majority of teachers showed a poor opinion of teaching as a profession. However, the finding agrees with Everton, et al (2007) whose work confirmed a positive perception of teaching as a profession. This result might find explanation in the strategies employed by the TRCN to reposition teachers in the scheme of things by ensuring that teachers compulsorily register with the council. The Teachers Code of Conduct, a handbook of the TRCN, also contributed in the sensitization of teachers towards the profession. The introduction of the Teachers’ Salary Structure (TSS) might have created professional awareness among the teachers in Rivers State even though it has not been implemented by the Rivers State government hence the result of this study in respect of teachers’ professional awareness is not surprising.

The level of job satisfaction among the teachers From the results of the ten job variables studied, the teachers felt satisfied with the following factors: job security, relationship with others, nature of the job and achievement in the work. This finding is in an agreement with Ololube’s (2007) investigation of job satisfaction of teachers in Rivers State. Conversely, factors such as working conditions, salary, quality of supervision, promotion opportunities, chances for personal growth, recognition and prestige did not provoke their satisfaction with the job. Therefore, the teachers need motivation in the above areas. This is in agreement with the assertion of Francis and Milbourn (1980). The authors, applying Maslow’s theory to human behaviour and needs in the work environment, concluded that one’s employment should provide salary to pay for food, shelter, clothing, etc and also provide opportunities for promotions and a sense of accomplishments. Hence, the teachers showed dissatisfaction with their salary and promotion opportunities because they did not meet the expectations of the teachers. This result was indeed the situation on

85 ground in Rivers State having being denied the payment of TSS and promotions since 2004. Standing on the view point of Herzberg et al’s two factor theory which is related to Maslow’s, one would conclude that salary, promotion opportunities, working conditions which are dissatisfiers could be raised to reduce the teachers’ level of dissatisfaction. Again, the overall mean score of 2.35 indicates that public secondary school teachers in Rivers State are not satisfied with their job as teachers, because the overall mean score is less than the criterion mean point of 2.50. This overall assessment of the teachers’ job satisfaction is not consistent with Adetayo’s (2008) study of level of teachers’ job satisfaction in Ogun State secondary schools, which revealed that majority of the teachers were satisfied with their teaching job. It is also not in an agreement with the finding of Ihiegbulem (2006) who said that Imo State principals were satisfied with their job. One can blame the lack of satisfaction of the teachers in Rivers State on the non- implementation of the TSS, which some states in the country have implemented. Again, it is on record that teachers in Rivers State secondary schools have their last promotion dating as far back as 2004 or 2005. This trend is enough to dissuade any teacher. This investigation reveals that if the teachers have good working conditions, recognition and prestige, they will be motivated in the job. The teachers wish to enjoy the kind of prestige and recognition which other professions, say, medicine, law, nursing, etc. are accorded.

The extent of correlation between professional awareness and job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Rivers State There is no significant relationship between the mean ratings of the teachers on professional awareness and job satisfaction From the data reported on Table 3, the correlation coefficient between professional awareness and job satisfaction is 0.25, an indication of a low positive relationship, which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, there is a significant relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction. This result is consistent with studies of professional awareness and job satisfaction of workers which

86 showed that there is a relationship between professional status and job satisfaction (Filak and Sheldon, 2003; Peretomode, 1991 and Whawo, 1993). This result, though a positive low relationship, underscores the fact that both variables are moving towards the same direction. The disparity of 3.02 and 2.35 aggregate mean scores from the professional awareness and job satisfaction scales respectively might have resulted in the low positive relationship. Of course, we stated earlier that the professional awareness of the teachers might have been boasted by the recent strategies employed by TRCN towards ensuring full professional status of teaching. This accomplishment would have kept the variables at par if the NUT had prevailed on the Rivers State Government to implement the TSS, promote the teachers to their next various grade levels and improve their working conditions.

Influence of Gender on the Responses of the teachers on Professional Awareness There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean ratings on professional awareness. Table 4 contains the data for answering research question 4 and for the null hypothesis 2. The data revealed that the mean ratings of the male teachers were a little higher in the following: providing essential services, decisions are made according to valid principles and theories, protracted preparation programme, high level of public trust and confidence, and strong service motivation and commitment.

The female teachers’ ratings, on the hand, were higher than their male counterparts’ in the following: possessing a unique body of knowledge and skills, professional associations controlling the actual work, performance standards for admission and continuance, profession itself determines individual competence, and relative freedom from supervision of individual practitioner. On the aggregate, the female teachers had a higher mean score. This result is also consistent with Collard (2001) who said that female teachers at primary level were found to be more sensitive to professional issues and students’ needs, either as individuals or as groups. This result might be linked to interest which was triggered off by gender reform feminist theories that underscored the discrimination, parity and inequality between men and women in the society (Alvesson and Billing, 1997). The null hypothesis of no significant difference was however

87 accepted because the calculated t-value was less than the critical t-value. This means that gender is not a significant factor in determining indicators of professional awareness among the teachers.

Influence of years of experience on the responses of the teachers on professional awareness. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers on professional awareness based on years of experience. Table 5 contains the data for answering research question 5 and for the null hypothesis 3. The data revealed that the mean ratings of the teachers with < 10 years working experience were higher than those of the teachers with > 10 years experience in the following: decisions are made according to valid principles and theories, professional associations controlling the actual work, protracted preparation programme, high level of public trust and confidence, and strong service motivation and commitment. Conversely, the mean ratings of the teachers with > 10 years of working experience were higher in the following: providing essential services, possessing a unique body of knowledge and skills, performance standards for admission and continuance, profession itself determines individual competence, and relative freedom from supervision of individual practitioner. On the aggregate, the teachers with < 10 years working experience had a very little higher mean than the teachers with > 10 years working experience. It could be argued that public school system as it were suffered a lot of setbacks in the recent past, ranging from poor public attitude towards teachers to poor infrastructure. Teachers with above ten years working experience who had suffered this situation for a long period of time might lose interest in professional issues. The null hypothesis of no significant difference was accepted because the calculated t-value was less than the critical t-value. This result gained the support of Fiedler (2001) and Vanderhaar et al (2006) whose works pointed out that there was no significant difference between professional awareness and teachers’ years of experience. This means that years of experience had no influence on the determination of professional awareness among the teachers.

88 Influence of school location on the responses of the teachers on professional awareness. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers on professional awareness based on their school location. Table 6 contains the data for answering research question 6 and for the null hypothesis 4. The data revealed that the mean ratings of the rural teachers were higher than those of the urban teachers in two items: decisions are made according to valid principles and theories, and protracted preparation programme. On the other hand, the urban teachers’ mean ratings were higher in the following: providing essential services, possessing a unique body of knowledge and skills, professional associations controlling the actual work, performance standards for admission and continuance, high level of public trust and confidence, strong service motivation and commitment, profession itself determines individual competence, and relative freedom from supervision of individual practitioner. In summation, the urban teachers had a higher mean rating than the rural teachers. The above finding is consistent with Collard (2000) who stated that school location is one of the multiple factors that affect one’s professional awareness. By location, he meant the socioeconomic nature of where a school is located which could be urban or rural. He discovered that teachers in the urban areas were more conscious of the profession than the ones in the rural areas. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no difference was rejected because the calculated t-value was greater than the critical t-value. This means that school location determined the ratings of the teachers on professional awareness.

Influence of gender on the responses of the teachers on satisfaction. There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean ratings on job satisfaction. Table 7 provided the data for answering research question 7 and for null hypothesis 5. The data showed that the mean ratings of the male teachers were higher than those of the females in all the items. In summation, the female teachers were more dissatisfied than their male counterparts. When the null hypothesis was tested, it showed that the difference which existed between the mean ratings of the female and male

89 teachers on job satisfaction was significant. Hence, the null hypothesis of no significant difference is rejected. This means that gender had influence on the ratings of the teachers. This result is in agreement with the findings of Amachree (1996) who revealed that female principals were more dissatisfied with their job in Degema Local Government Area of Rivers State. It is also consistent with the positions of Forgionne and Peters (1982), and Patitu (1991) which indicated the influence of gender on job satisfaction of workers. The authors agreed that the satisfaction scale tilted towards the male workers. We might link this disparity to the fact that women teachers, despite recent gender equity campaigns, seem not to have the same status in the schools because most principals prefer male teachers to handle certain responsibilities like admissions, social activities, agriculture, games/sports, labour, hostel affairs, etc. Since, men occupy these positions with allowances; the average earnings of female teachers are lower than the case of the male teachers.

Influence of years of experience on the responses of the teachers on job satisfaction There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers on job satisfaction based on their years of experience. Table 8 provided the data for answering research question 8 and for null hypothesis 6. The results show that the mean ratings of the teachers with < 10 years of working experience were higher than those of the teachers with > 10 years working experience in their responses on the following items: working conditions, salary, quality of supervision, relationship with others, nature of job, promotion opportunities, chances for personal growth, and recognition and prestige. Conversely, the mean ratings of the teachers with > 10 years experience were higher in the following items: job security and achievement in the work. On the aggregate, the teachers with > 10 years of working experience showed more dissatisfaction than the teachers with < 10 years of working experience. However, the difference was no significant. This means that the no significant null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, years of working experience had no influence on the teachers’ mean ratings on job satisfaction. This finding is corroborated by Cyprus et al (2001), Ladebo (2005), Kniveton (1991), Borg and Falzon (1989) whose investigations reveal no significant relationship

90 between years of teaching experience and job satisfaction. It is also in agreement with the work of Asika (1985) who concluded that experience had no relationship with bankers’ job satisfaction. It equally enjoys the support of Bogotch and Reidlinger (1991) and Dinham and Scott (1996), who reported that working experience had no effect on job satisfaction of teachers. It could be argued that teachers generally in Rivers State might have felt disgusted, unsatisfied and uninterested in the system without regard to years of working experience owing to non-implementation of TSS, lack of promotions and infrastructure.

Influence of school location on the responses of the teachers on job satisfaction There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the teachers on job satisfaction based on their school location. Table 9 provided the data for answering research question 9 and for null hypothesis 7. The findings show that the mean ratings of the rural teachers were higher than those of the urban teachers in the following areas: working conditions, salary, job security, quality of supervision, relationship with others, nature of job and achievement in the work. On the contrary, the urban teachers had higher mean scores on promotion opportunities and chances for personal growth. Both categories of teachers had equal mean scores on recognition and prestige. The overall assessment of their mean scores indicated that the urban teachers were more dissatisfied. However, the difference was not significant; hence the no significant null hypothesis is accepted. This means that school location had no influence on the responses of the teachers on job satisfaction. Ikenwe (1982) reported that geographical location does not have effect on job satisfaction of workers. The results of his study on job satisfaction of Bendel State principals in urban and rural areas of the state indicated that school location had no significant effect on job satisfaction of the principals. The result of this current study is not surprising because the effect of school location on the teachers, especially on the rural teachers, has been reduced by the introduction of rural teachers’ allowance of N800.00 in Rivers State. This, to a large extent, has discouraged urban drift of teachers in the rural areas of the state.

Conclusion

91 Professional awareness and job satisfaction, as noted in this study, are essential elements for job performance and efficacy. Teaching, despite arguments about its professional status, should involve highly motivated personnel in order to realize educational objectives, having been established that no educational system can rise above its caliber of teachers. In other words, the success of any educational system lies in the teachers’ reflection on the job, values, knowledge, competences and behaviour. These precepts instigated this study, with the view to determining the level of teachers’ of knowledge indicators of professional awareness, their level of job satisfaction and the relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction. The study has proved that teachers in government owned secondary schools in Rivers State showed moderate level of knowledge of indicators of professional awareness and were not satisfied with their job.

Educational Implications Based on the findings of this study, some important educational implications can be deduced for teachers, students, educational administrators, TRCN, NUT and the government for the improvement of the teaching profession which holds the key to national development. The study brought into focus factors that indicated professional awareness among the teachers and their impact on teaching profession. The much desired full profesionalization of teaching and achievement of school objectives cannot be realized if efforts are not made to create high professional awareness among the teachers as found in professions like medicine and law. One positive implication of this study is that it has given an assessment of TRCN and NUT in their drive for professional consciousness among teachers. The TRCN in particular can use the findings of this study to assess its performance and realization of objective since 1993 when it took off. The primary responsibility of the TRCN is to professionalize and sanitize teaching in Nigeria. However, the results of this study can be viewed as having the implication that despite the fact the content of the TRCN Act is one and the same with the contents of the Acts that established the Councils that regulate and control law, medical and engineering

92 professions, teaching is yet to enjoy the status and prestige which these professions enjoy seventeen years after the establishment of TRCN. This situation could be one character of the problem of education in Nigeria, as illustrated by over 85% failure in secondary school external examinations (The Nation, 12 October, 2010). Another implication is that teachers in Rivers State are agitated and might not have been putting in their best in the school system. This is because the mean ratings on their job showed dissatisfaction. The order of their ratings could help the government and education boards to identify strategies for boasting the morale of the teachers.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations are made: 1. Consequent upon the fact that the teachers showed moderate professional awareness, efforts should be made by government and TRCN to improve or achieve high level of professional awareness as found in other professions like law and medicine. This can be achieved by controlling mode of entry and period of training of teachers. High standard of entry will make teaching less susceptible to economic principle of supply and demand which affects salaries, social status and prestige accorded to a particular occupation. 2. In view of the fact that the teachers expressed dissatisfaction with their job especially in the areas of working conditions, salary, promotion opportunities, recognition and prestige, the Rivers State Government should consider it necessary to implement the TSS 3. The government should also improve the working conditions of the teachers by creating conducive environment for teaching-learning process. 4. The NUT should be more proactive in its negotiations with government during labour disputes. This would restore confidence in the teachers. A situation whereby NUT and government agreement on TSS has not been respected in some states is capable of eroding confidence in NUT. 5. The education boards should ensure that teachers are promoted as at when due, pay fringe benefits and yearly increments to the teachers.

93 6. Based on the finding that professional awareness is significantly related to job satisfaction of the teachers, it is recommended that recruitment of teachers should be based on certification by the TRCN. Would-be teachers should be made to write a compulsory professional examination before induction as teachers. This, if well implemented, will make teaching attractive and cease to be an all-comers’ affair. 7. It has been noted that high level of job satisfaction are observed in those professions that are of good standing in society. The significant relationship shown by the findings of this study indicate that it is what every worker desires in order to provide high productivity in terms of quality and quantity. Therefore, it is recommended that gender issue, which impacted on the teachers’ responses of job satisfaction, should be aligned by the education boards with the personality of individual teachers. Principals should be gender sensitive in school appointments. 8. The education boards should integrate teachers’ demographic properties with continuous assessment and evaluation of teachers’ feelings and performance. This measure will help to underscore those demographic properties that undermine teachers’ professional knowledge and job satisfaction.

Limitations of the Study This study might be affected by the following limitations: 1. The study was done in thirty selected schools in Rivers State, and this might affect generalization of the findings of the study. Further studies might be needed in a wider scope, eg national level. 2. Data collection occurred at the time most teachers were involved in marking promotion examination scripts, trying to beat deadlines. This timing made some teachers to hurriedly complete the questionnaire and the situation might have affected their responses.

Suggestions for Further Research This study may have contributed to the improvement of the teaching profession in Rivers State of Nigeria. However, it may not have completely explored all the areas that might

94 contribute immensely to the development and full professionalization of teaching in Nigeria. The researcher therefore suggests that further investigations be carried out in similar or in different contexts. The areas suggested for further research are: a. The researcher investigated secondary school teachers without having to distinguish between teachers in the junior secondary school and those in the senior secondary school, it is therefore suggested that further studies be done along such divide. b. Samples for this study were drawn from public secondary schools, and so it is suggested that similar study be done in private schools. This will help to clarify the difference between private and public school teachers.

Summary of the Study Professional awareness is the state of being conscious of one’s profession which finds expression in the professional’s attitude to work, perception of work, work satisfaction and job protection by the professional body. Professional awareness and job satisfaction are therefore related. Professionals enjoy some benefits which find expression in power, economic position, and prestige. Teachers therefore cannot be an exception; they would not only like to be addressed as professionals but would also like to enjoy the gains of professionalization. Consequently, the study sought to determine the indicators of professional awareness and job satisfaction, with a focus on their relationship. To guide this study, the following research questions were posed: 1. What is the teachers’ knowledge of the indicators of professional awareness? 2 What is the level of job satisfaction among the teachers? 3 What is the extent of correlation between professional awareness and job satisfaction? 4. How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based gender? 5. How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on years of experience?

95 6. How do the teachers differ in their responses on professional awareness based on school location? 7. How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on gender? 8. How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on years of experience? 9. How do the teachers differ in their responses on job satisfaction based on school location?

To answer these research questions, the following hypotheses were postulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. 1. There is no significant relationship between professional awareness and job satisfaction. 2. There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean ratings on professional awareness. 3. There is no significant difference between teachers of less than 10 years of experience and above 10 years in their mean ratings on professional awareness.. 4. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers on professional awareness. 5. There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ mean ratings on job satisfaction. 6. There is no significant difference between teachers of less than 10 years of experience and above 10 years in their mean ratings on job satisfaction. 7. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the rural and urban teachers on job satisfaction. There is an evidence of general consensus from literature that teaching is not a full profession in the strict sense of the assessment of a profession because it does not possess some of the characteristics of professions like law and medicine. The review showed that job satisfaction could be seen as a multi-dimensional construct, involving satisfaction with the various facets of one’s job because there are contradictions in the findings, views and opinions of researchers and authors in terms of the consistency of any one factor in

96 promoting job satisfaction of employees. Besides, most works on teaching professional carried out in Nigeria did not capture its relationship with job satisfaction. A correlational research design was used in the study. A total of 692 teachers (213 female and 479 male) were used for the study. Eight research assistants were used in administering the instruments in some of the schools. “Teachers’ Professional Awareness and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire” (TEPAJOSAQ) was the instrument used for the study. It was adapted from the work of Sadker and Sadker (2005) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) cited in the work of Greenberg and Baron (2000). The internal consistency reliability coefficient of 0.63 and 0.68 were obtained for the two clusters through Cronbach alpha technique. The data collected were analysed using mean, standard deviation, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient for the research questions, while the t-test statistics was applied for their corresponding null hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results of the findings showed that: 1. All the indicators tested revealed professional awareness among the teachers. 2 The teachers were not satisfied with their job. 3 A significant low positive relationship existed between professional awareness and job satisfaction. 4 Gender and years of experience had no significant influence on the teachers’ professional awareness rating scale, while school location showed a significant difference in their ratings. 5 Gender influenced the ratings of the teachers on job satisfaction, while years of experience and school location did not. The findings of the study were extensively discussed; their educational implications and recommendations were highlighted. Suggestions for further research and limitations of the study were also given.

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110 APPENDIX I INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA. This questionnaire titled: “Teachers’ Professional Awareness and Job Satisfaction Questionnaire” (TPAJSQ) has been designed to measure professional awareness as a correlate of job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Rivers State of Nigeria. Therefore, it is necessary that you respond sincerely to the items of the questionnaire. All the information you supply will be held strictly in confidence. Thanks for your anticipated co-operation. INSTRUCTION: Please mark X in one of the following boxes appropriate to you below.

1. Sex: Male Female

2. Years of experience: less than 10 years above 10 years

3. School location: urban area rural area

4. Academic qualification: NCE First Degree

M.Ed PGDE Ph.D .

111 PART B1: TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL AWARENESS SCALE The following statements are designed to find out your S/N knowledge or consciousness of membership of, and the SA A D SD issues of concern to the teaching profession. Please read them carefully and indicate one level: strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), strongly disagree (SD) with each statement. Tick your response under the appropriate column 1. The teaching profession provides essential services to the individual and society (eg counseling, disciplining of children, teaching of skills, etc) 2. The profession possesses a unique body of knowledge and skills (professional culture). 3. Professional decisions are made in accordance with valid knowledge, principles, and theories. 4. Professional associations control the actual work and conditions of the profession (e.g., admissions, standards, licensing). 5. There are performance standards for admission to and continuance in the profession. 6. Preparation for and induction into the profession requires a protracted preparation program, usually in a college or university professional school. 7. There is a high level of public trust and confidence in the profession and in the skills and competence of its members. 8. Individual practitioners are characterized by a strong service motivation and lifetime commitment to competence. 9. The profession itself determines individual competence. 10. There is relative freedom from direct or public job supervision of the individual practitioner, ie the professional accepts this responsibility and is accounTable through his or her profession to the society.

112 PART B2: TEACHERS’ JOB SATISFACTION SCALE S/N Please indicate the extent to which you are satisfied with VS S D VD each aspect of your present job: very satisfied (VS), satisfied (S), dissatisfied (D), very dissatisfied (VD). Tick your response under the appropriate column 11 Working conditions 12 Salary 13 Job security 14 Quality of supervision 15 Relationship with others 16 Nature of the job 17 Achievement in the work 18 Promotion opportunities 19 Chances for personal growth 20 Recognition and prestige

113 APPENDIX II List of Public Secondary Schools in Rivers State and Teacher Enrolment

S/N SCHOOL MALE TEACHERS FEMALE TEACHERS TOTAL ABOLGA 1. C.S.S EMAGO KUGBO 5 - 5 2. C.S.S OTAPHA 3 3 6 3. G.C.S.S OGONOKOM 6 - 6 4. G.C.S.S OKPEDEN 3 3 6 5. A.C.S.S ANYU 6 6 12 6. G.S.S ABUA 5 - 5 7. G.G.S.S ABUA 3 2 5 8. G.S.S EGBOLOM 8 2 10 9. C.C.S.S OKOBOH 4 1 5 10. G.S.S EMELEGO 4 - 4 11. E.C.S.S 8 - 8 ALGA-EAST 12. K.S.S IHUABA 3 2 5 13. C.C.S.S OKPOROWO 6 1 7 14. G.G.S.S AHOADA 13 5 18 15. C.S.S ODIEMERENYI 9 2 11 16. C.S.S OZOCHI 7 - 7 17. CSS OKPOROMINI 4 1 5 18. UICSS EDEOHA 8 - 8 19. GSS OGBO 11 3 14 20. UIICSS ODIABIDI 5 1 6 21. C.S.S IHUGBOGO 3 2 5 22. WACHS AHOADA 17 6 23 23. GSS AHOADA 20 3 23 ALGA-WEST 24. GCSS MBIAMA 6 - 6 25. CSS AKINIMA 5 - 5 26. GSS OKARKI 7 - 7 27. UCSS ULA-UBIE 9 2 11 28. JGS JONKRAMA 11 - 11 29. UCSS IDU-EKPEYE 5 - 5 30. CSS UBARAMA 3 2 5 31. KSS OKOGBE 4 1 5 32. GSS UPTATABO 5 1 6 33. JGSS JONKARAMA 5 1 6 34. GSS UBETA 4 2 6 35. CSS OYIGBA 5 - 5 36. CSS IKODI 4 1 5 AKULGA 37. AGSS ABONNEMA 3 4 7 38. CSS OBONOMA 5 - 5

114 39. GSS ABISSA 3 - 3 40. CSS KULA 4 1 5 41. GSS IDAMA 3 1 4 42. NGS IDAMA 8 1 9 ANOLGA 43. GCSS ATABA 3 1 4 44. CSS EKEDE 4 1 5 45. GSS NGO 9 - 9 46. CSS IBOTIREM 3 1 4 47. CSS UNYEADA 4 - 4 48. CSS EBUKUMA 5 - 5 49. CSS AGWUT- 6 - 6 50. CSS DEMA 5 - 5 51. CSS IKWURU-TOWN 3 - 3 52. CSS ASARAMA 5 - 5 ASALGA 53. CSS ABALAMA 4 1 5 54. CSS KRAKRAMA 5 - 5 55. KCC BUGUMA 7 3 10 56. WEC BUGUMA 3 1 4 57. CSS IFOKO 4 - 4 58. CSS MINAMA 3 - 3 59. CSS OPROAMA 4 - 4 60. CSS IDO 6 - 6 61. KNC BUGUMA 3 - 3 62. GCSS ANGULAMA 4 - 4 63. KGHS BUGUMA 3 4 7 BONNY 64. CSS BONNY 4 1 5 65. BNGS BONNY 7 3 10 66. GGSS FINIMA 2 2 4 67. CSS BURUKIRI 2 1 3 DELGA 68. GSS TOMBIA 5 1 6 69. CSS BILLE 4 1 5 70. CSS TOMBIA 2 2 4 71. DNHS DEGEMA 4 - 4 72. CSS BUKUMA 3 1 4 73. CSS OBUAMA 5 1 6 74. GSS USOKUN 4 1 5 75. OBHS BAKANA 3 1 4 76. SSGHS BAKANA 3 - 3 77. GSS KE 4 - 4 78. BMSS OLD-BAKANA 3 - 3 ELGA 79. UCSS ODUFOR 5 - 5 80. CSS ISU 5 - 5

115 81. CSS UMUOYE 8 - 8 82. CSS ODAGWA 11 - 11 83. CSS NIHI 14 2 16 84. CSS IGBO 14 4 18 85. CGS IWERRE/ETCHE 18 3 21 86. CSS EGWI 5 1 6 87. CSS OBITE 1 6 7 88. GSS OZUZU 4 1 5 89. EGSS UMUOLA 4 1 5 90. CSS ULAKWO 14 3 17 91. GSS NDASHI 6 1 7 92. GSS OKEHI 8 1 9 93. CSS EGBU 5 1 6 94. CSS UMUOZOCHE 6 - 6 95. CSS OKOROAGU 9 1 10 ELELGA 96. GSS ONNE 13 5 18 97. CHS ALESA-ELEME 25 12 37 98. CSS ELEME 18 3 21 99. CSS EBUBU 17 6 23 100. CSS ALODE 13 8 21 101. CSS ETEO 10 2 12 EMOLGA 102. CGSS OKPOROWO 8 1 9 103. GSS EMOHUA 16 6 22 104. CSS RUMUJI 10 5 15 105. CSS EGBEDA 8 - 8 106. IGSS IBAA 6 - 6 107. CSS ELELE-ALIMINI 13 1 14 108. CSS AHAI 9 1 10 109. GSS OKPOROWO OGBAKIRI 3 1 4 110. RCGSS OMOFOR-EGAMINI 5 2 7 111. WEC RUMUJI 3 3 6 112. RHS AGBA NDELE 4 - 4 113. UCHS IBAA 7 2 9 114. CSS OMUDIOGA 16 - 16 115. OCSS RUMUEKWOR 6 - 6 116. CSS ODUOHA 11 3 14 117. CSS NDELE 10 1 11 118. CSS OBELLE 6 - 6 119. CSS RUMUEKPE 4 1 5 120. CSS ELIBRADA 8 1 9 GOLGA 121. BYCSS YEGHE 13 1 14 122. CSS BOKW 7 - 7 123. CSS K-DERE 5 1 6 124. CSS NWEOL 14 - 14

116 125. CSS MOGHO 9 - 9 126. CSS BIARA 9 2 11 127. BCGSS BODO 17 3 20 128. SPC BODO-CITY 21 4 25 129. CSS BERA 18 - 18 130. CSS B-DERE 13 - 13 131. CSS DEKEN 6 2 8 132. GSS KPOR 13 1 14 KELGA 133. CSS OMAGWA 12 - 12 134. GSS OMERELU 9 2 11 135. GSS ISIOKPO 13 1 14 136. CGSS ISIOPKO 19 7 26 137. CSS ELELE 9 6 17 138. CSS UBIMA 11 - 11 139. CCSS APANI 6 - 6 140. CSS OMADEME 5 - 5 141. SASS ELELE 15 1 16 142. ICSS IGWURUTA 23 9 32 143. CSS OMUANWA 9 - 9 144. GASS ELELE 26 1 27 145. CSS ALUU 13 4 17 KHALGA 146. CSS KPEAN 14 2 16 147. GSS LYAWII 13 - 13 148. CSS OKWALE 6 1 7 149. CSS LUEKU 150. KSS KONO 8 - 8 151. CSS UEGWERE-BOUE 8 - 8 152. CSS BUAKO 6 - 6 153. CSS KAANI 13 - 13 154. CSS LORRE 7 1 8 155. BNCSS GWARA 12 - 12 156. GSS SOGHO 9 1 10 157. MHS BANE 7 3 10 158. CSS KONO-BOUE 5 - 5 159. KCSS KABANGHA 8 3 11 160. BMGS BORI 35 - 35 161. GSS LUMENE 4 - 4 162. GSS KAA 27 - 28 163. CSS BORI 29 18 57 164. BHS BEERI 7 - 7 165. CSS WIIYAAKAR 7 2 9 166. HE TAABAA 4 1 5 167. GCHS TAABAA 18 1 19 OBALGA 168. GGSS RUMUOKWUTA 70 60 130

117 169. CCSS RUMUOKWURUSHI 37 42 59 170. CSS RUMUEKINI 24 30 54 171. GSS ENEKA 28 28 56 172. CSS RUMUAPARA 28 30 58 173. CSS OKORO-NU-ODO 29 28 47 174. ADSS BORI-CAMP 19 41 60 175. CBSS ELELENWO 13 26 37 176. OCSS OGINIGBA 15 25 40 177. AGS OZUOBA 23 19 41 178. GGSS RUMUEME 39 48 87 179. CSS OGBOGBO 18 14 32 180. CSS MGBUOSIMINI 42 21 63 181. CSS RUMULUMENI 20 14 34 OBOLGA 182. GSS ELE-OGU 9 1 10 183. GSS OGU 4 - 4 184. CSS BOLO 3 1 4 OKRIKA 185. ONSS OKRIKA 6 3 9 186. OGS OKRIKA 14 2 16 187. CSS OKOCHIRI 7 3 10 188. GGSS OKUMGBA-AMA 4 3 10 189. CSS KALIO-AMA 10 1 11 190. CSS OGAN-AMA 6 1 7 OMULGA 191. CSS AMAJI 4 1 5 192. GSS EBERI 4 1 5 193. CSS UMUOGBA 6 - 6 ONELGA 194. GSS NDONI 16 2 18 195. CSS OBRIKOM 15 - 15 196. CSS OSIAKPU 8 2 10 197. GSS AKABUKA 7 - 7 198. CSS EREMA 14 1 15 199. CSS OBAGI 5 4 9 200. CSS OBOBURU 4 - 4 201. EGS OKWUZI 10 - 10 202. CSS OBIGWE 7 3 10 203. CGSS OMOKU 7 9 16 204. ICHS OBOSWKWU-IDU 6 - 6 205. CGSS AGGAH 4 1 5 206. GSS KERIGANI 8 1 9 207. SMHS OMOKU 21 4 25 ONOLGA 208. CHS NKORO 2 1 3 209. CSS KALAIBIAMA 3 2 5 210. CSS OPBO 6 - 6

118 OYILGA 211. GSS UMUAGBAI 4 2 6 212. GSS OYIGBO 14 19 33 213. CSS OBETE 6 1 7 214. CSS EGBERU 8 1 9 PHALGA 215. WEC PORT HARCOURT - 7 7 216. GSS EZEKAHIA 40 42 82 217. CSS ABULOMA 52 18 70 218. EHS PORT HARCOURT 19 24 43 219. GSS BORIKIRI P.H 15 20 35 220. CSS NKPOLU 37 43 80 221. GGSS OROMINEKE 21 31 52 222. GGSS HARBOUR RD. P.H 20 19 39 223. GCSS BORIKIRI P.H 23 26 49 224. SSHC PORT HARCOURT 11 48 59 225. CSS AMADI-AMA 15 20 35 226. CSS ORUWORUKWO 28 47 75 TALGA 227. GSS KPITE 13 3 16 228. CSS KOROMA-TAI 5 1 6 229. CSS KIRA-TAI 10 - 10 230. CSS BOTEM 5 - 5 231. CSS KOROKO-TAI 9 - 9 232. CCSS NONWA-GBAM 12 1 13 233. CSS BAN-OGOI 4 - 4 234. CSS BUNU-TAI 7 - 7 235. CGSS SIME-TAI 12 2 14 236. CSS KPORGHOR 12 2 14

Source: Ministry of Education, Port Harcourt, 2009

APPENDIX III Population Distribution

119 Table 1: Population distribution of teachers in Rivers State secondary schools according to location and sex. Location Male Teachers Female Teachers Total Rural 1709 296 2005 Urban 684 771 1455 Total 2393 1067 3460

Table 2: Proportionate Distribution of the sample according to location and sex Male Female Total Rural 342 59 401 Urban 137 154 291 Total 479 213 692

APPENDIX IV Names and Addresses of Research Assistants

1. Mr. Ebere Nwala

120 Egwi Etche, Rivers State

2 Mr. Promise Nwonuala Afara Etche, Rivers State

3 Mrs. Peace Anunobi Community Secondary School, Nkpolu

4 Mr. Nweke Oluikpe Principal, Government Secondary School, Eberi

5 Mrs. Jonah Nwogu Government Secondary School, Emohua

6 Mrs. Ngozi Ibim Community Secondary School, Rumuolumeni

7 Mr. Clement Nwogu Nihi Etche, Rivers State

8 Mrs. Iroegbu Happiness Government Girls Secondary School Rumuokwuta

APPENDIX V LIST OF SCHOOLS INVESTIGATED AND LOCATION

S/N Name of School Location

121 1 GGSS Ahoada Rural 2 GSS Eberi Rural 3 UCSS Ula-Ubie Rural 4 JGS Jonkrama Rural 5 CSS Kporghor Rural 6 OGS Okrika Rural 7 BNGS Bonny Rural 8 CSS Ebubu Rural 9 CSS Nihi Rural 10 CSS Igbo Rural 11 CGS Ikwerre/Etche Rural 12 CSS Odagwa Rural 13 CSS Ulakwo Rural 14 GSS Okehi Rural 15 CHS Alesa Eleme Rural 16 CSS Alode Rural 17 GSS Emohua Rural 18 ICSS Igwuruta Rural 19 CSS Elele-Alimini Rural 20 GSS Bori Rural 21 CSS Bera Rural 22 BMGS Bori Rural 23 GASS Elele Rural 24 GGSS Rumuokwuta Urban 25 GGSS Rumueme Urban 26 CSS Rumuolumeni Urban 27 CSS Nkpolu Urban 28 CSS Mgbuosimini Urban 29 GSS Eneka Urban 30 GSS Elekahia Urban

122