SrI Transforming Rice Production with SRI (System of Rice Intensification) Knowledge and Practice

Reducing Agriculture Foot Print and Ensuring Food Security

T.M.Thiyagarajan 2 Biksham Gujja 1 0 2

NATIONAL CONSORTIUM OF SRI (NCS)

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C O N T E N T S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

SRI is known in India since 2000. The awareness on SRI to the scientific community had been very lukewarm and limited to a few individuals. When the benefits of SRI were known from field experimentations and evaluations in farmers' fields, SRI extension began slowly from 2003 onwards. Once Civil Society Organizations showed their interest in promoting SRI there has been a tremendous boost to popularize SRI. Unfortunately there has been very little research interest on the innovative principles of SRI that could be applied to other crops also. Today SRI is known in all rice growing areas of the country but the adoption by rice farmers has been limited to some areas where there is sustained extension campaign. Policy support has been extended by some state Governments but a national thrust is still evading.

The benefits of SRI is multifold, especially in resource conservation (water, land, energy, seeds and labour), rice production and addressing the challenges of climate change. Thus, SRI requires a serious attention from national policy makers.

Being a knowledge intensive approach rather than input intensive modern agriculture, adoption of SRI by farmers requires several knowledge disposal mechanisms and hands on experience in carrying out the SRI practices. Though the effect of SRI principles on the rice soils and rice crop is still to be understood more thoroughly, sufficient scientific explanations are available on the better performance of rice crop under SRI.

This book is an attempt to explain the origin, principles and practices of SRI and the developments so far in communicating the importance of SRI to rice farmers, students, scientists and policy makers so that the material could be used for extension, research and policy support. The contents have been assembled from various sources, especially from SRI websites, WWF-ICRISAT project and its partner organizations and Institutes, presentations made in national SRI symposia, publications and reports on SRI, field visits and interaction with farmers.

The authors wish to thank the following who all helped to make this book possible : Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univsersity , Coimbatore Andhra Pradesh N.G. Ranga Agricultural Univsersity, Hyderabad Directorate of Rice research, Hyderabad Agriculture Man Ecology Foundation, Bengaluru Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai Directorate of Rice Development, Patna Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Modernization and Water Bodies Restoration and Management project Indian Council of Agricultural Research International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development Professional Assistance for Development Action Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, Mumbai Watershed Support Services and Activities Network, Hyderabad Dr. Shambu Prasad, Xavier Institute of Business Management, Bhubaneshwar and Dr. B.C. Barah, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi have been catalysts in bring out this publication with constant encouragement.

Our special thanks to Dr. Norman Uphoff, Cornell University who has been the guiding force in exposing SRI to the rice world and consistently trying to convince scientists, farmers, CSOs and policy makers on the importance of SRI in the context of current problems faced with rice production. His publications and presentations has helped a lot to shape up this book. Above all, Dr. Uphoff has helped to improve the contents of this book by editing it twice.

Some of photos included in this book are sourced from power point presentations and websites and we place our sincere thanks to the concerned authors.

We are grateful to all the colleagues Dr.V.Vinod Goud, Dr. N. Loganandhan, Mr. Sraban Kumar Dalai, Ms.Manisha Agarwal, Mr. TVVV Rao and Ms. R.Suhasini of the former WWF-ICRISAT Project and AgSri who have offered their support in several ways. Our special thanks to Dr.V.Vinod Goud for his sustained interest and help in completing the process of bringing out the book.

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr.M.S.Swaminathan, Dr.Ayyappan and Dr.Norman Uphoff for readily agreeing to write the foreword.

T.M. Thiyagarajan

Biksham Gujja FOREWORD

Rice is life to a majority of people in Asia. The cultivation of rice represents both a way of life and a means to livelihood. Enormous progress has been made since World War II in improving the productivity and profitability of Indica rice. Such progress has been due to the development of semi dwarf, non-lodging and photo insensitive strains based on the DEE-GEE-WUN gene from China. Later, hybrid rice became a reality, thanks to the identification of cytoplasmic male sterile genes from Hainan Island in China. Higher yields also require higher inputs, particularly fertilizer and pesticides. Breeding for high yield should therefore be accompanied with methods of feeding the rice plant for high yield. This has to be done in a manner that the contribution of rice to climate change is minimized. Also, environmental problems associated with the excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides will have to be avoided.

About 25 years ago, when I was at the International Rice Research Institute, I organized a meeting jointly with the World Health Organisation on methods of avoiding the breeding of malarial mosquito in rice fields. We came to the conclusion that it will be important to introduce alternate drying and wetting in the field, so that the mosquito breeding cycle is disrupted. Flood irrigation will have to be avoided. These approaches led to the development of the Asian Network on Sustainable Rice Farming. Meanwhile, thanks to the tireless efforts of Dr Norman Uphoff of the Cornell University a procedure of rice agronomy knows as “The System of Rice Intensification (SRI)” was developed. The present publication gives information on the work done by Drs Thiyagarajan and Dr Biksham Gujja on the development of the SRI System of rice cultivation. SRI helps to reduce the quantity of irrigation water needed and also involves much lower seed rate. When properly adopted, SRI helps to increase yield and income per drop of water.

This method originally developed in Madagascar has now spread in various rice growing countries. It will be particularly suitable for adoption in conjunction with hybrid rice since there will be considerable saving on seed rate. I hope this timely book will be read widely and used for increasing the productivity, profitability and sustainability of rice farming in our country. The techniques described in the Book are particularly relevant in the context of climate change. Therefore, SRI should become an important component of climate resilient agriculture.

Prof M S SWAMINATHAN Member of Parliament (Rajya Sabha)

Chairman, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation Third Cross Street, Taramani Institutional Area Chennai - 600 113

2nd Feb, 2012 FOREWORD

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) technology emphasizes on making effective utilization of resources, especially water and use of organic manures. System of rice intensification is a technology development to save water and also enhance the rice yield. The main feature of the method is raising raised bed nursery, transplanting young 8-10 day old seedling with a wider spacing, maintaining water to saturation level, weeding and incorporation weeds in the soil and application of organic fertilizers. System of Rice intensification is primary aimed to save water. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) first SRI introduced in India in 2000 when researchers at the initiated experiments involving SRI principles in a collaborative project on growing rice with less water. The results of experimentation and their validation on farmers' fields revealed an average increase in grain yield by 1.5 tons/ha in both basins with reduced input requirements and even 8% reduction in labor requirement. This evaluation provided a basis for officially recommending SRI adoption to farmersin2004. The area under SRI increased in Tamil Nadu from 4.209 mha during 2007-08; to 8.160 mha by 2010-11 with average yield of 7-8 MT. Significant yield increases under SRI over conventional irrigated rice cultivation, generated nationwide interest.

The SRI results in saving of 30-40% irrigation water; 85% in seed, chemical fertilizer, and promotes soil microbial activity which improves the soil health. SRI even offers advantages for seed multiplication. On account of multiple advantages, the SRI is gaining popularity in several states.

The present publication entitled “Transforming Rice Production with SRI Knowledge and Practice” covers all majors topics of SRI such as Main field preparation and Transplanting; Water Management; Nutrient Management; Weed Management; Pests and Diseases in SRI; Effects of SRI on soil and Crop; Benefits of SRI; Sri Extension, Adoption and Constraints; and Rice Market.

The efforts of Dr. T.M. Thiyagarajan , Former Director (Center for Soil and Crop Management Studies), Coimbatore and Former Dean, Agriculture College & Research institute, Killikulam and Dr. Biksham Gujja, Founder and Chairman of AgSri deserve appreciation for compiling latest information on this important subject for sustainable rice cultivation in india. It is hoped that the publication will be prove to be highly useful to the researchers, students, development officials and farmers, alike.

S. Ayyappan Director General Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) New Delhi 13th January, 2012 FOREWORD

'Rice is life' has become a worldwide mantra since the International Year of Rice in 2004. This is true more for India than for most other countries, as explained in this book. However, it is also true that both rice and life are now in some peril because of a confluence of trends that could become 'a perfect storm' with terrible consequences.

The rice sector in most countries but especially in India faces diminishing quantity and quality of both the land and water resources that it needs for growing rice. Moreover, rice producers face rising costs forfertilizer and agrochemical inputs, and there are diminishing returns to fertilizer in many areas, with certain pests and diseases developing resistance to biocides. This makes the input-dependent strategies of 'modern agriculture' less cost-effective and less sustainable.

The constraints presented by climate change are growing year by year, with high and low extremes of both temperature and rainfall increasingly affecting rice and other crops. Monoculture and a shrinking pool of geneticresources have ratcheted up our vulnerability to crop failure,which is a possibleconsequence of the prevailinggenocentricstrategy for agricultural development. And overall, production shortfalls portend rising prices that will adversely affect one-third of the world's people who depend on rice for much of their sustenance, especially the poorest households in every country.

Some of these problems – declines in soil health and fertility, the cost-price squeeze affecting farmers, agrochemical pollution of water and especially groundwater – are directly associated with the technologies associated with the Green Revolution. While this produced many benefits for both farmers and consumers in the latter third of the previous century, this strategywas best suited to better-endowed regions and farmers,and it did not uplift lives across the board. In recent years, the yield gains fromthis technological approach have slackened while its associated costs, both economic and environmental, have been accumulating.

The question arises -- for researchers, for policy makers, and especially for farmers -- what should be done now for an encore? Can we succeed in meeting the food needs for our still-growing populations by doing essentially more of the same? Or must some other directions be developed?

As this book lays out, there is at least one very promising new path to pursue, one that applies and takes advantage of various agroecological principles and practices. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI)is not a new technology, not a fixed package of practices. Rather it is a set of ideas and insights, some old and some new, all focused on how to get more benefit from available resources. SRI concepts and methods are showing how to create better growing environments for rice and other plants, thereby raising the productivity of the resources -land, labor, water, seeds, and capital - that are already controlled by farmers.

This book places SRI's innovations in crop management within the context of Indian history and culture, moving from traditional rituals to contemporary pest and disease control, from local indigenous rice varieties to global marketing. It covers an encompassing range of topics, including specifics about how SRI can be utilized, and why its practices achieve the remarkable gains in productivity that are reported from most if not all situations.

The validity of SRI's alternative management principles has been demonstrated in a wide range of circumstances, from high mountain regions in northern Afghanistan (Thomas and Ramzi, 2011) to the edge of the Sahara Desert in the Timbuktu region of Mali (Styger et al., 2011), from the marshes of southern Iraq (Hameed et al., 2011) to the tropical conditions of The Gambia (Ceesay et al., 2007) and Panama (Turmel et al., 2011). This book presents SRI in the many and highly-varied contexts of India, which itself embodies a kind of global agroecological diversity.

Two of the persons who have given the most leadership to the introduction and spread of SRI in India have collaborated to produce this book. Rather than stand on the sidelines when they first learned about SRI opportunities, or become deniers without doing proper empirical evaluations, both in their respective states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh took up the challenge of understanding and testing the claims and mechanisms of SRI. They sought to determine whether, where, to what extent, and at what cost, could the reported advantages of SRI management be achieved by farmers -- and how could these benefit farmers, consumers, and the environment.

Dr. T.M. Thiyagarajan, while director of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University's Center for Crop and Soil Management, was the first agricultural scientist in India to take SRI ideas seriously enough to test them under trial conditions, starting in 2000. He subsequently supervised on-farm comparison trials on a broader scale in the Tamiraparani and Cauvery river basins in 2003-04. Having demonstrated significant impacts convincingly --such as net income per hectare of $519 with SRI management compared with $242 using standard practices -- Thiyagarajan got the university, the state's Department of Agriculture, and then the World Bank's India office to become engaged with further evaluation and promotion of SRI, leading to Tamil Nadu's becoming the leading state for SRI in India.

Starting in 2004 in the neighboring state of AP, Dr. Biksham Gujja, a senior advisor for the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) based in Gland, Switzerland, launched a three-year evaluation of SRI methods after he learned about SRI. This research was done under WWF's joint Dialogue Project on Food, Water and Environment with the International Crop Research Centre for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hyderabad.The study involved scientists from the state's agricultural university (ANGRAU), the Directorate of Rice Research for the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), and ICRISAT.

With extensive and systematic data confirming SRI advantages for both raising productivity and for saving water, taking pressure off already water-stressed ecological systems, Gujja with WWF support and then other agencies' contributions convened a series of National Colloquia on SRI – in Hyderabad in 2006, in Agartala in 2007, and in Coimbatoire in 2008 – to consolidate experience and learning about SRI from all over India.

By the third colloquium, with 350 participants coming from states and territories that represented>98% of India's population, the evidence was clear that Indian governments, NGOs, banks, private sector, and particularly its farmers should be capitalizing on the new opportunities that SRI was opening up for rice production, and even for other crops beyond rice.

This book shares with readers what Drs. Thiyagarajan and Gujja have learned about the Indian rice sector in general – its history, its constraints, its challenges – and about SRI in particular – its potentials, its mechanisms, its limitations, its variations, and its continuing evolution. They embrace and endorse the emphasis in SRI upon farmer participation and adaptation to local conditions, an approach rather different from that of the Green Revolution. This earlier strategy regarded farmers more as adopters than as adapters. SRI in contrast, rather than enjoining farmers to follow certain instructions, expects them to understand and utilize principles of good agronomy. Italso invites farmers to contribute to an ongoing a process of empirically-grounded improvement such as that which launched SRI in Madagascar under the guidance of Fr. Henri de Laulanié in the early 1980s. I have been privileged to work with these fine colleagues and with many others like them in India over the past decade, and to work with them in the finalization of this book. The introduction, adaptation and spread of SRI in their country has been truly a collective enterprise with a great variety of individuals from many walks of life, from PhD agronomists to farmers to senior IAS officers to NGO workers to journalists to teachers, all contributing in their respective ways. The spread has been propelled by three powerful motive forces that are often underestimated: ideas, ideals, and friendship. These I learned about from a previous engagement with farmers and professional colleagues in Sri Lanka, seeking to introduce and improve participatory irrigation management there (Uphoff, 1996; Wijayaratna and Uphoff, 1997; Uphoff and Wijayaratna, 2000). The SRI experience has confirmed how potent these three factors, more mental than material, can be.

The SRI story is about more than agriculture; it is equally about people, their needs, their capabilities, their limitations, their altruism, and their creativity. It is about social, economic, cultural and other relational phenomena as much as it is about physical and material relationships. In many respects, SRI is about potentials – socio-cultural and bio-physical – and about the expression of potentials within plant seeds, within soil systems (Uphoff et al., 2006), and within human minds and spirits.

While we can gain much knowledge by working within certain areas of inquiry, usually delimited in disciplinary terms, there is much more knowledge beyond this to be gained by working across disciplines and even across domains as broad as the bio-physical, the socio-cultural, and the political-economic. Indeed, we can gain even more by working across sectors, institutions and statuses. SRI would not have reached its present stage without farmers themselves making important contributions to the improvement of SRI thinking and practice and to the dissemination of this innovation to peers.

SRI originated from the close working relationships between a French priest and hundreds of Malagasy farmers, all focused on drawing out the maximum productivity from plant seeds and from their supportive growing conditions. This kind of collaborative bond should be maintained and extended, beyond rice and to other areas where problem-solving and innovation are needed. The challenges of the 21st century, from food security and coping with climate change to creating productive livelihoods and achieving better governance, cannot be dealt with just through the endeavors of specialists, however diligent. While their knowledge needs to be expanded and utilized in our problem-solving efforts, the advances seen with SRI should encourage, even embolden us to proceed with more participatory, democratized enlistment of ideas and commitments from all walks of life.

I believe that India has opened enough doors and minds now in the 21st century that it can in the next few decades make up for many past deficits. India's human resources are immense. But they must, in the first instance, be adequately fed and nourished. The exploitation of SRI potentials will not solve all of the problems of India, or of any other country. But especially if the agroecological insights of SRI can make the production of rice and other food crops more efficient and more sustainable, surmounting these other challenges can become more possible. Conversely, if we cannot assure every personanadequate, inexpensive and healthful sustenance, it is unlikely that we can succeed with the many other challenges that we face. Jai SRI!

Norman Uphoff Ithaca, New York, USA November 17, 2011 1 RICE BASICS

For more than half of humanity, Brown (unmilled) rice is embraced by people in Indonesia, rice is life itself. Life and appreciated as a healthy food for and later in Japan, over the next livelihood without rice is simply the treatment of hypertension 2,000 years. Rice spread to unthinkable. This grain has and Type II diabetes, and rice Europe at a much later date, with shaped the cultures, diets, bran oil inhibits cholesterol the invasion of the Moors in 700 livelihoods and economies of synthesis and lowers blood A.D. In the last 400 to 500 years, most of Asia. pressure. Rice wine, traditionally rice travelled to the New World prepared in Asia, is still the major with the initial explorers and Rice produces the maximum alcoholic beverage in East Asia. settlers calories per unit of land among (http://www.encyclopedia.com/to all the cereals, and this feature, The coarse, silica-rich hulls or pic/rice.aspx). combined with the capacity of husks of rice can be used to rice plants to withstand make briquettes, construction Rice is grown on an estimated 155 inundation and their ability to material, and are even used as million ha in 114 countries, in an adapt to varied climatic and fuel. Rice straw, except from the area lying between the latitudes agricultural conditions, accounts modern varieties, is still an 53° north and 35° south. Asia for the crop's importance. China, important cattle feed throughout accounts for nine of the top ten India and Indonesia, three of the Asia. Because rice flour is nearly rice-producing countries. four most populous countries in pure starch and free from Globally, the 55 percent of the the world, are the highest allergens, it is the main area under rice cultivation that is producers and consumers of rice. component of many infant irrigated contributes 75 percent formulas and face powders. Its of the total rice production (Photo Rice ensures food security for low fibre content makes rice 1.1) people in many parts of the globe. powder quite suitable for This is reflected in the recent polishing camera lenses and increases in rice production in expensive jewellery Latin America and Africa, (http://jeanross.ricepurple.com/A especially in the lower-income /index.htm). and food-deficient countries. In Europe, rice is the major crop in Rice is a versatile crop grown in certain regions of Italy and Spain, all most all agro-climatic zones and rice-based dishes are except at very high altitudes. The gradually substituting for other cultivation of rice as an important traditional dishes in Europe and agricultural crop really began the Americas, at least for some only after the techniques of meals. Today, rice is widely puddling and transplanting consumed all around the world. developed. These techniques, used in rice paddy cultivation, Rice is used in a number of were initially practiced in the different ways, sometimes far wetlands of China and were later removed from its traditional uses adopted in Southeast Asia, that one would be aware of. It is roughly 4,000 years ago. From used in the preparation of infant thereon, these wetland foods, snacks, breakfast cereals, cultivation techniques were beer, and fermented products.

09 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 1.1 Typical irrigated ecosystem in a delta

The name of the grain used globally, rice, probably has its roots in India. According to the Microsoft Encarta Dictionary (2004) and the Chambers Dictionary of Etymology (1988), the word 'rice' has an Indo-Iranian origin. It came to English from the Greek word óryza, via the Latin oriza, the Italian riso, and finally the Old French ris. It has been speculated that the Indo-Iranian word vrihi was itself borrowed from a Dravidian word vari or even from a Munda language term for rice; the Tamil name arisi could have given rise to the Arabic ar-ruzz, from which the Portuguese and Spanish word arroz originated (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Rice). 1.1 Rice and India

Rice is not everything in India, but celebrations. It is offered to the perennial crop, producing new everything in most parts of India deities and used as an oblation in tillers from nodes after harvest starts and ends with rice, from the sacred fire of Hindu ritual. (ratooning). birth to death. It is an integral Rice is used in many Indian part of Indian culture. It is lifeline celebrations, including At maturity, the rice plant has a that has extended into more than weddings. main stem and some number of 540 of India's 604 districts. tillers. Each productive tiller bears India is one of the richest a terminal flowering head, called a In India, rice cultivation probably countries in the world for panicle, with grains that are began in the upper and middle diversity in rice varieties. There harvested when mature. Plant Ganges between 2000 and 1500 are so many different varieties of height varies by variety and B.C. It expanded quickly after rice depending on variations in environmental conditions, ranging irrigation works spread from the weather, soil structure, plant from approximately 0.4 m to more Orissa State to the adjoining characteristics, and purposes of than 5 m in some floating rice areas of Andhra Pradesh and use. According to Dr. R.H. (Maclean et al. 2002). Tamil Nadu in the Iron Age Richharia, one of the most around 300 B.C. eminent rice scientists of the The growth duration of rice plants (http://www.cambridge.org/us/bo world to date, 400,000 varieties ranges between 3-6 months, oks/kiple/rice.htm). of rice probably existed in India depending on the variety and on during the Vedic period. He the environment under which it is Rice is first mentioned in the estimated that even now, as grown. During this time, rice Yajur Veda (1500-800 BC) and many as 200,000 varieties of rice completes two distinct growth then is frequently referred to in exist in India, which is an phases: vegetative and many Sanskrit texts, which exceptionally high number. Even reproductive. The vegetative phase distinguished summer varieties if a person eats a new rice is the most variable, markedly grown in the rainy season from variety every day of the year, he influenced by day-length and winter varieties. Shali or winter can live for over hundred years temperature in photoperiod or varieties were the most highly without eating again the same thermosensitive varieties. regarded in times past. The name variety. Every variety has a Temperature and day length are of Annapurna, the Hindu god of specific purpose and utility the main determinants of total rice, comes from the Sanskrit (http://www.rice-trade.com/). growth duration of any variety. A word for rice, anna. long-duration variety is Two rice species are the main characterized by longer vegetative In peninsular India, there are cereals of importance for human phase than a short-duration one. numerous festivals connected nutrition: Oryza sativa, grown The vegetative phase is subdivided with the sowing, planting and worldwide, and O.glaberrima, into germination, early seedling harvesting of rice. Major harvest grown in parts of West Africa. growth, and tillering; the festivals include Pongal in Tamil Rice provides 21% of global reproductive phase commences Nadu, Onam in Kerala, and Huthri human per capita energy and from panicle initiation and is in Coorg (Kodagu). Rice tinted 15% of per capita protein. subdivided into the time before with the auspicious yellow colour Cultivated rice is generally and after heading, that is, panicle of turmeric is showered onto considered a semi-aquatic exertion. The time after heading is newly-married couples, and is annual grass, although in the known as the ripening period. part of numerous rites and tropics it can survive as a Reproductive and ripening phases

11 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI are constant for most varieties. convenient to regard the life in the ripening phase history of rice in terms of three (ICAR, 2010; Potential grain yield is primarily growth phases: vegetative, http://www.ikisan.com/Crop%20S determined before heading, but reproductive, and ripening. pecific/Eng/links/ap_ricegrowth.s actual yield, which is based on A 120-day variety, when planted htm). the amount of starch that in a tropical environment, spends ultimately fills the spikelets, is about 60 days in the vegetative largely determined after heading. phase, 30 days in the Hence, agronomically, it is reproductive phase, and 30 days

1.2 Rice Production in India

India has the world's largest area in 2050, putting tremendous million tonnes). Rough devoted to rice cultivation, and it future strain on its land and (unhusked) rice productivity, is the second largest producer of water resources. which was at 1,002 kg ha-1 in rice after China. Over half of its India provides around 21% of 1950-1951, reached a maximum rice area is irrigated, contributing -1 global rice production from its of 3,303 kg ha in 2007-2008. 75% of the total production. 28% of the world's rice area. Rice Interestingly, rough rice Notably, this area also consumes area in India has fluctuated fairly productivity during the early 20th 50-60% of the nation's finite -1 stably around 43 million hectares century was around 1,600 kg ha , freshwater resources. Of the -1 during the last two decades, with declining to 1,139 kg ha during country's 1.15 billion inhabitants, a maximum rice area of 45.5 1940-1941 (Figure 1.2). 70% rely on rice for at least a million hectares in 2008-2009 third of their energy (Figure 1.1). Total rice requirements. India's population production was also the is projected to grow to 1.6 billion maximum during this year (99.2

Million Hectares Million Tonnes Grain Yield (t/ha)

200 1960-61 800 1960-61 5 1960-61 2008-09 2008-09 2008-09 150 600 4 3 100 400 2 50 200 1

0 0 0 World India World India World India

Figure 1.1 Rice area, rough rice production, and productivity in the world and India during 1960-1961 and 2008-2009.

12 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500 Rough rice yield (kg/ha) 0 1900-01 1910-11 1920-21 1930-31 1940-41 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11

Figure 1.2 Rough rice yield in India since the beginning of 20th century. The data for 1900-1901, 1910-1911, 1920-1921 and 1930-1931 are averages for 1900-1901 to 1904-1905, 1910-1911 to 1914-1915, 1920-1921 to 1924-1925 and 1930- 1931 to 1934-1935, respectively (Source: Baljit Singh, 1945. Whither Agriculture in India. N.R. Agarwal & Co, Agra). The data for 2010-2011 are estimates.(Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2010, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt.of India, New Delhi.)

In India, rice is grown mostly in Grain production in the mid- during the 1980s; but the annual two major seasons, kharif (June – 1960s, before the Green increase in grain production October) and rabi (October – Revolution began, was about 60 dropped to 1.5% in the 1990s. February),while in some parts it million tonnes per annum. Thirty is grown throughout the year in years later, production had more than two seasons. Most of grown to twice that, around 120 the rice area and production are million tonnes, but the pace of in the kharif season (Table 1.1), growth has slowed since the late but rice productivity in terms of 1990s (Figure 1.3). The highest yield is 57% higher in the rabi annual average increase in grain season. production was 6.1%, recorded

Table 1.1 Rice area, production, and productivity in kharif and rabi seasons in India (2005-2006)

Season Area (m ha) Rough rice production (m tonnes) Rough rice productivity (kg ha-1)

Kharif 39.3 117.3 2,985

Rabi 4.3 20.0 4,691

Source: Rice in India: A Handbook of Statistics. 2007. Directorate of Rice Development, Patna)

13 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 14 |

T Rough rice production (Million tonnes) Rice area (Million hectares) r ansf orming Ric e Pr oduction withSRI 3500

3000 g/ha) 2500

2000 e yield (k

1500

Rough ric 1000

500

0 1 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 09 1 ------1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Figure 1.3 Rice area, rough rice production, and productivity during 1950-1951 to 2010 - 2011 (Data for 2009-2010 and 2010-2011 are estimates)

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2008. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2010. Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt.of India, New Delhi.

Back in 1913-1914, India 3 t ha-1 in Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, (131%). In this period, China produced about 40 per cent of the Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & achieved an increase of 248% world's exportable surplus of Kashmir, Jharkhand, from 1.9 t ha-1 to 6.61 t ha-1. rice. This scenario changed Maharashtra, Odisha, and Globally, Australia with 13.5 t ha-1 subsequently, and the country Rajasthan; and below 2 t ha-1 in in 2007-2008 ranked number one faced a severe and world-famous the states of Chhattisgarh and in rough rice productivity, followed famine in 1943. Export of milled Madhya Pradesh. In fact, the by Egypt (10.1 t ha-1). rice was a mere 0.5 million country's average productivity tonnes in 1989, but reached a (3.31 t ha-1) is lower than all the high of 6.7 million tonnes during neighbouring countries of 2001. Southeast Asia. The Asian average is 4.23 t ha-1, while the During 2009, the state of West world is averaging 4.18 t ha-1. Bengal had the largest rice area During the period 1960-1961 to in the county and also the highest 2007-2008, the productivity paddy production (Figure 1.4). increase in India has been lower Rough rice productivity was below (122%) than the global increase

15 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 16 |

T r Rough rice production (million tonnes) Rice area ( million ha) ansf 10 15 20 25 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 5 orming Ric

West Bengal West Bengal Uttar Pradesh

e Pr Punjab Odisha oduction withSRI Uttar Pradesh Chattisgarh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Odisha Punjab Tamil Nadu

Jammu & Kashmir Bihar

Chattisgarh Assam

Assam Tamil Nadu

Bihar Karnataka

Haryana Maharashtra

Karnataka Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra Haryana

Jharkhand Jharkhand

Gujarat Gujarat

Madhya Pradesh Uttarakhand

Kerala Jammu & Kashmir

Uttarakhand Kerala

Rajasthan Rajasthan

Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh achie or impr agr suit e eff las yields perunitofar c inno cultiv int inv impr yields asaneff l Sour Indian f Figur 17 |

ong f -1 ontinued t x 1.3 QuestforImprovingRiceYields ganic inputmanagement t clusiv Rough rice productivity (t ha ) orts hav o e es t fiv o-climatic zoneswhil abl

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w spacingof1 Madhya Pradesh es f eport ation or ric v xis ativ ed yieldof wn 100 e eet (45 ting se plant e ric e e o y e ed Further research into the history applied. Unfortunately, such to achieve a 15-20% increase in of rice cultivation in Tamil Nadu farmer innovations have yield from the hybrid vigor of has revealed that in 1911, several disappeared after scientific crossing lines. In-bred high- farmers published articles in recommendations were yielding varieties started in the Tamil language on such single- promoted by the Green 1960s and 1970s as a basis for the seedling planting (Kulandai Revolution. Green Revolution. Some of the Veludaiyar, 1911, landmark varieties developed in Anonymous,1911). The scanned Rice Breeding India were: GEB-24, T 141, Jaya, copies of these articles in Tamil MTU-7029, BPT-5204, Basmati Developing improved varieties and their English versions have 370, PusaBasmati-1 for irrigated has been one of the major been published separately in agroecologies; TKM 6, SLA 12, thrusts of rice research since its Thiyagarajan and Gujja (2009). It MTU 15 with stem borer beginning. The rice breeding was also found that this single- resistance; CO 25 with blast programme in India was started seedling planting was resistance and N 22 for drought- in 1911 by Dr. G. P. Hector, the popularized by the then British prone conditions then Economic Botanist in Government in the Madras (http://agropedialabs.iitk.ac.in/i3r undivided Bengal, which had its Presidency. By 1914, single- /sites/default/files/Rice%20yield headquarters at Dacca (now in seedling planting was reportedly %20improvement%20and%20mai Bangladesh). Subsequently, in being adopted in 40,468 ha ntainance%20breeding.pdf) 1912, a crop specialist was (Chadwick, 1914). appointed exclusively for rice in Madras Province. Prior to the Soil and Crop Vaidyalingam Pillai's reported establishment of the Indian Management yield of 6,004 kg grain ha-1 with Council of Agricultural Research gaja planting methods in Besides introducing high-yielding (ICAR) in 1929, Bengal and Thanjavur district was 2.7 times varieties, various management Madras were the only provinces greater than what had been practices for better nutrient which had specialists exclusively obtained from the same field the supply, soil and water assigned to improve the rice crop. previous year, when using management, protecting the crop After the establishment of ICAR, standard bunch planting. from pest and diseases, and rice research projects were Yanagisawa (1996) had estimated exploiting more fully the genetic initiated in various states of the that the average rice yield in potential of the crop, have been country, and by 1950, there were Thanjavur District in 1911 was developed and are being 82 research stations established 1,693 kg paddy ha-1, while the continued now. These practices in 14 states of the country, fully average yield in this district for are recommended to farmers for devoted for rice research the period 1911-1915 was 1,492 adoption. The major thrusts of projects. kg ha-1 (Sivasubramanian, 1961). these recommendations were to Thus, the gaja method increased increase the use of chemical More than 800 improved varieties standard rice production by fertilizers and plant-protection have so far been released in the several multiples. chemicals. country by national and state research establishments. It is fascinating that such high Improved varieties are a yields were being obtained by precursor to hybrids, which farmers with their own depend are produced through innovations a century ago, when inter-breeding which capitalizes no chemical fertilizers were on the phenomenon of heterosis

18 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Green Revolution (http://www.bigsiteofamazingfac achieved the primary goal of the ts.com). Green Revolution, the restoration The Green Revolution is usually of agricultural self-sufficiency on dated from about 1967, reaching In wheat, for example, the national level (Arena, 2005). a peak of adoption around 1978. It production increased by a third involved improvements in crop from 12.3 million tonnes in The achievements through the genetic materials and 1964-1965 to 16.6 million tonnes Green Revolution have come with agricultural practices, especially in 1967-1968, and 20 million a price, however, as many increases in external inputs that tonnes in 1969-1970. Rice traditional varieties were ignored dramatically increased food production increased more or lost, and reliance on chemical production, especially wheat and slowly (due to the later fertilizers grew, forgetting to rice. The government began to introduction of IR-8), growing maintain the organic sources of develop facilities for expanding from 30.5 million tonnes in soil fertility restoration from farmland area and introduced 1964-1965 to 40 million tonnes animals and plants, and most modern irrigation systems, in 1969-1970. More importantly, importantly, making farmers making it possible for farmers to these gains in yield were totally dependent on others not plant two crops a year instead of resilient to fluctuations in the only for their seeds, fertilizers, one. Most notably, Indian farmers monsoon, the primary natural and pesticides, and even for their planted genetically-improved driver of Indian macro-level food knowledge and cultivation seeds that greatly increased crop shortages. An early example of methods. By the end of the Green yields. Within a decade, India this was seen in the poor Revolution, with erosion of local became one of the world's weather of 1968-1969, when varieties, replacement of organic largest producers of farm there was a decrease of 2% fertilizer, and dependence of products. In some years, farmers against the previous year's farmers on scientific institutions produced more food grains than record yield. By 1977, India no for guidance and advice, this has the Indian people needed, so the longer required significant resulted in agriculture being excess was sold to other cereal imports, and in later driven by factors other than the countries. Famine in India, once years it became an intermittent farmers themselves in every accepted as inevitable, has not exporter. Clearly, these sphere. returned since the introduction of statistics show that India Green Revolution crops

Significant impact events on rice in India 1906 Introduction of Single Seedling Planting in Madras Presidency 1911 Introduction of Gaja Planting in Madras Presidency 1912 Beginning of systematic study on rice in Coimbatore 1946 Establishment of the Central Rice Research Institute at Cuttack 1951 Introduction of the Japanese method of rice cultivation 1965 Launching of All-India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project (ICAR) 1969 Introduction of IR8 variety, surge in expansion of rice area in Punjab 2000 First evaluations of SRI, followed by trials in other states 2006 First National SRI Symposium in Hyderabad, followed by annual symposia in Agartala (2007) and Coimbatore (2008)

19 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 1.4 Concerns in Rice Production

Much of the Green Revolution's times more than the expansion 1of rough rice). During 1970- gains have been achieved through rate during the 1990s. 1979, the average rice yield was highly intensive agriculture that in the range 1-2 t ha-1 in 90% of depends heavily on fossil fuels for A historical analysis by Barah the rice area of eastern India. By inputs and for energy. Whether (2005) shows that over the 1990-1997, this had changed more food can be produced decades, the pace in increase in substantially, as only 47% of the without damaging the soils, fresh rice production has been uneven, rice area was in this low yield water cycles and supplies, and and regional disparities among range, and 51% of the area had crop diversity is questionable as the States as well as across the yield levels higher than 2 t ha-1. these food-producing bases are diverse agroecosystems have being degraded in many places. been notable. The gains due to The rice production data for 2006- modern rice technology have by- 2007 show that rough rice Rough rice production has passed most of the resource- productivity is below 2 t ha-1 in increased in India over 4.5 times poor areas, which are about 18.7 % (8 million ha) of in the last 57 years – from 30.9 predominated by small and total paddy area spread over 150 million tonnes (1950-1951) to marginal farmers. The analysis districts, contributing 9.0% of 148.4 million tonnes (2008-2009). brings out a distinct production total production (Table 1.2). This Enhancement in rice production divide between irrigated tracts situation after four decades of is mainly attributed to and rainfed areas, which Green Revolution and huge productivity-led increases since corresponds to inter-regional investments speaks to the the harvested rice area for the disparities in production and disparate (and sometimes corresponding period expanded productivity in rice. About 36% of desperate) rice production only by 42%, from 31 m ha to the districts covering 44% of total conditions of these areas. about 44 m ha. rice area in the country have achieved productivity levels of Grain demand in India is more than 2 t ha-1 (approx 3 t ha- estimated to reach about 300 million tonnes per annum by 2020, necessitating an increase of Table 1.2 Rough rice productivity range in India, 2006-2007 about 91 million tonnes from the Yield No. of Area Production estimated 2005-2006 production -1 (t ha ) Districts (000'ha) (000'tonnes) level of 209 million tonnes. Since there is no probability of much < 1 33 444 369 further increase in the area under 1 – 1.5 56 3,139 3,957 cultivation over the present 142 million ha, the needed 37% 1.5 2 61 4,626 8,198 increase in grain production will 2 – 2.5 106 8,646 19,343 have to be attained by enhancing 2.5 3 68 4,559 12,528 the productivity per unit area. The production of milled rice per 3 – 3.5 58 5,294 17,038 hectare has to be increased from 3.5 4 65 5,944 22,516 2,077 kg to 2,895 kg by 2020, an > 4 106 11,235 55,257 average annual increase of about 5% (NAAS, 2006). This is three Total 553 43,887 139,206

20 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI The growth rates of rice area, production and productivity during 1994-1995 to 2009-2010 were -0.04%, 1.15% and 1.04%, respectively. The growth rate of area went down by 8.30% in 2002-2003, and the highest growth of 4.18% was during 2005- 2006. The negative growth rates for production and yield were highest during 2002-2003 (Figure 1.5). The impact of the delayed and sub-normal monsoon was reflected in reduced area under rice cultivation during 2009-2010 compared to 2008-2009, reduced by 14.3% (Annual Report 2009-2010, NABARD).

30.00 Area 20.00 Production Yield 10.00 e at r h

t 0.00 w o

Gr -10.00

-20.00

-30.00 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 07 08 09 10 06 ------1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009

2005

Figure 1.5 Growth rates in rice area, production and yield during 1994-1995 to 2009-2010 (Data for 2009-2010 and 2010-2011 are estimates). Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2008. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2010. Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt.of India, New Delhi).

The per capita net availability of owing to escalating costs of has been fluctuating around 53%, rice which was at 159 grams day- labour and agrochemical inputs. showing no appreciable increase. 1 during 1950-1951 increased to With increasing labour scarcity 200–208 grams day-1 during due to urbanization, sustaining Rice production today faces a 1990-2002, but has been below the interest of the farmers in rice number of problems that 200 grams day-1 again after that. cultivation itself has become a threaten many rice-producing challenge. Asian countries' ability to meet Rice cultivation is in crisis the the food needs of their rapidly world over, and India is no Current productivity in India is growing populations. These exception with its shrinking area much lower than many other constraints include pest of rice cultivation, its fluctuating rice-producing countries, and it outbreaks, diseases, soil annual production levels, needs to be enhanced under the degradation, scarcity of water, stagnant yields, water scarcity, circumstances of little hope for conversion of rice lands for and escalating input costs. The increased in area and irrigation industrial use, soil salinization, cost of cultivation of paddy has potential. During the last decade, and adverse soil conditions. consistently been increasing, the percent of irrigated rice area Contrary to the claims of genetic-

21 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI engineering (GE) proponents, the water supplies in India are This level means that even with real cutting-edge solutions to the dependent on groundwater the highest feasible efficiency problems of rice production lie extractions. and productivity of water, the not in developing GE rice, but country's PUWR is not rather in developing and/or According to the World Bank, if sufficient to meet the demands adopting strategies that take current trends continue, within of agriculture, domestic and better advantage of ecological 20 years, about 60% of all industrial sectors, while principles within agricultural aquifers in India will be in a addressing also environmental systems, and that integrate critical condition. This will have needs. Experts have estimated traditional farming practices with serious implications for the that by 2025, the gap between modern scientific knowledge. sustainability of agriculture, the supply of, and demand for, Existing biodiversity of rice long-term food security, water for irrigation in India will varieties and their nutritional livelihoods, and economic be 21 billion cubic meters composition needs to be explored growth. It is estimated that over a (BCM). In addition to this and better utilized before quarter of the country's harvest absolute water constraint, depending on transgenics will be at risk. There is thus an other factors such as improper (Borromeo and Deb, 2006). urgent need to change the status management of available water quo. resources, suboptimal farm Water Crisis management, poor crop The 'Report of the Expert husbandry, ineffective India's post-independence Consultation on Bridging the infrastructure, and unplanned agricultural growth involved huge Rice Yield Gap in the Asia-Pacific capital development continue to investments in irrigation projects Region', published by the UN subvert agriculture in India. that have resulted in more than a Food and Agriculture tripling of the gross irrigated Organization in October 1999 A study by the Asian area, going from 22.6 million says: “Countries like India and Development Bank, entitled hectares (1950-1951) to 76.3 China are approaching the limits 'Pro-Poor Intervention million hectares (1999-2000). This of water scarcity.” Along the Strategies in Irrigated has contributed to a drastic same lines, the International Agriculture in Asia,' which was reduction in per capita fresh Water Management Institute released in July 2005 following water availability, from 5,410 (IWMI), in its Working Paper No. field surveys of irrigation cubic meters to 1,900 cubic 23, mentions that India is already systems in Andhra Pradesh and metres during that period. experiencing “physical water Madhya Pradesh, states: scarcity,” which is defined in The greatest growth of irrigation “Poverty rates are higher in the terms of the magnitude of has been through the installation tail-ends of systems where primary water supply (PWS) of wells. In some regions, the water is less and productivity is development relative to over-exploitation of groundwater low. Strangely, though, poverty potentially utilizable water supplies through pump extraction rates are not necessarily lower resources (PUWR). is leading to serious declines in in the head reaches, even though they are nearer to the ground water levels. India is the Physical water-scarce conditions water source. Poverty rates are largest user of groundwater in are considered to be reached consistently higher in non- the world (over a quarter of the once a country's primary water irrigated rather than irrigated global total); 60% of irrigated supply exceeds 60% of its PUWR. agriculture and 85% of drinking areas. However, in rainfed

22 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI areas surrounding the studied Rice farming is witnessing a l Soil quality is declining systems, poverty levels were phase where sustaining the l Subsidizing chemical fertilizer reduced by factors of non-farm interest of the farmers in is proving to be very expensive income, larger landholdings, and growing rice itself is becoming l Excessive focus on varietal groundwater use. Within systems, an issue, and rice farmers are changes for productivity the poor generally receive less switching to other less enhancement irrigation water than the non- demanding crops. The current l poor in both dry and wet scenario could be summarised Existing extension systems are seasons.” as follows : overstretched l Vagaries of monsoon are l Labour scarcity is threatening The future of country's rice causing droughts and floods the continuance of rice production will depend heavily on l Increases in grain productivity farming developing and adopting have stagnated It is necessary that these strategies and practices that will l challenges be met with care, use irrigation water more Factor productivity is consistency, and a positive efficiently at farm level. To meet declining continuously approach to achieve national and l its food security needs, the Management and efficiency of household food security. country needs its increase its the country's surface paddy production at the rate of irrigation systems are in 3.75 million tonnes per year until serious disarray 2050. The paddy productivity in l Groundwater resources are most states must be considerably being overutilized, so water enhanced from the current level. table is falling

1.5 Summary

The current situation in India with water quality are maintained, objectives, is the adoption and respect to food security in and (6) sustaining the interests of further adaptation of the System relation to rice presents a farmers in rice cultivation. This is of Rice Intensification (SRI), the number of imperatives: (1) a very demanding agenda for rice subject of the rest of this book. increasing rice productivity and scientists and practitioners and production, (2) reducing the for the policy-makers who irrigation water used for rice support them. cultivation, (3) minimizing the costs of cultivation for farmers, One of the opportunities that is (4) enhancing the profitability of now available for the rice sector rice farming (5) reducing in India, based on a decade of environmental health risks from experience and now offering chemical inputs, so that soil and means to achieve all of the above

23 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI

2 RICE CULTIVATION

In India, the rice area extends from 8 N to 34 N latitude and from below sea-level (Kuttanad, Kerala) to altitudes above 2,000 m (in parts of Jammu and Kashmir). The crop is grown in different seasons and with different methods of crop establishment. But water availability dictated by the monsoons is the major factor that influences the rice production scenario in most of the country. Varying rice landscapes can thus be seen from north to south, from east to west (Photos 2.1 to 2.4)

Photos 2.1 and 2.2 Rice landscapes in the plains

2.1 Rice Environments

The International Rice Research Institute 70 (IRRI) has identified and categorized four rice 60 agro-ecosystems: irrigated rice ecosystems, World a rainfed lowland rice ecosystems, upland rice e 50 Asia ecosystems, and deepwater rice ecosystems. e ar c

i 40 India

Across the globe- except for Africa - irrigated r rice ecosystems as seen in Figure 2.1 t en 30 dominate over the other agroecosystems. In c er India, most rice production is irrigated and/or P 20 supplemented by rainfed production. Of the 10 approximately 44 million hectares under rice cultivation in the country, around 23 million 0 hectares (53%) are irrigated, 14 million ha Irrigated Rainfed Upland Deep water (32%) are rainfed lowland, 5.3 million ha lowland (12%) are upland, and about 1.3 million ha Figure 2.1 Percentage of distribution of rice crop area by (3%) are deepwater areas. environment, 2004-2006 Source: FAO database 2007 for rice area, Rome

25 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI The method of crop establishment in the different ecosystems depends mainly on the source and availability of water (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Rice systems, landscapes, sources of water and methods of crop establishment in India

Rice system Landscapes Sources of water Methods of crop establishment

Irrigated • Bunded low • Perennial River (rainfed, • Transplanted in puddled soil lands in plains reservoir-fed, snow-fed) • Seeds broadcast in puddled soil • Basins in • Seasonal river (rainfed, • Drum seeded in puddled soil undulating reservoir-fed, snow-fed) • Seedling throwing in puddled terrains • System tanks filled by soil • Bunded river water • Direct seeded in dry condition terraces in • Seasonal tanks filled and converted into wetland hilly / with rainwater after rains undulating • Ground water (whole terrains season) • Ground water (supplementary)

Rainfed • Bunded low • High rainfall • Transplanted in puddled soil wetland lands in plains • Direct seeded in dry condition • Basins in and converted into wetland undulating after rains terrains • Bunded terraces in hilly / undulating terrains

Rainfed • Bunded lands • Low rainfall • Seeds broadcast in dry dryland in plains condition • Bunded • Line sowing behind plough in terraces in dry condition hilly / • Seed-drill sowing (animal undulating drawn) in dry condition terrains • Seed-drill sowing (tractor • Slopy lands in drawn) in dry condition undulating terrains

Deep • Depressions in • Rainfall flooding • Seeds broadcast in dry water flood plains condition and fields flooded • Basins in with rain water undulating terrains

26 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI conditions. The cyclonic weather associated with the monsoon can cause extremes of wind and rain, but a more important characteristic of the monsoon season is the (growing) variability in its onset. Either great delay or failure of the monsoon has a huge impact on rice farmers' success in kharif season.

During rabi, the winter season, starting when day-length is at its shortest, there is a gradual rise in temperature, brighter sunshine, near-absence of cloudy days, a gradual lengthening of the photoperiod, and lower relative humidity (ICAR, 2010). This presents quite contrasting conditions for rice crops, and low temperature at the start of the season can be a constraint on rabi Photos 2.3 and 2.4 Rice landscapes in undulating terrains crop establishment in some Eastern India (states of West Rice Seasons areas. Rice seasons across the year often have been given Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, A combination of temperature, different names in different parts eastern Uttar Pradesh and photoperiod, and light intensity of the country. In some areas with eastern Madhya Pradesh) is the determines the growth period benign climate, one can see rice most important rice-growing and crop performance of rice. crops at different growth stages at (about 63.3% of India's rice area) There are two main seasons for any point of time throughout the and -consuming area in India. growing rice in India, although year. Although 35% of the people live in three crops are taken in some this region, their demand is about parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala 49% of the rice grown in the where sufficient water is country. The annual per capita available. The kharif season is rice consumption in this region is dictated by the southwest 133 kg versus 37 kg in the monsoon, with abundant rainfall western region, 39 kg in the and high relative humidity; cloud northern region and 113 kg in the cover lowers the light intensity, southern region. The average rice and there is a gradual shortening yield in five of the six states is 2.7 of the photoperiod and a gradual -1 t ha . About 78.7% of the rice fall in temperature as the climate farming in the region is rainfed changes from peak temperature (Singh and Singh, 2000). and rainfall to more normal

27 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 2.2 Irrigated Rice

At the global level, around 57% of surface or underground sources estimated that irrigated rice uses all rice is obtained from irrigated is used for agriculture, mostly in 34–43% of the world’s water used fields, although regional ratios flooded rice irrigation. Globally, for irrigation and some 24–30% of vary. Looking more closely at the the rice crop today accounts for the world’s developed freshwater top ten rice-producing countries, about 45 percent of total area resources. It is also estimated however, one discerns a different under irrigation. that by 2025, 15-20 million ha of pattern (Table 2.1). Worldwide, irrigated rice area will suffer rice cultivation absorbs 85% of all Rice crops receive 2-3 times severe water scarcity. irrigation water. In Asia, about more water per hectare than the 84% of water withdrawn from other irrigated crops, and it is

Table 2.1 Irrigated rice area in different regions Total rice Irrigated rice and in the top ten rice-producing countries Country area (m. ha) area (percent) Total rice Irrigated rice Region area (m. ha) area (percent) China 29.0 93.0

Asia 135.00 58.6 India 43.1 52.6 Africa 7.82 2.8 Indonesia 11.7 60.1 Latin America 5.40 48.3 Bangladesh 10.7 40.0 USA 1.30 100.0 Thailand 10.1 25.0 Europe 0.60 100.0 Vietnam 7.4 53.0 Australia 0.05 100.0 Myanmar 7.0 30.0 World 150.10 58.6 Philippines 4.1 68.0 Brazil 3.5 35.5 Republic of Korea 1.0 100.0

Source: irri.org

In India, the acreage under irrigated rice cultivation increased from 14.3 m. ha in 1970-1971 to 23.3 m. ha in 2004- 24 2005. Irrigated rice area was 38% 14 of gross irrigated area in the country during 1970-1971, and 23 57 29% in 2004-2005 (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 Change in proportion of irrigated area (million ha) under rice compared to area under other Other Groups Rice Other Groups Rice crops in India over three decades 1970-1971 2004-2005 (1970-1971 to 2004-2005).

28 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Rice fields under a conventional 5 irrigated environment have sufficient water available through 4 the growing seasons (one or more) with controlled shallow 3 water depths ranging between 5 (t/ha) ld

and 10 cm. Irrigated rice is grown ie 2 under both lowland and upland Y conditions. Water sources are 1 canals of river systems, tanks that get filled with water from 0 canals (system tanks) or from Irrigated Rainfed Rainfed Deep rainfall and ground water. Some lowland upland water of the river irrigated systems have a perennial source of water while Figure 2.3 Rough rice yield in different rice environments in India the others are seasonal. Irrigated Source : http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6905e/x6905e09.htm ecosystems are important as they contribute 75% of the country's Transplanted Rice parts of rice farming and remain rice production with rough rice Irrigated rice is mostly widely practiced to this day. yields of about 4.5 t ha-1, transplanted. Seedlings are first Puddling breaks down the compared to an unirrigated raised in a nursery, and internal structure of soils, making average of 1.8 t ha-1 (Figure 2.3). seedlings 4 to 6weeks old are them much less subject to water Irrigated ecosystems are transplanted into puddled soil loss through percolation as a predominant in the states of with standing water. Under these plough pan (hard layer) is formed Punjab, Haryana, and western conditions, the rice plants have that holds water in the surface Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, an important headstart over a layer of soil. In this respect, it can Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and wide range of competing weeds, be thought of as a way to extend Kerala. which leads to higher yields. the utility of a limited water Transplanting, like puddling, supply (Maclean et al. 2002). Most of the irrigated rice is grown provides farmers with the ability in the kharif season (June- to better accommodate the rice The agronomic practices involved November), utilizing the south- crop to a finite and uncertain are raising wet nursery and west monsoon and supplemented water supply by shortening the transplanting in the main field. with ground and tank water. While duration of the crop in the main Seedlings are raised in wet or dry the rabi season is considered as a field (since seedlings have been nursery beds (their size being 8- dry season in the rest of India grown separately and at higher 10% of the total area for (getting its water supply from density in the nursery), with the transplanting) depending upon reservoirs and ground), in Tamil opportunity to make adjustments water availability. The dapog Nadu this is a predominant in the planting calendar method developed in the monsoon season supplied by the according to water availability. Philippines is also one of the northeast monsoon with water recognized methods where a thick supply from canals and tanks and The practices of puddling the soil stand of seedlings is raised in supplemented from the ground. In - turning it to mud – and plastic sheets without any contact some parts of the country, there transplanting seedlings were with soil. is a spring season with irrigated likely refined in China. BothFigur e 2.3 Rough rice yield in different rice (January-May). operations have become integrricale environments in India

29 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Organic manures are generally or in lines with a spacing of Weed management is generally used in the beds. Seed treatment 20x10 or 10x10 cm. Although 2-3 done with hand weeding twice or with chemicals for protection seedlings per hill are thrice, and use of herbicides is against diseases is recommended to be planted, also practiced. Nutrient recommended. Certain more seedlings (4-6) are management involves use of biofertilizers are also used to generally planted, with the organic materials to the extent of treat the seeds. Seeds are soaked expectation this will ensure the their availability and is widely in gunny bags for 24 hours and plants' establishment across the supplemented by chemical then incubated for another 24 whole field. Farmers generally fertilizers. Various hours with occasional sprinkling worry that their seedlings will recommendations on the doses of water. Sprouted seeds are then not survive, even though dense and timing of application of sown uniformly on the bed. planting has its own negative fertilizers prevail across the Seedlings of 4-6 weeks old are effects in terms of pests and regions. Pest control is attempted removed from the nursery, disease incidence, inter-plant mostly through the use of bundled and transported to the competition for nutrients, and chemicals. Organic rice main field. shading that limits growth. cultivation is also practiced to some extent as a matter of choice The main field will have been Although agronomists rather than necessity. prepared sufficiently earlier with recommend that water depth be Mechanized planting is also dry ploughing followed by wet limited to 2 -5 cm, usually becoming increasingly popular puddling and leveling. Organic farmers do not maintain strict (Photos 2.5 to 2.10). manures of different dosages water control and tend to keep depending upon availability are their fields flooded as much as applied before puddling. possible, thinking that this will Seedlings are planted at random ensure water availability.

Photo 2.5 Photo 2.6 Photo 2.7 Conventional nursery Conventional planting Conventional method of distributing seedlings and random planted field

Photo 2.8 Photo 2.9 Photo 2.10 Machine transplanting Conventional hand weeding Conventional flood irrigation

30 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Direct-seeded Rice Seedling Throwing Broadcasting sprouted seeds Random throwing of directly onto a puddled and conventionally-raised seedlings leveled field is also practiced directly in puddled and leveled to some extent. The land, time field is also practiced under and expenditure spent on the irrigated conditions, but is not nursery and the costs of very popular. Transplanting costs pulling up seedlings and are eliminated in this method. transplanting them are Photo 2.11 Drum seeder completely eliminated by this method. The drawbacks are using the main field for a longer time and extended irrigation costs, besides the possibility of more weed problems. Using a drum seeder facilitates line sowing and intercultural operations Photo 2.12 (Photos 2.11 and 2.12). Sowing with a drum seeder

2.3 Rainfed Rice

Rainfed rice is grown under both Rainfed upland rice is general, traditional tall varieties lowland and upland conditions at characterized by dryland combining early maturity and the mercy of the monsoon rains. conditions without irrigation and drought-tolerance are preferred, Rainfed lowland rice fields are usually unbunded fields. This and hardly any chemical bunded and get flooded and filled type of rice is being cultivated in fertilizers are used. Bullock- with rainwater for some period of parts of Uttar Pradesh (eastern drawn implements for sowing the crop growth. Depending on parts), Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and intercultivation are also being the duration of rainfall, rainfed Odisha, West Bengal, Karnataka, used by some farmers (Photos shallow lands exhibit Andhra Pradesh, and the hilly 2.13 and 2.14). uncontrolled shallow water regions of Himachal Pradesh and depth, ranging 1–50 cm. The Uttarakhand as well as in Erratic rainfall distribution, brief system occurs mainly in the Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and periods of drought, and flash states of Uttar Pradesh (eastern Nagaland. Using draught floods, are the major production parts), Chhattisgarh, Odisha, animals to prepare the land after constraints. Rough rice -1 Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, receiving rainfall is common, and productivity is low (about 1 t ha ) Tripura, and Manipur, where rice tractor use is also becoming in view of several biotic and is directly-seeded in puddled or popular. abiotic and social constraints. ploughed soils. Because of a welter of biotic and abiotic Seed is either broadcast in stresses, the average rough rice ploughed dry soil or dibbled into productivity in this system is non-puddled soil. Sowing behind lower (2.2 t ha-1). a country plough is common. In

31 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 2.13 Seed drill used for rainfed rice in Photo 2.14 Bullock-drawn harrow for Karnataka intercultivation

2.4 Deepwater Rice conditions are converted into which was an important source of anaerobic soil conditions on the nutrients to the crops. Deepwater rice fields occur in receipt of the runoff water. low-lying/depressed locations Specially-adopted rice varieties The growing awareness among where runoff water from that literally float on water are consumers of food-safety issues catchment areas accumulates grown, and they cope with rising and the realization of desirable during later crop growth stages. water level by exhibiting benefits of reviving organic The initially aerobic soil remarkable stem elongation fertilization and management of conditions are converted into aided by ethylene production. crops are making a considerable anaerobic soil conditions on the This ecosystem occurs chiefly in impact on the growing of rice receipt of the runoff water. the states of Uttar Pradesh without reliance of inorganic Specially-adopted rice varieties (eastern parts), Chhattisgarh, chemicals. A number of NGOs that literally float on water are Bihar, and West Bengal. Rough throughout the country are grown, and they cope with rising rice productivity with such actively involved in promoting -1 water level by exhibiting management is about 2.1t ha . organic rice production. This can remarkable stem elongation be done in any of the aided by ethylene production. agroecosystems discussed above, 2.6 Organic Rice This ecosystem occurs chiefly in but it is most relevant for irrigated rice, for which agrochemical use the states of Uttar Pradesh Growing rice organically is (eastern parts), Chhattisgarh, has become most intense and nothing new as this was the widespread. Bihar, and West Bengal. Rough practice before the arrival of rice productivity with such chemical inputs. The Green -1 management is about 2.1t ha . Revolution, although it has been responsible for greatly reducing 2.5 Semi-dry Rice food insecurity, saw the disappearance of many Deepwater rice fields occur in traditional cultivars and low-lying/depressed locations practices. Cattle use dwindled as where runoff water from tractors became more widely catchment areas accumulates used, leading to the non- during later crop growth stages. availability of farm yard manure The initially aerobic soil

32 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 2.7 Need for Ecologically-sound Cultivation Techniques

On the one side, there is a crisis technology to alter the Several technologies or sets of in production, and on the other, photosynthetic pathway for rice practices that promise to boost the demand for rice is growing plants have not made any paddy yield per hectare and which globally. Thus, there is an urgent contributions to higher require less water have been in need to find ways to grow more production so far. It would take at use for the past few decades. rice but with less water and less least 10–15 years of dedicated Some of these offer other agrochemical inputs. The yield and costly work by global economic and environmental potential of rice, despite decades scientific teams for some benefits as well. Of these of investment in plant breeding, positive results to emerge, and practices, SRI is a well- has remained relatively positive results are not certain. documented methodology that unchanged since the introduction has given demonstrable results in of the first semi-dwarf variety (IR- Improved technologies have India and elsewhere as per its 8) in the mid-1960s. Agricultural certainly increased yields. promise. experts and governments are However, in many countries yield prompted to look at other growth rates have slowed down Rice farmers in many countries practical ways of increasing rice over the past decade. The have been switching out of rice production without further implication of this fact is that the production to more commercially- degrading ecosystems. ever-increasing demand for rice profitable crops. In some districts can only be met by bringing more of China, farmers are being This is the global challenge. There land into cultivation, which in advised to desist from sowing are no known technical solutions turn would require drawing more paddy, in order to reduce their presently available to improve rice water from surrounding demands for water. This reflects productivity significantly. The ecosystems to meet the the rice-sector crisis discussed in much-publicized GM rice and the requirements of this 'thirsty' Chapter 1. breakthrough hoped for with C4 crop.

2.8 Summary

Expanded rice production, In this context, the focus should relatively unproductive use of particularly of irrigated rice, will be on identifying and introducing labor. Already five years ago, an continue to play a central role in rice cultivation methods that use expert committee chaired by Dr. reducing hunger and improving water more productively than M.S. Swaminathan recommended nutrition levels in India and under the conventional that SRI be taken up as one of the elsewhere. But this can happen in (inundation) methods. The best ways to cope with the a sustainable and System of Rice Intensification impending water scarcities in the environmentally-responsible (SRI) represents such a agricultural sector (MWR, 2006). fashion, only if water is used more methodology, presently available productively, getting 'more crop at little or no cost. per drop.' Better management of natural resources, particularly Under the present situation, our water and reversing soil fertility country cannot afford to continue declines, is critical for addressing growing rice with overuse of both production and productivity water, degradation of soil, issues. excessive use of seed, and

33 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 3 INTRODUCTION TO SRI

The System of Rice The 15-day seedlings were Intensification, widely known as unimpressive, even disappointing, SRI, is a method of rice for the first month. But then they cultivation developed in an began tillering vigorously, unconventional way and now supported by the other practices known and being practiced in of single seedlings planted in a more than 40 countries. This square pattern and with aerobic spread in a decade's time is due soil conditions (no continuous to the fact that it addresses many flooding, and soil-aerating weed of the challenges faced by rice control). Given the very high farmers across the world. number of tillers obtained per plant with this unintended 3.1 History of SRI experiment, more than 20 per plant, this age for seedlings was The SRI methodology was adopted at the school as the synthesized in the early 1980s by Photos 3.1 and 3.2 latest time for transplantation. Fr. Henri de Laulanié, S.J. Father Henri de Laulanié Still earlier transplanting of (Photos 3.1 and 3.2). Trained in (Source : Association of Tefy Saina) seedlings was tried - at only 12 agriculture at the Institut assembled or improvised a days, 10 days, even 8 days after National Agronomique in Paris number of beneficial practices seedlings emerged in the before entering seminary in 1941, that enhanced the growth and nursery. It was found that this led Laulanié was sent to Madagascar productivity of rice plants. But to a substantial increase in the in 1961 to serve as an the keystone in the SRI 'arch' number of tillers per plant, up to agricultural technician for 10 was established serendipitously. 60, even 80 or more, and to more years. However, he fortuitously The nursery prepared for grains when all the SRI practices extended his stay, spending the planting the school's previously assembled were used next (and last) 34 years of his life demonstration rice crop had together with young seedlings. working with Malagasy farmers already been established for 15 to improve their agricultural Such was the beginning of the days when it was decided to plant systems, and particularly their System of Rice Intensification. another small nursery to expand rice production, since rice is the Yields rose substantially with the the school's planted area. When staple food in Madagascar. Fr. de increase in tillering and grain some rains began 15 days later, Laulanié established an formation, but the exact reason both nurseries were agricultural school in Antsirabe for this increase could not be transplanted, with little on the high plateau (1,500 MASL) explained. The reason was found expectation or hope for the in 1981 to help rural youths gain from reading Didier younger seedlings. To plant 30- an education that was relevant to Moreau'sbook, entitled L'analyse day seedlings was already a big their vocations and family needs. de l'élaboration du rendement du departure from the usual riz: Les outils du diagnostic, practice in Madagascar of The key element in SRI was published by the French NGO, transplanting large seedlings at discovered almost by accident in GRET. It introduced the concept 60-70 days. 1983-1984. Over the previous 20 of phyllochrons to Father years, Fr. Laulanié had

34 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Laulanié and others. This other NGOs, and agricultural such trials began in China and analysis could account for the professionals to improve Indonesia, and in India the next large number of tillers produced production and livelihoods in year. Even with positive results, it when rice is transplanted at an Madagascar. took another 10 years before SRI early age, before the start of its became widely known in the rest fourth phyllochron. In 1994, Tefy Saina began of the world, due in considerable working with the Cornell measure to the persistent The tillering model developed by International Institute for Food, initiatives of Dr.Norman Uphoff of the Japanese scientist T. Agriculture and Development Cornell University, Director of Katayama in the 1920s and 1930s, (CIIFAD) in Ithaca, New York, to CIIFAD from 1990 to 2005 (Photos but not published until after help farmers living around 3.3 and 3.4). Now, SRI has World War II (in 1951) showed Ranomafana National Park to spread to more than 40 countries why transplanting before the 15th find alternatives to their slash- and is supported by innumerable day would be less traumatic for and-burn agriculture. Unless success stories. Efforts are now rice plants and preserve their they could increase their poor on-going to generate and growth potential. With this yields grown on their limited establish scientifically the exact analysis, the System of Rice irrigated lowland area, about 2 t physiological and other -1 Intensification could become ha , they would need to continue mechanisms responsible for the more than a matter of pure growing upland rice in this observed SRI results, heretofore empiricism and could be manner destructive to often beyond belief or dismissed understood in terms of Madagascar's precious but as too good to be true. demonstrable scientific endangered rain forest explanations (Laulanié, 1993). ecosystems.

Laulanié paid little attention to Fortunately, by using SRI the issuance of genetically- methods, these same farmers improved and input-responsive could average 8 t ha-1 during the modern varieties. By first five years that these manipulating the other methods were introduced around agronomic factors including their Ranomafana. A French project interactions, he recorded for improving small-scale spectacular yield increases from irrigation systems on the high the available local varieties plateau during this same time (Stoop et al. 2009). period also found that farmers using SRI methods averaged over Though SRI was 'assembled' in -1 8 t ha (Uphoff, 2002). 1983, benefiting from some serendipity, it took some years to Once CIIFAD was persuaded that gain confidence that these SRI methods were indeed methods could consistently raise productive, giving farmers more production so substantially. In output with a reduction in Photos 3.3 and 3.4 Dr. Norman Uphoff interacting with 1990, Fr. de Laulanié together external inputs, but with more farmers and scientists with a number of Malagasy labour and management inputs, colleagues established an it took several more years to get indigenous non-governmental the methods evaluated outside of organization (NGO), Association Madagascar. In 1999 the first Tefy Saina, to work with farmers,

35 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 3.2 What is SRI?

The System of Rice Intensification During two decades of these are carried out. The rice involves cultivating rice with as observation and plants respond in a different, much organic manure as experimentation, he gained more productive way, resulting in possible, starting with young many insights into how to previously unseen crop growth. seedlings planted singly at wider provide rice plants with a more spacing in a square pattern; and favorable growing environment. SRI agronomy at the level of with intermittent irrigation that By altering certain age-old practice represents an keeps the soil moist but not practices for growing rice, 'integrated' production system. inundated, and frequent Laulanié assembled the System Through integrated management intercultivation with weeder that of Rice Intensification which of its various crop-soil-soil biota- actively aerates the soil. enables farmers to obtain more water-nutrient-space-time productive phenotypes from any components, SRI seeks to SRI is not a standardised, fixed rice genotype (variety) by capitalise on a number of basic technological method. It is rather applying fewer rather than with agronomic principles that should a set of ideas, a methodology for more external inputs. not be controversial. They are comprehensively managing and Fr.Laulanie died in Madagascar aimed at optimizing the above- as conserving resources by in June, 1995. well as below-ground plant changing the way that land, growth and development, and seeds, water, nutrients, and The generic agronomic practices improving the performance of the human labour are used to for growing transplanted rice, crop as a whole (Uphoff, 2008) increase productivity from a i.e, raising a nursery, small but well-tended number of transplanting, irrigation, weed seeds. As Father de Laulanié management, and nutrient observed, SRI is an management, are all there in amalgamation of multiple SRI, but there are striking beneficial practices. changes made in the way that

3.3 SRI Principles

The elements of SRI include: amendments. While some of the The principles of SRI which are transplanting young seedlings, practices appear counterintuitive fundamental to achieving the before the start of their 4th – getting more production from expected benefits, get translated phyllochron of growth; reducing fewer plants, with less water into certain practices, adapted in plant populations by as much as application, and with reduced their fine points to local conditions 80-90% per m2; converting paddy reliance on chemical fertilizers – (Table 3.1). soils from anaerobic, flooded the beneficial effects of each status to mostly aerobic practice can be explained and conditions, by alternate wetting justified scientifically (Uphoff, and drying; active soil aeration, 2008). with mechanical weeders; and increased soil organic

36 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 3.1 Principles and Practices of SRI

S. No Principle Practice

1 Very young seedlings should be used, to 8 – 15 day old seedlings with 3 leaves are preserve the plant’s inherent growth grown in a raised-bed nursery potential for rooting and tillering

2 Transplanting single seedling per hill Single seedlings are planted with a should be done quickly, carefully, minimum time interval between the time shallow and skillfully, in order to avoid they are taken out from the nursery and any trauma to the roots, which are the planted carefully at a shallow depth (1-2 cm) key to plants' success

3 Reduce the plant population radically by Planting at grids of either 20 x 20 cm or 25 x spacing hills widely and squarely, so that 25 cm (or 30 x 30 cm or even wider if the soil both the roots and canopy have room to is very fertile) using a rope or roller marker grow and can have greater access to to achieve precise inter-plant distances (to nutrients, sunlight, etc. facilitate intercultivation)

4 Provide growing plants with sufficient Up to panicle initiation: Irrigate to 2.5 cm water to meet the needs of roots, shoots depth after the water ponded earlier and soil biota, but never in excess, so disappears and hairline cracks are formed that the roots do not suffocate and on the soil surface. (Heavy clay soils should degenerate not be permitted to reach the cracking stage, but still are issued less water than with usual flooding.)

After panicle initiation : Irrigate to a depth of 2.5 cm one day after the water ponded earlier disappears

5 Active soil aeration improves rice crop Intercultivation with a mechanical weeder at growth by benefiting both roots and intervals of 10-12 days, starting 10-12 days beneficial aerobic soil organisms. after transplanting and continuing until the canopy closes, passing between the rows, and making perpendicular passes across the field

6 Augmenting organic matter in soils, as Application of cattle manure, green manure, much as possible, improves performance bio-fertilizers, and vermi-compost is of the rice crop, by improving soil recommended. Chemical fertilizer can be structure and functioning and supporting used, but it does not have the same beneficial soil organisms. beneficial effects on soil systems.

Source: Uphoff, 2008

37 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI The six principles form the 'SRI Hexagon,' and when adopted together they have a profound effect on the growth of rice plants (Figure 3.1).

Young seedlings

Single More organic seedling per manures hill Increased land, water, nutrient, labour productivity

Unflooded WIder irrigation spacing

Intercultivation

Figure 3.1 SRI Hexagon

A comparison of the conventionally-recommended practices with SRI will show how SRI practices are completely different from what farmers have been advised to do (Table 3.2). The extent of differences can vary with different regions.

38 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 3.2 SRI vs. conventional methods of rice cultivation

Commonly recommended Farmers’ Practice SRI methods methods practice

Seed rate (kg ha-1) 20 50- 75 5 – 7.5

Seedling age (days) 25- 30 25 - 40 8-14

Plant spacing (cm) 15 x 10 / 20 x 10 Usually random 25 x 25 planting (square planting)

Number hills m-2 50 – 66 Varying 16

Number of seedlings hill-1 2-3 3 – 6 or more Single

Water management Irrigate to 5 cm depth Continuous Only moist one day after flooding to conditions with disappearance of various depths shallow flooding previously ponded water.

Weed management Hand weeding twice, 2 -3 times hand Weeds are at 15 and 35 days after weeding; turned back into planting, or application herbicide also the field by a of herbicide plus one is used by some mechanical hand weeding farmers hand weeder

Intercultivation No No Weeder is used 3-4 times in between rows in both directions (perpendicular)

Nutrient management Integrated nutrient Use all Emphasis on management using recommended more application organic manures, manures and of organic bio-fertilizers, and fertilizers, but manures chemical fertilizers doses and at recommended levels timing vary and timing according to farmers’ resources

Note: There may be more variations in the recommended and farmers’ practices across the country. Only an example of farmer practices is given here.

The calendar of operations that are to be carried out in SRI is given in Table 3.3.

39 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 3.3 SRI Calendar

r

turity Ma e ain at Dr w

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c

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o

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40 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 3.4 Significance of the SRI Principles

Each of the six principles of SRI benefits. Basically these effects mechanisms of such synergy has an important bearing on the arise from the positive feedback have been studied to some extent performance of the crop on its between root and shoot growth; (see Chapter 10). own (Table 3.3), but they have both roots and shoots benefit the also synergistic effects on one other. The extent and another, in addition to direct

Table 3.3 Significance of SRI principles

Principle Significance

Young seedlings • Much greater potential for tillering and root growth • Earlier arrival within a better growing environment in the main field extends the time for tillering • No transplanting shock if transplanting is done carefully

Single seedling per hill • No competition for nutrients, water and space within a hill • Seed requirements are reduced • This practice combined with wider spacing enables all leaves to be photosynthetically active; whereas with crowding, lower leaves do not get enough exposure to sunlight for photosynthesis. This deprives the plant - and especially the roots – of possible supply of photosynthates

Wider spacing • Promote more profuse growth of roots and tillers • More space (below and above ground) per hill for access to nutrients, water and light • Intercultivation with mechanical weeder is made possible

Moist and unflooded • Non-hypoxic condition of soil favours root health and water management functioning, and also supports more abundant and diverse regime communities of beneficial aerobic soil organisms • No degeneration of roots, which otherwise will be as much as 75% degraded by panicle initiation under flooding • Exposing the soil to sunlight is favourable for warmth • Water savings of up to 40% • Energy saving where water is pumped

Intercultivation • Churning up of the soil activates the microbial, physical and chemical dynamics • Triggers greater root growth and tillering • Weed biomass is incorporated into the soil as green manure • Weeding costs can be reduced

Liberal use of • Gives better plant growth response than inorganic fertilizers organic manures • More sustained supply of nutrients • Favourable growth of soil biota • Enrichment of soil health

41 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI The overall effect of adopting SRI l Since SRI fields are not kept income is increased by more practices is an increased grain continuously flooded, water than their augmentation of yield which can be obtained requirements are reduced, yield. irrespective of the variety generally by 25–50%. More details on the effects of SRI planted. While the principles of l The system does not require and the benefits are given in SRI are constant, there are purchase of new varieties of Chapters 10 and 11. variations in the practices seed, chemical fertilizer, or followed. Farmers have been agrochemical inputs, SRI is perhaps the best example modifying SRI recommendations although commercial inputs of an option for farmers and in some useful ways to suit their can be used with SRI nations to promote community- conditions, and in several ways methods. led agricultural growth, have improved upon the initial l Minimal capital cost makes managing their soil and water methodology. SRI methods more accessible resources more sustainably and to poor farmers, who do not even enhancing future productive SRI methods are seen to have need to borrow money or go capacity. SRI modifies how the following impacts compared into debt, unlike with many farmers manage their plants, not to their conventional other innovations. the plants themselves; so it is counterparts l Costs of production are compatible with genetic (Uphoff et al. 2009). usually reduced, probably by improvement strategies, while l Depending on current yield 10–20%, although this mitigating the drawbacks levels, output per hectare is percentage varies according associated with monoculture, increased, usually by 50% or to the input-intensity of agrochemical use, and climate more, with increases of at farmers' current production. change. This makes it a win-win least 20%, and sometimes proposition for rural households, l With increased output and 200% or more. countries, and the planet. reduced costs, farmers' net

3.5 Introduction of SRI in India

Introduction of SRI in India began 2000 by Auroville Farm. recommended SRI crop in 2000 in Tamil Nadu, management practices on about 1 Puduchery, and Tripura. In Tamil When the Acharya N.G. Ranga million hectares distributed Nadu, Tamil Nadu Agricultural Agricultural University (ANGRAU) across more than 300 of the University (TNAU) initiated introduced SRI in farmers' fields country's 564 rice-growing experiments involving SRI in Andhra Pradesh during kharif districts. This is probably the most principles, and one farmer tried 2003, this was based on rapid uptake of new agricultural SRI under organic farming. The knowledge gained from a visit to practices seen in the country, source of information on SRI for Sri Lanka that had been arranged making SRI a national TNAU was from Dr.Uphoff, and by Dr. Uphoff. That SRI phenomenon with very limited the farmer had learnt about it experience in particular resources devoted to its from the LEISA magazine. In generated nationwide interest, extension. A major role has been Tripura, some preliminary and today SRI is now known to all played by CSOs, especially in the evaluation of SRI principles was rice-growing states of the northern and eastern states (Table initiated by a rice scientist in the country. 3.4). The role of donor agencies Department of Agriculture, and like the WWF-ICRISAT project, the It is estimated that now as many he started on-farm tirals and Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT), and as 600,000 farmers are growing demonstrations from 2002-2003. NABARD has been critical in In Puduchery, SRI was tried from their rice with all or most of the

42 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI promoting SRI through CSOs. Directorate of Rice Development Both on-farm and on-station After 2006, SRI has spread to based in Patna has been evaluations across many states almost all rice-growing states. monitoring and assisting SRI and in diverse growing since 2005. Many other NARs environments have shown clearly As far as research on SRI is had taken up experiments on that SRI has the potential to concerned, experiments were SRI after 2005. SRI was improve yield while reducing undertaken in IARI starting from introduced into the National water use, production costs, and 2002. The Directorate of Rice Food Security Mission, as a chemical inputs. Available data Research and Central Rice method to improve rice from SRI experiments across India Research Institute initiated production in food-insecure show an average increase in grain experiments on SRI from 2003 districts across the country in yield of up to 68% with less cost and 2005, respectively. The 2006. and often less labour. Ministry of Agriculture's

Table 3.4 Introduction of SRI in different parts of India

S.No Year State Introduced by

1 2000 Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Agricultural University; Ramasamy Selvam (organic farmer) Tripura Dept.of Agriculture Puduchery Auroville Farm 2 2001 Karnata ka Narayana Reddy, organic farmer

2 2002 Bihar Rajendra Agricultural University

3 2003 Andhra Pradesh Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University; WASSAN West Bengal PRADAN 4 2004 Keral Mitraniketan KVK Andaman Central Agricultural Research Institute Odisha Central Rice Research Institute Punjab ATMA/Dept. of Agriculture Haryanaa POSTER (NGO); Til da Rice Co. Ltd. Assam Assam Agricultural University Gujarat Anand Agricultural University

5 2005 Chhattisgarh Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Maharashtra Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth Uttarakhand G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology. Meghalaya ICAR Research Complex for NE region Jharkhand Birsa Agricultural University

6 2006 Himachal Pradesh Peoples’ Science Institute Jammu & Kashmir Sher-E-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Nagaland ‘Prodigals Home’

43 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 3.6 Extending SRI Principles to Rainfed Rice

Although SRI was developed for irrigated transplanted rice cultivation, the principles of SRI have been extended and adapted to rainfed rice cultivation with some modifications. In eastern India, SRI principles have been applied for both transplanted and direct-seeded rice under rainfed conditions. For transplanted rice, the practices are similar to irrigated SRI except for adjustments in water Photo 3.5 Rainfed SRI crop management which depends upon rainfall. Keeping the paddy fields under standing water (when there is sufficient rainfall) is being avoided with proper drainage. With direct seeding, lowering the seed rate, and wider spacing of rows (in the case of line sowing), thinning of the plant population, and intercultivation have been followed. The main objective is to reduce labour requirements. Photo 3.6 Four-row seed drill for rainfed SRI

In Dharwad region of Karnataka, 3.7 Extending SRI Principles to other Crops AME Foundation has been spearheading SRI in rainfed The term 'SRI' is more approached more as a problem- areas (Photo 3.5). AMEF appropriately used as an solving exercise than as usual (Dharwad) has developed a 4-row adjective rather than as a noun. top-down 'extension' (Uphoff, seed drill (Photo 3.6) to sow We should avoid the reification of 2008). These developments have seeds at 10 inch intervals instead SRI, i.e., making it into a thing taken place in most places due to of the 6-row seed drill with 6-8 when it is better thought about in the enthusiasm of farmers and inch rows already being used by terms of characteristics and NGOs assisting them, spurred by farmers. qualities, framing issues and their observations on the effects choices as matters of degree of SRI, without the intervention of rather than of kind. Water any established research management must be done systems. differently in upland compared to lowland areas, but SRI principles The System of Wheat for managing water can be made Intensification (SWI) is becoming relevant for upland farming. popular in Himachal Pradesh, Spreading of SRI should be Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh

44 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI (Photo 3.7). SWI has been recognized as the 'Innovation of the Week' on the Worldwatch Institute's 'Nourishing the Planet' blog in May 2011 (http://blogs.worldwatch.org/nou rishingtheplanet/tag/system-of- wheat-intensification/). In Africa, SWI is being successfully tried in Mali and Ethiopia also. SRI concepts and methods have been extended to other crops also. The Photo 3.7 System of Wheat Intensification (SWI) Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) for sugarcane is being tried in five states and on a fairly large scale in Uttar Pradesh (Photo 3.8).

SRI principles of lower seed rate, limited water use, and intercultivation are being applied to crops like finger millet (ragi), redgram, mustard, pigeon pea, and other crops in various states of India. Intuitive farmers and Photo 3.8 Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) NGOs are terming the new method of cultivation as the 3.8 Mechanized SRI 'System of Crop Intensification' Use of simple implements like transplanting machine that (SCI), the 'System of Root the marker and weeder in SRI makes pits (~6cm) in the bed at Intensification', or the System of has brought a revolution in 22.5 cm intervals. Each pit is Sustainable Crop Intensification partial mechanization of rice filled with water, and a single (SSCI). An SRI Secretariat cultivation. Motorised weeders seedling (10-days old) is dropped promoted by SDTT and hosted by and modifications of existing into the pit by hand; and (3) a the “LIVOLINK FOUNDATION” at machine transplanters to suit tractor-mounted precision Bhubaneswar, Odisha, has taken SRI are also being undertaken. weeder. The raised beds allowed the initiative to document water-saving furrow irrigation farmers' practices of applying the Recognizing that the initial periodically. Initial trials were SRI principles for growing crops labour-intensive nature of SRI conducted in 8 ha during 2009 like wheat, finger millet, could be a barrier for adoption with 10-day-old seedlings planted rapeseed/mustard, brinjal, by farmers with large land areas at 22.5 cm spacing in both tomato and chilli. (GROWING of Punjab in Pakistan, a set of directions. Fertilizer and CROPS WITH SRI PRINCIPLES- agricultural implements were compost were placed precisely in http://sdtt-sri.org/wp- designed for mechanizing the a band for each hill, and content/themes/SDTT- operations of SRI which mechanical weeding was carried SRI/Document/output.pdf) included:(1) a machine for out. The results showed an making raised beds and doing average yield of 12.84 t ha-1 with a precision-placement of compost 70% reduction in irrigation water and fertilizer; (2) a water-wheel application (Sharif, 2011).

45 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 3.9 Summary

The six principles of SRI are not This does not mean that all or All the current rice production all there is for successful rice even enough is known in concerns caused by climate growing. There needs to be good scientific terms about how and change, water scarcity, labour land preparation (not unique to why SRI practices produce the scarcity, need for increasing SRI), practices like seed selection results that we see over and over input-use efficiency, and and/or seed priming, integrated again in a wide variety of sustainable productivity can pest management (IPM) to agroecological environments. together be addressed by one control any threatening diseases There are 10 or 20 years' worth single strategy: ADOPTION OF or crop predation, etc. SRI is not a of research still to be done on SRI. matter of abstractions and SRI by hundreds of researchers assertions, but rather is part of a from many disciplines. The substantial body of agronomic sooner and more knowledge, and it can be comprehensively we get started presented as such. on this, the better, because there should be many benefits resulting from such work (Uphoff, 2008).

46 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 4 SEEDLINGS FOR SRI

In transplanted rice cultivation, in practice, large variations in plant growth that govern the raising the seedlings in a nursery seedling age can be found among emergence of phytomers, i.e., and then transplanting them into individual farmers, depending units of tiller, leaf and root from the main field is the generic upon water availability for the the apical meristem at the base of practice. main field, labour availability for the plant (Nemoto et al. 1995; pulling seedlings out of the Stoop et al. 2002). Depending on Recommended seedling age for nursery and transplanting them, how favourable or unfavourable transplanting is usually 1 week input availability, and financial are the conditions for plant per month of duration of the crop constraints. For instance, water growth, these periods are shorter (seed to seed) and thus, for a availability forces some farmers or longer, ranging about 4 days 105-day,short-duration rice, 25- to delay their planting, so that (when conditions are ideal) and 10 day-old seedlings are preferred, sometimes 60 to 70 day-old days (when there are many and for a 135-day medium- seedlings are planted. constraints). If phyllochrons are duration rice, 32-day-old shorter due to favourable seedlings are recommended. But conditions, more periods of growth can be completed before 4.1 Importance of Younger Seedlings the plant switches from vegetative growth to reproduction (flowering In SRI, use of younger seedlings resilient than they appear, and grain filling) resulting in more is one of the basic principles. provided that their roots are not tillers and leaves. 'Young' is a relative term. It is abused. recommended to use seedlings According to Laulanié, if 8-12 days old as a rule, usually One of the reasons for the transplanting is done beyond the with 15 days as the maximum, profuse tillering observed with fourth phyllochron (after about 15 before growth potential gets SRI is the use of younger days), the first primary tiller does compromised. But the plant seedlings. How this happens is not emerge and all of the grows according to a biological still to be fully understood. Rice descendents of this tiller are lost. clock, not according to the plant will produce tillers at any of Similarly, if transplanting is calendar. So where temperatures its growth stages after planting. further delayed by the length of are cold, 'young plants' may be The ratooning (regrowth) of rice another phyllochron, the second 16-18 days old, even 20 days. The will prove this. If higher nitrogen primary tiller and all its physical status of the plant is is supplied, a rice crop can descendents are also forgone. indicated by the number of produce more tillers even at the Uphoff, on the other hand, leaves, and 'young' means panicle initiation stage. suggests that when conventional between 2 and 3 leaves (Uphoff, practices (older seedlings, 2008). Why transplanting young crowding and flooding of plants, seedlings, usually before their etc.) are used, the length of The immediate concern to any 15th day after planting, can give phyllochron periods is increased, farmer when he is told to use 8 - better results can be explained in and fewer phyllochrons of growth 12 day old seedlings will be that very concrete and convincing are completed before panicle the growth may not be sufficient terms by understanding initiation. to handle the pulling out and phyllochrons (phyllo = leaf, chron transplanting. Rice seedlings are, = period of time). Phyllochrons however, tougher and more are intervals and patterns of

47 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI According to Katayama's theory continuously after a delay of just (Uphoff, 2008). This is the period of tillering in gramineae species one phyllochron. of the 2nd and 3rdphyllochrons, (rice, wheat, barley), young rice during which there are no new seedlings before the start of their That there is no emergence or tillers or roots produced. This fourth phyllochron of growth (i.e., new tillers during the second or period starts after the plant has up to about 15 days) have a third phyllochron, i.e., after the produced its first main tiller and potential for producing a large emergence of the first (mother) its tap root (1st phyllochron) and number of tillers and roots tiller during the first phyllochron, before the emergence of the 1st simultaneously because their means that there is a 5-15 period primary tiller (4th phyllochron). roots have not been disturbed when the infant plant will be during the time before the start least disturbed by transplanting. Rice plants that are transplanted of root growth beyond the plant's The tiller numbers will increase after the start of the 4th initial tap root. Tiller production semi-exponentially in this phyllochron have less capacity to in rice happens at regular manner from the beginning of achieve their genetic potential, intervals. Depending upon factors the fourth phyllochron, as could which is, however, also affected like variety, temperature, and be seen from Table 4.1. The by being crowded together and weather, one phyllochron may be number of tillers (phytomers) continuously flooded, for example. 5-8 days, perhaps as short as 4 emerging in each successive Fr. de Laulanié only learned about days if growing conditions are phyllochron is equal to the sum phyllochrons after he had ideal, or as long as 10 days if they of those produced in the empirically discovered that 'young are adverse. That is, a new preceding two phyllochrons, seedlings' have much more tiller/leaf/root unit, or a set of which makes this what potential for growth. several or many such units, will mathematicians call a Fibonacci Phyllochrons, discovered by the be produced from the planted series Japanese plant researcher seedling in cycles of every 5-8 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibo T.Katayama in the 1920s and days. Then, from the base of each nacci_number). 1930s, are not part of SRI, but existing tiller, a new unit of tiller, they help explain the effects of leaf and root will be produced It has been seen in many SRI practices and are part of SRI with a lag of one phyllochron. The controlled trials that when understood in terms of exception is that the first primary transplanting seedlings between reasons why these practices tiller to emerge from the main (or their 5th and 15th days produce better phenotypes (Table mother) tiller comes after two (especially in conjunction with 4.1). phyllochrons, rather than one. other recommended SRI Thereafter, primary, secondary or practices) leads to much greater tertiary (daughter) tillers emerge tillering and more root growth

Table 4.1 Tiller production in rice

Phyllochron 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12*

New tillers 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 12 20 31

Total tillers 0 1 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 33 53 84

Transplanting

(* 12thphyllochron = at 60 days from sowing if phyllochrons are 5 days long, with 12 leaves from the main stem)

48 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 4.2 shows that at 14 days tillers, although not all of these extends to a week or more, even after sowing, if there have been might have developed. If growing two sometimes, without much excellent growing conditions and conditions are ideal, and a 13th growth of the plants.So, the phyllochron length is very short, phyllochron of growth could be avoidance of transplanting shock less than 5 days, there will be completed before the plant stops period also helps to add up to the three leaves. That is, three its vegetative growth and begins total number of tillers. Another phyllochrons would have been its reproductive phase, there reason for higher tiller density is completed. Shallow planting of could be about 135 tillers. the increase in the number of this young seedling with soil Numbers of tillers over 100 are days for tillering as the plants go particles intact when removed occasionally seen, and to the main field 10-20 days from the nursery, not only avoids sometimes even over 200 tillers. sooner, when compared to transplanting shock, but aids in This means that the plant has conventional planting. quick re-establishment of the completed 14 phyllochrons and is plant and retains its potential for into its 15th phyllochron of 4.2 SRI Nursery profuse tillering and strong and growth. deeper root growth that is Since with SRI management, But, when a 27-day-old seedling otherwise lost when seedlings seedlings are planted singly in is planted, already 6 become older. If tillering hills that have wider spacing, the phyllochrons (for example) would continues up through the 12th number of seedlings required for have been completed. The phyllochron (with approximately 9 planting an area is drastically narrow spacing between tillers in main stem – except reduced (Table 4.3 & Figure 4.1), seedlings in the nursery would according to Katayama and and thus the seed requirement is not provide the seedlings with Laulanié, the primary tillering off accordingly less. That only 5 - 7.5 the environment they need to the main stem only goes up to 6, kg of seeds are required to plant 1 produce as many tillers as they hectare is the first benefit from could within this many calendar Table 4.2 Seedling age and SRI practices that accrues to the leaf production (a field study) days because they would not farmer. Since the nursery area have completed as many Seedling age gets reduced from 800 m2 per No.of leaves phyllochrons as would have been (days) hectare of main field to 100 m2 passed through with better and since the need to maintain the 10 2 growing conditions (spacing, soil nursery is only for 14 days, the aeration, etc.). When these 13 3 nursery costs are reduced seedlings are planted at 27 days, considerably, another benefit. 17 4 less than 6 tillers will have been 21 5 produced from the main stem.

27 6 Transplanting younger seedlings is advantageous for early crop establishment by avoiding or or possibly 7, primaries, each of minimizing transplanting shock these starting to produce (Pasuquin et al. 2008). When secondary tillers two older-aged seedlings are phyllochrons after their planted, there will be respective emergences), transplanting shock which potentially there would be 84

49 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 4.3 Planting density and seedling requirement

Number of Number of Hill Number of hills Nature of variety seedlings seedlings spacing(cm) per sq.m. per hill per sq.m.

Conventional cultivation

Short duration 15 x 10 66 3 200

Medium and long 20 x 10 50 3 150 duration

SRI

All varieties 25 x 25 16 1 16

dissolved in water. As the density a

h 25 of the salt solution increases, the r e

p egg raise up. The addition of salt

) 20

h is stopped when the surface of the k a egg to the size of a 25 paise coin is L

( 15

s visible above the solution in the g n

i bucket. Now the density of water l 10 d

e is suitable for separating out e

s 5 quality seeds. To this salt solution, f o

. add 10kg of seeds. Those with low o

N 0 density float on the surface of the Short Medium / SRI solution, whereas seeds with high duration long duration density sink in the solution. The

Figure 4.1 Number of seedlings required for conventional cultivation (with seeds floating on the surface of short-, medium-and long-duration varieties) and for all varieties in SRI. the solution are removed. By this method, seeds can be Quality seeds are required for vigour in due course of time. By upgraded. Dense, high-quality getting vigorous seedlings. Seeds using a salt solution in a bucket seeds result in vigorous seedlings which are stored for more than a into which seeds are poured, to (http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/seed_c year should not be used for let denser seeds sink to the ertification/seed_cm_rice%28vari sowing as the germination bottom and lighter ones rise to eties%29.html). capacity and vigour of such seeds the top, good quality seeds can are reduced. Also seeds with be separated. Ten litres of water Since the seedlings are being black spots should be removed to can be put into a plastic bucket planted at 14 days or less, it is avoid seed-borne diseases. of 15-litres capacity. When a necessary to raise them properly. good quality fresh egg is dropped For this, the raised bed nursery The density of stored seed into the water, the egg will sink method has been proposed. With diminishes during storage period, in the water and reach the many fewer seedlings required, affected by place, environment bottom. Commercial-grade this greater care and attention and pest and diseases. Aged common salt (sodium chloride) is becomes more feasible and will seeds like battery cells will lose then added little by little and not increase time and effort.

50 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI SRI nursery should be prepared bags should be spread as this Alternately or in addition, a rose according to the soil conditions. prevents roots from going can or watering can can be used But it is important to lay out the deeper, but beds can be to sprinkle water on the soil from nursery close to the main field so prepared without sheets also. On above, as a garden would be that seedlings could be moved the sheet, about 4 cm soil should watered. The nursery bed could and re-planted in the shortest be spread. In case the native soil be prepared in a wet field or a dry possible time. It would be ideal to is not so fertile, 95 grams of DAP field depending upon the have the nursery in one corner of for each 5 sq.m bed may be situation. If too much sunlight or the main field or adjacent to it. If mixed into the soil before fog is expected, the nursery could farmyard manure is applied to the spreading it. Some farmers use a be covered with coconut fronds or nursery soil, it should be well- mixture of soil, sand and rice straw for the first two days. decomposed; otherwise, the compost. Vermicompost is also This will protect against losses to seedlings will be scorched. used by some farmers for its birds or other creatures as well as higher quality. Bamboo rods shade the seeds or keep them The nursery to plant 1 hectare of could be laid on the sides of the warm. The method described field should be prepared on100 beds to prevent sliding of the above is a guideline only. At sq.m.area. For this, it is soil. farmer level, nursery beds are recommended to prepare 20 beds prepared in different ways (Photos of 1 x 5 m each. Beds of 5 cm For each 5 sq.m bed, sprouted 4.1 to 4.6), but the aim should be height can be prepared by seeds (~375 g seeds prior to to get seedlings ready for planting scooping out the soil around the soaking) have to be sown evenly. at the third leaf stage or before beds so that furrows are formed The furrows could be irrigated to that. all around the beds. On the bed, a soak the soil in the beds above polythene sheet or used fertilizer the sheet, diffusing laterally.

Photo 4.1 Nursery bed in wetland Photo 4.2 Photo 4.3 Nursery bed prepared with dry soil Bed protected around the edges by bamboo poles

Photo 4.4 Photo 4.5 Photo 4.6 Bed prepared by using a wooden Dry nursery bed protected with Community wet nursery frame to have 0.5 sq.m beds rice straw in winter season

51 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI The growth environments in SRI nurseries prepared in different ways vary slightly, but this is welcome as farmers adapt the technique to local conditions. In Philippines, some farmers have grown good SRI seedlings in sand, to make separation easy for Photo 4.7 Mat nursery Photo 4.8 Nursery prepared transplanting, and the seedlings by using polythene sheet are still dependent on nutrients from the seeds (in the seed sac) for their food supply. It is important to have soil for the seedlings which is very friable so that these can be separated easily, with minimal damage to the seedling roots. Nurseries with seedlings can be seen in Photo 4.9 Nursery reinforced with Photo 4.10 Nursery beds in Photos 4.7 to 4.10. bamboo poles (Source : strategic location Association of Tefy Saina) (Source : Association of Tefy Saina)

The lower seedling density in the SRI nursery, in comparison with conventional nursery, can be discerned from Photos 4.11 to 4.12.

Use of 14-day-old seedlings grown in a dapog nursery was previously known in Tamil Nadu but did not catch on. Based on preliminary trials, 14-day-old seedlings were recommended in Photo 4.11. Seedling density in conventional nursery Tamil Nadu for SRI. At this stage, there will be 3 leaves in the plant. If the nursery bed is properly prepared with sufficient organic manure, the seedling growth will be reasonably easy to handle. Seedlings of 8-12 days are also used by some farmers. Using seedlings with 2 – 3 leaves is in the ideal range.

Photo 4.12. Seedling density in SRI nursery

52 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 4.3 Removal of Seedlings from the Nursery

It is important to remove the Farmers adopt different ways to The seedlings being young should seedlings carefully from the remove seedlings from the be transported to the main field nursery along with the soil intact nursery according to their very quickly and planted. In the around their roots, and to plant convenience (Photos 4.13 to conventional method, the them immediately. This helps the 4.18). It is preferable to use a seedlings are pulled, bundled and seedlings to establish themselves simple tool, like a hand trowel or transported to the main field in the main field quickly. In the khurpi, to remove the seedlings which is sometimes far away beginning, this might look out of the nursery lifting from taking considerable time. cumbersome. But handling a below and causing minimum Sometimes, the seedlings are much-reduced number of damage to roots. If the seedlings planted the next day. These seedlings and having the nursery do not attain good enough growth problems do not exist in SRI, near to the planting area (if the to plant in one week's time, urea which recommends that seedlings nursery is in the same field) will @ 0.5 % may be sprayed to have only 15-30 minutes between reduce time requirements, and accelerate growth. removal from the nursery and most persons once they gain replanting in the main field. In experience with handling young In many places, the same fact, unlike the conventional seedlings find this method less labourers who are employed for method, removing seedlings and laborious. It is important to gain planting can be used to remove distributing them for planting is confidence in the method from the seedlings from the bed far less expensive as no extra experience, since at first there without involving additional cost. labour is required. may be some nervousness that By reducing the size and number the tiny seedlings will not survive. of seedlings, their task is made But rice is a member of the grass easier. family, and very hardy if the roots are not injured or misused.

Photos 4.13 to 4.18 Removal of seedlings from nursery beds

53 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 4.4 Summary

Seedlings for SRI require special increase in labour needed. But attention as they are to be there is an increase needed in planted at a very young stage. attention to the quality and vigour Selection of good quality seeds of seedlings. It is also important and treating them for proper to handle the seedlings with care germination and growth are vital while removing them from the to have quality seedlings. There bed without much damage and are several improved and trauma to the roots. It is self- indigenous ways of preparing evident that without good quality nursery beds. The extra care in seedlings to start with, the result raising, removing and at the end of the season will be transporting good-quality inferior. seedlings is more than repaid by better growth, better health, and better yield. Because seedling number is so much reduced, by 80-90% or more, there is not an

54 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 5 MAIN FIELD PREPARATION AND TRANSPLANTING

Preparing the main field for harrow or rotovator is used to farmyard manure before dry transplanting properly is pulverize the clods. The practice ploughing, and sometimes it is important for crop of growing green manure done after puddling. Puddling with establishment, for water use (Sesbania, Sunnhemp, Daincha) a gauge wheel-mounted tractor or efficiency, and for control of before rice and incorporating it in a mini-tractor is very common. weeds and certain pests. The the soil or applying green leaf Basal doses of fertilizers are to be process commences much manure (Gliricidia) is a good way applied before the last puddling. before the nursery is started to of supplying organic manure. If get the proper soil tilth. The field organic matter is incorporated is dry-ploughed (if fallow) 2-3 in-situ, puddling is directly done. weeks before planting, and a disc Generally, farmers apply

5.1 Field Leveling and Drainage

The field preparation for SRI does not differ from the conventional method, but there is an emphasis on leveling the field as the establishment of young seedlings will be adversely affected in an uneven field. Young seedlings planted in depressions can die from submergence. Also, leveling helps to reduce the water requirement and weed problems. At the same time, it facilitates proper crop establishment and stand. Because land leveling increases yield, it is a good investment. A large part of the increase in yield is due to improved weed control as improved water coverage from better land leveling reduces weeds by up to 40%. Experimental results have showed yield increase up to 24% due to leveling (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.o rg/landprep).

Photos 5.1 and 5.2 Indigenous field leveling

55 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Leveling is achieved by using a excess water and avoid flooding In many irrigation systems, bullock-drawn wooden plank or for long periods of time. Rice especially with tanks and in tractor-drawn implements. Many farmers in Sri Lanka doing direct undulating terrains, field-to-field indigenous ways are also seeding invariably provide (cascade) irrigation is followed, practiced by farmers (Photo 5.1). sufficient field drains. It is due to lack of proper irrigation Laser leveling is also becoming recommended to provide small and drainage channels. Thus, popular in some areas (Photo drains on the peripheries of the there will be no control for either 5.2). A local mechanic without main field (Photo 5.5), or across irrigation or drainage. Loss of professional training has the field. In Tripura, given heavy applied nutrients and social developed a tractor attachment rainfall, the SRI recommendation problems crop up in such that can be used for puddling and is for putting in a shallow drain systems, so it is better to have simultaneously rotovating and across the field in place of every independent inlets and outlets for leveling (Photo 5.3). The Tamil 9th row. In some places, each field. Nadu Department of Agriculture drainage channels are formed is contemplating to introduce along with raised beds for SRI laser levelers for SRI on custom (Photo 5.6). Farmers who could hiring (Photo 5.4). not achieve proper leveling as an ad hoc measure may tie a brick Field drainage is also an into a rope and drag it along important component in SRI that depressions in order to facilitate will allow the rapid removal of draining of stagnating water.

Photo 5.3 Puddling, rotovator-cum-leveler developed Photo 5.4 Laser leveling by a local mechanic-cum-farmer in Tamil Nadu

Photo 5.5 Drainage channel at the periphery Photo 5.6 Drainage channel with raised bed

56 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 5.2 Transplanting

In SRI, seedlings have to be could not be seen in conventional up in the first several weeks planted at wider spacing than practice. The reasons for higher because neighbours' fields look conventionally practiced. In tiller density in SRI are: (1) greener. But they need to have general, the recommended younger seedlings have higher patience and confidence that their spacing for short-duration rice is vigour to produce tillers and young and sparsely planted 15 x 10 cm and for medium- and additional number of days to seedlings – if not suffocated by long-duration rice, it is 20 x 10 produce tillers, (2) competition flooding and if benefiting from cm. But, farmers generally do between plants for light and soil-aerating weeding – will not adopt these nutrients is reduced due to wider overtake the more numerous, recommendations. Mostly spacing, and (3) soil churning by older plants when they move into random planting is done in strips weeder has a specific positive their 8th, 9th or 10th phyllochron of approximately 3 m with 30 cm effect on the growth of the plants. of growth while the other, more gap in between strips. Since the slow-growing plants only attain 6 planting is often done on contract The immediate concern of a or 7 phyllochrons of growth before (with payment for a set number farmer when told to have only 16 panicle initiation. of labourers per acre), the plant plants per sq.m will be whether density is highly variable. there will be sufficient tillers. But this apprehension will be In SRI, 25 x 25 cm spacing is warded off when he sees the field recommended as the optimum after 3-4 weeks, when spacing in most situations. accelerated tillering begins. SRI Though the number of seedlings farmers should be forewarned planted will be only 16 m-2, the that their crop will look quite management practices in SRI inadequate for the first 3-4 facilitate profuse tillering which weeks. Many are tempted to give

5.3 Number of Seedlings Per Hill

The recommendation in conventional cultivation is to use 2-3 seedlings per hill. But in reality, 4-6 seedlings and even more are planted. In SRI, only one seedling has to be planted per hill (Photo 6.6). If the main field has been leveled properly, all the seedlings will establish well. Otherwise seedlings in depressions where water stagnates may die.

Photo 5.7 Single seedling at two leaf stage with soil intact

57 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 5.4 Spacing

It is recommended to start with and plant performance. The and within the row, a spacing of 1 25 x 25 cm spacing, but to try weeder's dimensions have to suit foot (30 cm). This spacing was for wider and maybe smaller spacing the spacing. With 20 x 20 cm a single rice crop situation. For in some parts of the field, to see spacing, only a rotary weeder rice-rice relay cropping (a new what distance is optimum for the could be used (see Chapter 8 for method of rice cultivation farmer's particular conditions. more information on this). described by Vaidyalingam Pillai), The more fertile the soil, the the row spacing for the first crop higher will be the yield attained It is well known that plants was 2 ½ feet (75 cm), and the relay from having fewer plants, widely spaced grow more crop is planted in the middle because each plant achieves a profusely, but the objective in between the rows when the first larger, deeper and healthier root rice farming is to maximize the crop was at flowering stage. With system, supporting a bigger, number of fertile tillers per sq. 45 x 30 cm spacing, the number of better-functioning canopy. In meter, not per plant. When other seedlings (single seedling per hill) Tamil Nadu, 20 x 20 cm spacing SRI practices are also per square meter would be only 7 was initially recommended, but implemented, even radically plants. This was an even more many farmers found that the reduced number of plants can radical reduction in plant density tillering was such that the produce more tillers per unit than with SRI. weeder could not be used after area, and the panicles usually 30 days. After experimental have more grains, and the grains Spacing has to be adjusted by the evaluation, the recommended themselves are usually heavier farmer according to his field spacing was revised to 25 x 25 (Uphoff, 2008). conditions and soil fertility after cm. gaining experience. The goal is to There is historical evidence that optimize spacing between plants The main objective of square wider spacing and single so that they have as the most planting is to be able to use the seedling was adopted by farmers access to the sunlight and soil mechanical weeder in in Tamil Nadu a century ago. nutrients that are available. perpendicular directions. What is Vaidyalingam Pillai (1911) now understood is that this is not mentions the use of ropes for only better for weed control, but row planting, with spacing better for promoting root growth between rows of 1 ½ feet (45 cm)

5.5 Method of Planting

Fr. de Laulanié from his decades making the plant's profile like a J, extended as horizontally as of work with rice plants with the root tip pointing upward. possible, so that its profile is more discovered what a large This delays resumption of growth like an L. difference can be achieved by for days, even weeks, while the careful handling of seedling root tip takes time to get This helps minimize what is roots, by not letting them dry out, reoriented again toward commonly called 'transplanting by not knocking dirt off them downward growth. Instead of shock.' With such a shape, with before planting, etc. Especially he being plunged into the soil (and root tip not pointed upward, the found out, and taught farmers, into hypoxic soil when there is plant can more quickly resume that seedlings should not be standing water on the paddy growing downward again. Any pushed downward into the soil, as field), the tiny plant should be laid reduction in this post-transplant this inverts their root tips upward, into the soil gently, with roots adjustment time enables plants to

58 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI complete more phyllochrons of ways of doing it also. The initial growth before the plant switches method for getting precise into its reproductive phase. It is spacing of transplanting was to the latter phyllochrons which give use ropes (either coconut fibre or the most profuse tillering (Uphoff, nylon) to guide the line of planting Roots placed horizontally 2008). (Photos 5.8 to 5.11). Small sticks or coloured cloth pieces can be Rice seedlings when It would be ideal if the roots of inserted at 25 cm spacing to show transplanted should be handled transplanted seedlings could all the place of planting within the very carefully to avoid trauma to point downward, so no time and row. Markings can also be done the roots, being planted quickly energy would have to be spent in with paint. The rope can be held after removal from the nursery, reorienting the roots to grow by two persons who can move it to avoid root desiccation, and downwards. It is practically after every 25 cm row is planted, shallow (just 1- 2 cm). A criterion impossible to get all roots facing or it can be tied between stakes, is for replanting to occur within downward after transplanting 25 cm apart, on the edges of the 15-30 minutes from removal. (Figure 6.1). Alternately, it is field. If a line of seedlings are suggested that the roots be at planted at the two sides of the least horizontally placed. It is Guiding Spacing field, the guide rope could be observed that this practice is Square planting at the 25 cm easily operated. Markings may generally not easily adopted by spacing recommended for SRI also be made on a bamboo stick contract labourers, who prefer to could be achieved by several or aluminium pipe. continue past ways and to means. Farmers find their own transplant as quickly as possible, rather than to transplant carefully. With explanation and possibly incentives, labourers should be gotten to transplant in a way that respects plants' growth needs and potentials.

Photo 5.8 Rope with markings for planting

Roots pointing downwards

Roots bent upwards

Photo 5.9 SRI line planting

59 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photos 5.10 and 5.11 Square planted fields using rope

An innovative farmer put small tool in SRI now. It is interesting required moist condition should holes in a bamboo plank at 25 cm that such a roller marker was be sufficient to pull the marker. and plugged the holes with small being used in 1960s (Photo 5.12). Several innovative markers are plugs to show 25 cm spacing. To When the roller is pulled over the being developed and used (Photos guide the between-row spacing, level main field, criss-cross lines 5.15, 5.16, and 5.17). he used a 25 cm rod. A wooden are formed on the soil, and the frame with spikes spaced at 25 intersecting points indicate the Roller-markers greatly reduce the cm is also used criss-cross by place for planting the seedlings time required to score precise some farmers. (Photos 5.13 and 5.14). The field grids on the surface of the field. should have been leveled well, They are easy to operate and An improvement upon ropes has and the soil condition should be involve less drudgery than the been the design of roller-markers such that the marks made by the rope methods for laying out a grid made of metal rods developed by marker do not disappear due to pattern on the field. a farmer in Andhra Pradesh excess moisture. If the field is which has become a very useful drained the previous day, the

60 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 5.12 Roller marker used in 1966 (Stout, 1966)

Photos 5.13 & 5.14 Use of roller marker and planting at intersections

Photos 5.15 & 5.16 A simple wooden marker for square planting and transplanting in Sri Lanka

61 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 5.17 An efficient indigenous marker used in Philippines For labourers who are used to 5.6 Summary conventional random planting, square planting might look The main field preparation for cumbersome. But they will soon SRI does not differ much from realize they have to plant only 10- conventional method, but there 20% as many seedlings as they is more emphasis on leveling and would normally handle. Anyone on provision of drainage. Practice who sees a field immediately makes square planting easier after planting with single and less time-consuming. seedlings and wider spacing will Training of the labourers is have apprehension about its essential to avoid resistance productivity. There will be a initially. Square planting is period of confidence-testing for required to permit the farmers when they adopt SRI intercultivation to be undertaken the first time. This apprehension in both directions. This ensures will vanish after 3-4 weeks, when not just better weed control, but accelerating tillering begins. also active soil aeration, one of the main reasons why SRI plants Raising community nurseries perform better than their with staggered sowing is conventionally-grown relatives. advantageous to share the resources and also to assist those trying out SRI in some villages.

63 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 6 WATER MANAGEMENT

Developing the water resources are falling (IWMI, 2002). Human- structures of canal irrigation and irrigation infrastructure in induced pollution of rivers and systems, over-exploitation of countries was one of the major groundwater sources poses a groundwater resources, and the achievements of Green serious threat to the utilization of neglect of tank and reservoir Revolution as water application these waters for human systems are seriously affecting and control was crucial to realize consumption and agricultural the availability of water for the benefits of high-yielding use, and indeed to the agriculture. varieties. The increased food sustainability of agricultural production that the Green production systems. The high priority to improving Revolution provided was water-use efficiency in associated with increased water On the one hand, the agriculture has been well and fertilizer use, together with fundamental fear of food recognized because this sector is changes in the varieties planted. shortages encourages ever the largest consumer of water. greater use of water resources Water constraints cannot be In recent years, further large- for agriculture. On the other, resolved without changes in the scale development of river and there are competing demands food production sector groundwater resources is less from other sectors to divert (Bindraban et al. 2006). acceptable and less cost-effective water from irrigated food Increasingly, water is becoming a than in the 1960-1990 period, production to other users and to scarce resource in the world as when most of the world's 45,000 meet the needs of natural well as in India (Table 6.1). large dams were built. Sadly, ecosystems. Many believe this much of the irrigation water conflict is one of the most critical India's irrigation sources are infrastructure built in recent problems to be tackled in the monsoon-dependent. The decades is becoming obsolete, as early 21st Century (Global Water agricultural growth during the reservoirs are silting up, Partnership, Framework for post-independence period can be irrigation networks are Action, 2000, p. 58). attributed to huge investment crumbling, groundwaterlevels Deterioration in the distribution (Rs. 2,31,400 crores) in irrigation projects which resulted in more Table 6.1 than a three-fold increase in the Changes in per capita water resources in selected gross irrigated area, from 22.6 m Asian countries ha (1950-1951) to 76.3 m ha

3 (1999-2000). Exploitation of Country Per capita available water resources (m ) groundwater has been increasing Year 1990 Year 1955 Year 2025 during this period (Figure 6.1), China 4,597 2,427 1,818 and in some regions there is India 5,277 2,464 1,496 over-exploitation, leading to Vietnam 11,746 5,638 3,215 annual declines of 10-20 cm in South Korea 2,940 1,452 1,253 groundwater levels. Pakistan 10,590 3,962 1,803 Sri Lanka 4,930 2,498 1,738 Source : Hossain and Fischer, 1995

64 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 40

35 30 e

r 1950-5 1

a 25 t

c 1999-0 0 e

h 20

n o

lli 15 i m 10

5 0 Canal Wells Tanks Others

Irrigation source

Figure 6.1 Area irrigated by different sources in India Source: Report of the Sub-Committee on More Crop and Income per Drop, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, 2006)

Table 6.2 Water availability and utilization for rice in India

Annual precipitation (km3)a 4,000 Rice cultivation accounts for the major consumption of available 3 a Annual utilizable surface water (km ) 690 water for irrigation in India as in Annual utilizable ground water (km3) a 396 other rice-producing countries

3 a (Table 6.2). The country needs to Water withdrawal for agriculture (km ) 524 increase its food grain production b Gross irrigated area, 1999-2000 (million ha) 76.3 to 450 million tonnes by the year Gross rice area, 1999-2000 (million ha) c 45.2 2050 to meet its food security needs. Increase in paddy Gross irrigated rice area, 1999-2000 (million ha) d 25.0 production will have to come from Water withdrawal for rice cultivation (km3) the same cultivated area or even (Computedbased on the assumption that 32.8 % from a reduced area. of total irrigated area is under rice. The actual use will be more as water is impounded in the field for rice, unlike other crops) 172 a Source: Rakesh Sharma et al.(2005) b Source : http://agrocoop.nic/in c Source : USDA/ irri.org d Source : FAOSTAT/ irri.org

65 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 6.1 Rice and Water

The estimated water use (by water calendars must be and other living things, (6) evapotranspiration) of all organized for largeblocks of maintaining an even soil harvested rice fields in the world fields in order to manage water temperature, (7) generation of is some 859 km3 per year. It efficiently and organize such water percolation and takes on an average 1,432 liters work asland preparation, groundwater recharge,which are of evapotranspired water to transplantation, and drying for often beneficial for other water produce 1 kg of rough rice. harvesting uses, and (8) capacity for flood Irrigated rice receives an (http://www.fao.org/rice2004/en/ control: field bunds have a estimated 34-43% of the total f-sheet/factsheet1.pdf). significant water storage world's irrigation water, or about capacity,which reduces peak 24-30% of the entire world's Rice survives under submerged flows under heavy rains. developed freshwater resources conditions because it forms air (http://irri.org/knowledge/irri- pockets (aerenchyma, a kind of The field-level control of water for training/knowledge-bank). secondary respiratory tissue) in submerged rice growth has led, its roots. Around 30 percent of over the centuries, to the Rice is the only cereal that can the cortex around the central development of certain water tolerate water submergence, and stele (xylem and phloem) of rice management and cultivation this helps to explain the long and plant roots growing in practices that produce some diversified linkages between rice submerged conditions beneficial outcomes. The terrace and water. For hundreds of years, disintegrates to form these air system inmountainous areas is a natural selection pressures such pockets that allow oxygen to typical product of the ponding as drought, submergence, diffuse into root tissues. technique and allows cultivation flooding, and nutrient and biotic However, this adaptation limits even on steep slopes. This stresses led to a great diversity in the plant's ability to absorb technique is instrumental in rice ecosystems. The plant's nutrients (Uphoff, 2008). preventing soil erosion and adaptation strategies include landslides surviving under submerged Growing under submergence (http://www.fao.org/rice2004/en/f conditions without damage, by has the following benefits: (1) -sheet/factsheet1.pdf). elongating its stems to escape assurance of water supply to oxygen deficiency when water plants, (2) increased supply of Under flooded paddy conditions, tables rise, and conversely nitrogen and phosphorus and most – about 75% – of the roots withstanding severe drought control of organic matter remain in the top 6 cm of soil a periods. dynamics,(3) neutralization of month after transplanting, the soil pH, particularly making forming a 'mat' close to the Historically, rice cultivation has acid soils more neutral and surface to capture as much been a collective enterprise. The facilitating the solubilization and dissolved oxygen as possible from investment and shaping of the uptake of certain nutrients, (4) the water. Such shallow roots fail landscape that are needed for the prevention of weed development, to extract nutrients from a large ponding system (or terraces) thereby reducing the need to use volume of soil, however, resulting requires collective organization herbicides or reducing the in dependence on inorganic within the community. Water amount of labour required,(5) fertilizers. Standing water, in management also relies on prevention of damage by blight fact, suppresses yield by limiting collective interest; crop and and harmful animals, insects the ability of the roots to respire.

66 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI This slows down the plant's It is reported that many of the belief that flooding gives superior metabolism, its ion transport, physiological diseases of rice yields, but this is incorrect and the resulting growth. plants are the result of the (Uphoff, 2008) highly reduced state of the iron One adverse consequence of and manganese oxides in the Rice can be cultivated with the flooding paddy soils is that soil under flooded conditions same supply of water as other anaerobic conditions limit the (Stout, 1966). cereals, and the distinguishing abundance and diversity, and feature lies in the fact that unlike hence activity, of aerobic soil It has been widely believed that other cereals, rice can tolerate organisms. These include most of rice plants grow and produce standing water or swampy the beneficial soil biota, i.e., N better in standing water (De condition for its growth fixers and P solubilizers. Keeping Datta, 1981). But in fact, most (Parthasarathy, 1963). Bulandi et fields inundated also means that irrigated rice roots degenerate al. (1964) have reported that rice plants forgo the benefits of by the plant's stage of flowering submergence depths of 0,5,10,15 mycorrhizal fungi, which enhance when grain formation and filling and 20 cm resulted in no the growth and health of about begins, by as much as 78%, significant difference in yields, 90% of plant species when according to Kar et al. (1974). and that intermittent irrigation functioning as symbiotic Rice plants can survive in produced greater yield than endophytes in plant roots and standing water - because their submergence. According to giving plants access to a much roots form air pockets Lafitte and Bennett (2002), rice is increased volume of soil. (aerenchyma) through collapse not an aquatic species and does of cortex cells around the stele not necessarily need to be grown Further, the soil in flooded fields to permit the passive diffusion of under inundated conditions. will have less good structure oxygen to sustain cell since it will have suppressed functioning. But they do not populations of fungi, all of which thrive. Both farmers and are aerobic. Fungi are largely scientists have perpetuated the responsible for the production of glomulin in the soil, which is a 6.2 Water Requirements of Rice major factor in the formation of soil aggregates and aggregate The average water requirement seen from Table 6.3 that on an stability. Also, without of rice for growing under stable average, over half of the water earthworms and other aerobic water supply is 220 to 280 g per provided for rice irrigation is 'lost' fauna, pore space will be less g of matter. This is almost in evaporation and transpiration extensive, and the passage of equivalent to other plants with (transpiration being a natural water and air through the soil, similar type of photosynthesis as physiological process, this is carrying beneficial nutrients and rice (i.e., C3 pathway). However, unavoidable and not exactly a gases, will be less well- rice has some sensitivity to loss), while between 20 and 30 distributed in the soil. Also, the water stress and some tolerance percent is lost to seepage and release of harmful gases to water excess. Flooded rice percolation. generated in the soil into the requires 900-2250 mm of water atmosphere will be impeded depending on the water (Uphoff, 2008). management, soil and climatic factors (Table 6.3). It can be

67 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 6.3: provide the best growth Average water requirements of irrigated rice environment for rice and will Farm operation/ Consumptive use result in the highest yields, -1 process of water (mm day ) although this belief is now Land preparation 150 – 250 challenged. Evapo-transpiration 500 – 1,200 After transplanting, water levels Seepage and percolation 200 – 700 are recommended to be around 3 Mid-season drainage 50 – 100 cm initially, and gradually Total 900 – 2,250 increased to 5-10 cm with increasing plant height. Water One hectare of an irrigated rice way of putting this is that the level in the fields should be kept field that yields 4,500 kg of rough water needed to grow one kilo of at 5 cm at all times during the rice requires 15,000 cubic meters rice with standard irrigation reproductive stage (15 million litres) of water under methods is the same as what (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.or current practices of flood one person requires daily (40 to g/bmp). This recommendation is irrigation. This means that about 50 litres per capita per day) for at variance with SRI experience 3,400 litres of water are required as long as four months, and recommendations, however. to produce 1 kg of rice. This water according to the standards of per requirement is three to five times capita minimum water In Tamil Nadu state, the greater than what is needed by requirements set by the World recommendation is for irrigating other cereals like wheat or corn Bank. to 5 cm depth one day after the (Table 6.4), and accounts for 20- previously ponded water 30 percent of the total variable disappears from the surface. This cost of rice production. Another recommendation is not practiced by many farmers, however, due to Table 6.4 various reasons, the main being Water requirement per crop that water is not priced, so they bear no cost for excessive use of Typical water ? Crop -1 requirement (litre kg ) water. Usually farmers keep their rice fields flooded as in Photos 6.1 Cotton 7,000 –9,000 and 6.2. Electricity shortages and Rice 3,000 – 5,000 an unreliable system of rotating Sugar 1,500 – 3,000 water supply in canals (the turn Soya 2,000 system) also give farmers Wheat 900 incentives to keep their rice fields Potatoes 900 continuously flooded to the extent that they can. The current recommendation for depth of ponded water at around water management for rice varies 5 cm minimizes water losses by with the source of the seepage and percolation recommendations in different (http://www.knowledgebank.irri. areas. According to ICAR, in India org/factsheetsPDFs/watermanag it is ideal to maintain 2-5 cm ement). After crop water throughout the growing establishment, continuous season (ICAR, 2010). Keeping the ponding of water is thought to

68 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 6.1 Typical flood irrigation ecosystem in a delta

Photo 6.2 Conventional flooded rice field

69 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Until recently, this profligate use Needed increases in rice the spectre of currently of water by rice has been taken production are thus constrained productive agricultural areas for granted, justified with the not only by paucity of land for becoming desiccated and belief that it is beneficial for rice cultivation, but also by water devastated, of rice bowls production. But there is a scarcity, which is common in becoming dust bowls, triggering growing awareness among the areas where the conventional conflict. public that irrigated rice water-intensive method of production is the largest source irrigated rice cultivation through The FAO has forecast that by of consumption for fresh water, inundation has prevailed. The 2030, the global harvested area and any reduction in water future of the country's rice under rice will increase by 11 demand for rice farming will have production will depend heavily percent, with South Asia far-reaching significance. Even if on developing and adopting accounting for almost 75 percent freshwater availability remains strategies and practices that will of that increase. This constant, which is unlikely, it can use irrigation water more corresponds to an increase of be expected that water efficiently at farm level. over 24 per cent in South Asia's availability per capita will current harvested area. It is not decrease progressively until As mentioned earlier, most of easy to see where this increase population stabilizes, possibly in the global rice cultivation is will come from in South Asia as the 2060s. Further, competing carried out on irrigated land. In arable area has been rather fully and increasing demands for India, the total irrigated rice area developed. But one must ask water from the industrial and in 2006-2007 was around 24.87 pointedly: if the current methods urban sectors will make it million hectares. This is about 57 of production remain unchanged, imperative for agriculture in percent of the country's total where will the water for such an general, and for rice production area under rice crop. Under such area increase come from? In this in particular, to become more circumstances, the steady scenario of deepening water water-saving in its production decline in the availability of fresh crisis and rice-yield stagnation, it methods, quite apart from water (Table 6.5) is bound to is imperative that new cost- responding to continuing have an impact on rice effective methods that will use population growth. production. water more effectively be urgently investigated and practiced. The predicted climate changes in In the world's 'rice bowls', the decades ahead are likely to particularly in China and India, There is a pressing need to adopt further accentuate the impending acute water scarcity combined alternate, eco-friendly and pro- water crisis. These wake-up calls with competing demands on people production methods, that imply compulsory changes in the freshwater sources has raised make effective use of water, while current practices adopted for rice Table 6.5 raising production. Given production. To quote from the Declining and estimated decline in per the looming hydrological Prime Minister Dr. Man Mohan capita freshwater availability in India poverty, it is necessary to Singh's inaugural address to reduce the water Per capita fresh water Year 3 consumption for irrigated International Rice Congress held availability in india (m ) at New Delhi in October, 2006: rice cultivation. “Rice grown under irrigated 1951 5,410 condition is facing the threat of 1991 2309 water shortage. This is forcing a 2001 1,902 paradigm shift towards 2025 1,401 maximizing output per unit of 2050 1,191 water instead of per unit of land”. Source: Rakesh Sharma et al. (2005)

70 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 6.3 Water-saving Practices for Rice

It is instructive to note that 100 (1) Air in the soil is as important The advocacies of Vaidyalingam years ago it was recognized by a as water, and water and air Pillai and Dharmarangaraju a farmer in Tamil Nadu that rice should alternately enter, century ago show a great does not require full and drain, and leave the soil; conceptual breakthrough, continuous flooding. A farmer proposed at a time when there named Vaidyalingam Pillai (1911) (2) There should be optimum were no conflicts about sharing followed a water management warmth in the soil for proper river water, and when the general regime of shallow flooding of only growth of the crop, for which assumption was that the more 2.5 cm during the first week after there should not be water in paddies are flooded with water, planting; 4 cm during 2-3 weeks, the soil all the time; the higher would be their yields. and 5 cm afterwards. More than 5 Even today, when we have so cm flooding was not provided. (3 Experiments conducted from much pressure on the availability The fields were irrigated every 4- 1872 at Saidapet Government of water for irrigating rice, and 5 days. This gaja planting method Farm have shown that conventional flooding is still as Vaidyalingam Pillai called it farmers use excessive water practiced, we are surprised that contradicted the accepted adage for their irrigation; reducing water supply to rice had among Tamil farmers: 'neeruyara been advocated already in the (4) Water was being used at 5 nelluyarum' (paddy yield will early 20th Century as a way to cm depth for the first 30 days increase in accordance with flood raise the productivity of irrigated from planting, and at 10 cm water depth), and it went against rice cultivation. depth afterwards; this the Tanjore district farmers' habit amounted to 840 cm depth of flooding their fields to the top Currently discussed water-saving for kuruvai (120-day crop) of their bunds (Thiyagarajan and practices in rice cultivation are: and 1,440 cm depth for the Gujja, 2008). He concluded that (1) alternate wet and drying long-duration samba (180- more flooding lowers rice plants' (AWD) method, (2) aerobic rice, day) crop. tillering, despite the belief (3) resource-conserving technologies, and (4) the System of'experienced people that more (5) Experiments conducted in of Rice Intensification. We will water will increase their yield. He South Arcot and Krishna consider them below in turn. invited the opinion of experts on districts had shown that 60 to this departure from common 210 cm of water is sufficient practice once they saw his for wetland crop; results. (6) Yield increases were The importance of alternate proportionate to reduced wetting and drying of paddy fields water supply; has been recognized 100 years ago. Dharmarangaraju (1913) (7) With the reduced irrigation, made the following points with the water saved can be used regard to irrigation of paddy rice: for 5 times more area from available water sources; and

(8) It is incorrect that rice requires standing water.

71 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Alternate Wet and A practical way to implement Aerobic Rice AWD is to monitor the depth of Drying (AWD) Aerobic rice is grown like an ponded water on the field using upland crop such as wheat, in soil Under certain conditions, a 'field water tube'. After that is not puddled, flooded, or allowing the soil to dry out for a irrigation, the depth of ponded saturated. The soil is therefore few days before reflooding can be water will gradually decrease. “aerobic,” i.e., with oxygen, beneficial to crop growth. In When the ponded water has throughout the growing season, certain soils that are high in dropped to 15 cm below the as compared to traditional organic matter, toxic substances surface of the soil, irrigation flooded fields, which are can be formed during flooding should be applied to re-flood the anaerobic, i.e., unsupplied with that can best be removed (vented) field with 5 cm of ponded water. oxygen from the soil through intermittent From one week before to one (http://beta.irri.org/networks15). soil drying. week after flowering, ponded Aerobic rice is a production water should always be kept at 5 Intermittent soil drying also system in which especially cm depth. After flowering, promotes stronger deeper root developed “aerobic rice” varieties during grain filling and ripening, growth which can help plants are grown in well-drained, non- the water level can drop again to resist lodging better, in the case puddled, and unsaturated soils 15 cm below the surface before of strong winds later in the (Photo 6.3). With appropriate re-irrigation. season, and it gives them more management, the system aims -1 capacity to resist subsequent AWD can be started a few days for yields of at least 4-6 t ha . water stress and drought. after transplanting (or with a 10- The usual establishment method Intermittent soil drying can also cm tall crop in direct-seeding). is dry direct-seeding. Aerobic rice help control certain pests or When there is significant weeds can be rainfed or irrigated. diseases that require standing pressure, AWD can be postponed Irrigation can be applied through water for their spread or survival, for 2-3 weeks until the weeds flash-flooding, furrow irrigation such as the golden apple snail have been suppressed by the (or raised beds), or sprinklers. (http://irri.org/knowledge/irri- ponded water. Local fertilizer Unlike flooded rice, the irrigation training/knowledge-bank). recommendations as for - when applied - is not intended floodedrice can be used. AWD is a water-saving to flood the soil, but just to bring Fertilizer N should preferably be technology that lowland (paddy) the soil water content in the root applied on the dry soil just rice farmers can apply to reduce zone up to field capacity. Seed is before irrigation. their water use in irrigated fields. dry-seeded manually or (http://www.knowledgebank.irri. In AWD, irrigation water is mechanically at 2-3 cm depth in org/factsheetsPDFs/watermana applied to flood the field for a rows spaced 25-30 cm at a gement) -1 certain number of days after the seeding rate of 80 kg ha . disappearance of ponded water. Aerobic rice can save as much as The paddy is left to dry out as the 50% of irrigation water in water percolates through the soil. comparison with lowland rice. Hence, the field is alternately Weed infestation will have to be flooded and non-flooded. The managed appropriately. number of days of non- floodedsoil in AWD between irrigations can vary from 1 day to more than 10 days.

72 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Resource-Conserving Technologies (RCTS) Irrigated rice-wheat systems are practiced in the states of Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh and in Punjab (Pakistan). Rice is usually grown in the wet summer season (May-June to October-November) and wheat in the dry winter season (November-December to February-March). The soils and crop management undergo drastic changes during the wet season rice to upland wheat in winter season.

Resource-conserving technologies have been adopted in the rice-wheat rotational cropping system which include :

· Non-puddled transplanted or direct-seeded rice alternated with wheat planted with zero- till or reduced tillage;

· Permanent raised-bed planting system; and

· Surface seeding of wheat and other crops

In the permanent-bed planted rice-wheat system, the savings in irrigation water are around 35- 40% (Gupta et al. 2002).

Photo 6.3 Aerobic rice, Karnataka 6.4 SRI Water Management

The irrigation regime in SRI is to management. It is more precise has percolated into the soil. This provide the growing plants with and can give higher yields, but requires less management effort sufficient but never excess water farmers' labour may have from the farmer and produces (le minimum de l'eau, in Fr. de opportunity costs that will make reasonably good results with less Laulanié's words), so that the it reasonable to economize on labour input. roots do not suffocate and labor time for water degenerate (Uphoff, 2008). SRI management with less precise If farmers are carefully observing offers great scope not only to and frequent applications. their plants' growth and status, overcome the water crisis, while they can adjust their amounts and at the same time increasing rice Many SRI farmers now practice timing of water with practice to production and enhancing the alternate wetting and drying suit their plants' needs best. This livelihood of rice farmers. (AWD), flooding their paddies for strategy of water management is a few days (the number is quite not advisable where farmers have Soil should be mostly aerobic variable, depending mostly on heavy clay soils, that crack most of time, and not soil characteristics and seriously when water content continuously saturated so as to weather), and then letting them falls below a certain level and the benefit the growth and remain dry for a few days (also a soil becomes very hard. For such functioning of both plant roots variable number) after the water soils, small daily applications will and aerobic soil biota. Fr. de Laulanié's recommendation was to apply a small amount of water daily, preferably in the late afternoon or evening, just a few centimeters, and to let it sink into the soil overnight, draining any standing water the next morning. This had the advantage of 'insulating' the field during the colder night hours, conserving warmth in the soil which would otherwise radiate away, and of exposing the soil during the day Photo 6.4 Shallow irrigation in flat field to sunlight and air. A layer of standing water on the field would reflect much solar energy again from the soil (Uphoff, 2008).

This latter consideration will be more important in cooler climates, but not in tropical zones where soil temperature will be high in any case. Farmers who have labour constraints may find this method difficult to practice as it requires daily water Photo 6.5 Irrigation to keep the soil moist in raised bed

74 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI be needed for SRI methods to succeed, maintaining sufficient soil moisture to avoid hardening, but the time invested will be repaid.

In Tamil Nadu, the water management for SRI is prescribed based on field experimentation. Up to panicle initiation stage, it is recommended to irrigate the field to 2.5 cm after the previously Photo 6.6 Field to be irrigated irrigated water disappears and hairline cracks develop. After panicle initiation, irrigation is done to 2.5 cm depth one day after the previously ponded water disappears from the surface. At the hairline cracking stage, soil will not be dry, but it will still be moist (Photos 6.4 to 6.7).

Irrigation intervals vary with soil texture. Fine-textured clayey soils with higher field capacity Photo 6.7 Hairline cracks and weeder-made depressions need irrigation at longer intervals, while coarse-textured Table 6.6 light soils with lower water- Research finding on SRI water management holding capacity require irrigation (Coimbatore, 2001) at closer intervals, consuming in Recommended SRI the process more quantity of practice irrigation water. Irrigated water (m3 ha-1) 16,634 8,419.0 Such shallow irrigation can save % water saved - 49.4 water up to 40% (Table 6.6), and there will not be any yield loss Matsushima (1980) emphasized managing water temperature during due to this. The data from the the rooting period (keeping it below 35ºC) as one of the important experiment conducted in DRR, management practices for high yields. If the temperature is higher than Hyderabad showed 22-29% 35ºC, he advocated exposing the ground surface to the air so that the saving of water (Mahender soil loses the latent heat of evaporation and the soil becomes cooler Kumar et al. 2007). than when it is covered with water. According to him, exposing the paddy soil to the air prevents various diseases and root rot induced by the excessive reductive conditions of the soil.

75 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Exposing the soil to the air is Thus far, SRI farmers using the green manure. This is discussed repeatedly done in the SRI recommended irrigation separately in Chapter 8. irrigation practice, and thus it methods have not observed inadvertently helps in other ways reduced grain yields. Instead, The important point that farmers for better crop growth. SRI- maintaining unflooded soil should remember is that their practicing farmers feel that it conditions appears to favour paddy rice does not require flood also leads to the venting of increases in grain yields. water, and it is enough to keep unfavourable gases from the soil, the soil moist. Farmers using although this remains to be A genuine apprehension of the groundwater will realize savings studied. Matsushima's contention farmers would be that the of water, time and electricity from that optimum oxidizing conditions limited irrigation might lead to SRI practice in irrigation. If SRI is which characterize good soil weed infestation. Following SRI adopted in an entire command conditions could be achieved by recommendations, weeder area, the water that is saved will intermittent irrigation is fulfilled operations should commence be sufficient for use in other in SRI. 10-12 days after planting and be areas or for other purposes. done every 10-12 days Apart from getting higher yields thereafter, so that weeds do not and using less water with SRI have the opportunity to come up. water management, there are The active soil aeration that this benefits from fuel savings where achieves is also a benefit for the groundwater must be pumped growing plants in addition to and in avoiding water conflicts removing weeds. Churning them among farmers relying on the into the soil also enhances soil same source of water. organic matter as a form of

6.5 Water Productivity

The efficiency with which crops Water productivity of rice ranges Globally, the additional amount of utilize water for their growth, and from 0.15 to 0.60 kg m-3, while water that will be needed in the how differences in the supplying that of other cereals ranges future to support agriculture water to the crops can affect the from 0.2 to 2.4 kg m-3 (Cai and directly will depend on the gains efficiency of its utilization, can be Rosegrant, 2003). Inefficient that can be made in water ascertained by calculating structures and operation of productivity. If there are no gains various parameters like water irrigation systems in many cases in WP, the current average use efficiency and water and ensuing suboptimal water annual amount of agricultural productivity. management have led to low evapotranspiration, currently water productivity for many 7,130 cubic kilometres, will need crops.

total biomass or grain production Water use efficiency (WUE) : ------amount of water (delivered or depleted or transpired)

net benefits (grain yield or value of output) Water productivity (WP) : ------amount of water used

76 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI to nearly double in the next 50 l Improved varieties under progress. Transforming the years. With appropriate water- (e.g.,cultivars with fast- C3 rice plant into a C4 species by saving practices being followed, growing roots) genetic engineering of this needed increase could be photosynthetic enzymes and l held down to 20-30% Better methods of irrigation making required changes in (Comprehensive Assessment of anatomic structures such as l Water-saving cultivation Water Management in stomata is another approach, still practices Agriculture, 2007). uncertain and certainly costly. l Better soil management (soil Under field conditions, lack of Furrow irrigation, raised-bed health improvement for water moisture and low fertility are the irrigation, and micro-irrigation absorption and retention) most important factors which methods of irrigation are being tried in rice cultivation (Photo limit yield and hence contribute l Improved soil-water 6.8). Improving soil health to to less efficient water use by management practices (e.g., rectify soil conditions, increasing crops.Water productivity can be no-tillage, mulch water absorption and retention, increased through biological applications) water-saving (by exploiting the and enhancing soil fertility and genetic and physiological l Introducing supplemental nutrient supply can greatly help potential of the plants) and by irrigation for stress situations to increase yields, and thus WP. physical water-saving through (e.g., from groundwater) Effective tillage (e.g., leveling) means such as: and innovative mulching Developing varieties for drought approaches (e.g., polythene tolerance and suitable for mulching) can also contribute to aerobic rice production are reduction of water use.

Photo 6.8 Sprinkler irrigation being developed for rice at North Eastern Complex, ICAR,Patna

77 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Experimental evidence has flooding (2.5 t ha−1). Ceesay et organic fertilization, matched shown the benefits of SRI type of al. reported a six-fold increase in with equal nutrient value of irrigation. Sandhu et al. (1980) water productivity, i.e. paddy rice synthetic fertilizer, rather than and Li et al. (2005) found no yield per unit volume of water. 25% or 100% organic fertilization. adverse effect on rice yields with More details on the effects of SRI intermittent irrigation at 1-5 days can be seen in Chapter 10. In a systematically conducted after disappearance of standing experiment at Hyderabad in the water, even without the other Thakur et al. (2011) found that rabi season of 2009-2010, SRI agronomic changes 1,463 litres of water were crops under organic and recommended for SRI practice. required to produce 1 kg of rice inorganic nutrient management Just intermittent irrigation could with SRI management, while resulted in 8.1 and 8.2 t ha–1 save 25-50% of water compared 2,778 litres of water were grain yield with 12.6 and 13.7% to continuous submergence needed under standard yield increase over the control without yield loss. management practice. Water plots, respectively (Gujja and saving was to the extent of Thiyagarajan, 2010). Careful Increased water productivity to 22.2%, due mostly to reduction in measurement of water use has the extent of 96% due to water- seepage and percolation losses. showed that water productivity is saving irrigation without Lin et al. (2011) studied the higher under SRI, and water detrimental effect on grain yield effect of increasing the savings reached 37.5% and 34.2% has been reported by proportion organic nutrients in under SRI-organic and SRI Thiyagarajan et al. (2002). Ceesay soil fertilization and found that methods, respectively (Fig. 6.2 et al. (2006) observed nearly aerobic irrigation increased and 6.3). three times higher grain yield water-use efficiency, and this with SRI practice (7.3 t ha−1) was highest when there was 50% compared with continuous

3000 0.8 )

3 0.7 n) 2500 ai /m 0.6 g gr (k

g 2000 0.5 /k it

(l 1500 0.4

uctivity 0.3 sed

1000 od u r

p 0.2 er r

500 e at

at 0.1 W W 0 0 SRI-Organic SRI Control SRI-Organic SRI Control

Figure 6.2 and 6.3 Water (irrigation and rainfall) used and water productivity in SRI and control rice crops, rabi 2009-2010, ICRISAT, Hyderabad. (Gujja and Thiyagarajan, 2010).

78 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 6.6 Water Management in Rainfed SRI

In areas where transplanting is an increase in biomass was With climate change, increasing possible with rain water, normal observed in SRI. This was variability of rainfall, and the SRI with transplanting is attributed to better root growth in growing competition for water and practiced with benefits similar to, the SRI plants and to organic land, SRI offers a new opportunity if not equal to, irrigated rice manure application to the soil. for increasing the crop produced production with SRI The yield increase was to the per drop of water and for reducing management. The two issues extent of 83% (Patwardhan and overall agricultural water demand associated with water Patel, 2008). Transplanting if the new water management management in this situation are: timing is affected if there is no practices are used more widely. (1) to control excess water when timely rainfall (Dutta and Pati, This is important because the there is heavy downpour, and to 2008). Application of SRI agricultural sector in many parts keep it from harming the crop; principles in rainfed rice has of the world accounts for the and (2) manage drought stresses been successful in Cambodia and largest share of water use (World when there is not sufficient rain. Myanmar (Uphoff, 2008; Kabir Bank Institute, 2008). SRI management for plants, soil, and Uphoff, 2007). water and nutrients appears to help plants in rainfed areas to In a study conducted in tolerate water-stress periods as Philippines, mulching with it promotes deeper root growth gliricidia cuttings was tried to and also enhances the life in the conserve moisture in rainfed SRI soil. (http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/coun tries/philippines/binuprst.pdf). In an observation at Sarvar in Trials with an indigenous variety Gujarat state, during a dry spell known for its drought tolerance, for 10 days starting 5days after using five different spacings, gave transplanting, major losses yields averaging 7 t ha-1, without occurred in the control plots, but irrigation.

6.7 Summary

Water-saving with SRI cultivation accompanied by biodiverse practices is one of the best populations of aerobic soil biota. opportunities that we have in It is also necessary that water terms of improving national delivery systems ensure proper water security. What is important drainage facilities which can help is to educate the farmers to the keep the soil in SRI fields mostly fact that better rice production aerobic. does not require flooding; indeed, rice does not benefit from this if the other plant, soil and nutrient practices of SRI are followed, favouring the growth of plants with deep, vigorous root systems

79 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 7 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

Like any other crop, rice also Since crops require mineral necessary to manage more requires all the sixteen essential nutrients, the supply must be effectively the nutrient flows and elements that plants need for adequate for the targeted yield. cycles within a farm (Figure 7.1). growth and completion of their As the natural nutrient sources Furthermore, the nutrients life cycle. The essential nutrients provide most but not necessarily exported from the farms to the are classified into major all of the crop's requirements, cities in the form of food should nutrients (macronutrients) additional nutrients often are be recycled, i.e., industrial food required in large amounts by the required. The concept of soil processing and communal waste plants, and those fertilization in its modern products should be used as a (micronutrients) that are required comprehensive form and on the cheap nutrient source according only in trace amounts by the basis of targeted high soil fertility to recommendations. plants. However, all are equally has proved to be a powerful tool important because each plays a for enormous yield increases in role in the growth and areas of intensive agriculture. development of plants. Of the nine major elements, carbon is In many situations, the use of derived from the atmosphere, fertilizer is severely limited by and hydrogen and oxygen are water shortages and/or derived from water, and thus economic constraints. Cropping these are not considered in under such low-yielding nutrient management conditions must, therefore, rely discussions. on the 'capital' of farm nutrient resources. This makes it INPUTS INTERNAL EXPORT Water RESOURCES All nutrients Biomass Air (decomposed) Sunlight Rain Soil Microbes Earthworms Animal excreta Crop residues

Figure 7.1 Nutrient balance in a closed farm

80 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 7.1 Soil Health

Soil is a dynamic, living, natural natural events (Mausbach and matter transformation, and body that is vital to the functions Tugel, 1995). Soil health can be physical engineering of soil of terrestrial ecosystems and enhanced by management and structure. The microbial represents a flowing, unique land-use decisions that weigh populations of the soil alone balance between the living and the multiple functions of soil, encompass an enormous the dead. The number of living and it is impaired by decisions diversity of bacteria, algae, fungi, organisms in a teaspoon of fertile which focus only on single protozoa, viruses and soil (10g) can exceed nine billion, functions, such as crop actinomycetes. While the specific more than the human population productivity. functions and interactions of the of the earth majority of these organisms are (http://www.bibalex.org/supercou Soil health is inseparable from still not well elucidated, their rse/lecture/lec2871/003.htm). issues of sustainability. Soil roles as functional groups in soil organic matter is critical in most health regeneration and Soil health is judged by soil soils to maintain the soil maintenance are becoming physical, chemical, and biological structure which provides optimal increasingly known. properties. Topsoil can be quickly drainage, water-holding lost through erosion or capacity, and aeration for the Long-term experiments on degradation, whereas it takes growth and health of crops and various cropping systems of years, decades, centuries and soil biota. Organic matter also different agro-ecological regions millennia to build up soil under contributes significantly to cation and soil types have revealed that natural conditions. Plants exchange capacity (CEC), which the continuous use of inorganic themselves, through root enables the soil to buffer and nitrogen fertilizer and its exudation, contribute to maintain the concentration of indiscriminate application, enhancing the soil's fertility, and many nutrients in solution. ignoring the need for soil organic soil amendments of decomposed matter to maintain the soil biota, biomass in almost any form can Production systems that rely leads to long-term, and even have a positive effect on the heavily on inorganic nutrient some short-term, deterioration, build-up of soil resources. supplies and neglect soil organic affecting yield sustainability due matter contain inherent to deficiencies of macro- and Topsoil is a non-renewable inefficiencies. Soils which are micronutrients like S, Mg, Zn, and resource within human life spans. incapable of storing nutrients Mn. Over application of some The most important step for soil require excessive or continuous nutrients which stimulate the management is to know the soil's addition of soluble nutrients for growth of plants and/or status, often characterized in crop growth, to compensate for microorganisms that are favoured terms of soil health. This is a losses and inefficiencies. Soluble depletes the stocks of other figurative expression nutrients that are in excess of nutrients which are needed by all representing the productivity plant and microbial needs will plants and soil organisms. level and the resilience of pass beyond the reach of plant particular soil for a given crop roots, with potential adverse Just as a healthy person is under a certain set of conditions. consequences for groundwater resistant to stresses and diseases quality, compounded by the loss and thus will use drugs sparingly, Soil health is defined as the of valuable and possible a healthy soil can suppress soil- ability of soil to perform or dwindling nutrient resources. borne diseases, reduce pesticide function according to its requirements, and buffer plants potential, and this changes over Soil organisms must be from water and nutrient stresses time due to human use and acknowledged as key architects (Wolfe, 2006). management or to unusual in nutrient turnover, organic

81 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 7.2 Soil and Plant Testing

Intensive research on nutrient analysis and produce a fertilizer done. Biological assessments supply to crops has led to better recommendation that will give are presently more complicated quantitative understanding of the optimum economic yields. and more expensive than dynamic nature of both the chemical measures. The soil nutrient release from soil as well Standard methods are used for flora and fauna population play the demand of the crops during analyzing samples for soil significant roles in maintaining their growth period. This has led testing. The soils are tested with soil health and serve as an to changes in the approaches respect to the following important indicator for assessing used for generating fertilizer determinations: the soil's health. Physical recommendations. · pH, or the soil's reaction properties like soil porosity, bulk indicating acidity or alkalinity density, and water-holding Soil testing is necessary as most of the soil. capacity also need to be agricultural soils are deficient in · Total soluble salts as considered when assessing soil one or more nutrients, and poor indicated by electrical health. (deficient) soil leads to poor conductivity values which growth and plant stress. Soil test Plant analysis indicates whether show the degree of salinity. results also provide vital the plants contain the information for diagnosing soil- · Organic carbon, which gives concentrations of essential related constraints. Soil testing is an indirect measure of nutrients necessary for optimum any measurement of physical available nitrogen. growth and can help to generate and/or chemical and/or biological · Other available nutrients, e.g., recommendations for correcting properties of the soil, but by P, K and other selected nutrient deficiencies before they variable means of determination nutrients suspected of being reach a critical level. of the soil productivity that give in short supply. estimations of available The biological properties should nutrients. It should therefore be also be studied before making more than a soil chemical test in fertilizer recommendations, order to be able to interpret the although this is not commonly

7.3 Fertilizer Recommendations

Modern agriculture has depended simply not available in sufficient and there are a lot of variations in heavily on the introduction and supply. One of the major reasons the rates due to variations in use of inorganic fertilizers to for the success of Green seasons and durations of the crop. supply soil nutrients, particularly Revolution in terms of achieving It is advisable to adopt a soil test- the macronutrients of nitrogen, national self-sufficiency in food based fertilizer recommendation phosphorus and potassium. The production was the use of so as to adjust with the native advantages of inorganic fertilizers inorganic fertilizers, promoted fertility of the soil. This will ensure are that they are easier to apply; often by government subsidies. sufficient nutrient supply, but also often not very expensive, avoid unnecessary use of external especially if subsidized by the Soil test-based fertilizer nutrients when there is already government; have more recommendations and generic sufficient supply available in the predictable nutrient content; and recommendations are generally soil. organic nutrients are sometimes available throughout the country,

82 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Various decision-support systems considering nutrients from 7.5 Foliar Nutrition and simulation models have been different sources, notably organic developed to assist farmers. IRRI materials; nutrients carried over Foliar nutrition has many has developed a Site-Specific from previous cropping seasons; advantages like easy absorption, Nutrient Management (SSNM) the dynamics, transformation acceleration of growth, system which takes into account and interaction of nutrients in translocation of metabolites, and the native capacity of the soil to soil; interactions between and ultimately greater yield increase. support a crop. The total among nutrients; and their Higher efficiency of plant uptake fertilizer N needed by rice to availability in the rooting zone of nutrients applied through its achieve a profitable target yield is and during the growing season in foliage compared with soil determined from the anticipated relation to the nutrient demands application has been reported. yield gain, applied fertilizer N, of the crop. In addition, it Foliar nutrition is recommended and a targeted efficiency of integrates the objectives of for several crops to help overcome fertilizer N use. Fertilizer N is production, ecology and nutrient deficiencies and also to supplied to match the crop's need environment, and is an important promote growth. The for supplemental N, especially at part of any sustainable recommendation for rice the critical growth stages of agricultural system. suggested in Tamil Nadu is two active tillering and panicle sprays of a foliar combination that The appropriate contribution of initiation. Enough amounts of has 2% DAP + 1% MOP + 1% urea, mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizer P and K are also applied first at panicle initiation, and then manures, crop residues, compost to overcome deficiencies and at the first flowering stages in and/or N-fixing crops varies sustain profitable rice farming addition to the application of according to the system of land (http://beta.irri.org/ssnm/index.p recommended doses of N, P, K use and the ecological, social hp/SSNM-made-sim.html). through the soil. and economic conditions. The above factors all need to be Panchagavya, an organic 7.4 Integrated Nutrient considered when making preparation using various cows' Management (INM) fertilizer recommendations. For products, is very popular with plants to utilize chemical organic farmers. In Sanskrit, With the introduction of modern fertilizers effectively, the soil in Panchagavya means the blend of varieties and cropping systems, the root zone must have five (pancha) products obtained the annual crop demand for substantial capacity to retain and from the cow. All these five nutrients has increased rapidly, provide exchangeable cations. products are individually called and deficiencies of nutrients have Cation exchange capacity (CEC) Gavya and are thus collectively become a constraint in soils that is considerably enhanced as the termed as Panchagavya. This was previously not considered as soil organic matter content contains ghee, milk, curd, cow being a risk. Therefore, a field- increases. Utilizing organic dung, and cow's urine. specific, integrated nutrient means to maintain soil fertility management in intensive and judiciously adding inorganic Panchagavya had reverence in the cropping systems is essential nutrients gets best results. scripts of Vedas (devine scripts of rather than rely on soil test- Enhancing the soil organic Indian wisdom) and is part of based recommendations of matter content is essential for Vrkshyurveda (Vrksha means inorganic fertilizers alone. maintaining soil health. plants and ayurveda means health system). The texts on Integrated nutrient management Vrkshayurveda are differs from the conventional nutrient management by more explicitly and systematically

83 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI systematizations of the practices the use-efficiency of the applied modified forms of N fertilizers like that farmers followed at field nutrients without any additional urea super-granules, exploiting level long ago, placed within a cost for the fertilizer nutrient biological N fixation, leaf colour- theoretical framework. It defined input. based N application, etc., have certain plant growth stimulants; come up for adoption by farmers. among them, Panchagavya was A large number of experiments an important one that enhanced have been conducted in India to The results of a number of the biological efficiency of crop determine the optimum timing of experiments have revealed that fertilizer application for different rice generally responds plants and the quality of the -1 resulting grains, fruits and crops, and it is generally agreed significantly up to 120 kg N ha , vegetables that for most crops, fertilizer although in some places positive (http://www.agricultureinformatio application at the critical stage(s) response to higher doses of N has n.com/forums/organic- of crop growth is necessary for also been reported. Applications farming/15995-panchagavya- getting highest yields and for in excess of this are largely how-make.html). improved use-efficiency of wasted and have negative fertilizer nutrients. Recovery of environmental impacts on groundwater. G x E interactions 7.6 Use Efficiency of the fertilizer nutrients applied at (between genetic potentials and Nutrients different growth stages may vary widely. environmental factors) have a In most soils, application of great role on the response of the chemical fertilizers is necessary Slow-release fertilizers and crop to N application. if high-yielding, fertilizer- fertilizers coated with material Split application comes out as a responsive cultivars of crops are like neem cake enhance the key feature of N grown with improved cultural efficiency with which the recommendations. This invariably practices. There are two reasons nutrients are utilized by leads to lower losses of N and for not getting expected yield controlling the release of the better N-use efficiency. Besides levels even after the application nutrients and minimizing losses. being easy to adopt, it also of chemical fertilizers to crops. provides a certain flexibility to the Either the recovery of fertilizer 7.7 Nitrogen farmer in tailoring N applications nutrients is poor, or the efficiency Management to crop and weather conditions. with which the nutrients are Rice and wheat are highly Split application at critical stages taken up and used for grain responsive to nitrogen (N) and of crop growth is the single most production is low. are the major consumers of widely used practice for increasing nitrogen-use efficiency. The factors governing fertilizer fertilizer N in the country. The efficiency of applied N in Indian efficiency include the selection The exact schedule of split soils for rice generally ranges and adoption of: a) right source, applications (number and timing from 25 to 45%, compared to 50 b) right quantity, c) right time, of splits) is not the same for all to 60% in upland crops. Several and d) right method of fertilizer conditions. The number of splits new approaches, theories, application. Among these, the needed usually increases: i) in concepts, and tools have been application of the fertilizer coarse-textured sandy soils, employed; and several N nutrients at the right time based particularly under flooded management techniques like on the needs of the crop, the peak /irrigated systems or high rainfall split application of N, better period of absorption, and the regions; ii) where larger amounts methods of application, thoroughness of assimilation of a of N are to be applied; and iii) integrated N management, particular nutrient, have been where the crop is of longer slow/controlled release of N, found much useful to increase duration.

84 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Leaf Colour Chart-Based recommended to be applied at b) Repeat leaf color Nitrogen Application each time of measurement if the measurements every 10 days, observed LCC value falls below starting from 14 days after The leaf color chart (LCC) is an the threshold level, and the level transplanting (DAT) or 21 days inexpensive and simple tool to of N is a fixed dose for that stage. after seedling emergence, and monitor leaf greenness and guide The total N applied will vary as N continuing to panicle the application of fertilizer N to is applied only if the LCC value emergence. maintain optimal leaf N content, falls below the threshold value. applying N only when there is 2. Apply N fertilizer whenever the demand by the crop. Thus, this is In Tamil Nadu, LCC-based N leaf color is below the critical a need-based N application and application is recommended as value. ensures better use-efficiency. A part of SRI practice. The a) Use a critical value of 3 or 4, standardized plastic LCC with procedure for LCC-based N depending on the crop four panels (Figure 7.2), ranging application is as follows: establishment method, season, in color from yellowish green to and cultivar. dark green, has been developed 1. Measure color of the and promoted across Asia. youngest, fully-expanded and b) Validate critical value for local healthy leaf from 10 conditions. The threshold value requires randomly-selected plants. calibration for each variety and a) Place the leaf on top of the location. In this approach, a leaf color chart (LCC). Do not standard level of N at different detach the leaf. growth stages of the crop is

Figure 7.2 Four-panel Leaf Colour Chart

85 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 7.8 Organic Manures

Use of fertilizers and chemicals amide form of nitrogen in urea is Crop residues have been in agricultural production has converted into an inorganic form traditionally used to improve and been regarded as a necessity to (NH4 or NO3) by the microbes maintain soil productivity. It is produce more food to meet the nitrosomanas and nitrobacter. It estimated that 120 x 106 kg yr-1 requirements of a growing should always be remembered rice residue, out of 180 x 106 kg population. Introduction of high- that plants take up nitrogen in yr-1 (assuming that 1/3of the yielding varieties has contributed inorganic form only, and they do residue is used as feed for to food security in the country. not recognize the source of it, i.e., animals and for other purposes), Yield maximization has been the whether it is from an organic or can be returned to the soil to major objective, and inorganic source. This said, enhance soil quality; this will sustainability issues have however, the process of contribute 2.604 million tonnes of remained unattended to. The availability and uptake is N+P2O5+K2O to the soil, yield plateau in some crops, inherently biological. Large considering the nutrient content extensive use of chemicals for applications of inorganic N can in rice straw as 0.61% N, 0.18% some crops, chemical residues alter the populations of soil biota, P2O5 and 1.38% K2O (Tandon, reported in the food chain, and including N-fixing microbes, in 1996). environmental hazards have ways that are not advantageous brought up the issue of reverting to soil and plant nutritional The recycling of crop residues has to older practices of "organic processes. the advantage of converting a farming" in irrigated agriculture. surplus farm waste into useful Organic farming aspires to Continuous application of organic products for supplementing the achieve a complex mix of matter in the form of compost, nutrient requirement of crops and agronomic, environmental, social, farmyard manure, and plant for saving foreign exchange and ethical objectives, which set residues is needed to maintain or otherwise spent on fertilizers. the target for the development of increase soil organic carbon. Soil Growing green manure crops, a farming system in its particular organic carbon levels are a good their in-situ incorporation, and location. indicator of native fertility. In applying green leaf manures are general, paddy soils are fairly also recommended practices, but The addition of organic materials poor in organic carbon (~ 5 g kg- very few farmers adopt these in the form of manures and crop 1). Thus, it is essential to use practices. residues plays a vital role in more organic biomass with most restoring and maintaining soil soils to achieve and sustain good Many farmers who have fertility while improving the fertility status. previously been applying organic physical, chemical and biological sources of nutrients before using properties of soil. Organic Utilization of crop residues can inorganic fertilizers have ignored manures, besides supplying reduce the need to use inorganic them completely in recent years, essential nutrients, will add to inputs, recognizing that this with the result that soil health in the favourable conditions for soil would also reduce the pollution terms of organic carbon and microbes by being a source of of surface and groundwater, in microbial activity has been carbon for them. The role of addition to lowering costs of jeopardized. The steady decline in microbes even if fertilizers are production. In India, nearly 100 animal population in recent applied should not be ignored. to 115 MT of crop residues are decades has meant reduction in For example, if urea is applied, either wasted or burnt, depriving supplies of cattle manure, and the nitrogen from it will become arable soils of this restorative farmyard manure has become a available to the plants only if the input. difficult resource to obtain.

86 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 7.9 Soil Biofertility

The fertility of soil depends not l Soil microorganisms play l Promoting plant growth only on its chemical composition, important roles in other through the production of but also on the qualitative and natural cycles, such as plant growth hormones, quantitative nature of the transformations of protection against root microorganisms inhabiting it. phosphorus, sulphur, iron pathogens and Mineral nutrients, organic and other minerals in their pseudopathogens, and matter, and biochemical growth respective cycles, and for the enhanced nutrient-use factors necessary to meet the availability of other minor efficiency. microbial nutrient requirements elements. l Controlling deleterious generally exist within appropriate l Also, most soils contain microorganisms and plants ranges of temperature, moisture microbial populations with (plant diseases, soil and pH for microbial growth. It is the necessary genotypic nematodes and insects, stated that one hectare foot (one capacity to catalyze all weeds). hectare to a depth of 30 cm) requisite reactions for contains 2 to 10 metric tonnes of l Biodegrading synthetic ecosystem development. living microorganisms. pesticides or other soil Beneficial activities of contaminants. Soil microorganisms play many microorganisms in the soil important roles in natural l Enhancing drought-tolerance l Decomposition of plant ecosystems. Without of plants. residues and organic microorganisms, soil would be an materials leads to humus l Improving soil aggregation. inert geological or mineral mass synthesis and to incapable of supporting plant life, The use of azolla, blue green mineralization of organic and without plant life, the animal algae (BGA), Azospirillum and nitrogen, sulphur, and life that it sustains would not be phosphobacteria in rice crop phosphorus. possible. production is becoming well- l Increasing plant nutrient recognized. There have been new l One of the main activities of availability (P, S, Mn, Fe, Zn research focuses on developing microorganisms in nature is and Cu) through symbiotic microbial consortia as well as to break down complex mycorrhizal associations, bioinoculants for targeting organic matter into simple production of organic micronutrients. chemical compounds, so chelating agents, oxidation- there is an endless cycle of reduction reactions, and Earthworms are ubiquitous in synthesis and destruction, phosphorus solubilisation. most soils and have become with a dynamic equilibrium unwitting symbols of a healthy, l maintained in soil microbial Biological nitrogen fixation by living soil. They can contribute in populations. free-living bacteria in the root several ways to soil health. Most zones of gramineae plant l Another important role of notably, earthworm burrows can species and cyanobacteria, certain soil microorganisms is occupy as much as 1% of the soil associative microorganisms, fixing atmospheric nitrogen. volume aiding in infiltration and and symbiotic bacteria with Approximately 139 million flow-through of water, as well as legume and non-legume metric tonnes of nitrogen are providing pathways for root plants. added to the soil every year by exploration and faunal habitat. different nitrogen-fixing Their feeding habits can help systems.

87 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI homogenize the topsoil and, in Other soil organisms such as soil fertility and productivity that the case of surface feeders, termites and ants, mites, they are (Thies, 2006). incorporate large amounts of spiders, collembola etc. also play Understanding the operative surface litter into deeper soil important roles in soil food webs, relationships between soil levels. Their digestive process mobilizing, storing and releasing biodiversity and fertility could releases nutrients and fragments nutrients through a complex set allow ecosystem managers to of plant residues, leaving behind of inter-species relationships. encourage the presence of fertile casts and mucus burrow organisms that are beneficial to linings. Vermicomposting has Soil biological fertility has been soil systems intended for crop and become very popular in gaining attention recently, and animal production, as well as to mobilizing organic manures. the soil biota are now better overall ecosystem health (Thies recognized as the key drivers of and Grossman, 2006).

7.10 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms in Rice

Symptoms of nutrient deficiency Nitrogen, phosphorus, the youngest (upper) leaves first or toxicity are not always readily potassium, and magnesium are as the nutrient becomes part of apparent in a growing crop. Often, mobile nutrients, and deficiency plant compounds. The functions more than one nutrient or symptoms appear in the oldest and deficiency symptoms of the growing condition may be (lower) leaves first as the most important nutrients for rice involved. In many field situations, nutrient gets moved to youngest are presented in Table 1. when a deficiency is identified, it leaf. Calcium, iron, zinc, may be too late to introduce manganese, and sulphur are treatments to correct the immobile nutrients, and their problem in the current crop. deficiency symptoms appear in

Table 7.1 Functions and deficiency symptoms of important nutrients in rice

Nutrient Functions Deficiency symptom Effect of deficiency

Nitrogen • Essential component • Old leaves, and sometimes • Stunted yellowish of amino acids, all leaves, become light plants nucleotides and green and chlorotic at • Poor tillering chlorophyll their tips. • Leaves die under • Contribute to height • Except for young leaves, severe stress. • Number of tillers and which are greener, deficient • Smaller leaves spikelets leaves are narrow, short, • Entire field may • Size of leaves and erect, and lemon-yellowish. appear yellowish. grains • Deficiency often occurs at • Early maturity or • Spikelet fertility critical growth stages such shortened growth • Protein content of as tillering and panicle duration grains initiation, when the demand for N is largest.

88 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Nutrient Functions Deficiency symptom Effect of deficiency

Phosphorus • Root development • Stunted, dark green plants • Plant development • Earlier flowering with erect leaves. is retarded. and ripening • Stems are thin and spindly • Reduced tillering • Active tillering • Young leaves may appear to • The number of • Grain development be healthy, but older leaves leaves, panicles, • Food value of grain turn brown and die. and grains per • Playing an important • Red and purple colors may panicle may also role in the formation develop in leaves if the be reduced. of plant hormones variety has a tendency to and maintenance of produce anthocyanin. membrane integrity • Leaves appear pale green • Acting as an essential when N and P deficiency constituent of occur simultaneously. adenosine triphosphate (ATP), nucleotides, nucleic acids, and phospholipids

Potassium • Playing an essential • Dark green plants with • Response to N and function in yellowish-brown leaf margins, P is constrained by osmoregulation, or dark brown necrotic spots insufficient K. enzyme activation, first appear on the tips of • Effects on the regulation of cellular older leaves. number of pH, cellular • Under severe K deficiency, spikelets per cation-anion balance, leaf tips are yellowish-brown. panicle, regulation of • Symptoms appear first on percentage of transpiration by older leaves, then along the filled grains, and stomata, and leaf edge, and finally on the grain weight. transport of leaf base. photosynthetic • Upper leaves are short, products droopy, and “dirty” dark green. • Tillering promotion • Older leaves change from • Size and weight of yellow to brown and, if the grains deficiency is not corrected, • Tolerance to adverse discoloration gradually climatic conditions, appears on younger leaves. lodging, insect pests, • Leaf symptoms of K deficiency and diseases. are similar to those of tungro • Strengthening straw virus disease. Unlike K and stems of the deficiency, however, tungro rice plant occurs as patches within a field, affecting single hills rather than the whole field.

89 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Nutrient Functions Deficiency symptom Effect of deficiency

Zinc • Playing an essential • More common on young or • Under severe role in the following middle-aged leaves. deficiency, tillering biochemical processes: • Dusty brown spots appear decreases auxin metabolism, on upper leaves of stunted • Time to crop nitrogen metabolism, plants, sometimes two to maturity may be cytochrome and four weeks after transplanting, increased. nucleotide synthesis, • Midribs near the leaf base of • Growth may be chlorophyll production, younger leaves become greatly reduced and enzyme activation chlorotic; leaves lose turgor • 2-4 weeks after • Acting as an essential and turn brown as blotches transplanting, component in the appear on the lower leaves uneven plant cellular membrane growth and as well as being patches of poorly present in some established hills in essential enzymes the field • Activation of many • Increased spikelet enzymatic reactions sterility

Iron • Formation of • Inter-veinal yellowing and • Decreased dry chlorophyll chlorosis of emerging leaves. matter production • Inhibition of K • All leaves become chlorotic • Reduced absorption and turn whitish under severe chlorophyll • Electron transport in deficiency concentration in photosynthesis leaves • Constituent of • Reduced activity of components for enzymes involved photosynthesis in sugar • Electron acceptor in metabolism. redox reactions

Sources: http://www.ipni.net/ppiweb/bcropint.nsf/$webindex/39AB5958BED4B2BC85256BDC00738F2F/$file/BCI-RICEp23.pdf; http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ericeproduction/IV.1_Essential_nutrients.htm

7.11 Nutrient Management In SRI

So far, no specific nutrient especially on Madagascar soils farmers: Don't feed the plants - management recommendations which were judged to be quite feed the soil, and the soil will feed have been made for SRI crops. deficient by standard soil the plants. SRI is not necessarily an 'organic' chemistry analyses. When the There can be soils where limited or management strategy. Fr. de government's subsidy for no availability of chemical Laulanié developed the first fertilizer was removed in the late nutrients will be constraining. version of SRI methods during the 1980s, he switched to using Where there are deficits that 1980s relying on chemical compost, and found that SRI cannot be filled by soil reserves or fertilizer, since that was results became even better. He biomass amendments, inorganic understood to be the way that discovered empirically the merit fertilization may be necessary. In yields could be best enhanced, of the advice from organic fact, rice plants will not take up

90 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI nutrients in excess of their merely application of fertilizers nitrogen, 0.1% phosphorus, 1.8% internal needs for plant growth along with organic manures. It potassium, and 1.2% calcium. If and maintenance. It is a fact that includes the application of stem cuttings are planted, they plants have been growing on the available organic sources like root and sprout, becoming a earth's surface for over 400 cattle manure, poultry manure, regular source of green manure million years without exhausting vermicompost, green manures, after three years. From well- their supply of nutrients. Even green leaf manures, grown trees, 100–200 kg of green 99% recycling of nutrients would biofertilizers, and supplementing leaves will become available. not have sustained continued with fertilizers in adequate splits Gliricidia was recommended to fertility for this long unless there to meet the nutrient demands of the farmers of Tamil Nadu in the were endogenous processes in the crop at different growth 1970s, and serious steps were plants and in soil systems that stages. taken to popularize it. But, it continually replenish nutrient Mobilizing organic sources is not became 'history' as farmers have supplies, not relying upon man- an easy task if every rice farmer forgotten about it. Sri Lankan made inputs (Uphoff, 2008). wants to use more of them. One farmers are growing gliricidia on The main function of compost is easy solution could be growing their field bunds, however, and not so much to supply the plants gliricidia on the paddy field are using the green manure directly with nutrients (NPK), as bunds and fences (Photo 7.2). (Photo 7.3). Many farmers are to enhance the structure and Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium or also recycling the rice straw. functioning of soil systems. When Gliricidia maculata) is a fast- Straw should be heaped and some soils are full of life, they can growing, tropical leguminous FYM should be sprinkled on it to mobilize large amounts of tree that adapts very well in a facilitate decomposition (Photo nutrients – and particularly wide range of soils, ranging from 7.4). micronutrients, which are eroded acidic soils (pH 4.5-6.2), essential to plant growth and fertile sandy soils, heavy clay, health but which are not provided and calcareous in NPK fertilizer. Moreover, they limestone, to alkaline can facilitate many beneficial soils. Gliricidia processes in the soil. tolerates fire, and the tree quickly re-sprouts Organic manures are with the onset of rain. recommended in SRI cultivation since they are found to give better Growing gliricidia crop responses. Enrichment of plants on farm bunds the soil for nutrient supply with serves the dual tank silt (40–50 t ha-1), purpose of producing FYM/compost (15 t ha-1), and/or green leaf manure, rich Photo 7.1 Sunnhemp crop incorporation of 45-60 day-old in N, under field green manures grown in situ conditions, and they such as sunnhemp/dhaincha also help in conserving (Photo 7.1) are ideal for basal soil through reduced incorporation. soil erosion. This legume is root- Since not all rice farmers are in a nodulating, N-fixing, position to adopt organic farming and multipurpose, methods, Integrated Nutrient tolerant to pruning. Management (INM) is generally Gliricidia contains 2.4% recommended for SRI. INM is not Photo 7.2 Gliricidia on field bunds

91 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Experiments conducted at the China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou, showed that the highest yield in SRI was obtained with equal proportions of organic and inorganic nutrient applications rather than a 25:75 ratio or 100 % organic (Lin et al. 2011).

The soil environment created by SRI's wider spacing of plants, its unflooded water regime, and the Photo 7.3. Gliricidia loppings applied in the field churning up of the soil by weeder use are found to encourage a different microbial and nutrient dynamics in the soil. The effect of combined inoculation of Azospirillum and Trichoderma harzianum has been found to be more pronounced in SRI (Ravi et al. 2007).

Use of just chemical fertilizers can be effective for SRI, and organic SRI farmers do not use chemical fertilizers. The Photo 7.4. Rice straw recycled recommended doses of fertilizers for a conventional rice crop specific to the region may be adopted until SRI-specific Table 7.2 Grain yield and water productivity under recommendations are generated. different fertilizer doses Grain yield Water productivity Treatment -1 -1 In a Participatory Technology (t ha ) (kg grain kg total water input) Development Study in Kunduz river basin of Afghanistan, Continuous flooding with 2.5 0.14 Thomas and Ramzi (2011) found recommended fertilizers that the grain yields under SRI (70-30-30 NPK) with were 66 % higher than with local practices traditional methods, despite SRI with recommended 7.6 0.76 using much less fertilizer or not fertilizers (70-30-30 NPK) using fertilizer at all. SRI with higher Ceesay et al. (2011) did not find N (140-30-30 NPK) 7.9 0.79 much effect on the yield of SRI SRI with very high crop by increasing the nitrogen N (280-30-30 NPK) 8.0 0.81 doses by 2 to 3 times (Table 7.2). Source: Ceesay et al. (2011).

92 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 7.12 Nutrient Removal by SRI Crop

Experiments conducted at productivity, the nutrient uptake rhizosphere, or possibly even Coimbatore have shown that was similar with marginally within the phyllosphere (Chi et al. under the same nutrient higher nutrient-use efficiency (8, 2005). application level, SRI plants take 8 and 12% of N, P and K) without up more nutrients. Similar depleting the available nutrients While admitting that there is not a observations were made by compared to transplanting satisfactory scientific basis at Barison and Uphoff (2011), with (Mahender Kumar et. al. 2009). present to account for all of the the further observation that SRI Incorporation of weed biomass nutrient relationships with SRI, phenotypes produce more grain and higher root and stubble Uphoff has proposed some weight per unit of nutrient taken biomass from the SRI crop hypotheses on the nutrient uptake up. This can mean that nutrient probably enhance the nutrient of rice under SRI as follows: recovery by the plant is greater in availability in the soil. l Rice plant growth - rather SRI crops or because the SRI than being just the result of plants' extensive root systems Studies by Barison and Uphoff the uptake of nitrogen (N) - is remove more nutrients from the (2011) showed that there were no also a cause for such uptake, soil than are supplied externally. substantial differences in the nutrients accumulated by the SRI especially the rapid growth One of the concerns in SRI rice plants compared to those that can be induced by SRI nutrient management is whether conventionally grown, but there management practices. SRI's there is depletion of nutrients have not been any significant promotion of the rapid growth from the soil because of the dilution of plant nutrients within of roots and tillers promotes higher plant growth and grain the plant by the higher yield and accelerates the uptake of yield associated with higher obtained with SRI. There were N by rice plant roots. nutrient uptake. Only long-term similar P levels measured in the l SRI methods maintain experiments can resolve this soil of plots where both SRI and effective nutrient uptake by issue. But, some of the conventional rice were grown, yet roots within a healthy rice experiments conducted so far 66% more P was accumulated in rhizosphere for a longer have not shown that the available the above-ground biomass of SRI period than with traditional nutrient status was reduced after plants. rice cultivation methods. the SRI crop. The delayed A non-farm survey indicated a senescence and the higher LAI l SRI methods by producing a doubling of N uptake by plants present higher N in the leaves much greater root system grown with SRI methods in after flowering in SRI plants and that can explore a greater comparison to conventional also probably there is lesser volume of soil enable the rice methods, eventhough the SRI translocation of N from the leaves plant to extract more, though and conventional plots had to the grains to facilitate greater often minor quantities, of the similar soil fertility in terms of carbohydrate synthesis. trace elements needed for chemical availability. The higher best and healthiest growth. Studies carried out by the uptake of N by SRI plants Directorate of Rice Research suggests possibly greater activity l The SRI soil management (DRR), Hyderabad, for two of nitrogen-fixing bacteria living practices, combining aerobic seasons showed that even though as endophytes within roots, or by and anaerobic soil conditions, SRI resulted in higher free-living microbes within the

93 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI would enhance N availability, 7.13 Summary either through greater biological nitrogen fixation or The SRI management practices The nutrient management in SRI through more diverse forms of lower planting density, inter- is particularly focused on of N being made available to cultivation, applying more supplying more organic manures the plant root with aerobic organic manures, and limited to build up soil fertility and the life soil conditions. irrigation create a different kind in the soil. It is no wonder that of nutrient dynamics in the soil many organic rice growers have l Mechanical (rotary) weeding which is not sufficiently embraced SRI immediately. SRI is aerates the soil as well as understood. Since the grain making more farmers realize the removes weeds, thereby yields in SRI are higher, it is easy importance of soil health by improving soil oxygen status, to assume that nutrient mining is applying more organic matter to stimulating faster taking place; but this assumption sustain the structure and decomposition of organic is based on the knowledge functioning of soil systems. matter, and hence supplying gained from study of non-SRI N and other nutrients in rice-growing practices. The better synchrony with plant behavior of the rice plants under demands than in the SRI management is quite traditional rice system different, exhibiting very different growth responses. These are all plausible explanations, but there needs to It is probable that the efficiency be systemative evaluation and of the SRI crops to utilize basic research done to get a grip nutrients is higher than with on the causal mechanisms non-SRI crops. Physiological involved in the repeatedly studies have shown that SRI observed superior crop plants have longer periods of performance of SRI rice. photosynthesis and higher photosynthetic efficiency, and there is better light utilization besides prolonged and better root activity, making the plants healthier than with non-SRI crop (see Chapter 10). All these might help SRI plants to produce 'more with less.'

94 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 8 INTERCULTIVATION

Intercultivation is an operation usually overlooked when attached to mini-tractors or for soil cultivation that is intercultivation is referred to as regular tractors are also used to performed in the standing crop, 'weeding.' some extent. between plants, with hand tools or possibly mechanized The tools best used for In contemporary rice culture, implements. This provides the intercultivation depend upon the intercultivation is not considered crop with a better opportunity to nature of the crop, the soil as a very important agronomic establish itself better and to grow characteristics, and the water practice. However, it has been more vigorously upto the time of regime. Hand hoes, harrows, and practiced to some extent in the maturity. This results from good spades can be used in small past, primarily as a weed control soil aeration and better landholdings whether the crop is measure. With SRI, where weeds development of root systems. The broadcast or line-sown. Partially are not controlled by flooding, it intercultivation operation is most mechanized rotary hoes, cono- assumes great importance, but obviously seen as necessary to weeders, etc. are used in line- as noted above, the soil aeration help control the growth of weeds, sown crops. Bullock-drawn through intercultivation is an even but it may also serve as a implements like the desi plough greater contribution to SRI moisture-conservation measure are usually used in rainfed performance than is its weed by closing cracks in the soil. environments. Motorized control. Active soil aeration is a function intercultivators and implements

8.1 Weed Management in Rice

Weeds compete with rice plants most extensively adopted weeds in dryland rice, although for moisture, nutrients, and light, ecological method for controlling bullock-drawn harrows are used and they also crowd the plants weeds in irrigated rice, and in in some places. No rotary physically. If weeds are allowed to fact this is the principal reason weeders or chemical means are grow unrestricted, they can for submerging rice fields. The used. For hand-weeding, besides reduce the yield of wetland rice weeds that survive flooding can ordinary khurpies (an indigenous by up to 36%, and of dry land rice be pulled out by hand, or if the digging tool) and hand-hoes, by as much as 84% (Matsunaka, rice has been planted in rows, certain special forms of weeders 1983). The best method of weed mechanical weeders are used. such as Eureka Weeder, control depends upon the type of In some places, lowland rice Hazeltine Weeder, and Excelsior rice culture. Reductions in labour farmers trample weeds into the Weeder have been found very availability have pushed a soil instead of hand pulling useful. Bullock-hoes were also transition from traditional hand (Nyarko and Datta, 1991) used a century ago (Mukerji, weeding to rotary weeders, and 1907). then to herbicides as the primary In dry-seeded wetland culture, means of weed control. most farmers practice only hand For rice cultivation, hand weeding weeding, from once to three usually takes around 120 hours Weed control methods in times. Sometimes the second or ha-1; mechanical weeding irrigated wetlands include third weeding is done after the requires around 50-70 hours ha-1. cultural, manual, mechanical rice is flooded. Rotary weeders Hand weeding is most useful for weeding, spraying, and biological and herbicides are not used. removing annual weeds and control techniques (Nyarko and Hand weeding is still the only certain perennial weeds that do Datta, 1991). Flooding is the effective method to control

95 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI not regenerate from underground parts. It is a practical method of removing weeds within rows and hills where a cultivating implement cannot be used; but it requires more labour than other direct weed control methods (IRRI, 2009)

In India, under lowland conditions, it takes about 200-250 hours ha-1 to do hand weeding, depending on the degree of weed infestation. In row-seeded or transplanted rice, where weeds can be controlled by the use of mechanical weeders, it can take 50-60 hours ha-1, depending upon weed infestation and soil conditions (Parthasarathi and Negi, 1977).

Hand weeding of young weeds when the rice crop is still in its two-leaf to three-leaf growth stages is extremely difficult. Therefore, hand weeding is generally delayed until weeds are large enough to be grasped easily. This method requires adequate soil moisture to ensure that weeds can be easily pulled up. After such weeding, the weeds usually have to be removed from the field to stop them from regenerating when left sitting in the field water. This exports nutrients from the soil. 8.2 Mechanical Weeding

The rotary weeder was the soil surface without burying weeders were developed in the apparently first developed by a the weeds. The conoweeder is early 1970s both in India and Japanese farmer in 1892. The also ineffective in standing water Philippines. single-row rotary weeder has (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). It may be noted that the weeders been reported to require 80-90 The push-type rotary weeder used earlier were meant for labour hours to weed 1 ha, and it mixes weeds with mud between control of weeds. Rotary weeders is difficult to use because it must rows and has been the most did not become used widely in be moved back and forth (Nyarko successful tool. A comparative India despite being recommended and Datta, 1991). IRRI developed study on different methods of (Ramaiah, 1954). When a push-type cono-weeder that weeding as showed that the Venkatasubramanian (1958) uses a conical-shaped rotor to labour for two rotary weedings compared the system of bulk uproot and bury weeds. (115 hours ha-1) is about half that planting plus hand weeding, with Compared to the conventional for two hand weedings (202 hours line planting (25 cm row spacing) push-pull rotary weeder, the ha-1). However, grain yield was plus use of rotary weeder, and single-row cono-weeder is about lower, and the reason for this intercultivation, it was found that twice as fast (40-50 labour hours could be due to the inability of the rotary weeder was more ha-1), and the two-row cono- rotary weeding to remove weeds economical (Table 8.2). weeder is 3-4 times faster (25-35 within or close to rice hills (De labour hours ha-1). The IRRI Rice Fact Sheet (2003) Datta, 1981). on mechanical weed control has However, mechanical weeding Human-powered rotary weeding recognized the fact that soil- may be less effective than hand combined with other methods of stirring seems to increase root weeding because weeds within weed control has been reported and shoot growth, tillering, and the crop rows are not removed. to be widely used in some grain yield. Use of a weeder in Competition from those weeds provinces in the Philippines, and rice cultivation is, however, not that survive can impede crop some modifications of this basic mentioned in the recent growth and yield. The challenges device have been used in many Handbook of Agriculture for mechanical weeding are that: countries in South and Southeast produced by the Indian Council of (a) it requires row-planted crops, Asia (Photos 8.1 and 8.2). Agriculture (ICAR, 2010). and (b) it is very difficult if the Gasoline-powered small weeders soil surface is dry, or if the soil have also been popular in Japan sets hard (IRRI, 2009). If the soil (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). Power is too dry, the weeder rolls over

96 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 8.3 History of Intercultivation in Rice

Stirring the soil once in a seedlings are reestablished, and Seko and Kuki (1956) concluded fortnight until the rice plants are he favoured the practice of that in intercultivation, weeding about 1-½ feet height had been removing the soil around the should be considered a more emphasized a century ago by base of the plant hill by hand, to important purpose than Mukerji (1907). It is fascinating make the hill spread out and cultivating the soil, and it is that the importance of promote tillering. Matsushima enough to operate the weeder to intercultivation was recognized found these practices difficult, control the younger weeds and to so long before now (Thiyagarajan however, so did not strongly urge mix in the top-dressed fertilizer. and Gujja, 2009). Vaidyalingam them. They wrote that it is unnecessary Pillai (1911) advocated shallow to repeat cultivating the soil digging of the inter-row spaces Seko and Kuki (1956) studied the several times successively. This with a spade 20 days after effects of intercultivation in conclusion is now challenged by transplanting, and again at 40-45 paddy fields for four years (1949- SRI. days after transplanting. He 1952) and reported that: recommended removing soil from (a) cultivating the soil depressed Reviewing the theories on around each hill to place manure the growth of rice temporarily, intercultivation, Nojima (1960) near the plant root zone. For his but after 1-2 weeks the growth mentioned that the following first crop of gaja planting, each became more vigorous; however, theories have been believed since hill was pressed with the foot. they found no significant the 17th century: difference in yield; (a) A kind of physico-chemical The shallow digging of inter-row change occurs in the soil which spaces and pressing each hill (b) cultivating the soil caused causes decomposition of organic with the foot represent a some negative effects on growth matter in the soil and thus conceptual advance as these and yield under adverse increases the supply of nutrients; practices aimed not only at weed environmental conditions such control but also introduced the as low air temperature and (b) Intercultivation decreases the practice of disturbing the soil – insufficient sunshine; amount of toxic gases in the soil similar to the intercultivation with and increases the amount of (c) by cultivating soil, the roots of a mechanical weeder that is useful oxygen accessible there at the rice plants in the shallow recommended in SRI today. the same time; part of the soil were cut or These practices indicate some stirred; when new roots grow, (c) Cutting of roots promotes the understanding on the farmer's the number of total roots and growth rate of plants; and part that disturbance to the soil weight became greater than in around the hills has beneficial non-cultivated soil; further, (d) The cumulative effect of all effects. No modern rice those roots which had been cut these processes is that the final cultivation methodology seems to elongated rapidly; yield is increased to a great have promoted this concept extent. except SRI, which underscores (d) redox potential was high after the importance of active soil intercultivation, but it became These conclusions differ from aeration. lower than non-cultivated soil those of Seko and Kuki (1956) and after 3-4 days; and are close to the thinking with SRI. In describing the practices of But Nojima himself did not stable and high-yielding rice (e) the NH4-N content of the soil recommend frequent weeding up cultivation, Matsushima (1980) increased due to mixing up of to the time of canopy closure. endorsed inter-tillage after the the oxidized uppermost layer roots of the transplanted into the reduced lower layer.

97 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 8.4 Intercultivation In SRI

Intercultivation of the rice crop on the growth of the rice crop. In SRI, the intercultivation with a has become usually uncommon The differences in weed mechanical weeder is done at 10- in irrigated rice environments, as management in conventional and 12 day intervals from planting, noted above. However, the SRI methods of cultivation are moving between the square- introduction of the System of presented in Table 8.1. planted hills in both directions Rice Intensification (SRI) has (Photo 8.1). This operation not brought a new dimension in the only incorporates the weeds into agronomy of rice cultivation the soil, to decompose and return wherein intercultivation with a nutrients to it; it also mixes and weeder is one of the six aerates the wet soil (Photo 8.2). principles which have a Mechanized inter-row cultivation significant beneficial influence has the advantage that it aerates the soil, which appears to help crop growth (IRRI, 2009). Table 8.1 Weed control methods in conventional and SRI cultivation

Method of cultivation Weed control method

Conventional planting Recommendation in Tamil Nadu, India : Hand weeding twice, at 15 and 35 DAT, or use. of a herbicide at 3-7 DAT, plus one hand weeding at 35 DAT

Recommendation in Handbook of Agriculture, ICAR (2010):

Hand weeding 2-3 times at 20-day intervals from 20 DAT. If weed problem is acute, herbicide plus need-based hand weeding 20 days later.

IRRI Rice Fact Sheet (2003):

Hand weeding at 20-22 and 30-32 DAT, repeated once or twice more at 40-42 and 50-52 DAT; or Mechanical control with rotary hoe at 10-12 or 20-22 DAT, and repeat its use once or twice at 30-32 and 40-42 DAT.

System of Rice Intensification Intercultivation with a weeder at 10-day intervals, from 10-12 days after planting until the canopy closes, upto 4 times (10-12 DAT, 20-22 DAT, 30-32 DAT, 40-42 DAT). Cultivate between the hills in two directions, perpendicularly, and remove the remaining weeds close to the plants, if any, by hand

98 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI add 1 to 3 tha-1 yield without other soil amendments, by inducing better soil health and more nutrient cycling and solubilization through microbial activity (Uphoff, 2008). This practice adds active soil aeration to the passive soil aeration that results from SRI water management practices (no continuous flooding). The growth of phosphobacteria and possibly of N-fixing bacteria can be enhanced by alternatively wetting and drying the soil (Uphoff et al. Photo 8.1 Intercultivation by conoweeder 2009). There is enough experimental evidence and farmers' experience in India to say that over and above weed control, intercultivation has significant benefits (more details in Chapter 10).

It is important that mechanical weeding should be supplemented by hand pulling of weeds that are close to the rice plants and are not removed by the weeder; the time required for weeding by this combination is less than for hand Photo 8.2 Intercultivation by rotary weeder pulling alone (Nyarko and Datta, 1991). The study by Ramamoorthy The conclusions of Seko and Kuki importantly, whether there are (2004) has showed how this can (1956) and Nojima (1960) that weeds or not; the principle is to affect the tillering of the particular intercultivation has no specific intercultivate the soil as active hill with unremoved weeds (Photo effect on the rice crop other than soil aeration, not just to remove 8.3). weed control, was probably due weeds. The experience in India to the climatic conditions of is that farmers see dramatic Japan, or perhaps because in increases in the growth of their their studies, the intercultivation plants after intercultivation, operation was carried out within especially the first weeding/soil a month after planting. In SRI, aeration after planting. the practice of intercultivation is recommended to be followed The intercultivation operation in until the canopy closes, and more SRI, if done several times, can

99 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 8.3 Weeds growing within the hill (right side) and not removed by weeder. Both are SRI plants

Nyarko and Datta (1991) weeders cannot control All the above reasons apply to the emphasized that to achieve the weeds as well as hand present situations except for the best results in transplanted rice, weeding can; last (5), which is not true. We find a weeder should be run in two that marginal farmers are able to directions, at right angles to each (3) If puddling is not done do the intercultivation operation other. This view, which could not properly, the soil can become without depending upon outside be implemented in simple line- too hard and too shallow for a labourers. Especially farmers with planted crops (whether by labour rotary weeder to push the small landholdings benefit from or machine) has been made weeds into the mud (this is the cost-effective yield increase possible in SRI where square particularly true for newly- the intercultivation can give. planting is recommended. established paddy fields); Having a small field is no barrier to weeder use. According to Nyarko and Datta (4) In many cases, the available (1991), some farmers did not use rotary weeders do not fit the rotary weeders for these system; for example, the reasons: desirable plant spacing and the width of the available (1) Using a rotary weeder is rotary weeders are not inconvenient if the dominant compatible; and weeds are creeping grasses or sedges; (5) Small farm sizes may make using a rotary weeder (2) If weeding is done late, rotary uneconomical.

100 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 8.5 Types of Weeders used in SRI

When weeders were used for surface of the soil. A Several alternative designs in the weeding purposes only, four conoweeder weighs about 7.5 kg hand-operated weeder for SRI decades ago, besides the single- and can be operated only by men have come out in the last five row model, there were two-row labourers. A rotary weeder, years to save labour, time and models, animal-drawn three-row being lighter (about 2 kg), can be energy, and also to suit particular models, and tractor-powered operated by women labourers types of soil. One of the weeders also available (Photo 8.4 also. significant impacts of SRI is the to 8.6) (Stout, 1966). However, tendency of some farmers to the use of these weeders had The efficiency of rotary weeders modify their weeder design and become extinct and was dormant has been improved by providing construction to suit their until the introduction of SRI. ball bearings in their assembly conditions and convenience. as introduced by an Andhra Some manufacturers also have When SRI was first introduced in Pradesh farmer, which makes modified versions (Photos 8.7 to Madagascar, the rotary hoe was them easier to push. A large 8.16).

Photo 8.4 Japanese Photo 8.5 Vertical axis Photo 8.6 Motorized weeder used in 1960s. rotary weeder weeder used in 1960s. used in 1960s being recommended. It was also number of weeder designs have called as the Japanese weeder. In been evaluated and publicized by China, it is called a 'wolf-fang' WASSAN (Watershed Support weeder because of the sharply- Services and Activities Network) pointed 'teeth.' In India, when SRI in Hyderabad under the guidance was introduced, two types of of the farmer Kishan Rao. The weeders were being Mandava weeder, named after recommended: the conoweeder, the Mandava village of Kishan and the rotary weeder (Photo Rao, is now being extensively 8.7). The conoweeder has hollow used by farmers in several cones with tooth bars that churn states. the soil and remove weeds. It moves more easily over the

101 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 8.7 Rotary, cono and Photo 8.8 Single-row Photo 8.9 Two-row drum weeders Mandava weeder Mandava weeder

Photo 8.10 Pulling and pushing Photo 8.11 Simple weeder designed Photo 8.12 Roller weeder type of three-row weeder by Nong Sovann (Cambodia) with (Madagascar) (Madagascar) wooden axle, large nails, rake, and metal rods, costing less than USD 3.

Photo 8.13 Indigenous weeder Photo 8.14 Super-simple weeder Photo 8.15 Gauge wheel-type (Tripura) (Nepal) made from nails and wood, weeder developed by a farmer used like a broom, constructed for (Tamil Nadu) about USD 0.25. A workshop was held in farmers' (http://wassan.org/sri/documents/ fields in Andhra Pradesh in 2005 Weeders_Manual_Book.pdf). where different kinds of weeders Most of the farmers practicing SRI were demonstrated and in larger areas emphasize the evaluated by farmers and need for a motorized weeder. manufacturers. Some farmers, researchers and (http://www.wassan.org/sri/docu private companies are attempting ments/SRI_Implements_Ravindr to develop such motorized Photo 8.16 Weeder exhibition a.pdf) (Shambu Prasad et al. weeders (Photos 8.17 to 8.20). In at SAMBHAV, Odisha 2008). A compendium on scaling-up activities for SRI, weeders has been published by weeders are often supplied at a WASSAN showing a great variety subsidized price by state of weeders governments.

102 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 8.17 Single-row motorized weeder (private) Photo 8.18 Motorized weeder developed by S. Ariyaratna (Sri Lanka)

Photo 8.19 Three-row motorized weeder (TNAU) Photo 8.20 Two-row motorized weeder (private)

One of the farmers in Tamil Nadu modified the conoweeder to have a ridger attachment for creating furrows in between the rows and ridges along the rows. His vision was that this will also help in preventing the mortality of the plants during monsoon rains (Photos 8.21 &8.22).

Photo 8.21 Small ridger attached to conoweeder Photo 8.22 Ridges and furrows made by the modified weeder

103 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 8.6 Labour Requirements for Intercultivation

Studies conducted in and SRI method of cultivation, from Madagascar has not been Madagascar (Barison, 2003) which were 21% and 25% of total observed in India. Intercultivation calculated that the labour labour use. with a weeder for four times plus requirement for weeding was removal of left-out weeds requires -1 41.13 man days ha and 62.13 Such a high requirement of 38 labourers per ha, while -1 man days ha for conventional labour for SRI weeding reported conventional weeding with women

Table 8.2 Cost of weeding and intercultivation in Tamil Nadu with conventional weeding and mechanized hand weeding over years and locations

Labourer Type of Wages/ Cost of ? Method of weeding requirement / weeding labour labour day) acre (Rs/acre)

Rice Research Station, Tirur, Tamil Nadu, 1958 (Venkatasubramanian, 1958)

Conventional random planting Women 56 14 7.84 (hand weeding twice) naya paise

Line-planted (rotary weeder three times) Men 87 6 5.22 naya paise

Farmer’s field, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, 2003 (Thiyagarajan et al. 2005)

Conventional random planting Women Rs.40 32 1,280 (hand weeding twice)

SRI –square-planted (conoweeder 4 times plus hand weeding of left-out weeds) Men Rs.40 15 600

Regional Research Station, Paiyur, Tamil Nadu, 2005-2008 (six-season average) (Vijayabhaskaran and Mani, 2008)

Conventional random planting (herbicide followed by hand weeding Men and Rs. 92 15 1,380 once at 45 DAT) women

Square-planted (conoweeder three times, plus hand weeding of left-out Men and Rs.92 10 920 weeds) women

V.K.V. Ravichandran, Farmer, Nannilam Tamil Nadu, 2009 (personal communication)

Conventional random planting (hand Women Rs.80 30 2,400 weeding thrice)

SRI- square-planting (conoweeder Men Rs.150 9 1,350 three times, plus hand weeding of Women Rs.80 6 480 left-out weeds)

104 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI labourers for two times at 15 and lot of variations in its adoption, considered as laborious and even 35 DAT consumes 80 labourers like doing one direction only, 1 to drudgery, or as desirable source per ha. The cost for the 4 times; or doing both directions of income. Where lighter-version conventional method of weeding 1 to 4 times. It is important to do weeders like the rotary weeder was Rs. 3,200 per ha, and for SRI the first intercultivation before are available and appropriately it was Rs. 1,520 per ha 15 days after transplanting for designed, women do not hesitate (Thiyagarajan et al. 2005). The maximum benefits. to use them. number of labourers required for hand weeding or using a weeder In using the weeder, there exist Experiments at ANGRAU on the will vary with location and a lot of variations in the physiological work load of women season, to be sure. Table 8.2 acceptance itself. Some when using the manual shows such variations, indicating labourers do not complain, while conoweeder in SRI cultivation, in the labour cost and efficiency. others resist, saying that they comparison to conventional The four different comparisons experience shoulder pain, methods of (hand) weed control, when aggregated show the rotary especially when using the has revealed that conoweeders or conoweeder reducing farmers' conoweeder. Some are can increase the productivity of weeding costs by about one-third. enthusiastic about the new women's labour in weeding by two technology, saying it eases their times and can save 76% of A survey with farmers showed work. The mindset of the women's time through the that SRI farmers had a 43 % labourer greatly influences the improvement brought in their reduction in their overall labour efficiency of weeder use. pace of performance (Aum Sarma, costs (Ravindra and Bhagya Sometimes, in some soil types, 2006). Laxmi, 2011). the weeder gets stuck often, increasing the frustration of the On average, the number of Using a mechanical weeder 3-4 labourer. This is one of the labourers required to cover an times in a crop season as reasons why many SRI- acre in both directions may vary recommended, faces problems practicing farmers are asking from 3 to 5. There are a few cases which are mostly associated with now for a power-operated of higher labour requirement for labour availability. If a single weeder. weeder use also, but this is not labourer does the operation on the common experience. Some one hectare of SRI crop with 25 x One of the significant changes other labour-related issues on 25 cm spacing, he will have to brought about by weeder use is weeder use are: walk 40 km to use the weeder in the shift in employing women l one direction, and 80 km in both labourers for hand weeding, In labour-scarce areas, higher directions. This is a mathematical completely eliminating their role wages may be demanded for projection if weeding is carried in most places, because performing weeding. out by one person. (The same 'mechanical work' is considered l Groups of labourers often join calculation could be applied for to be 'men's labour.' In some together and go for contract several operations in places, weeding operations have weeding operations, moving conventional cultivation). If 10 been taken over completely by from field to field together for people do this work, each will just men, releasing women from this a fixed payment. walk 8 km per time (both part of the crop cycle. Whether directions). The weeding this is something good or bad for l Most marginal farmers do operation is one of the major women depends on whether the their SRI weeding operation difficult parts in SRI, and we see a work of hand weeding is entirely by family labour,

105 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI completely eliminating their 8.7 Reducing the Drudgery of Weeder Operation weeding cost. But they cover the paddy area by taking Weeder operation is reported to l Use of a motorized weeder. more time, 2-3 days per acre. be one of the difficult practices There are efforts going in in SRI mainly due to the India, Malaysia, Philippines l Instances of a farmer doing drudgery involved in using hand- and other countries to design the weeding operation all by operated weeders. Some of the and build such weeders well- himself have also been suggestions for reducing the suited to SRI cultivation. It is reported. drudgery of weeder use are: expected that within a year or two, appropriate motorized l Since the weeding l Modifying the weeder design weeders will become requirement is common to all with ball bearings to reduce available, which will make farmers with either friction, as done by an SRI adoption much easier conventional or SRI Andhra Pradesh farmer. and more attractive. cultivation, availability of l Having a wooden handle for labour determines the the weeder (especially timeliness of weeding and rotary weeder) to reduce the the avoidance of loss of yield. weight of the weeder. Some SRI farmers have reported that this problem is l Having a set of (say, 10) mitigated by use of trained labourers for doing mechanical weeders. weeding in a village and employing them by contract. l There are several instances With experience and where no labour-related cooperation, they can make problems were encountered the operation more efficient. in any of the SRI operations. l Instead of using the weeder in both directions at 10-day intervals, use it in one direction the first time, and then in the opposite direction after seven days, and repeat this several times.

l For some soils, depending upon their clay content, the most suitable weeder should be chosen or the weeder design should be modified to suit the soils.

106 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 8.8 Issues Related to Intercultivation in SRI

Most of the SRI farmers in Odisha l First use of the weeder at 10- specific and depends upon adopt this method of weed 12 days after transplanting is soil conditions and labourers' management to increase crucial in SRI and should not mindset. productivity. However, access to be missed. l appropriate weeders is still a It would be ideal to l major challenge, and the current Herbicides are not manufacture the weeder by supply of a single category of recommended in SRI ironsmiths in the nearby area weeder for use on all types of soil because they do not to get suitable models is a problem (Shambu Prasad et contribute to soil aeration, appropriate to local al. 2008) which a mechanical weeder conditions. does. Moreover, they can l Weeder operation in both adversely affect the soil Rather than distribute directions will not be difficult if biota, which is important for standard models free to planting is done properly in nutrient mobilization and for farmers, some squares. If a marker is used, achieving 'the SRI effect.' arrangements would be either a rake-marker or a roller- preferable for small down l marker, geometric spacing is Some water should be there payments to give farmers easily facilitated; if ropes are on the field while using the access to a weeder, and then used, some care is needed by the weeder to make pushing the they can pay the remainder labourers to align the lines weeder and moving the soil at harvest time, when money properly in both directions. easier. is in hand. Farmers can earn from their SRI harvest many l Procurement and supply of It is important to remove left- times more than the cost of weeders at the time of out weeds by hand. The the weeder, and this way, requirement is crucial in the labour for this hand weeding they are able to assess initial stage of SRI promotion. should be minimal. appropriate designs and Several NGOs have contributed quality construction from l Some earthing up around significantly by procuring the manufacturers, buying plant culms takes place weeders from outside and weeders that are best suited when the weeder is used. supplying them to local farmers. to their needs. This makes the plants to In the TN-IAMWARM project of produce new roots which Tamil Nadu, special training is The benefits of intercultivation in increase root capacity and being organized for village SRI are reviewed in Chapter 11. activity. artisans to manufacture weeders locally and also to make l If a weeder is used after a markers. top dressing of urea, this will incorporate the fertilizer and The following points summarize increase its use-efficiency. the issues related to the intercultivation in SRI: l The suitability of different types of weeder is site-

107 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 8.9 Intercultivation in Dryland SRI

Applying SRI principles and practices in rainfed rice cultivation is being taken up in some parts of India, where line sowing with wider spacing to facilitate weeder use is practiced. The practices are still to be standardized. The AME Photo 8.23 Intercultivator in Photo 8.24 Bullock-drawn Foundation working with rainfed conventional rainfed rice wooden harrow rice farmers in the Dharwad area of Karnataka is helping them to adopt some of the SRI principles. In the conventional system, farmers do intercultivation with a simple bullock-drawn implement (Photos 8.23 and 8.24). A bullock-drawn three-row weeder (Photo 8.25) and a cycle-wheel Photo 8.25 Three-row weeder Photo 8.26 Cycle weeder intercultivator are being tried now (Photo 8.26).

8.10 Summary

Intercultivation with mechanical greatly reduce their cost of which is often negative can be weeders in SRI not only plays a weeding also. Some of the sorted out through education and role in the control of weeds but constraints in using the weeder training. also has been found to have a are associated with availability of beneficial effect on the growth of weeders for which some policy the crop. With appropriate support from extension agencies models and skills, farmers can is needed. The labour mindset

108 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 9 PESTS AND DISEASES IN SRI

Insect pests attack all portions of perhaps because of the roots' 9.1.1 Thrips the rice plant and at all stages of greater silicon uptake under Usually, thrips (S. biformis) are a plant growth. Feeding guilds aerobic soil conditions. The major problem at seedling stage, consist of: (1) root feeders, (2) resistance of a rice crop grown both in the nursery and in stem borers, (3) leafhoppers and under SRI management to pests transplanted fields. David et al. plant hoppers, (4) defoliators, and diseases has been frequently (2005) in their study of and (5) grain-sucking insects. reported by farmers and has also comparative pest incidence in been studied experimentally to nurseries found that nursery The incidence of pests and some extent. However, the seedlings conventionally grown diseases in SRI crop appears to interaction of pathogens with SRI supported over 10 times more population of thrips, with four be influenced by the micro- crops is yet to be studied in times more damage, than was environment created for plants, detail. starting with younger seedlings, seen with seedlings under SRI more widely spaced, with less nursery management (Table 9.1). Shorter nursery duration may water standing in the field, and 9.1 Insect Pests enable them to escape infestation later on, having profuse as observed with S. mauritia, or vegetative growth and doing The incidence of different insect pests like thrips, whorl maggot, with less severe damage due to S. intercultivation at regular biformis. intervals. The resulting rice leaf hoppers, plant hoppers, gall plants themselves appear to be midge, stem borer, and stronger and more resistant to leaffolder in SRI crops has been chewing and sucking insects, studied to some extent.

Table 9.1 Pest abundance in nursery Conventional Insects and their SRI cultivation SRI as % of cultivation t value damage / population (Mean ± SE) conventional (Mean ± SE)

Cut worm 0.0 ± 0.0 20.4 ± 4.8 16.1** 0% (% damaged leaves per seedling) (0.0) (19.1)

Thrips (per seedling) 0.5 ± 0.2 6.1 ± 0.5 19.3** 8.2% (0.9) (2.5)

Green leaf hopper (per seedling) 0.1 ± 0.0 0.4 ± 0.1 14.8** 25.0% (0.8) (0.9)

BPH (per seedling) 0.0 ± 0.0 0.2 ± 0.0 11.5** 0% (0.0) (0.8)

Whorl maggot 0.8 ± 0.2 9.3 ± 2.6 12.5** 8.6% (% damaged leaves per seedling) (0.9) (9.1)

Figures in parentheses are transformed values. **Significant difference ((P<0.001) Source: David et al. 2005

109 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Different irrigation practices may 1986). Sprinkling of water with a (Venugopal Rao et al. 1982). SRI also lessen the thrips problems can may also get rid of thrips as management is different in that it in the nursery. Being much they are easily washed away by is characterized by wider spacing smaller, SRI seedlings may be rainfall. At the vegetative stage, and alternate wetting and drying submerged even by a thin film of closer spacing and heavy (Table 9.2). water on the soil that will irrigation of plants would dislodge thrips (Reissig et al. encourage thrips populations

Table 9.2 Pest abundance in main field of conventional and SRI crops Conventional Insects and their damage / SRI cultivation SRI as % of cultivation t value population (Mean ± SE) conventional (Mean ± SE)

Whorl maggot 17.9 ± 1.9 23.2 ± 2.0 6.6** 77.2% (% damaged leaves per hill) (18.0) (19.1)

Thrips (per hill) 6.6 ± 0.1 20.2 ± 2.0 12.2** 32.7% (2.2) (4.1)

Green leaf hopper (per hill) 0.6 ± 0.1 1.1 ± 0.2 10.7** 54.5% (1.0) (1.2)

BPH (per hill) 1.1 ± 0.2 2.7 ± 0.2 14.4** 40.7% (1.2) (1.8)

Whorl maggot 5.6 ± 1.8 8.8 ± 1.4 4.5** 63.6% (% truncated leaves per hill) (5.9) (9.1)

Gall midge 5.0 ± 1.2 11.0 ± 1.5 9.3** 45.5% (% silver shoot per hill) (6.8) (19.1)

Stem borers 11.7 ± 1.3 7.3 ± 1.0 10.1** 160.3% (deadheart/white ear per hill) (15.5) (10.0)

Leaffolder 20.3 ± 1.6 6.5 ± 1.0 15.4** 312.3% (scraped leaves per hill) (21.7) (11.8)

Earhead bug (no. per hill) 0.9 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.1 0.4NS No change (1.1) (1.1)

Figures in parenthesis are transformed values. ** significant difference (P<0.001)NS : not significant

Source: David et al. 2005

110 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 9.1.2 Whorl Maggot SRI plants. The rotary weeder SRI practices have an in-built utilized at 12-15 DAT, triggers mechanism to suppress brown Adult whorl maggot (H.philippina) root growth and tillering. This is planthopper (BPH) as well as is able to locate rice plants only not done in conventional fields green leafhopper (GLH) by the reflected sunlight from the which are flooded to assist easy populations. Several factors lead water surface (Reissig et al. hand weeding. This could help to the abundance of Nephotettix 1986). Even though conventional the flies easily locate the plants spp. and N. lugens. Dense nursery beds are alternately for oviposition. In SRI, the rotary planting, continuous flooding, and flooded and drained at early weeder even causes the water higher applications of inorganic stages, the seedlings along the film to disappear, probably nitrogen are important among edges are always nearer to making the seedlings, though them (Shukla and Anjaneyulu, stagnant water in furrows. This smaller, less recognizable to the 1981; Karuppusamy and results in more egg-laying flies after weeding (David et al. Uthamasamy, 1984). Plant density (oviposition) on them. The 2005). usually affects the immigration modified SRI mat nursery is and distribution of BPH after probably less attractive to these Padmavathi et al. (2007) transplanting by creating a more flies as they are not attracted to observed that SRI plants had favourable microclimate (Garcia et direct-seeded fields or to seed more leaves damaged by whorl al. 1994). beds. .Thus, SRI seedlings may maggot as compared to carry on them fewer eggs or conventional methods, however. Although the number of seedlings maggots than do those from a So, more research on this is per hill per unit area is higher conventional nursery (David et al. needed. with conventional methods, the (2005). 9.1.3 Hoppers microclimate in SRI could be the same or even more favourable to Adult flies continue to lay eggs on In general, leafhoppers (family BPH owing to an even larger transplanted seedlings, and larval Cicadellidae) attack all aerial number of tillers per unit area at feeding on the growing point of parts of the plant, whereas the later stages, despite having shoots results in severe stunting planthoppers (family transplanted a single seedling per and poor establishment of Delphacidae) attack the basal hill. Increased levels of nitrogen seedlings. The flies prefer to lay portions (stems). Both application lead to BPH eggs on plants in flooded plots leafhoppers and planthoppers abundance. SRI not only increases during the first 3-4 weeks after (order Hemiptera) are sucking N availability, but also sustains it transplanting compared with rice insects which remove plant sap so that plants remain green and plants growing in saturated but from the xylem and phloem more attractive to pests until unflooded fields as with SRI. tissues of the plant. Severely harvest. Draining the field Maggot infestation has been damaged plants dry up and take controls BPH populations (Das reported to be reduced with an on the brownish appearance of and Thomas, 1977) as BPH is increase in plant density, which is plants that have been damaged never a problem in upland rice. much less when maggot attacks. by fire. Hence, hopper damage is Predators which can control these Further, SRI seedlings are one commonly called "hopper burn". pest populations, especially C. week younger than conventional These insects are severe pests in lividipennis, were found to be ones at the time of planting. This many Asian countries where they significantly more numerous in could cause them to be more not only cause direct damage, by SRI plots, actively preying on the susceptible to H. philippina. More removing plant sap, but are also eggs of hoppers. This indicates flies could be sighted on vectors of serious rice diseases, that BPH and GLH should not be conventional seedlings mostly such as the rice tungro virus as serious a problem in SRI (David because of the differences in transmitted by the green et al. 2005). irrigation practice between the leafhopper (Nephotettix two systems after the initial virescens) and the grassy stunt draining of water. The weeding virus transmitted by the brown method may also contribute to planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) the incidence of fewer adults on (http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapt ers/heinrich.htm).

111 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 9.1.4 Gall Midge Pyralidae. The adult moths lay plots much more than in plots eggs on rice leaves, and the with conventional management Dense planting, application of larvae when they hatch bore into (David et al. 2005). This is probably nitrogen fertilizers, presence of the stem. Feeding in the stem due to the effects of SRI weeds, and continuously standing during the vegetative growth management resulting in more water, all favour heavy midge stage of the plant (seedling to productive phenotypes in terms of infestation, which declines during stem elongation) causes death of tiller number, leaf area index dry weather and due to the the central shoot, leading to (LAI), and yield. When activity of parasitoids as with what are called "dead hearts." continuously flooded, 75% of rice conventional methods. Earlier, Damaged shoots do not produce plant roots remain in the top soil alternate wetting and drying was a panicle, and thus, produce no (6 cm) at 28 DAT (Kirk and Solivas, reported to increase gall midge grain. Feeding by stem borers 1997), while with SRI, the roots go incidence (Karuppusamy and during the reproductive stage deeper (10-15 cm) with a 45% Uthamasamy, 1984).. However, (panicle initiation to milk grain) increase in dry weight (Tao et al. sparse planting when coupled causes a severing of the 2002). with intermittent irrigation may developing panicle at its base. As provide an environment less a result, the panicle is unfilled Apart from improving soil favourable for gall midges as and whitish in color, rather than aeration, rotary weeding prunes observed in SRI. The extent of being filled with grain and the roots to some extent, larval parasitism due to the brownish in color. Such empty encouraging growth of more parasitoid, Platygaster oryzae panicles are called "whiteheads" prolific root systems coupled with Cameron, may vary between (http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapt more attractive plants, which conventional and SRI methods, ers/heinrich.htm). these two pests prefer. Large owing to spacing and irrigation stems, heavy foliage and thick practices which influence not only A large group of insects sheath favour the development of crop growth and microclimate, belonging to several insect Chilo suppressalis (Walker) and S. but also natural enemies. orders feed on rice leaves. Most incertulas (Chienyun, 1985) which common are the larvae and usually increases with increase in Midges cause more damage with adults of beetles (order plant density (Singh and Pandey, increased N fertilization as well. Coleoptera), larvae of the order 1997). Irrigation methods and Although SRI plants are likely to Lepidoptera, and grasshoppers variations in water depths have derive more N from the probable (order Orthoptera). Defoliation been reported to have no changes in soil conditions, reduces the photosynthetic significant influence on C. midges did not cause more capacity of the rice plant, and medinalis. However, draining the damage in SRI (Table 9.2), where thereby decreases yields. field suppresses yellow stem suppression of weeds which act However, when feeding damage borer (Fang, 1977), a major pest of as alternative hosts could help to occurs early in rice growth, deep water rice. reduce gall midge attack plants have an ability to compared to hand weeding with compensate for damage by Use of nitrogenous fertilizers pre- conventional methods (David et producing new tillers. Thus, rice disposes rice plants to borer and al. 2005). plants in their actively tillering folder infestation. Therefore, stage of growth can tolerate a persistence of the 'edge effect' 9.1.5 Stem Borers and certain level of leaf damage until grain maturity may be Leaffolder without any yield loss. attributed to the abundance of both pests in SRI where aerobic Stem borers consist primarily of Stem borers and leaffolders and anaerobic soil conditions insects in the lepidopterous were the two kinds of pests that occur alternately, contributing to families, Noctuidae and increased their population in SRI enriched plant nutrition,

112 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI especially greater N availability The studies conducted by Field experiments conducted in than normal from the increased N Sumathi et al. (2008) on the Kerala have showed that the mineralization (Birch, 1958). Thus, effect of manures on SRI crops incidences of stem borer and SRI plants ensure a more showed that application of leaffolder were significantly higher luxuriant growth, attracting more chemical fertilizers with and in SRI than normal method of moths to shelter and oviposit without organic manures cultivation (Karthikeyan et al. (Chandramohan and Jayaraj, increased the leaffolder 2008). 1977). The flag leaves of SRI damage. Leaffolder damage was plants remain dark green even up minimum when FYM only was to the time of harvest due to less applied. senescence of leaves during the grain-filling period. In SRI, both 9.2 Specific Effects of SRI Practices on Pest stem borer and leaffolder moths were more abundant at the later Incidence stages, the peaks of which Field trials conducted at the pest incidence and restricts coincided with that of insect TNAU Agricultural College and further spread and development. predators that are abundant in Research Institute, Killikulam, At the tillering stage, vigorous rice ecosystems and subsist on during 2003-2004 to compare growth with more tillers and insect pests (David et al. 2005). the abundance of insect pests foliage observed in the SRI crop and natural enemies between may attract more defoliators such Experiments conducted at DRR, the conventional and SRI as cutworm, ear-cutting Hyderabad, in 2006, showed that methods of cultivation showed caterpillars, and leaffolder yellow stem borer damage at that leaffolder, stem borers, and (Padmavathi et al. 2007). maximum tillering and booting predators (Paederus fuscipes stages was lower in SRI as Curtis, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Beneficial arthropod diversity compared to conventional Reuter) were found to be (total abundance and species methods. But at reproductive significantly more abundant, richness) was high in SRI plots as stage, the damage (white while Spodoptera mauritia compared to conventional plot earheads) was high in SRI Boisduval, Hydrellia philippina management (Padmavathi et al. (Padmavathi et al. 2007). Ferino, Nymphula depunctalis 2007). Guenee, Orseolia oryzae Wood- Some differences in the response Mason, Nilaparvata lugens Stal The water management practice of different varieties to pests when with SRI is reported to have under SRI management have also and Nephotettix spp. were significantly less abundant in specific effects on pest incidence. been reported. Ravi et al. (2007) Ravi et al. (2007) found that with observed that BPT5204, which is SRI than with conventional methods (David et al. 2005). SRI, leaffolder damage was susceptible to stem borer, showed higher and stem borer damage lesser white ear damage under Exposure to more sunlight and was less when compared with SRI (11.3%) when compared to air due to wider spacing may conventional method (Table 9.3). conventional management help in reducing BPH incidence. They also observed that alternate (17.5%). The variety ADT48, known As most of the weeds act as wetting and drying (AWD) as a less-susceptible cultivar, alternate hosts to major pests, facilitated higher leaffolder experienced a higher level of removal of them at regular damage (21.2%) over flooding, but leaffolder damage under SRI intervals by intercultivation with the effect on stem borer damage (15.0%) when compared to mechanical weeders reduces was the reverse. conventional method (1.0%).

113 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 9.3 Effect of water management on pest incidence (%) in SRI, with two varieties

Leaffolder damage Stem borer damage Treatment ADTRH1 ADT48 ADTRH1 ADT48

Conventional planting & flooding 7.42 11.31 15.11 12.97

SRI planting & conventional 18.49 15.65 8.87 11.44 flooding

SRI planting & AWD 21.21 16.91 8.48 7.96

Studying the effects of individual protection against pests cultivation (9.75% in Jyothi and components of SRI on pest (Padmavathi et al. 2008). 9.85% in CORH 2), while at the incidence, Ravi et al. (2007) found reproductive phase, there was no that intermittent irrigation had a Based on several field significant difference between the negative impact on whorl experiments with SRI, Ravi et al. two systems of cultivation. The maggot; young seedlings reduced (2007) concluded that insect incidences of whorl maggot and thrips damage both in nursery pests, i.e., stem borer, gall caseworm were lower under SRI and main field; and both wider midge, whorl maggot, and BPH system, but the incidence of spacing and intermittent were less active, but leaffolder leaffolder was higher in the crop irrigation contributed to a caused significant damage. A under SRI than the standard reduction in BPH incidence. multilocation trial in five system. The occurrence of natural Wider spacing and locations for two years (2006 and enemies like spiders and larval intercultivation favoured 2007) showed that the parasitoids was higher in SRI, leaffolder damage, which was incidences of stem borer, gall while damselfly populations were associated with luxurious crop midge, and BPH were relatively lower in SRI system in growth, higher chlorophyll less in SRI, while the incidence comparison to the standard content, and wider chlorophyll A of leaffolder, GLH, and white- system of cultivation (Karthikeyan and B ratio. The authors reported backed planthopper was higher et al. 2010). reduction of leaffolder damage in when compared to conventional SRI when nitrogen application cultivation (Katti et al. 2008). was guided by Leaf Colour Chart. Experiments conducted during A field survey (121 farmers) 2006–2007 and 2007–2008 at the conducted in Andhra Pradesh Regional Agricultural Research showed that 70% of the farmers Station, Pattambi, Kerala using did not feel a need to take up any two rice varieties, i.e., Jyothi and control measures with SRI, the hybrid CORH 2 under normal whereas with conventional system and system of rice methods, they had used at least intensification, revealed that one spray of chemical stem borer was significantly insecticides. 35% of SRI farmers lower in SRI (4.82% in Jyothi and had used indigenously-prepared 2.35% in CORH 2) during the insecticides like Panchagavya, vegetative phase, compared to Amrita Jalam, and neem for the standard method of

114 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 9.3 SRI and Rats resistant varieties, by observing 2,601 m-2, respectively. The the activity of pests and their authors pointed out the potential Rats are one of the most serious natural enemies, understanding of SRI for increasing the soil pests of rice, and they are the difference between when health and biodiversity. extremely difficult to control. As pest levels are a problem and in the control of insect pests, when they are acceptable, and 9.6 SRI and Disease conservation of natural enemies deciding rationally whether Incidences is perhaps the most efficient action is needed. Chemicals are approach. Unfortunately, the best used only as a last resort, and Many species of bacteria, fungus, natural enemy of rats is snakes, their application is aimed at nematode, virus and and many farmers are reluctant maximizing natural biological mycoplasma-like organisms to encourage large snake control (http://irri.org/news- cause diseases in rice. Bacterial populations. Another effective events/hot-topics/pesticides- leaf blight, for example, is caused natural enemy is barn owls and-rice-production). by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. (http://www.aglearn.net/riceIPM oryzae. This disease is observed Module4.html). SRI farmers in Using chemical protection that on both seedlings and older Tripura and other states often eliminates or reduces pests' plants. On seedlings, infected construct bird-stands in the natural enemies, referred to as leaves turn grayish green and roll middle of their fields to attract beneficials, is self-defeating. up. As the disease progresses, owls and raptors to perch there Even some neutral insects can leaves turn yellow and then and thus reduce the intrusion of be beneficial if they help to become straw-colored and wilt, rats and some rice-eating birds. sustain the populations of the leading whole seedlings to dry up predators of pests. Control and die. Many SRI farmers in Tamil Nadu measures for some of the have reported that rat damage common rice pests are given in Blast is considered a major was almost nil in SRI crops, Table 9.4. disease of rice because of its although neighbouring non-SRI wide distribution and crops were affected by rat 9.5 SRI and Non-Target destructiveness under favorable damage. No research study has Organisms conditions. All aboveground parts been taken up on this, however. of the rice plant are attacked by The wider spacing between plants Misra et al. (2007) studied, for the fungus. Susceptibility to blast gives rats less cover in the early two years, the population is inversely related to soil stages of plant growth. density of non-target organisms moisture. Plants grown under in the soils in SRI and lowland condition (i.e., flooded conventional rice cultivation at soil or with high soil moisture) 9.4 Pest Management different dates after become more resistant, while in Rice transplanting. Pooled data plants grown under upland Integrated pest management showed that SRI plots were conditions become more (IPM) through a smarter harbouring more Enchytraeids susceptible. understanding of pest dynamics population (3,609 m-2) than the uses a variety of different conventionally transplanted strategies to minimize pest plots (3,338 m-2); the damage while eliminating or collembolan populations were reducing pesticide use. IPM not different (3,892 and 3,889 encourages farmers to limit pest m-2), and the soil mite damage through the use of pest- populations were 2,663 and

115 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 9.4 Damage, economic thresholds, and suggested measures for management of common rice pests.

Characteristic Economic Pest Control measures damage thresholds

Stem borer Death of central 10% DHs or Stubble destruction; shoot (dead heart,DH), 1 egg mass/m2 planting of tolerant varieties white ear (WE), loss 1 moth/m2, or like Vikas, Sasyasree, Ratna; of tillers 20-30 adult male chemical control when other moths/pheromone measures are not sufficient trap/week

Gall midge Central leaf sheath 5% SS (at active Early planting; use of modified to a silver tillering stage) resistant varieties such as shoot (SS), loss of Phalguna, tillers Surekha, Suraksha; chemical control when other measures are not sufficient

Brown plant hopper Plants wilt and dry 10 insects per hill Resistant varieties; &white-backed – Hopper burn at vegetative stage; alleyways formation; planthopper 20 insects/hill at draining the fields; judicious later stages N use; chemical control when other measures are not sufficient

Green leaf hopper Vector of tungro 2 insects/hill in Resistant varieties; disease; plants wilt tungro endemic chemical control when other and dry in severe areas; 20 – 30 measures are not sufficient cases insects/ hill in other areas

Leaffolder Leaf damage; 3 damaged leaves Judicious N use; destruction poorly-filled grains /hill (post-active of alternate hosts; chemical tillering stage) control when other measures are not sufficient

Cutworm Defoliation and damage 1 leaf/hill stray Flooding; chemical control to rachillae incidence prior to when other measures are harvesting not sufficient

Gundhi bug Partial chaffy grains 1 nymph/adult per Removal of alternate host hill plants; chemical control when other measures not sufficient

Source: Padmavathi, 2011

116 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Rice sheath blight occurs folder, and brown plant hopper) Overall, the studies on the effect throughout rice-growing areas in was greatly reduced on SRI of SRI on disease incidences are temperate, subtropical, and plants, 55% less in the spring very limited so far. Field tropical countries. It is found in season, and 70% less in the experiments conducted during diverse rice production systems, summer season (Dung, 2007). 2004-2005 and 2005-2006 by whether upland, rainfed, or Sinha and Kumar (2007) showed irrigated Researchers at the China that sheath blight incidence was (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.o National Rice Research Institute reduced significantly due to SRI rg/ipm/index.php/diseases-crop- have found sheath blight when compared to standard health-2733). reduced by 70% in SRI fields in method of cultivation (Table 9.5). Tian-tai township of Zhejiang In 2005-2006, an evaluation done province (personal in Vietnam by its National IPM communications). In controlled programme across eight trials, the index of sheath blight provinces, comparing SRI plots with SRI management was with neighbouring farmer- found to be 2.1% compared with practice plots, found that the 14.9% in control plots (Lin, prevalence of four major rice 2010). diseases and pests (sheath blight, leaf blight, small leaf-

Table 9.5 Sheath blight incidence and grain yield under SRI and standard method of cultivation. 2004-2005 2005-2006 Method of cultivation Sheath blight Grain yield Sheath blight Grain yield incidence (%) (t ha-1) incidence (%) (t ha-1)

Standard 45.60 2.940 35.50 4.057

SRI 20.75 6.110 15.50 5.035

9.7 SRI and Nematodes

Any change in cultivation system Hirschmanniella spp., which are There was greater increase of M. has a concomitant effect on the specialized to thrive under graminicola in SRI plots than in rice ecosystem and associated anaerobic ecosystems, are conventional irrigated rice plots biological communities. Plant commonly predominant. Both indicating that SRI is more parasitic (root-feeding) nematodes occur in irrigated favourable to this nematode. The nematodes are an important rice. The reported build-up of alternate wetting and drying with component of the microfauna nematodes in rice fields when weeding by a hand-operated associated with the rhizosphere converted from flood irrigation rotary weeder that is followed of rice plants. to alternate wetting and drying under SRI results in alternating (aerobic) conditions (Bouman, periods of aerobic and anaerobic Hirschmanniella oryzae and M. 2002) has raised concerns on soil conditions, and this might graminicola are common plant such possibilities when SRI is have permitted the multiplication parasitic nematodes associated followed (Prasad et al. 2002). of M. graminicola (Seenivasan et with irrigated rice systems, but al. 2010).

117 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Prasad et al. (2008) hypothesized Hirschmanniellaoryzae and the nematode damage by creating that switching to SRI might result root-knot nematode, anaerobic soil conditions that in a gradual decline in Meloidogyne graminicola, by 67- disrupt nematode growth cycles. populations of rice root nematode 73% (Proceedings of Rice But such experimentation and species, which prefer irrigated Scientists Meet, TNAU, 2008). validation remains to be done in systems, and an increase in areas where root-knot nematodes populations of more pathogenic Research in northern Thailand are endemic. Where significantly species such as root-knot and has showed that SRI practices higher yields are obtained with lesion nematodes, which prefer contributed to higher SRI management, as reported upland and aerobic environments. populations of root-knot from a wide variety of places, this nematodes which offset the parasite is not evidently a Application of Super potential productivity gains from constraint. Attention must be paid Pseudomonas as a seed SRI management (Sooksa- to it, however, wherever the water treatment (@ 10 g/kg of seed) nguan et al. 2009). Possibly and oxygen status of soils is decreased the population of the altered schedules of wetting and modified. rice root nematode, drying could reduce or minimize

9.8 Summary

SRI has both advantages and Nitrogen management, a crucial augmentative release of egg disadvantages in terms of insect factor affecting the incidence of parasitoids (Trichoderma spp.) and other pest abundance. stem borers and leaffolders, and pathogens (Bacillus Culturally, it departs from holds the key to managing both thuringiensis), and the use of traditional methods in the of these pests in SRI. Overuse novel tools like pheromones and management of nursery, of insecticides may cause them light traps. planting and spacing, weeding, to die or lead to resurgence of irrigation, and inorganic N leaffolder as both are highly The interaction of SRI practices applications, leading to responsive to nitrogenous with responses of the rice crop to production of more tillers and fertilizers. Thus, insecticides various pests and diseases is yet foliage coupled with grain yield. and nitrogen fertilizers need to to be understood thoroughly. Each component of SRI is be applied more judiciously in However, publications like related to the abundance of one SRI to manage these two pests. 'Integrated Disease Pest or more pests as well. Thus, SRI LCC may be popularized to avoid Management in SRI Paddy' (SRI encompasses several IPM application of nitrogenous Secretariat, 2011) have become cultural techniques which fertilizers in excess when the useful for SRI practitioners. suppress most pests. Overall, plants remain greener from SRI there are more gains in the advantage. suppression of pests and diseases reported with SRI Ravi et al. (2007) have suggested management than there are biointensive pest management increased losses. But the latter in SRI, involving different must be attended to get the components like the use of most net benefit from SRI botanical pesticides, methods.

118 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 10 EFFECTS OF SRI ON SOIL AND CROP PERFORMANCE

SRI is certainly a major Rice farmers do not need to learn 350,000,000 to 400,000,000 seeds breakthrough in rice cultivation. something entirely new and back represents an output of 7 to More than just improving unfamiliar, but instead they just 8 t ha-1 grain yield from 3.2 kg of practice, it has contributed to alter practices that they are seed weight (individual grain different thinking that can enable accustomed to doing. weight assumed to be 20 mg). farmers to get more production This is a very welcome production from their existing, available The SRI principles, when adopted result brought about by SRI resources. It challenges the properly and with understanding, methods (Figure 10.1). This conventional approach of result in a crop that grows in a return of 2,000-2,500 times is pursuing high-input-oriented different manner, not remarkable, and this ratio can be agriculture to get more experienced with any other even greater when soil fertility is production. SRI reverses the logic method of rice cultivation. Using accelerated through promotion of of current thinking about just 160,000 seeds (seedlings) in biodiversity and abundance of life modernizing agriculture for the a hectare and getting in the soil. simple reason that more productivity can be achieved just by modifying common agronomic practices for transplanted rice.

Figure 10.1 SRI crop growth cycle

119 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI This is the outcome of the effects For the first several weeks after month, in response to SRI brought about by the SRI transplanting his or her field, a practices the crop will begin principles individually and first-time SRI farmer will be surprising everyone with its through synergy. Much disheartened as the field will profuse tillering. There will be experimental evidence and many look at first like it has not even growing confidence as the time of farmer experiences confirm this been planted. Further, he will harvest approaches and a big SRI effect on yield. How and why receive criticisms from family surge of satisfaction when the this happens is understood to members and passers-by for crop is 'in the bag' (Figure 10.2). some extent, but it remains to be several weeks. But within a explained fully.

Field immediately after Same field at tillering Same field at harvest planting with single stage stage seedlings

Figure 10.2 SRI rice field at planting, tillering and harvest stages.

10.1 Evaluation of SRI

Evaluation of SRI outside from 2000 onwards, and SRI- enhance soil organic matter, and Madagascar began only in 1999, related research is still going on the soil-aeration effect of almost two decades after it was in the University. The breaking the surface horizon to developed in that country by experiments conducted during increase oxygen availability for Fr.Laulanié. Some scientists in 2000–2002 were aimed at roots and the soil biota. India, Indonesia and China began understanding the influence of systematic experiments SRI principles on crop growth, Since then, various experiments employing accepted scientific crop physiology, rhizosphere soil were initiated and are still being methods at the start of the past dynamics, and soil microbiology. conducted. After 2003, a variety of decade, and some farmers and studies by scientists across the NGOs in India particularly showed Water saving was documented country have been carried out. interest in SRI because of its to the extent of 47% without Three National Symposia on SRI, orientation towards organic detrimental effect on yield. The organized and held in 2006, 2007 farming. most important result observed and 2008 at Hyderabad, Agartala, was the significant effect of and Coimbatore, provided Research on SRI in India weeder use on grain yield. Two opportunity to bring together Standard experiments on SRI reasons for this were inferred: information collected from such were first initiated in Tamil Nadu the green-manure effect of scientific studies from all across Agricultural University (TNAU) returning weeds into the soil to India. These studies compared

120 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI the performance of SRI vs. People's Science Institute, AME have a positive influence on the conventional cultivation; the Foundation, and the Green growth of plants as well as on the effects of changes made in Foundation. In Tripura, the soil dynamics in a manner not seedling age, spacing etc.; the Department of Agriculture found in non-SRI cultivation. effects of SRI management on started SRI demonstrations in pest and diseases, water 2002-2003, with the number of From whatever scientific and field productivity, and nutrient uptake; farmers using the new methods observations are available, it can the adoption dynamics of SRI, etc. increasing from 44 in that first be stated that there are year,to 162,485 in 2007- 2008. significant effects on the crop as Research carried out so far has well as on the soil system. These focused particularly on root The joint WWF-ICRISAT project can be grouped into two growth, crop growth, tillering, supported systematic evaluation categories: lodging, crop duration, physiology of SRI methods by the state l and yield attributes, and also university, ANGRAU, and a local Creating a better growing changes in soil biology, pest and NGO, CROPS, in Warangal, environment for the plants disease incidences, and nutrient through on-farm field trials in 11 l Exploiting more fully the dynamics. districts of Andhra Pradesh over genetic potential of rice several years, starting with the plants On-Farm Evaluations rabi season of 2004-2005. Since All the agencies involved in then, on-farm evaluations have promoting SRI started with on- been carried out in many farm evaluations and different regions of the country. demonstrations, combining these with different kinds of training. The changes brought about in The first evaluations commenced the growing environment of the in 2003 in Tamil Nadu, Tripura, plants due to the use of young and Andhra Pradesh, and later by single seedlings, wider spacing, several civil society organizations soil-aerating weeder operations, (CSOs) in different parts of the and reduced, controlled country such as PRADAN, irrigation have been found to

10.2 Creating a Better Growing Environment for Rice Plants above and below the Ground

The number of seedlings planted for sunlight, water, and biological conditions of the soil. per square meter being usually nutrients. Cessation of Together, they induce an array of 16, when 25x25 cm spacing is continuous flooding avoids changes in the growth of the crop adopted, the space for the anaerobic soil conditions that and in soil conditions. photosynthesis in leaves and permit only anaerobic soil room for root growth below- organisms to survive, and soil ground is greater than in churning by intercultivation with conventionally-planted crops. a mechanical weeder changes This makes for less competition the physical, chemical and

121 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 10.2.1 Effects of SRI photosynthesis (due to crowding did not receive enough sunlight to Practices on the above and shading) will have an accomplish photosynthesis. So, Ground Environment adverse effect upon the roots' instead of contributing to the growth and capacity for plants' pool of photosynthate, The main effect on the metabolism. This aggravates the these leaves relied upon that pool aboveground environment is on negative effects of hypoxic soil for their own metabolism, the availability of more sunlight for the leaves and enhanced conditions upon roots' health and becoming in effect parasitic (Table canopy photosynthesis because of functioning (Uphoff, 2008). 10.1). the wider spacing and single seedling per hill. Experiments conducted in It is known that the lower leaves Indonesia in 2002 showed that supply most of the photosynthate the radiation intercepted, to rice plant roots (Tanaka, 1958). increased with wider spacing; So, any limitation on the ability of with conventional narrow these leaves to carry out spacing, the lower third of leaves

Table 10.1 Radiation intercepted (lux), at heading stage, of Ciherang variety at different spacings, Sukamandi, dry season, 2002

Spacing (cm) 20x20cm 30x30cm 40x40cm 50x50cm

Plant population m-2 25.0 11.1 6.3 4.0

Radiation above canopy 235 235 243 254

Radiation below canopy 78 88 131 153

% radiation below canopy 33.2 37.4 53.9 60.2

Note: Radiation intercepted above and below the canopy is average of 8 points measured in each plot, observed at 9:24-10:40 am, 14 July 2002. Source: Data collected by Dr. Anischan Gani, Agency for Agricultural Research and Development rice research station at Sukamandi (reported by Uphoff, 2008)

Results of the experiment At the panicle initiation stage, maintain a different micro-climate conducted by Thakur et al. (2011) light interception reached 89% in and to have its own favourable showed that during the initial SRI, while it was only 78% in SMP impact not only on the growth of growth stages until 40 days after canopies, giving a 15 % the crop but also on pest and germination (DAG), the canopy of advantage. The study showed disease interactions; but this has the crop under standard that SRI leaves had higher light to be studied more. The reduction management (SMP) with utilization capacity and greater or absence of rodent damage in conventional flooding intercepted photosynthetic rate, especially SRI fields, reported by many more solar radiation than did the during the reproductive and farmers, is probably due to the SRI canopy with alternate wetting ripening stages of the crop. changed above-ground and drying. But, beyond 50 DAG, environment. light interception with SRI was The above-ground environment significantly more than with SMP. under SRI is expected to

122 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 10.2.2 Effects of SRI SRI methods achieved better influenced by aerobic irrigation Practices on the Below- nodal root development than and by organic manure Ground Environment conventional methods at the application. They also reported initial growth stage when soil that higher the proportion of The below-ground environment nutrients were not a limiting organic application for a given under SRI is also different from factor. Reduced intra-hill level of N provision, the stronger conventional cultivation in terms competition favoured the was the reduction of the soil. of more room for root growth, development of more lateral root activity, nutrient availability, roots (Mishra and Salokhe, soil microbial activity, soil 2011). According to Lin et al. aeration, and redox potential. (2011), root growth was These effects have been studied positively and significantly to some extent.

Root Growth and Activity Although root growth is a plant behavior, it is considered under this heading as the changed soil environment plays a major role in it. A number of experiments and farmer experiences have shown how the root system of SRI crop is distinctly different from that of a conventional rice crop. Photos 10.1 and 10.2 show the impressive root system observed in farmers' fields.

Rice plants in the SRI plots had 10 times more root mass, about 5 times more root length density, and about 7 times more root volume in the top 30 cm of soil profile, compared with roots in the plots of flooded rice (Rupela et al. 2006). Barison and Uphoff (2011) found that, on average, uprooting single SRI plants required 55.2 kg of force per plant, while pulling up clumps of three conventionally-grown plants required 20.7 kg per hill. Photos 10. 1. and 10.2. Extensive root system of single hills observed by farmers (Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu).

123 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI

1600 1600

1400 1400 ) ) -2 -2 1200 1200 m m l l 1000 1000 (m (m

800 800 Figures 10.3 and 10.4 volume volume 600 600 Root volume and root length Root Root 400 400 density under standard management practice 200 200 (SMP) and SRI. (Source: 0 0 Thakur et al. 2011) SMP SRI SMP SRI

Observations of Thakur et al. It is considered that SRI root system (2011) showed that SRI crop had is more active than in conventional 40% more root volume per sq.m rice crop. Thakur et al. (2011) found and 125% more root length greater xylem exudation rates from density than the crop under SRI roots, indicating enhanced root standard management practice activity. Mishra and Salokhe (2011) (Figures 10.3 and 10.4). observed higher root-oxidizing activity at the later growth stage of While degeneration of roots is the SRI crop. common in flooded soil (Kar et al. 1974), with SRI water The higher root biomass in SRI management there was plants will establish a larger negligible root degeneration. rhizosphere, and according to Brownish roots due to coating of Armstrong (1970), plants with larger ferrous compounds and rhizosphere regions will be degeneration are common from significantly better protected from the panicle initiation stage absorbing large amounts of reduced onwards. Drained field conditions products and the oxygenation of enhanced the root oxidizing small lateral roots is higher than the power and reduced the fraction primary roots. of dark coloured roots (Ramasamy et al. 1997). Under SRI, whitish roots with virtually no degeneration are observed by farmers, indicating clearly a different environment faced by the roots (Photos 10.3 and 10.4). Mishra and Salokhe (2011) have documented how flooding and crowding of plants leads to degeneration of roots.

124 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Effects of Intercultivation The intercultivation operation brings about considerable changes below the ground which have been found to be reflected in crop response.

The importance of intercultivation and its interaction with green leaf manure (GLM) and young seedlings was brought to light by the studies of Thiyagarajan et al. (2002). In their experiment, 14-day-old seedlings, single seedlings per hill, 20 x 20 cm spacing, alternate wetting and Photo 10.3 Comparison of roots of conventional and SRI crop drying, and NPK application were common factors; the treatment differences were made in GLM application and in weeding. When no GLM was applied, intercultivation with weeder increased yield by 7.0% over hand weeding. Application of GLM when combined with hand weeding reduced the yield by 19.3%, but when hand weeding was replaced by mechanical intercultivation, there was a 13.7% increase in yield. This showed that the negative interaction of GLM with young seedlings was reversed and Photo 10.4 Completely white roots in SRI at panicle initiation stage. turned positive when intercultivation was done; the impact was to the -1 8000 extent of nearly 2 t ha (Figure 10.5). The decrease in redox potential due 7000 to organic manure application and 6000 the increase of the same due to a)

h intercultivation (Jayakumar et al. /

g 5000

k 2005; Sudhalakshmi et al. 2007; and (

d

l 4000 Lin et al. 2011) may be the causes e i

y for these effects. n 3000 a i r

G Further, mixing aerobic and 2000 anaerobic soil horizons may 1000 contribute to greater biological nitrogen fixation (Magdoff and 0 Bouldin 1970). HW GLM+HW IC GLM+IC Figure 10.5 Effect of intercultivation on the grain yield of rice. HW: hand weeding; GLM: green leaf manure; ZIC: intercultivation with weeder 4 times. 125 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Data collected from 76 farmers l Four times intercultivation l Maximum yield was obtained using SRI methods in (T2) resulted in significantly when the intercultivation was Madagascar in the 1997- 1998 higher yield and least cost done after removal of weeds season showed that each of production of grain (Rs at 15 and 35 DAT in both the weeding beyond two added 1 to 4.57 kg-1) than seasons. Although the cost 2.5 t ha-1 to yield (Uphoff, 2002). conventional methods of this method was highest In Nepal, data from 412 farmers having two hand weedings (Rs.5,112 ha-1), the B:C ratio showed that farmers who used (T1) or herbicide plus one was higher (2.11 and 2.34) the weeder three times got yields hand weeding (T3) in the than conventional weed of 7.87 t ha-1, 2 t ha-1 higher than first season. But in the control methods. This effect the majority of farmers who second season, non- showed that removal of weeded only twice (5.87 t ha-1). removal of left-out weeds weeds without incorporation Farmers who weeded only once by weeder significantly and subsequent soil stirring lowered their yield (5.16 t ha-1) by reduced the grain yield, and by the weeder has more 600 kg ha-1 compared to those the cost of production was beneficial effect. It is, who did two weedings. the highest (Rs.6.80 kg however, still to be verified grain-1). This effect might whether this is site-specific. Vijayakumar et al. (2004) also be location- and season- found a significant yield increase specific with respect to of 9.7% (with 20 x 20 cm plant weed species and growth. spacing) and 11.1% (with 25 x 25 cm plant spacing) which could be l Comparison of other attributable to weeder use when treatment results (T1-T4) compared to conventional also showed the necessity weeding (herbicide + hand of removing left- out weeds weeding) using 14-day-old after intercultivation. seedlings and limited irrigation. l Using the weeder after the The experiments carried out for removal of all weeds by two seasons by Ramamurthy hand had significantly (2004) on intercultivation showed higher effect (T6-T7) than very interesting results (Table doing it vice versa, showing 10.2): that incorporating the weeds reduced the grain yield in these trials.

126 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 10.2 Effect of weeder use on grain yield, cost of weeding, cost of grain production, and B:C ratio (Ramamurthy, 2004) EXPT-2 atio B:C r EXPT-1 EXPT-2 t of ain (Rs) Cos g gr oduction per k pr EXPT-1 t os ) -1 EXPT-2 g ha (k eeding c W EXPT-1 ) -1 EXPT-2 ain yield (Rs. ha Gr EXPT-1 ect eff eatment r T eatment details r T eatment number r T

127 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI SRI-practicing farmers feel that Enhancing Soil bacteria by alternatively wetting the pruning of the roots by the Biological Activity and drying the soil (Uphoff et al. weeder has a similar influence 2009). Application of organic manures like the pruning the shoots of to the soil in SRI is favourable guava, grapes, mango, etc. The Research on the effect of SRI on to microbes as these materials regeneration of roots due to the soil biological activity is very become a source of energy for pruning effect has been limited and needs more attention. them. Besides, alternate confirmed by Jayakumar et al. However, some research wetting and drying combined (2005). The intercultivation also information on soil microbial with intercultivation practice results in some earthing-up activity is available. adds active soil aeration to the effect, and Ramamoorthy (2004) passive soil aeration that found new roots formed above Studies done at three different results from SRI water the original soil level because of locations, at Tamil Nadu management practices which, this (Photos 10.5 and 10.6). Agricultural University (TNAU) as seen above, can enhance and the International Crops the growth of phosphobacteria Research Institute for the Semi- and possibly of N-fixing Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India, and at the national agricultural university in Indonesia, Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB), looked at the effects of changes in water regime and associated SRI practices on microbial populations and activity in the rhizosphere soil of rice plants.

Data from the three studies showed SRI management associated with some significant differences in soil microbial populations; higher levels of enzyme activity in SRI plant Photo 10.5 Earthing-up by intercultivation rhizospheres, indicative of increased N and P availability; and more soil microbial C and N, which would enlarge the nutrient pool for both plants and microbes. These studies, although more exploratory than conclusive, showed enough similarity to suggest that SRI practices, which make paddy soils more aerobic and enhance soil organic matter, are supportive of enhanced populations of beneficial soil organisms. If this relationship is confirmed by further assessments, it could Photo 10.6 New roots grown because of earthing-up by weeder

128 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI help researchers and Gayathry found that the numbers Throughout the crop cycle, not practitioners to improve paddy of all aerobic bacteria in the SRI only were more bacteria found in production in resource- rhizosphere were increased by SRI rhizospheres overall, but conserving, cost-effective ways more than 50% before and there were even more of those (Anas et. al. 2011). during panicle initiation, species that enhance nutrient compared to those in the availability for plants. The levels Gayathry (2002) investigated the rhizosphere of conventionally of enzymes that reflect the impact of the SRI management grown rice of same variety. The processes of N and P mobilization practices of younger seedlings, populations of Azospirillum also and uptake in the soil were also soil-aerating weeding with a increased similarly, while measured. This showed enzyme mechanical weeder, water Azotobacter, another diazotroph levels significantly greater at management to avoid continuous (N-fixing bacterium) and almost all phases of crop growth soil saturation, and green phosphate-solubilizing bacteria when SRI practice altered the manures to enhance soil organic increased by even more, by management of plants, soil, water matter. These practices, in about 75%. During panicle and nutrients (Table 10.4). combination, had positive effects initiation, the numbers of on soil biota (Table 10.3). diazotrophs were more than twice as high under SRI management as with conventional practice.

Table 10.3 Microbial population in the rhizosphere soil in rice crop under two different crop management conditions, Coimbatore, wet season, 2001-2002.

Crop growth stage Parameter Treatment Active Panicle Flowering Maturity tillering initiation

Conventional 9.35 14.91 9.73 7.64 Total bacteria SRI 14.66 21.64 10.99 7.51

Conventional 4.69 7.39 3.13 1.42 Azospirillum SRI 7.17 9.08 4.23 1.52

Conventional 8.88 25.57 10.45 5.56 Azotobacter SRI 20.15 31.17 10.92 6.45

Conventional 9.11 10.52 7.14 4.71 Total diazotrophs SRI 14.62 22.91 7.68 5.43

Conventional 9.15 17.65 7.76 2.28 Phosphobacteria SRI 16.19 23.75 13.79 2.66

129 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI

Table 10.4 Microbial activities in the rhizosphere soil in rice crop under two different crop management conditions, Coimbatore, dry season, 2002.

Crop growth stage

Parameter Treatment Active Panicle Grain Flowering Maturity tillering initiation filling

Dehydrogenase activity Conventional 81 263.00 78.00 24 16.00 (μg TPF g-1 soil 24 hr-1) SRI 369 467.00 139.00 95 42.00

Urease activity Conventional 189 1794.00 457.00 134 87.00 -1 -1 (μg NH4-N g soil 24 hr ) SRI 230 2840.00 618.00 228 173.00

Acid phosphate activity Conventional 1800 2123.00 957.00 384 214.00 (μg p-Nitrophenol g-1soil hr-1) SRI 1984 2762.00 2653.00 995 686.00

Alkaline phosphate activity Conventional 261 372.00 332.00 124 120.00 (μg p-Nitrophenol g-1soil hr-1) SRI 234 397.00 324.00 189 146.00

Nitrogenase activity Conventional - 3.15 7.63 - 1.94 -1 -1 (nano moles C2H4 g soil 24 hr ) SRI - 3.70 11.13 - 1.87

(square root transformed values of population per gram of dry soil) Conventional: 24-day-old seedlings; irrigating to 5 cm depth one day after disappearance of ponded water; hand weeding twice; recommended fertilizers SRI: 14-day-old seedling; 2 cm irrigation (after hairline crack up to panicle initiation and after that one day after disappearance of ponded water); rotary weeding 4 times at 10 day interval; recommended fertilizer plus green leaf manure

Studies conducted at the When organic fertilization was Directorate of Rice Research, increased from 25 to 100% Hyderabad, showed that with AI, the increase in dehydrogenase activity in the soil actinomycete numbers was increased by 23% in the 292%,while with inundated rhizospheric and bulk soil during (anaerobic) soil, the increase vegetative stage in SRI plants as was only78%. When organic compared to those transplanted fertilization was 25%, shifting conventionally (Mahender Kumar from continuous flooding (CF) et al. 2009). to AI increased actinomycete number by 26.7%, while with Lin et al. (2011) observed that organic fertilization of 50 and more input of organic material 100%, the respective increases and aerobic irrigation (AI), both, were 41.8 and 178.2%. respectively, and together, increased the numbers of actinomycetes significantly.

130 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 10.3 Exploiting More Fully the Genetic Potential of Rice Plants

The dramatic changes in SRI practices. These changes 10.3.1 Root Function observable phenotypes that SRI are manifested in terms of root Thesis research by Nisha (2002) practices underscore the growth and function, profuse confirmed that plants grown with importance of looking beyond tillering, non-lodging, prolonged SRI methods had greater root genetic traits and of dealing with leaf greenness, higher number length and root volume, as well as GxE (genetic-environmental) of panicles and number of about 40% higher root cation interactions (Uphoff, grains per panicle, and lower exchange capacity (CEC) and unpublished) spikelet sterility which are easily about 27% more ATPase activity observable. Changes and cytokinin content of roots Field experiments and on-farm measurable in the laboratory (Table 10.5). CEC reflects the observations have shown that and using instruments include capacity of roots to absorb cations rice plants grown under SRI physiological and phytochemical and thus vital nutrients. ATPase management behave differently parameters. from what is usually observed in is a key enzyme required for the conventional and standard non- absorption of nutrients, and cytokinin is a growth hormone

Table 10.5 Root characteristics and activity in the crop under different crop management conditions, Coimbatore, India, wet season, 2001-2002 Crop growth stages Parameter Treatment Transpl Active Panicle Flowering anting tillering initiation

Total root length (m) Conventional 1.02 6.08 17.42 55.71

SRI 0.88 22.50 31.05 67.50

Root volume (cc hill-1) Conventional 1.48 10.70 25.5 42.5

SRI 0.83 15.50 26.30 57.5

ATPase activity of Conventional NA 0.24 0.53 0.62 fresh root (µg of inorganic SRI NA 0.34 0.69 0.74 P g-1 hr-1)

CEC of dried and Conventional NA 7.20 9.80 10.60 milled roots (me 100 g-1 of dry root) SRI NA 10.60 14.60 13.40

Cytokinin content of Conventional NA 46.20 73.60 50.50 roots (pmol g-1) SRI NA 58.90 86.00 72.50

Conventional practice: 24-day-old seedlings; irrigating to 5 cm depth one day after disappearance of ponded water; hand weeding twice; recommended fertilizers; SRI practice: 14-day-old seedlings; 2 cm irrigation, after hairline cracks in the soil surface appeared, up to panicle initiation; after PI, irrigate one day after disappearance of ponded water; inter-cultivation with rotary weeder 4 times at 10-day intervals; recommended fertilizer plus green leaf manure. Source: Nisha (2002).

131 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI involved in cytogenesis, being 10.3.2 Phenotypical greater fluorescence efficiency, synthesized in the root tips and Changes higher photosynthesis rate, and translocated to other parts of the lower transpiration. Thakur et al. (2009) showed that plant. SRI root systems were thus alterations in management not only larger, but can function Profuse tillering, leaves' practices can induce multiple, more effectively in support of rice remaining green even after significant, and positive changes plants' growth and grain physiological maturity, and in phenotype from a given rice production. These data were resistance to lodging are genotype. The increase in yield consistent with the reports that observed in the field (Photos 10.7 with SRI when compared with SRI methods affect the size and to 10.12). those used with recommended performance of roots, which management practices reached would reciprocally have positive 42%, and it was associated with effects on the soil biota through various phenotypical alterations root exudation (Anas et al. 2011). such as longer panicles, more Higher root oxidizing activity at grains panicle−1, higher percent the later growth stage of the SRI of grain-filling, more open plant crop, along with better root architecture with more erect and distribution in the soil, might be larger leaves, more light related to the delayed senescence interception, higher leaf and prolonged photosynthetic chlorophyll content at ripening activity of the lower leaves and stage, delayed senescence and consequently to higher yields that is observed in SRI-grown plants (Mishra and Salokhe, 2011).

Photo 10.7 Enhanced tillering in Photo 10.8 Profuse tillering Photo 10.9 SRI leaves remaining normally shy-tillering variety green at harvest stage ASD16

Photo 10.10 Non-lodging of SRI crop Photo 10.11 More than 100 Photo 10.12 More than 350 grains seen in the background, with panicles from a single seedling in one SRI panicle normally-grown crop in the foreground

132 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 10.3.3 SRI and Rice genotypes including land races observed that, compared with Genotypes were increased under SRI (Table standard transplanting, hybrids 10.6). In Timbuktu region of performed better (with a 4 - 42% On-farm evaluations and farmers' Mali, evaluation by farmers yield advantage) than did other experiences have showed that showed that all five varieties improved varieties (with a 2-7% practically all genotypes, i.e, land raised with SRI methods yielded increase). The hybrids KRH2, HRI races, high-yielding varieties, more than plants of same variety 126 and PHB-71 and DRRH2 hybrids and scented varieties, using standard methods as a performed better as compared to have responded to SRI control. The yield increase under the varieties (Mahender Kumar et management positively. A high- SRI ranged from 44 to 99% al. 2009). yielding variety ASD16, (Styger et al. 2011).Similar considered as a shy-tillering positive response of all five The very low seed requirement for variety by breeders in Tamil Nadu, varieties studied in Afghanistan growing rice with SRI methods is has showed profuse tillering with has been reported by Thomas beneficial in conserving and SRI methods (Photo 10.11). Many and Ramzi (2011). multiplying traditional varieties of the varieties grown under SRI with special qualities. It also in farmers' fields have exceeded Multilocation trials conducted by makes the adoption of hybrids the expected yield declared by DRR have showed significant more feasible for small and poor breeders. differences between the farmers who otherwise find the Observations in Tripura showed varieties under SRI cost of purchasing hybrid seed that the grain yields of all management. In general, it was prohibitive.

Table 10.6 Grain yield of varieties, hybrids and land races in Tripura (t ha-1)

Conventional SRI Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

High yielding varieties 2.5 5.2 4.6 8.5

Hybrids 6.0 7.0 7.2 8.7

Land races 2.0 3.0 3.8 4.3

Scented land races 1.5 2.0 3.1 3.4

Average 3.0 4.3 4.7 6.2

10.3.4 Grain Quality Ltd., 2008). A higher milling percentage has also been The effects of SRI on the quality of reported. grains have also been reported. The quality of the seed produced in SRI is far superior to the seed produced conventionally (Subba Rao et al. 2007). The quality traits of basmati rice was also found to be enhanced in SRI (Tewari and Barai, 2007; TildaRicelands Pvt.

133 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 10.4 Synergistic Effects

One of the significant knowledge number of seedlings per hill, per hill, and application of NPK advances generated from field compost application, and water fertilizer (the recommended dose experiments is appreciation for management were considered in of 16-11-22 mixture), although the synergistic effects of SRI an ambitious pair of factorial not all practices made equal practices. Such an outcome has trials under contrasting contributions. not been reported in any other agroecological conditions. existing package of practices. Intercultivation was not On better (clay) soil, the SRI These appear to result from the included, and the spacings of practices evaluated (not testing way that beneficial biological trials (25 vs. 30 cm) were within wider spacing and not including processes are promoted through the recommended distance soil-aerating weeding) raised simple but unconventional range for SRI, so the full set of yield by more than three times, management practices which SRI practices was not evaluated while on poorer (loam) soil, they require only labour and skill. This in these trials. To do so would effected a tripling of yield. It is strategy of agricultural have required four times more evident that among the practices advancement is different from trials, and N's of 288 and 240 evaluated within this set of trials, one that relies on genetic were already very demanding of the age of seedling had the most modifications and on inputs of the researchers. powerful effect, with water fertilizers and other chemicals management (aerobic soil (Uphoff, 2008). From Figures 10.6 to 10.9, one conditions) as the next most can see how the addition of SRI influential factor. The fertilization Factorial trials combining various practices raises yield steadily effect might have been more SRI practices have demonstrated from conventional practice. This powerful for NPK if an improved a synergy among these practices involved flooded (saturated) soil, variety had been used in the that helps to explain the positive- older seedings (20 days is trials, instead of a local variety, sum increases (Rajaonarison actually quite younger than the which responded well to compost 2000; Andriankaja 2001). Only norm for farmer practice, which (Uphoff, 2008). four factors, i.e., seedling age, is 30 to 50 days), three plants

12 All conventional 8 Clay Soil 10 All SRI 7 6 8 Loam Soil (t/ha)

(t/ha) 5 ld 6 ld ie ie 4 y y 3 4 ain Grin

Gr 2 2 1 0 0 Clay Soil Loam Soil Compost Single Young Aerobic soil seedling seedling

Figure 10.6 Grain yield under conventional Figure 10.7 Grain yield with one SRI practice included and SRI practices (Source: Andriankaja, 2001) (and the other three practices being conventional) (Source: Andriankaja, 2001)

134 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 9 Clay Soil 8 Loam Soil 7 6

(t/ha) 5 ld ie

y 4

ain 3 Gr 2 1 0 Single seedling + Young seedling + Aerobic soil + Aerobic soil + Young seedling + Aerobic soil + compost compost single seedling compost single seedling young seedling

Figure 10.8 Grain yield with two SRI practices included (the other two practices being conventional) (Source: Andriankaja, 2001)

10 Clay Soil 9 8 Loam Soil 7 6 (t/ha)

ld 5 ie y 4

ain 3 Gr 2 1 0 Young seedling + Aerobic soil + single Aerobic soil + young aerobic soil + young single seedling + seedling + compost seedling + compost seedling + single compost seedling

Figure 10.9 Grain yield with three SRI practices included ( the remaining practice being conventional) (Source: Andriankaja, 2001)

Rajendran et al. (2005) studied trials was 48.8%. In comparison decrease in yield. These results the respective contributions of with full use of SRI practices, the showed intercultivation as more the practices, when all other SRI greatest yield reduction occurred important than the other practices were kept equal and when intercultivation was not principles (younger seedlings, the non-adoption of respective done (19.0%) (Table 10.7). single seedling per hill, and individual SRI principles was Similarly when compared to intermittent irrigation) under the studied. The increase in yield conventional practice results, trial conditions. due to all SRI practices over missing intercultivation brought conventional practice in these about the largest (20.1%)

135 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 10.7 Respective contributions of individual SRI practices on grain yield

No. of Grain yield Seedling Weeding Irrigation seedlings age (days) practice practice -1 Increase over Increase over (kg ha ) per hill conventional (%) full SRI use (%)

15 1 Intercultivation Intermittent 7,061 (+) 48.8 -

25 1 Intercultivation Intermittent 5,864 (+ 23.6 (-) 17.0

15 3 – 4 Intercultivation Intermittent 6,138 (+) 29.4 (-) 13.1

15 1 Hand weeding Intermittent 5,698 (+) 20.1 (-) 19.0

15 1 Intercultivation Flooding 6,425 (+) 35.4 (-) 9.0

25 3 – 4 Hand weeding Flooding 4,745 - (-) 34.2

Source :Rajendran et al. 2005

10.5 Summary

The agronomic practices followed The principles of SRI, if aeration. Comparisons with in SRI has been found to create a understood properly and if information and knowledge different environment for the rice applied through appropriate generated under such conditions plants resulting in more practices, have significant effects are not necessarily applicable to favourable growth and better on the plants and soil. These SRI crops because they represent physiological functioning leading have been experienced by now phenotypes that are different in to higher yields. The influence of several million SRI farmers structure and functioning from SRI practices on the soil around the world and in rice plants grown under biological and nutrient dynamics numerous experimental conventional management. appears to enhance the response evaluations. But a lot more is still of SRI plants. However, more to be understood. It has to be research is required to fully remembered that almost all of understand soil-plant-water- the previous scientific knowledge nutrient-biotic interactions within generated about rice plants' the SRI system. Because SRI performance and response has results depend more on the been derived from plants grown interaction among a number of with non-SRI agronomic factors, some of them being practices – older seedlings, biological and inherently crowding and flooding in both quite variable, such results nurseries and main fields, root- commonly range fairly widely, traumatizing transplanting, more than if just a single external anaerobic soil condition, and input is being put into this inorganic nutrient applications, complex soil-plant-water- with little enhancement of soil nutrient-biotic environment. organic matter and no active soil

136 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 11 BENEFITS OF SRI

The benefits of adopting SRI in expecting that there should be Yield information from different rice production are multifold. The just one SRI result that is countries has shown considerable overall benefits accruing to the correct. But in fact there country-to-country and intra- individual farmer are increased continues to be a wide range of country variations, for both SRI production and net income, and results that are all correct, for and conventional management. for some farmers it enhances their respective combinations of Overall, the average yield their household food security. conditions. advantage with SRI practices The water-saving part of the appears to be over 60 % (Kassam benefit has huge implications for Grain yield in rice is determined et al. 2011). Another assessment the society and country as a by the number of panicles per averaging results from 11 studies whole in addressing the unit area, the number of grains across 8 countries reported a 47% hydrological poverty and heavy per panicle, and grain weight. average increase in yield energy utilization for pumping The higher yield in SRI is (Africare/Oxfam America/WWF- irrigation water. There are associated with higher number ICRISAT Project, 2010). various benefits experienced by of panicles and number of grains farmers in terms of enhanced per panicle. Thakur et al. (2011) 11.1.1 Experimental efficiency of their inputs for rice reported 23.7% more panicles Evidence production (seeds, water, labour, per sq.m, 40.5% more grains per Available data from SRI nutrients) and also some social panicle, and 2.9% higher grain experiments across India show an benefits. weight in the SRI crop compared increase in grain yield up to 68%. to the crop of same variety grown A few experimental results with best recommended 11.1 GRAIN obtained across the country are practices from the Central Rice summarised in Table 11.1. The yield increase by adopting Research Institute of India. SRI has been observed in on- Variations in the effect of SRI station experiments, on-farm practices on yield attributes are evaluations, and by farmers also reported. Zhao et al. (2011) themselves. Because the yield reported that while the number gains are driven by biological of panicles per unit area and the processes rather than grain weight were more in SRI, mechanistic response to external the number of grains per panicle inputs, the gains are quite was lower than in the variable and range widely, 25%, conventional flood-irrigated 50%, 100%. But the results are crop. Most studies, on the other also occasionally negative, and hand, report higher number of sometimes (when the soil grains per panicle. How different biological dynamics are most varieties respond to SRI favourable) they can be quite practices varies, as do the spectacular. Some persons responses of rice crops to SRI regard this variability as methods under different soil, invalidating all SRI reports, climatic and other conditions.

137 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 11.1 Grain yields in SRI recorded in experiments across India

Grain yield ( t ha-1 )

S.No Location % increase Source Conventional SRI / decrease

1 Tamil Nadu Rice Research 4.70 7.10 + 48.9 Rajendran et al. Institute, TNAU, Aduthurai 2005

2 14 Research stations, ANGRAU, 4 .90 5.70 + 16.6 Mallikarjuna Andhra Pradesh Reddy et al. 2007 3 Indira Gandhi Agricultural 5.90 (2006) 6.60 + 12.0 Chitale et al. University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 4 .30 (2007) 5.10 + 17.8 2007 4 Agricultural Research Institute, 3.90 6.10 + 55.1 Ajaykumar et Patna, Bihar al. 2007 5 Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru 2.20 3.70 + 68.3 Sridevi and College of Agriculture and Chellamuthu, Research Institute, Karaikal, 2007 Puduchery 6 ICAR Research Complex, 4 .00 (2005) 4.40 + 9.3 Munda et al. Umiam, Meghalaya 4 .70 (2006) 5.20 + 10.2 2007 7 Central Rice Research Institute, 4.90 (2005) 5.90 + 20.4 Rao et al. 2007 Cuttack, Odisha 5.60 (2006) 7.00 + 25.0 8 Regional Agricultural Research 3.10 4.50 + 45.2 Bora and Dutta, Station, Shillongani, Assam 2007 9 Agricultural Research Station, 8.80 (2005) 10.20 + 15.9 Jayadeva et al. UAS, Kathalagere, Karnataka 9.10 (2006) 10.50 + 15.4 2008

10 Main Rice Research Station, 4.00 (2006) 6.30 + 35.9 Chauhan et al. AAU, Nawagam, Gujarat 4.70 (2007) 7.50 37.1 2008

11 Birsa Agricultural University, 4.30 5.00 + 16.3 Singh et al. Ranchi, Jharkhand 2009 12 Deras Farm, Mendhasal, 4 .40 6.50 + 47.7 Thakur et al. Khurda District, Odisha 2011 13 DRR/ICRISAT Farm, Hyderabad 7.65 8.17 + 6.8 Gujja and Thiyagarajan, 2011

138 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Though evidences of increased 11.1.2 On-Farm Trials not yet researchers or clarified. yields due to SRI are more, there This is the reverse of usual Results of evaluations in is a case of no such increase situation where farmers have a farmers' fields showed yield reported by Anita and Chellappan -1 hard time replicating advantages of 1.5 t ha in Tamil (2011) under humid tropical -1 researchers' results. With SRI it Nadu, and 1.67 t ha in Andhra conditions of Kerala. is often vice versa. Pradesh. On-farm evaluations in Grain yields obtained by farmers At the Indian Agricultural Tripura with different land races, of different states in SRI and non- Research Institute (IARI), SRI was high-yielding varieties and SRI cultivation are presented in first evaluated in 2002 and hybrids showed that irrespective Table 11.2. The yield increase is compared with transplanted of the varieties, yield increases seen to have varied from 23.0 to puddled rice (TPR); wet seeded under SRI were up to 100%. The 96.4%, with a simple average of puddled rice (WSR); SRI; dry evaluations carried out by PSI 45%. The data from Andhra seeded rice (DSR); dry seeded (Peoples' Science Institute, Pradesh show fluctuations in rice on flat beds (FB); and dry Dehradun) in Himachal Pradesh yield advantage. seeded on raised beds (RB). The and Uttarakhand (2007) showed grain yield was highest in SRI an average increase in yield of (5,452 kg ha-1), but statistically 89% over conventional similar to TPR (5,440 kg ha-1). cultivation. SRI results have often However, water productivity was showed greater yields on significantly higher (Choudhury et farmers' fields than on al. 2005). experiment stations, for reasons

Table 11.2 Average grain yields in SRI and conventional cultivation observed in farmers' fields in several states.

-1 Grain yield (t ha ) Percent S.No State Year Season Conventional SRI Increase increase

1 Tamil Nadu 2003-2004 Rabi 5.7 7.2 1.5 26.3 2007-2008 Rabi 4.4 5.7 1.3 29.5 2 Andhra Pradesh 2003 Kharif 4.9 8.4 2.5 51.0 2003-2004 Rabi 5.5 7.9 2.4 43.6 2007 Kharif 5.0 6.2 1.2 24.0 2007-2008 Rabi 5.2 6.6 1.4 26.9 3 Tripura 2006 Kharif 4.5 7.0 2.5 55.6 4 Himachal Pradesh 2007 Kharif 2.8 5.5 2.7 96.4 5 Uttarakhand 2007 Kharif 2.9 5.3 2.4 82.7 6 Bihar 2004-2006 Kharif 3.8 4.7 0.9 23.0 7 Kerala 2007-2008 Late second season 3.0 3.4 0.4 12.0 8 Gujarat 2007 Kharif 2.9 5.4 2.4 82.8 9 Punjab 2007 Kharif 7.7 9.8 2.1 27.3

Source: Presentations in National Seminar on SRI, 2007 and 2008

139 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Photo 11.1 Happy SRI farmer with a 10 t/ha yield crop

There are large inter-country variations in SRI results (Table 11.3), reflecting differences in soil, climatic, and other conditions (Kassam et al. 2011). These data show a range of 11 to 204%, with an average of 69%; excluding the two extreme values, the average is 58%. Photo 11.2 A proud SRI farmer showing SRI panicles from her field

Table 11.3. Grain yields recorded in on-station and on-farm trials in other countries Grain yield (t ha-1) S.No Country Year Conventional SRI Increase

On-station trials 1 Hangzhou, China 2006-2007 7.3 8.1 11.0 2 Eastern region, Gambia 2000-2002 2.5 7.6 204.0 3 Southern region, Iraq 2009 3.8 5.3 39.5 4 Eastern region, Madagascar 2000-2001 4.9 6.3 28.6 On-farm trials 5 Baghlan Province, Afghanistan 2008-2009 5.6 9.3 66.1 6 Eastern Province, Indonesia 2002-2006 4.3 7.6 76.7 7 Central and northern regions, Madagascar 2000-2001 3.4 6.4 88.2 8 Timbuktu, Mali 2008 5.5 9.1 65.5 9 Central Provinces, Panama 2009-2010 3.4 4.8 41.2

Source: Kassam et al. (2011) 140 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 11.1.3 Farmer attacks coupled with dry spells SRI cultivation in various river Experiences immediately after transplanting basins assisted by the World and during grain-filling stage of Bank-IAMWARM Project in Tamil The grain yields obtained by the crop. 90% of the farmers had Nadu are presented in Table 11.4. farmers in larger areas, unlike yields above 5 t ha-1, which is Average yield with conventional demonstrations, reflect the around 2.5 times the district methods ranged from 3.5 t ha-1 to response in farm fields. The average 5.3 t ha-1, while the SRI yields variations in these yields may also (http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/count ranged from 4.5 t ha-1 to 10.0 t ha-1. reflect the extent of adopting the ries/india/inpradan406.pdf). The increases in yield ranged from SRI principles. A lot of 16.2 to 46.5%, with an average of Evaluations carried out by PSI information is available on the 28.3% (Thiyagarajan et al. 2009). (Peoples' Science Institute, experience of the farmers who Field reviews have concluded that Dehradun) in Himachal Pradesh have been associated with some not all of the recommended SRI and Uttarakhand in 2006 showed civil society organizations. A few practices have been used by that in HP, the average examples are given here. farmers, or used as productivity of paddy went up from recommended, so these results PRADAN started promoting SRI in 3. 2 t ha-1 to 5.0 t ha-1(about 56%), are from what should be 2003 with 4 families, which grew and in UKD, the average yield considered as 'partial SRI.' This up to 6,200 families in 2006. In jumped about 77% from 3.1 t ha-1 problem of assessing what 2008, 43.7% of the cooperating to 5.5 t ha-1. The results from 2007 represents full or correct SRI is a farmers in Purulia district, West showed that the non-SRI yields -1 widespread one for this innovation, Bengal, harvested 6-8 t ha yield, stood close to 2.8 t ha-1, and the since SRI use, with its set of half a and 24% harvested yields of 8-10 t SRI yields were around 5.4 t ha-1, -1 dozen practices, is a matter of ha . In rainfed areas of Purulia giving an average increase of 89%. district, the average productivity degree more than of kind. with SRI was 7.7 t ha-1, in spite of The average grain yields obtained high incidence of disease and pest by farmers in conventional and

Table 11.4 Yields obtained by farmers in different river sub-basins under World Bank-IAMWARM Project, Tamil Nadu, 2007- 2008. Increase in -1 Range of grain yields River Grain yield (kg ha ) SRI over with SRI conventional sub-basin Conventional SRI Minimum Maximum (%)

Aliyar 3,484 4,488 2,958 6,475 28.8 Arjunanadhi 5,488 6,375 4,000 7,880 16.2 Kottakaraiyar 4,044 5,023 2,625 7,500 24.2 Manimuthar 4,185 5,596 4,000 7,500 33.7 Pambar 4,050 4,924 3,040 6,740 21.6 South Vellar 4,100 6,005 3,040 7,500 46.5 Upper Vellar 5,250 7,140 4,313 9,987 36.0

Source: Thiyagarajan et al. 2009. A paddy yield of 22.4 tons/hectare reported from the SRI plot of a farmer in Darveshpura village (Nalanda district, Bihar state), Shri Sumant Kumar, has attracted considerable attention as it surpasses the previously accepted world record yield of 19 tons/ha reported from China(The Pioneer, Nov. 27, 2011: http://www.dailypioneer.com/nation/23641-bihar- farmer-beats-world-in-paddy-cultivation. html). Since four other farmers in the village, also first-time SRI practitioners, achieved paddy yield levels of 18 or 19 tons/ha, Sumant Kumar's achievement was not an isolated occurrence.

141 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 11.2 Household Food Security

The increased productivity by eastern India is higher than rest and Singh 2000). A study report on adopting SRI has been a boon to of the country: 133 kg versus 37 the enhanced household food families which grow rice for their kg in the western region, 39 kg security in Jharkhand (NABARD own consumption, especially in in the northern region, and 113 2011) demonstrates the potential rainfed areas. The annual per kg in the southern region (Singh of SRI in this regard (Table 11.5) capita rice consumption in

Table 11.5 Household food security and SRI

No. of days of food security Landholding (acres) With traditional With Additional days methods SRI methods of food security

0 - 1 153 217 64 (41.8 %) 1 – 2 268 416 148 (55.2 %) > 2 326 738 412 (126.4 %)

Source: NABARD (2011)

11.3 Straw Yield

Information on straw yield is not A field experiment conducted in and Bhagya Laxmi (2011) also reported much, and the numbers Hyderabad in 2009-2010 showed reported a 19% reduction in straw have not always been consistent that the straw yield with SRI was yield of the SRI crop from a with respect to the effects of SRI. 8.17 t ha-1 while in control plots survey with SRI farmers in A number of SRI farmers have (farmer's practice) it was 6.27 t Andhra Pradesh. reported increased straw yield -1 ha , an increase of 33.5%. The 12 along with increased grain yield. experiment also showed that On-farm evaluation in Tirunelveli under organic SRI (SRI-ORG), the 10 District, Tamil Nadu, showed a straw yield was 1.7 t more than 29% increase in straw yield along conventional SRI (Figure 11.1)

/ha) 8 with a 27.7% increase in grain even though there was not much t yield (Thiyagarajan et al. 2005). difference between the two sets ield ( 6 Y of practices in grain yield. The straw volume with the SRI 4 method is usually much higher, A contradictory result was Straw providing more fodder to the reported by Thakur et al. (2011), 2 cattle of the mountainous rice wherein there was a 20.6% areas of Himachal Pradesh and reduction in straw yield of SRI 0 Uttarakhand, for example, which when compared with standard SRI-ORG SRI Control will in turn help to increase the management practice, although farm yard manure (Sen et al. the SRI grain yield was 47.7% Figure 11.1. Straw yield in SRI, 2007). higher, showing considerably organic SRI and control, higher harvest index. Ravindra Hyderabad, 2009-2010

142 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 11.4 Land Saving

Since grain productivity is higher under SRI, farmers cultivating rice for home consumption only can reduce their area under rice and can diversify their farming system with other remunerative crops. Further, the land area required for an SRI nursery is just one-tenth of the area required for conventional cultivation, so managing a separate field for the nursery, as is generally practiced, Photo 11.3 Inter-space in banana field was utilized for SRI nursery is not necessary. In fact, some farmers have raised their SRI nursery in their home backyards or on house terraces or even on roofs. One farmer in Tamil Nadu raised his nursery in a banana field (Photo 11.3). A farmer who raised a conventional nursery but then planted with SRI methods could realize the savings in SRI nursery (Photo 11.4)

Photo 11.4 Unused conventional nursery (in background) of a farmer who raised it for conventional planting but then did SRI planting

11.5 Seed Saving

The nursery required for one ha Kumar et al. 2010). Styger et al. of 45–60 kg ha-1 will improve under SRI management could be (2011) reported 80-90% saving of household food security of raised using just 5-7.5 kg seed as seeds in Timbuktu, Mali. resource-poor farmers. against 20-30 kg ha-1 under conventional method. For The seed-saving part of SRI is With the introduction of SRI in conventional planting, farmers very much appreciated by Tripura, the total seed generally use high seed rates, up practicing farmers, especially the requirement has decreased as to 75 kg ha-1. poor, as their seed cost will not can be seen in Table 11.6. On a be prohibitive to commence rice regional and country scale, the In the case of hybrids, 66% of cultivation. In fact, SRI farmers quantity of seed that can be saved seed cost could be saved by are advised to collect good by SRI adoption will have added adopting SRI method. The panicles from their standing crop advantages in reduced storage significant seed saving will before harvest (as only 5-7.5 kg is facilities and transport of seeds. promote higher seed required for 1 ha) and store the Another benefit of the very low multiplication rate, greater purity seeds for next season (good seed rate with SRI is the easiness of seed (single seedling planting), quality seeds can be recycled for and cost reduction in seed and faster availability/spread of three seasons). The seed saving treatment. released varieties (Mahender

143 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI

Table 11.6 Year-wise savings of seeds in Tripura Requirement of seeds Area Requirement of seeds under recommended Net savings Year under under SRI (tonnes) practice (tonnes) (tonnes) SRI(ha) @ 5 kg ha-1 @50 kg ha-1

2006-2007 14,678 733.9 73.4 660.5

2007-2008 32,497 1,624.8 162.5 1,462.3

Source : SRI Fact Sheet – Tripura. WWF-ICRISAT Project, 2008.

11.6 Water Saving

Not much systematic research framework of SRI management have shown significant water has yet been done on water (Kassam et al. 2011). However saving in SRI cultivation, management options and some standard experiments averaging 33.5% (Table 11.7). optimization within the

Table 11.7 Water use in conventional and SRI cultivation and water saving in SRI

Water used Water S.No. Reference saved (%) Conventional SRI

1 16,634 (m3 ha-1) 8,419 (m3 ha-1) 49.4 Thiyagarajan et al. (2005)

2 13,055 (m3 ha-1) 8,906 (m3 ha-1) 32.0 Mahenderkumar et al. (2010)

3 1,223 x 104 (l/ha) 952 x 104 (l/ha) 22.2 Thakur et al. (2011)

4 1,774 mm 1,298 mm 26.8 Zhao et al. (2011)

5 34,500 (m3 ha-1) 21,600 (m3 ha-1) 37.4 Hameed et al. (2011)

11.7 Labour Saving

One of the criticisms on SRI was Experiments conducted in Kerala with a significant shift of labour that it is 'labour-intensive'. The have shown that cono-weeding inputs for weeding from women extra time needed to master the reduced the labour required for to men (Thiyagarajan et al. 2005). new techniques, and to negotiate weeding by 35 man-days ha-1 and Women's inputs overall declined new divisions of rice-production labour cost by Rs 3,125 ha-1 by 25%, largely due to a shift in labour, are essentially transitory (Anita and Chellappan 2011). the gendered division of labour. adjustments (Ravindra and Men's inputs increased by 60% Bhagya Laxmi 2011). Several observations with when they took over mechanical Experiments conducted in farmers have shown that SRI weeding as this was considered Coimbatore showed a 41% requires less labour than more appropriate for males. increase in labour productivity in conventional cultivation. The on- the wet season of 2001-2002 and farm trials in Tamiraparani river This transfer of responsibility was a 13% increase in the dry season basin showed an overall made more acceptable within of 2002 (Thiyagarajan et al. 2002). reduction of 8% in labour inputs, households by a more than

144 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI doubled net income per hectare. 11.8 Cost Saving 11.9 Net Income Labour requirement was mainly reduced by less time for seedling On-farm trials in the There are several examples pulling and transplanting. Many Tamiraparani river basin in 2003 showing significantly increased SRI farmers report almost showed that there was a 11% net income by adopting SRI which negligible expenditure on reduction in overall costs of have been documented in the seedling pulling as one or two cultivation (Thiyagarajan, 2005). Proceedings of National Seminar labourers only are required, Based on 12,133 on-farm on SRI, conducted during 2007 at compared to 6-10 labourers for comparison trials that covered a Tripura and in 2008 at conventional seedling pulling and total area of 9,429 ha in Eastern Coimbatore. Publications of the transport. Indonesia, Sato et al. (2011) WWF-ICRISAT project on farmer reported that an average yield experiences on SRI also have Labour saving in weeding is also increase under SRI management many such cases reported. realized by many farmers of 3.3 t ha-1 was achieved with Studies in Gambia showed that because the mechanical weeder about 40% reduction in water the net returns with current reduces the time needed for this use, 50% reduction in chemical production techniques was $37.30 operation. It has been observed fertilizers, and 20% lower costs of ha-1 while with SRI methods, the that farmers having only about 1 production. net returns were $852.70 ha-1 acre of land do not need to (Ceesay, 2011). A few examples depend upon external labour for A survey in Mahabubnagar from different parts of India are any of their field operations and District of Andhra Pradesh with given in Table 11.8. can manage with their own family 55 SRI and 55 non-SRI farmers labour, employing a machine for (Ravindra and Bhagya Laxmi harvesting. 2011) showed a yield advantage of 18% achieved by SRI methods with a decrease in total expenditure of Rs.9187 ha-1. This represented a 50% reduction in input costs, with 43% lower labour costs.

Table 11.8. Net income obtained in conventional and SRI cultivation Increase in Net returns Location -1 net income Reference (Rupees ha ) (%)

Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu 11,149 23,868 114 Thiyagarajan et al. 2005

Madanapalli, Andhra Pradesh 11,830 31, 264 165 Radha et al. 2007

Tripura 15,007 39,769 165 SRI Fact Sheet, Tripura, WWF-ICRISAT Project, 2008 Mahbubnagar, Andhra Pradesh 22,257 41,389 86 Ravindra and Bhagya Laxmi, 2011

145 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 11.10 Nutrient use Efficiency

Experimental evidence has Nutrient use efficiency was was lower in SRI plants. As SRI showed higher nutrient efficiency marginally higher in SRI (by 8, 8 yields were higher than for in SRI crops compared to and 12% for N, P and K, conventional crop, the total uptake conventional crops. Jothimani respectively, during kharif and of the nutrients was thus higher in (2004) studied the effect of 5% for N during rabi) compared SRI plants. P was more efficiently controlled-release nitrogen to standard transplanting used in grain production than N fertilizer on an SRI crop, and (Mahender Kumar et al. 2010). and K in SRI cultivation (Table found that partial factor Higher N use efficiency for SRI 11.9). Nutrient concentrations in productivity (kg grain produced practices, as well as higher sink storage were not very per kg N applied), agronomic water use efficiency, was different between conventional and efficiency (kg grain increase per reported by Zhao et al. (2009). SRI methods, but grain yields were kg N applied), physiological Barison and Uphoff (2011) found significantly higher. This could be efficiency (kg grain produced by that concentrations of N and K in attributed to conventionally- kg N taken up by crop), and the grain were higher in SRI cultivated plants having lower root recovery of applied N were all plants than conventional rice, capacity to take up nutrients in the higher for the SRI crop than for while concentration of P was later stages of plant growth and/or the conventionally-planted crop lower. In the rice straw, to lower remobilization of (Figure 11.2). concentration of all the nutrients previously stored shoot nutrients.

60

50 Conventional SRI 40 /% -1 30

20 Kg(Kg II)

10

0 Partial factor Agronomic Physiological Recovery productivity efficiency efficiency efficiency N use efficiency Figure 11.2 Nitrogen use efficiency of cultivar ADT43 with conventional and SRI cultivation (Source: Jothimani, 2004)

146 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 11.9 Nutrient concentration, nutrient uptake and internal use efficiency of nutrients in conventional and SRI plants.

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Parameter Conv. SRI Conv. SRI Conv. SRI

Concentration in the grain (g kg-1) 9.90 10.18 2.69 2.35 3.54 3.96

Concentration in the straw (g kg-1) 5.39 4.98 1.16 0.93 15.29 14.98

Total uptake (g kg-1) 49.99 95.07 12.69 21.03 56.77 108.64 Internal efficiency

(kg grain kg nutrient-1) 74.89 69.20 291.1 347.2 70.41 69.70

Source: Barison and Uphoff (2011)

11.11 Climate Change Adaptation

The benefits of SRI are manifold, lakh hectares, compared to a rainfed areas. An emphasis on and various observations of crop normal area of 391.17 lakh providing surface drainage in SRI performances have shown the hectares. A survey on drought- will help to drain excess rainfall. potential of SRI in addressing the coping ability of SRI vs. CMP Contributions of SRI to climate challenges of climate change (common management change adaptability are also. Experiences of escaping practices) rice cultivation was summarised in Table 11.10. drought by SRI crops have been carried out in Jharkhand, observed in both irrigated and Maharashtra, West Bengal, rainfed areas (http://www.sri- Odisha, Chattisgarh, Manipur india.net/documents/More_Water and Uttarakhand by contacting _For_The_Planet.pdf ; Patwardan 241 farmers who were using and Patel 2007). both methods. The results showed that the average grain During 2009 kharif, out of 526 yield under SRI was 54% higher meteorological districts in India than CMP, showing the ability of for which data are available, 215 SRI crops to cope up with districts (41%) received drought (http://sdtt- excess/normal rainfall and the sri.org/publications-and-other- remaining 311 districts (59%) reports) received deficient/scanty rainfall. The agricultural operation of The smaller nursery required paddy was severely affected due and the shorter nursery period to scanty rainfall in the early part for SRI facilitates the raising of of the monsoon. Paddy cultivation staggered nurseries to adjust to area thus came down to 327.40 delayed onset of the monsoon in

147 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI

Table 11.10 SRI benefits supporting farm household resilience and climate change adaptability.

Reported and Contribution to Resilience and Climate Validated Benefits Change Adaptability

Higher yields per Grain yields are increased on an average by 20-50%. This not only generates more unit of land, food, but releases some land and labor for other productive activities, buffering labor and capital household resources. Higher productivity per unit of land reduces pressure to invested expand cultivated area at the expense of other ecosystems.

Lightened Women farmers widely report that SRI methods save them time and reduce the workload for drudgery of rice cultivation, due to less time for nursery management and women transplanting, ease of working with smaller seedlings and less time laboring in standing water. It frees their time for activities of their choice (such as vegetable growing for profit or improved family diet) and enabling other family members to seek non-farm employment, thereby diversifying household income.

Reduced With SRI, irrigation water use is generally reduced by 25-50%, as water is managed requirements for to maintain mostly-aerobic soil conditions. Farmers can continue to cultivate rice irrigation water where water is becoming scarcer or rains unpredictable, and can mitigate losses from late monsoons or less rainfall. Less water used at the head of canals means more water is available for farmers at the end. Water can be freed up for other crops and people, and for the maintenance of natural ecosystems.

Reduced seed rate Since farmers need 80-90% fewer seeds for transplanting, they need much less space to sow the seed nurseries. Flooded nurseries are planted with a seed rate of 120-150 g/m2 whereas SRI nurseries are planted with a seed rate of only 20 g/m2, leaving farmers more rice to use for food rather than planting. Smaller nurseries are easier to manage and require a lot less land, freeing up land for other crops.

Reduced reliance The high and rising cost of fertilizer and other inputs is one of the main attractions on chemical for farmers to use SRI as it allows them reduce chemical applications without loss fertilizers, of yield. Fewer chemicals around farmsteads has health benefits for people and herbicides, and their livestock. Reduced chemical loads, and higher soil and water quality has pesticides beneficial effects throughout the environment.

Resistance to Climate change is contributing to more frequent and more severe storms, which lodging and storm cause rice plants to fall over or lodge. This can be devastating to farmers. A fallen damage (possibly crop is vulnerable to rotting and also more difficult to harvest. SRI practices also cold spells) produce stronger straw (tillers) and larger, deeper root systems that make rice plants less susceptible to being blown down or pushed over.

Increased Climate change is expected to increase the prevalence and distribution of pest resistance to pest species as temperatures and rainfall patterns change. With SRI management, damage farmers observe less loss to pests and diseases even though they use fewer agrochemicals. Increased drought SRI rice plants exhibit stronger root systems that grow deeper into the soil profile. tolerance At greater depth they can access deeper reserves of soil moisture (and nutrients). This is a particularly important given the increasing risk of rainfall variation during the growing season. Shorter growing SRI crops can often be harvested 1-2 weeks, even sometimes 3 weeks earlier than season the same variety conventionally grown. This has economic and environmental advantages. Farmers can use the same field for a short-season crop like a vegetable, or can plant a following crop such as wheat sooner to get higher yield. A shorter growing period reduces water needs and the crop’s exposure to pests and storms that arrive late in the season.

148 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Reported and Contribution to Resilience and Climate Validated Benefits Change Adaptability

Reduced seed If a farmer’s crop succumbs to adverse weather patterns, farmers can more easily rates and planting find the seeds and time to replant the nursery and replant since SRI requires only times give more one-tenth of the seeds and seedlings can be planted within 8-15 days of sowing, flexibility rather than 25-35. People reliant on travelling after planting to find paid work can get on the road much sooner and if they have to return to replant a failed crop they only have to come home for a short time. Increased With SRI methods, farmers are able to achieve higher yields from their traditional production and varieties, most of which are better adapted genetically to a range of climate marketing stresses. These local varieties often command a better price in the market. Rice potential from biodiversity has plummeted since the 1960s; however, studies show many traditional traditional varieties offer higher iron and protein content. Rehabilitation and varieties keeps conservation of landraces and local cultivars can give more genetic diversity for them viable dealing with adverse growing conditions.

Improved farmer Good SRI extension promotes farmer initiative and evaluation It encourages knowledge, farmers to take more responsibility for adaptation and innovation, experimentation contributing to human resource development in rural areas and the and innovation prospect of farmers being able to identify and exploit other innovations as they emerge.

Diversified With higher yields per unit of land, some farmers convert part of their land to cropping systems growing more nutritional and more profitable crops, fruits, vegetables, legumes and small livestock that diversify their diets and raise incomes. Reductions in chemical use makes farming systems more compatible with fish, ducks and other non-crop components. More diversification of cropping systems helps to restore biodiversity and sequester carbon in the soil.

Source : http://www.sri-india.net/documents/More_Water_For_The_Planet.pdf

11.12 Summary SRI is more than an agronomic Benefits Realized by l Labour requirements for package of practices to boost the Farmers planting can be reduced from rice productivity. Rather, it is a set 60 to 35 days. l Nursery area (for planting 1 of ideas or principles for l ha) can be reduced from 800 Labour requirements for improving the growing m2 to 100 m2. weeding are reduced by as environment of rice plants below much as50%. and above ground, to be adapted · Seed requirement is reduced -1 l Savings can be made in water, to local conditions and from 30-60 kg ha to 5.0-7.5 -1 electricity for pumping, and constraints. The advantages kg ha . labour for irrigation. accruing to SRI cultivation are l Nursery maintenance is l manifold, benefiting not only the reduced from 25-30 days to Lodging of crops due to storms rice farmers but also with positive 10-14 days. or wind is reduced due to stronger plant roots and tillers. influence on the livelihoods of · Nursery costs are reduced by l farm families; agro-ecological about 68%. Crops on balance have less sustainability; agro-industrial susceptibility to damage from l Seedling pulling costs are development and agri-business; pests and diseases. reduced from Rs.800 to and overall impacts on the state / l Rs.150. Rat damage is almost nil in national economy. some cases.

149 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI l Earlier maturity (up to 10 days) l Possibly some greenhouse Benefits To States / is seen in many cases. gas mitigation as methane Nation l emissions from rice paddy Grain yield is increased on l Substantial reduction in the fields (no longer flooded and average by 1.5 t, although with need for storage and supply of anaerobic) can be reduced considerable variation. seeds. without offsetting increases l Straw yield is increased on in N2O, according to several l Increasing national and average by 2.6 t. studies in Indonesia, Nepal household food security. · Higher net income for farmers and India. l More scope for reducing is achieved, up to 165%. l Reduced carbon footprint poverty because new methods l Known shy-tillering varieties from total production with minimal capital are found to produce a higher process; possibly greater requirements are accessible to number of tillers. carbon sequestration in the the poor, without taking loans, l Good panicles from the SRI soil due to a build-up of soil suitable for use on even small crop can be handpicked for organic carbon through parcels of land, giving higher meeting seed requirements of organic fertilization, larger production from already the next crop with higher- root systems with SRI plants, available resources through quality stock. and increased root exudation. using them more productively. l Higher milling outturn (by 10- l Conserving rice biodiversity l Low-cost strategy to 20%), with more kg of polished (good response from government for meeting food rice per bushel or bag of indigenous varieties from SRI needs and reducing poverty. paddy rice. This is attributable management) plus buffering l Reduced requirements for to less chaff (fewer unfilled of biodiversity in general (less irrigation water for rice grains) and less broken grains requirements for irrigation cultivation, and reduced need (less shattering during water, reducing competition for power subsidies for milling). This is a 'bonus' on with natural ecosystems; pumping groundwater. top of the higher production of more production from Field experiences have paddy rice. already-cultivated area so demonstrated the benefits of there is less pressure for adopting SRI that will address the Ecological And Agro- expansion of agriculture into concerns of rice farmers as well ecological Benefits uncultivated areas). as policy makers. Realizing this · No use of herbicides. and taking positive steps to Benefits For Agro- promote SRI in all rice growing · Reduced or possibly no use of industry areas is the best agenda for chemical fertilizers. l Opportunities for national food security. · Enhanced soil biological development and supply of activity in the soil and greater tools and implements for SRI. soil health. l Better quality grain with · Adaptability to hazards of higher milling out-turn. climate change (more drought tolerance, resistance to storms, reduced pest damage, tolerance of colder temperatures once established).

150 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12 SRI EXTENSION, ADOPTION AND CONSTRAINTS

The efforts taken to promote SRI different scales in different parts lab', reversing the usual 'lab to in India are unique as they have of the country. In some places, land' presupposition. New crop been essentially voluntary and SRI has been embraced by production techniques have not promoted by any official organic farmers also as a special usually come from research process. The role of civil society group. A national movement to establishments after standard organizations in this aspect has promote SRI began from 2006 by experimentation and evaluation. been an unprecedented one in organizing a series of national SRI has not come through that agricultural extension. However, symposia, establishing google channel, however, but is being the extent of spread and adoption groups and websites, publishing followed by increasing numbers of SRI has also been influenced newsletters, and developing of farmers: first dozens, then by certain limitations. In several policy frameworks by the hundreds and thousands, and states, like Bihar, Tamil Nadu and initiative and support of several now hundreds of thousands. Still, Tripura, it has been see that agencies. SRI requires research support not spread can become rapid when only to explain how it makes the Research in SRI to complement there is active support from difference from conventional and the extension effort was limited government agencies, especially existing recommended practices, to TNAU and ANGRAU in the if acting in concert with farmer- but also to understand the effect beginning, but slowly, ICAR oriented NGOs. of the modified agronomic institutes (DRR, CRRI, and practices on the soil-plant-water regional centres) and other state 12.1 Spread of SRI in system. Although considerable agricultural universities have the Country research efforts are underway, started working on SRI. There is there is no systematic and SRI was introduced into the still more to be done on research organized research to address country in 2000, and extension as many questions on the effects the broader issues concerning efforts commenced in 2003 in of SRI principles on soil and plant SRI. More importantly, there are Tamil Nadu, Tripura, and Andhra system remain unanswered. no national policies and Pradesh. The spread of SRI in Also there is no study on the institutional mechanisms for other states was rather slow, but long-term effects on soil fertility investment in SRI research. picked up from 2006 on with the of practicing SRI. However, active involvement of a variety of Bidhan Chandra Krishi Efforts have also been taken to interested stakeholders. All the Vishwavidyalay (BCKV) has develop a national policy on SRI agencies involved in SRI started such research with active adoption and scaling-upas part of extension started with support from SDTT. Some ATMA achieving national food security demonstrations in farmers' programs and KVKs have taken while reducing water constraints fields. Most government- initiative with SRI at local levels, and conflicts. An initiative has supported programmes have had and the Directorate of Rice now been taken up to establish a an element of subsidy built in, Development in Patna became National SRI Consortium to mainly providing SRI tools and in involved with SRI evaluation and streamline and guide the some cases other inputs. Most spread earlier than some other promotion and scaling-up of SRI. CSOs have concentrated on agencies. The National Food A state-level Consortium is also capacity-building with technical Security Mission began active in Andhra Pradesh, and backstopping by engaging and supporting SRI extension in there are bodies, each different, training local resource persons. targeted food-insecure districts operating now in states like in 2006. Bihar, Odisha, and Himachal The dissemination and adoption Pradesh. of SRI in India has been on SRI is a striking case of 'land to

151 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.2 Institutional Architecture In SRI Extension

At present, SRI has been promoted through multiple streams of funding as well as implementation agencies (Table 12.1 ). Table 12.1 Sources of funding and implementing agencies for SRI extension

Sl. No. Source of funding Implementing agencies

1. Donors (e.g., SDTT, WWF, NGOs (playing role as innovation Deshpande Foundation) incubators) 2. National Bank for Agriculture and NGOs (upscaling of innovations in Rural Development (NABARD) contiguous areas) 3. Autonomous societies (e.g., NGOs, CBOs (scaling at district level) SERP, Bihar Rural Livelihood Promotion Society, etc.) 4. GOI Ministry of Agriculture, State Depts.of Agriculture, Project staff (under NFSM, RKVY, special projects, etc.) 5. State Governments (using Own grass root Departmental staff + combination of NFSM, RKVY, NGOs MNREGA, and World Bank resources) 6. State Agricultural Universities / Scientists and field staff of SAUs / KVKs ICAR / Externally-funded projects

The NGOs / CSOs have adopted a includes material incentives for 12.3 Platforms for unique model of creating local SRI tools (weeders and markers), Mainstreaming SRI resource persons in the villages and also for inputs like seeds (either local farmers or local and fertilizers are given. All of It is unusual to create platforms literate persons) who give the implementing agencies to promote a single method of technical support and advice arrange for trainings, cultivating a crop. This is another throughout the implementing demonstrations and exposure way in which SRI is unique. SRI period. These people are trained visits. extension is being promoted in by master trainers of the manners unpracticed before. The organizations. Some input SRI extension seen in India is incentives are also often itself a revolution in agricultural provided. Some NGOs have extension, perhaps contributing to approached the task of training new and better modes of through Farmer Field Schools. operation. The close rapport between NGOs and farmers has been very 12.3.1 Seminars helpful in gaining acceptance of The prospects of SRI were first SRI. Government/externally- discussed in India during an funded project support usually

152 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI International Symposium on strengthening the efforts of promoting organic SRI. 'Transitions in Agriculture for farmer-innovators, and refining Enhancing Water Productivity' the research agenda for persons 12.3.3 Publications held at the Agricultural College engaged with elucidating the An array of manuals, books, video and Research Institute of TNAU, issues concerning SRI. films, reports, newsletters, Killikulam, Tamil Nadu, in Proceedings of the seminars proceedings, fact sheets, and September 2003. Dr. Norman have been made available. case history compendiums have Uphoff (Cornell University), Dr. Seminars have also been been made available by several Bas Bouman (IRRI), and Dr. organized by CSOs at national agencies to disseminate the Christopher Scott (IMWI) were and state level with support from knowledge on SRI. These could among the participants. donor agencies like SDTT and be accessed through the websites NABARD in Assam, Manipur, listed in Table 12.2. Realizing the potential of SRI for West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, water saving and responding to Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, 12.3.4 Electronic Media the need for creating more Maharashtra and Uttarakhand. Online discussion groups and awareness, a series of National The WWF-ICRISAT project also websites on SRI have been Seminars on SRI in India was organized workshops to converge created to promote information organized by the WWF-ICRISAT ideas on up-scaling SRI in the and discussion among farmers, project in collaboration with country by inviting policy makers civil society organizations, several other stakeholders, first from the Planning Commission, researchers, and others in Hyderabad in 2006, hosted by the Ministry of Agriculture, and interested in SRI (Table 12.2). An ANGRAU; then in Agartala in State Governments to interact SRI International Network and 2007, hosted by the Govt. of with civil society representatives Resources Center (SRI-Rice) is Tripura; and finally in Coimbatore and farmers. operating from Cornell University in 2008, hosted by TNAU. WWF in USA, providing valuable took the initiative to develop a 12.3.2 Organic Farming information service on SRI national platform to facilitate: 1) Movements (http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu). collaborative synergies among key stakeholders, namely, The emphasis on increasing use national and state research of organic manures, institutes, agricultural recommended use of hand universities, civil society mechanical weeders as an organizations, government alternative to weedicides, and officials, and donors; 2) research making use of agrochemicals for and extension activities; 3) plant protection less necessary synthesis and sharing of and less economic has attracted information; and 4) dialogue the organic farmers all over the among stakeholders from the country towards farm level to national level. SRI.Establishments like the Organic Farmers' Association in These symposia have served Tamil Nadu, SAMBHAV in Odisha, many purposes: facilitating CIKS in Chennai, and the cross-learning, supporting the Richharia Foundation in development of networks of Chhattisgarh are actively interested individuals and groups,

153 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 12.2 Electronic support for SRI extension. Nature of Name Maintenance IP address activity SRI-India Website WWF- http://www.sri-india.net/ network providing ICRISAT

information project, on SRI Hyderabad sriindiagoogle Online SDTT SRI http://groups.google.com/group/sriindia/ group discussion Secretariat,

and sharing Bhubaneshwar information SRI-Orissa Online Odisha SRI http://groups.google.com/group/srioriss discussion Learning a/ and sharing Alliance, information Bhubaneswar SRI CSO Providing WASSAN, http://wassan.org/sri/ website information Secunderabad

on SRI SRI website Providing SDTT, SRI, http://sdtt sri.org/- information Secretariat, on SRI Bhubaneswar SRI Advance and SRI http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu international share International website knowledge Network and on SRI Resources Center (SRI- Rice), Cornell University SRI training Multimedia World Bank http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/lib website toolkit Institute rary/245848/index.html JaiSRI network Online SRI [email protected] discussion Consortium and sharing information

12.4 Policy Support from Governments

The Governments of Tamil Nadu Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, to a limited extent through the and Tripura took an early lead in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh National Food Security Mission promoting SRI on a large scale. have taken policy decisions to (NFSM). The initiatives from other State scale up SRI in their respective Governments were lukewarm for states. The Ministry of quite some time. But now, the Agriculture, Govt. of India, has state Governments of Andhra supported the promotion of SRI

154 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.4.1 Government of The Department of Agriculture cultivated paddy over a minimum India has included SRI in all existing of 50 cents of land where eligible and new programmes, like the for this award and the conditions Policy support for SRI from the Integrated Cereal Development include a minimum produce of Govt. of India has not been very Programme (ICDP) and National 2500 kg per acre. ambitious so far. The NFSM Food Security Mission (NFSM) targeted an increase in rice that focus on increasing food 12.4.3 Tripura production of about 10 million production. The NFSM project is Tripura launched a “Perspective tonnes by 2012 with an allocation being implemented in Plan for Self Sufficiency in Food of Rs. 5,000 crores. NFSM Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Grains by 2010” in 2001, about the specifically has targeted 133 Pudukottai and Namakkal same time that the first tests of districts out of the total 534 rice- districts. The farmers there are SRI suitability under Tripura producing districts in the country. given certified seeds, weeders conditions were done. In 2002, the SRI is one among the strategies and markers. During 2007-2008, first SRI trials/demonstrations in the project, and only a few SRI was demonstrated in 11,320 began with 44 farmers; the next states have actively taken up SRI ha under the ICDP by extending a year, this number was doubled. under this scheme. The subsidy of Rs. 2,000 per ha and With evident success, the number Directorate of Rice Development imparting training to 56,600 of farmers using SRI methods (DRD), Patna has been active in farmers. This contributed to the grew to 440 and 880 in the next implementing this activity. During spread of SRI on 4.2 lakh two years. The continuing good 2007-2010, 4,915 demonstrations hectares during that year, and results persuaded the state's with an allocation of 86 lakh productivity of 10 t ha-1 was political leadership to support SRI rupees were carried out. achieved by some farmers who extension to enable reaching the used the methods properly. goal of self-sufficiency. In 2005, Efforts are now on to project SRI During the kuruvai season 2008, one-third of the state's as one of the solutions towards 420 crop-cutting experiments agricultural budget was food security during the Twelfth with SRI were conducted across reallocated to SRI extension, and Five Year Plan. the state. Yields recorded in 92 under the leadership of Dr. measurements, from 25 sq.m Baharul Majumdar, the number 12.4.2 Tamil Nadu each, showed an average yield of of SRI users topped 70,000 in 7.4 t ha-1 which is nearly 40 % Realizing the need for raising 2006 - 2007 and reached about more than the state average. total rice production and 250,000 farmers within two more productivity, the TN Department years. of Agriculture has taken up an Triggered by the success, the Department has embarked on ambitious plan to promote SRI in During a midterm review, it was scaling up SRI and has set a the state. Although SRI was observed that the growth rate of target of 11 lakh hectares (about officially recommended for food production was not at a 55% of total rice area in a year) in adoption in the state by TNAU desired level to minimize the gap 2011-2012. The Department is already in the year 2003, the of food requirements for the also planning to use laser extension of the technique was state. Hence, the government levelers to help farmers achieve initially slow, owing to decided to cover at least 1 lakh ha good leveling for their SRI apprehensions surrounding the paddy area through SRI which will planting. principles of SRI. However, a increase rice production by a stream of convincing success minimum of 1 lakh tonnes by The state government has stories from farmers has enabled 2011-2012 as SRI methods were recently announced a Rupees five the scaling up of SRI adoption in adding at least 1 t ha-1 to farmers' lakh cash award to farmers the state. present production levels. registering maximum production, under SRI. Farmers who had SRI is being promoted under the

155 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Tripura State Plan and the under the Work Plan (Rice) with initiated by PRADAN in 2006), so Government of India's (GOI) a total outlay of Rs.26.7 million that a target of 1.4 million lakh Macro Management Scheme. in the 11 non-NFSM districts of hectares, 40% of the state's paddy Research has been conducted East Godavari, West Godavari, area, has been set for kharif 2012. solely under the State Plan, and Prakasam, Kurnool, Ananthapur, popularization/ adoption in fields Kadapa, Chittoor, Warangal, 12.4.6 Jharkhand Rangareddy, Nizamabad, and was done through convergence of The state Agriculture Department Karimnagar. the State Plan and the Macro has introduced an award scheme Management Scheme of GoI. for farmers to encourage them to A Consortium on SRI has been Panchayati Raj institutions have take up SRI. Under the scheme formed in the state in 2010, and been collaborating in SRI named Birsa Krishi Padam, a implementation of SRI in the demonstrations across the state, cash reward of Rs. 2 lakh will be state is in full swing now to bring more actively than in other states given to a farmer at the state level 8.5 lakh ha under SRI. The state of India. who demonstrates maximum Government has also decided to yield and carries out rice Training programmes have been set up 110 SRI Centres to reduce cultivation using SRI techniques conducted locally for all labour costs by providing on a plot measuring 4 hectares or categories of field functionaries. machinery, soil pulverisers, more. At the state level, three District-level trainers' teams transplanters, weeders, farmers will be selected for were developed through rigorous harvesters, and other second prize carrying a purse of on-farm practical and theoretical implements on hire to farmers. Rs. 1 lakh each, and 10 farmers training who have imparted The government will give 50 per for third place for a cash reward training to grass root-level field cent and 25 per cent subsidy for of Rs 50,000 each. The scheme staff. setting up SRI Centres. will be followed up at block level.

12.4.4 Andhra Pradesh 12.4.5 Bihar At the district level, the best The state Department of The State Government has taken performing farmer will be Agriculture organized its first SRI up a fast-track mode of rewarded with Birsa Krishak Deep demonstrations since 2003-2004, promoting SRI and expects to Sarvashrestha carrying a cash and a thrust had been given to cover 3.5 lakh ha of rice area reward of Rs 15,000. For this SRI promotion since rabi season under SRI management (about category, the farmer must take up 2005-2006, organizing at least 10% of the rice area of the state) rice cultivation using SRI one demonstration in every Gram during 2011-2012 through its techniques on a plot measuring Panchayat in the state. This was Rural Livelihood Programme. not less than 2 hectares. Four at the impetus of the state Probably only about half this more farmers, two each for agricultural university (ANGRAU). much area was actually brought second and third prize, will be Under the National Food Security under SRI management, but a selected for a cash reward of Rs. Mission (NFSM), 1,680 SRI combination of SRI methods and 12,000 and 10,000 each, demonstrations were targeted for good rainfall has contributed to respectively. At the block level, 2008-2009 (1,272 demonstrations a 2011 kharif harvest about best performing farmer will be for the kharif season, and 408 double the usual level, and four felicitated as BirsaKrishak Sri demonstrations for the rabi times the drought-affected 2010 Sarvashreshta along with a cash season) with a financial outlay of kharif production. The reward of Rs. 5,000. The second Rs.5.0 million @ Rs.3,000/- per government has been and third place holders will be demonstration and with financial encouraged by results and given prizes worth Rs. 3,000 and assistance of Rs. 3000/- for farmer acceptance (paddy yield Rs. 2,000 each, respectively. purchase of conoweeders. Also, averaged 8.2 t ha-1 in Gaya 4,446 one-acre demonstrations district, where SRI work was were organized during 2008-2009

156 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.4.7 Other States Table 12.3. Area to be managed under SRI methods targeted in different states In Punjab, promotion of SRI SRI area targeted started in Gurdaspur district Total rice % rice area State (lakh ha) through the Department of area (lakh ha) under SRI Agriculture's ATMA program. Tamil Nadu 20.5 11.0 53.7 The State Governments in Odisha, Uttarakhand, Tripura 2.5 1.0 40.0 Himachal Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh 37.5 8.5 22.7 Chhattisgarh have taken Andhra Pradesh 39.8 7.5 18.8 positive steps to promote SRI in their respective states. The Jharkhand 13.6 1.6 11.8 following Table 12.3 presents Bihar 32.5 3.5 10.8 the current targets to promote SRI in some of these states. Uttar Pradesh 55.8 1.5 2.7

12.5 Financial Support from Non-governmental Organizations

Financial support to promote SRI 12.5.2 WWF-ICRISAT Food and Environment' Dialogue in different parts of the country is Project Project with the International being provided by various Crop Research Institute for the WWF-supported programmes agencies like World Bank, the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in have included research to WWF-ICRISAT project, the Hyderabad. generate scientific National Bank for Agriculture and understanding of SRI principles, Rural Development (NABARD), 12.5.3 Sir Dorabji Tata initiatives to support SRI the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (SDTT), introduction in different agro- Trust (SDTT) and the Deshpande Foundation. climatic conditions, field trials SDTT began working on SRI from 2006, and SRI programme was 12.5.1 World Bank and demonstrations, farmer interaction workshops and field adopted by SDTT under its In Tamil Nadu, an amount of Rs. days, field-based resource Natural Resources and Rural 40.5 crores has been allocated in centres, media events, capacity- Livelihoods initiative. “Food the World Bank-funded building of change agents in the Security for Small and Marginal IAMWARM project for supporting government and NGOs, and Farmers” was identified as a key SRI during the period 2007- 2008 policy advocacy at state and focus area for its 2007-2012 to 2012- 2013. The programme is national levels. country programme, and Rs. being implemented both by the 10.94 crores were allocated for a state's Dept. of Agriculture and The project has funded CSO and dedicated program on SRI. the Tamil Nadu Agricultural university initiatives in Currently, SDTT is collaborating University. World Bank support Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, with 161 NGO partners in 104 for promoting SRI in other states Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, districts of 10 states (Assam, is also taking place, such as Jammu & Kashmir, and Odisha Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, through the Bihar Rural to promote SRI and has also Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Livelihood Promotion Society, provided financial assistance for Manipur, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, with an IDA (soft) loan to the state SRI-related publications. From and Uttarakhand), assisting government. 2004 to 2010 this was done in 65,000 farmers in poverty-defined conjunction with the joint 'Water, areas. SDTT has also set up a SRI

157 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI secretariat at Bhubaneshwar. been adopted. Community- Uttarakhand) through CSOs and is The Trust also supported based organizations such as also facilitating seminars and organization of the Second and Farmers' Clubs, NGOs, Primary training programmes at state and Third National Symposiums on Agriculture Cooperative national level. SRI in India in 2007 and 2008. Societies (PACS)/ Samabai During 2009-2012, it has allocated Krishi Unnayan Samity (SKUS), 12.4.5 Ministry of an additional amount of Rs 24.00 and banks have been involved in Agriculture, Govt. of India crores to assist SRI activities the process. Funds allocated by the Ministry across India, particularly in under NFSM, ICDP, RKVY and poverty-stricken areas. The approach starts with identification of an area where ATMA are being utilized for promoting SRI in some of the 12.4.4 National Bank For paddy cultivation is more states. The Directorate of Rice Agriculture and Rural concentrated and where farmers are eager to adopt new Development (DRD) in Patna has Development (NABARD) technologies. NABARD has also been supportive of SRI NABARD has taken a multi- sanctioned grants for the evaluation and dissemination. pronged approach in popularizing promotion of SRI in many states SRI technology. A combination of (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, awareness creation, capacity- Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, building methods, and results Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, demonstrations to farmers has Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and

12.6 Role of Civil Society Organizations

The role played by CSOs in in India. Dozens of other NGOs contribution in promoting SRI in promoting SRI across the country could be mentioned. rainfed areas of eastern India is is an unprecedented one, significant. especially in enhancing the 12.6.1 Professional livelihood of poor rice farmers in Assistance for A documentary film on SRI, Ek Ropa Dhan, produced by PRADAN remote and tribal areas. These Development Action organizations not only provide in Hindi language, won the Rajat (PRADAN) capacity-building services, but Kamal Award at the 58th National also give technical support and PRADAN started promoting SRI Film Awards (2010) under the back-up by stationing village- in 2003 in Purulia district of 'best promotional film' category level extension functionaries. A West Bengal with 4 families. given by Union Information and large number of CSOs are actively This number grew to 39,614 Broadcasting Ministry with the involved in promoting SRI in farmers in eight states by 2010. citation: “A succinct and well- different states (Table 12.4). One In 2008, 44% of the farmers researched film that looks closely of the major extension support being assisted by PRADAN staff at an innovation in the farming of -1 activities by the CSOs is creating in Purulia harvested 6-8 t ha rice. The film engages local cadres to guide farmers in yield and 24% harvested 8-10 t successfully with the issue and -1 adopting SRI. We cannot list all of ha yield. PRADAN is now makes a strong case for the the NGOs that have taken up SRI supporting SRI activities going promotion of the practice called in their programs, so this on in Assam, Bihar, Ek Ropa Dhan'. PRADAN has also discussion is intended to be Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, supported the work of the illustrative of the reach and Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and National SRI Consortium in New activities of CSOs promoting SRI West Bengal. PRADAN's Delhi.

158 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.6.2 Watershed and in other countries. More in 40 paddy farms in 25 villages of Support Services and important, it has become a UK (Dehradun, Rudraprayag and Tehri-Garhwal districts) and HP Activities Network resource centre on SRI by providing information in the (Kangra district), seeking to study (WASSAN) public domain also to states its potential. The results showed Watershed Support Services and outside Andhra Pradesh. an average increase of about 66 Activities Network (WASSAN) has WASSAN is also playing a key per cent in paddy yields from the undertaken responsibility role in the AP-SRI Consortium SRI plots compared to the particularly for experimenting activities. conventional plots. PSI began with SRI in rainfed conditions in organizing capacity-building Andhra Pradesh. WASSAN, in 12.6.3 Peoples' Science workshops and district-level close collaboration with WWF, Institute (PSI) experience-sharing workshops. has been in the forefront in The mountain states of advocating and propagating of SRI Uttarakhand (UK) and Himachal and has been conducting training Pradesh (HP) are characterized programmes for trainers and by inaccessibility, fragility, farmers in Andhra Pradesh, marginality, and diversity. In Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, 2006, SRI was introduced by PSI

Table 12.4 List of CSOs involved in promoting SRI in different state s

No State Key civil society organizations in SRI

1 Andhra Pradesh WASSAN, CROPS, Nava Jyothi, CWS, Timbaktu Collective, Jalaspandana, AME Foundation

2 Assam Rashtriya Gramin Vikas Nidhi, NEST, Gramin Sahara, Gramya Vikas Mancho, PRADAN, North East Centre for Rural Livelihood Research

3 Bihar PRADAN, Indian Gramin Services, ASA.

4 Chhattisgarh Richaria Campaign, Choupal, PRADAN, CARMDAKSH,

5 Gujarat BAIF Development Research Foundation, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP)

6 Himachal Peoples’ Science Institute (PSI) through its partners

7 Jharkhand PRADAN, Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development (SPWD), Collectives for Integrated Livelihood Initiatives(CInI), NEEDS, Jan Seva Parishad, ,

8 Karnataka AMEF, Green Foundation, Srijan, Deshpande Foundation

9 Kerala Rural Agency for Social and Technological Advancement (RASTA)

159 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 12.4 List of CSOs involved in promoting SRI in different state s

No State Key civil society organizations in SRI

10 Madhya Pradesh ASA, Bypass, PRADAN

11 Maharashtra BAIF Development Research Foundation, Rural Communes, Amhi Amcha Arogyasathi.

12 Manipur Rongmei Naga Baptist Association (RNBA), Rural Aids Support, PRDA

13 Odisha Centre for World Solidarity (CWS), Sahabhagi Vikas Abhiyan, PRADAN, , Sambhav, Rishikulya Raitha Sabha, Karrtabya, PRAGATI

14 Tamil Nadu MSSRF, AME Foundation , Centre For Ecology and Research,Vaanghai, Ekoventure, Kudumbam, CCD, Sri Sadada Ashram, CIKS, Farmers' networks of Murugamangalam, Tamilaga Velaan Neervala Niruvanam

15 Uttar Pradesh Development Centre for Alternative Policies (DCAP)

16 Uttarakhand PSI and its partners, Garhwal Vikas Kendra, Mount Valley Development Association (MVDA)

17 West Bengal PRADAN, Ambuja Cement Foundation, PRASARI, Baradrone Social Welfare Institution, International Development Enterprises India (IDEI)

The results in 2006 showed that in HP, the average productivity of paddy went up from 3. 2 t ha-1 to 5.0 t ha-1 (56% increase). In UK, the average yield jumped about 77% from 3.1 t ha-1 to 5.5 t ha-1. The results from 2007 showed that while the non-SRI yields stood close to 2.8-2.9 t ha-1, the SRI yields were around 5.3-5.5 t ha-1, an average increase of 89%. Over 15,000 farmers were practicing SRI in 2008 from the modest beginning of 40 made in 2006 – an achievement that indicates as much about the strength of PSI as about its network partners.

12.6.4 Agriculture-Man- out new practices, particularly in cultivated in medium black soils. Ecology Foundation Andhra Pradesh. AMEF seriously AMEF has already promoted SRI (AMEF) started promoting SRI in paddy practices among more than 7,000 during the year 2008-2009, with farmers across three states. AME Foundation has been the support of Deshpande AMEF is also helping farmers to promoting System of Rice Foundation and WWF-ICRISAT apply SRI principles in ragi and Intensification (SRI) in its project. While in its Andhra redgram crops. operational areas in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu working Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and areas, paddy is sown under Karnataka. In 2004-2005, AMEF irrigated conditions, AMEF had a started promoting SRI only with unique challenge of promoting those farmers who expressed SRI under rainfed conditions in interest and were willing to try Dharwad area where paddy is

160 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.7 Research Institution Support

The involvement of established l A dialogue on SRI with the Agriculture and Food Production, agricultural research institutes of Hon'ble Chief Minister, Government of Odisha, Oxfam the country on SRI has been very politicians, scientists, Eastern Region, World Wide Fund limited even now. Active roles farmers and media jointly for Nature (WWF), Dialogue have been played by TNAU, organized with WWF-ICRISAT Project on Water, Food and ANGRAU, and DRR. in November, 2005, and Environment, the Odisha explanation of SRI to visiting Resource Centre of the Centre for 12.7.1 Tamil Nadu US President George W. Bush World Solidarity (CWS), Sambhav, Agricultural University in March 2006. and the Xavier Institute of (TNAU) l With the support of WWF- Management, Bhubaneswar ICRISAT, ANGRAU has (XIMB). TNAU was the first institution in produced 5,000 SRI manuals, India to take up research on SRI 10,000 booklets (5000 each in The 'learning alliance' approach and has been actively involved in English and Telugu), 2,000 emphasises the processes of up-scaling it in the State through copies of farmers' innovation, and involves collective the World Bank-funded TN- experiences, and 100 CDs on learning by research IAMWARM project. The activities SRI cultivation. organisations, donor agencies, are presented separately as a policy makers, civil society l ANGRAU has also success story below. organisations, and even private collaborated with print media businesses. The alliances enable and television channels in 12.7.2 Acharya N.G. participants to learn across popularizing SRI. Ranga Agricultural organisational and geographical l ANGRAU organized the first University (ANGRAU) boundaries and provide vehicles National Symposium on SRI for collaboration and sharing of SRI evaluation was introduced in jointly with Directorate of Rice knowledge about approaches, Andhra Pradesh in kharif 2003 in Research (DRR-ICAR) and methods and policies that work, all 22 districts of the state by the WWF. and those that do not. By ANGRAU Director of Extension, l Conducted state-level three- improving the flows of information Dr. A. Satyanarayana. Since 2003, day workshop on 'SRI and knowledge, these multi- ANGRAU has taken several Implements' involving 50 stakeholder platforms help to initiatives to promote SRI in farmers and entrepreneurs. speed up the process of Andhra Pradesh: identifying and developing innovations, and ensuring their ·National-level training 12.7.3 Xavier Institute of adoption by farmers. programme on SRI for Nodal Management, Officers of Department of Bhubaneswar (XIMB) Agriculture from various states of 12.7.4 Directorate of Rice XIMB has been playing a key role Research (DRR) the country in 2004. in the SRI up-scaling process l 250 front-line demonstrations through Professor C. Shambu This ICAR institute has taken up of SRI. Prasad by actively participating research at station level and l Farmer workshops on SRI. in online discussions, multi-location level to evaluate SRI and provided support for l Collaborative programmes establishment of SRI Learning organizing seminars on SRI with with WWF-ICRISAT, in Alliance in Odisha, publications, support from the WWF-ICRISAT promoting SRI and organizing and supporting the National program. DRR's initiative to farmers meet. Consortium on SRI. The partners of the Learning organize trainings on SRI helped Alliance are the Directorate of promotion of SRI in other states.

161 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.8 Scaling up of SRI in Tamil Nadu Through TN-Iamwarm Project - A Success Story

The Tamil Nadu Irrigated 12.8.2 Augmenting personnel from all the line Agriculture Modernization and Political and departments was designed, so Water Bodies Restoration and Administrative Support farmer's queries could be Management, known briefly as answered on the spot. l Field visits were organized for TN-IAMWARM, a unique World l Gramasabha meetings were the Hon'ble Agricultural Bank-funded project, was conducted at village Minister, Members of introduced during 2007-2008. It panchayats as a platform to Legislative Assembly, has provided an ambient platform propagate SRI technologies Secretaries to the Govt., other for the large-scale demonstration and as a medium to consult Govt. officials to see the of SRI with technical and financial with the farmers to upgrade success of SRI in the field. assistance and awareness the technology. creation in Tamil Nadu. SRI has l Workshops were held at l At various important stages of been implemented in 50 river Coimbatore and Madurai to crop growth and cultural sub-basins through this project, sensitize District Collectors operations, i.e., square and an area of 7,892 ha under SRI and officials for effective transplanting using markers, was covered from 2007 to 2010 implementation of SRI. (Pandian, 2010). The mechanical weeding, and l Field days were organized implementation of SRI in the harvesting, field days were with VIPs' participation at the project involved several strategies organized by gathering demonstration sites to get the and steps that ensured spread of neighbouring farmers. exclusive attention of SRI in the state. l A comprehensive book on SRI administrators and policy in self-learning mode and a makers as such events handbook manual were 12.8.1 Capacity Building attracted press coverage. published to help the farmers. l Training of farmers on the A video film on SRI know-how for applying SRI 12.8.3 Knowledge l was prepared and distributed. principles. Disposal and Sharing Short versions were shown in l Training of farm labourers in l Trained Research Fellows cinema theatres. The films SRI operations to create skills. were stationed in villages to were displayed during night l Training of rural artisans on interact with farmers and meetings in the villages. the production and servicing of provide backstopping. weeders and markers to l On All-India Radio (AIR), 12.8.4 Publicity ensure their timely supply and Trichy, a programme for l In order to attract passing-by availability. farmers was broadcast in farmers, unique flags were l Farmers were taken to Tamil language for 13 weeks installed in SRI fields. successful SRI farmers' field in 2009 called 'Orunellu l To boost the self-confidence of as exposure visits as the Orunathu' (Single seed, farmers, greetings were sent to fundamental tool to get first- Single seedling). farmers with the message of hand information on SRI, even l Wall paintings and hoardings SRI on the occasion of Pongal before the commencement of were installed in strategic (Tamilar Thirunal). the season where they were locations. given with training also. l In leading dailies, FM stations, l Mobile campaigning (TN- Interaction with lead farmers and over All- India Radio (AIR), IAMWARM on Wheels) had helped the others to know the advertisements were given greater impact, and a practical problems and ways to regarding SRI. propaganda van with solve them.

162 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.8.5 Community which was registered as a 12.8.6 Monitoring recognized society. A large Involvement l Monitoring Committees were number of rice-growing l established to oversee the Local people's representatives farmers from various implementation of SRI, and like WUA presidents and districts of Tamil Nadu visited their reports were discussed panchayat presidents were Thumbal to understand and during workshops with roped in for the demonstration experience SRI at field level. and publicity processes. personnel who were involved in l Facilitated the Ponnaiyar l promoting SRI. The 'community nursery' sub-basin farmers of concept was introduced to Pillekothur village, share land and water Krishnagiri, to register resources. another association as l Facilitation of the formation of 'Water-Saving Farmers' the 'Thumbal Semmai Nel Association' and linking them Sagupadi Farmers Association' with NABARD.

12.9 SRI Adoption in India

Adoption of SRI by a farmer for the first time requires a lot of motivation, and continued adoption depends upon several factors (Table 12.5). Table 12.5 Factors affecting adoption of SRI by farmers

Main factors Subsidiary factor s Impact

Motivation Self-interest Attitude Land ownership Land size Soil fertility Farm-level Labour availability conditions Labourers' mindset Capital Water availability Organic manure availability Adoption Tools availability Variations Tangible benefits Disadoption Sustained adoption Research support Training Technical Exposure interventions Technical backstopping Regular follow-up Determination Specific programmes Policy support Subsidies / incentives Irrigation water supply regulation Monitoring mechanisms

Cases of disadoption have been reported. How to help farmers to overcome the difficulties faced by them in this regard is a real challenge in SRI extension.

163 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Variations in Adopting farmers, for greatest success, to adopt all of the principles as SRI Principles need to be more disciplined than recommended. Even a single farmers cultivating in principle of SRI introduced in the It has been well recognized that conventional manner and to be farmers' practice can have the full potential of SRI is able to visit their fields more positive influence on the crop realized only when all the six often than they are used to doing. performance and benefit the principles are followed properly. farmer. Thus, some amount of However, due to various reasons, Although adopting all of the six flexibility in the SRI practices there are considerable variations principles of SRI brings should be accepted (Table 12.7). in the practices when adopting maximum benefits, contingent However, farmers should realize the principles (Table 12.6). These situations at the farmer and field that they should try to adopt all variations are to be accepted level due to limited availability of the SRI principles if they want to because they still have SRI water, labour constraints, no derive the full benefit of SRI. effects even if not to the full access to implements, etc. or extent possible. SRI practices are little water control can come in best followed more faithfully with the way of fully adopting the limited flexibilities and in a timely principles. way to get the full benefits compared with conventional Farmers should be encouraged practices which have a lot of to adopt SRI to the extent that flexibilities (Table 12.7). Thus, SRI they can, even if they are not able

Table 12.6 Variations in adopting the principles of SRI

Principle Recommended practice Variations

Young seedlings 8-14 day-old seedlings, not Direct seeding beyond the 3-leaf stage Conventionally-raised older seedlings Lower plant density and Single seedlings per hill in a More than 1 seedling wider spacing square pattern at 25 x 25 cm Only wider row spacing spacing but narrow within-row spacing

Keep the soil moist and not Irrigate a thin layer of water Flood irrigation continuously flooded (2 cm) after hairline cracks No possibility to drain form on the soil, and no water stress after flowering

Intercultivation Use weeder preferably at 10 One-direction use only 12 day intervals after 1 time only planting; 3-4 times in both Late timing directions

More organic manures Use of available cattle Only chemical manures, green manures, fertilizers and biofertilizers Minimum use of organic sources

164 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 12.7 Flexibility in adopting SRI practices Flexibility in farmers’ Flexibility in SRI practice

Seedling age • 25 – 45 days • 10 – 15 days • Sometimes seedlings of • Up to3-leaf stage 60 days old are planted • If temperatures are cold, due to contingent somewhat older seedlings situations can still be 'young' in biological terms

Spacing (cm) • Usually random • 20-30 cm • If soil is fertile, even wider spacing may give higher yield; spacing is to be optimized for local conditions and variety, so this requires farmer experimentation

Number of hills per sq.m • 50 - 100 • 10 - 22

Number of seedlings per hill • 3 - 6 • 1 is best if soil is reasonably fertile • 2 seedlings when crop establishment is not certain, or when soil is less fertile

Irrigation • Keep the field flooded • Keeping the soil just when water is available moist • Where water control is difficult, draining is not feasible; so soil should be kept as aerobic as possible

Intercultivation • Not practiced • 2 – 4 times depending upon availability of labour and mechanical weeders

Organic manures • Not applied at all • No specified quantity • Available sources is recommended, but utilized emphasis is on • Unspecified quantity applying more applied organic manure • Gradual replacement of chemical fertilizers is expected, to improve soil structure and functioning

165 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI The following map (Figure 12.1) shows the districts in the country where SRI has been introduced and adopted by about 250,000 farmers to date. Some estimated put the number at 600,000-800,000.

Figure 12.1 Map of India showing the districts where SRI is known and being practiced (the map is not to scale and is not indicative of the area under SRI)

166 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.10 Constraints in Adopting SRI

Throughout history, humankind 4 weeks will raise the l Potential pest attacks due to has been resistant to change and confidence limits, especially lush growth of the crop. to the acceptance of new ideas. after considering how much this SRI is no exception. Farmers' can raise farmers' net income, 12.10.2 Extension Agency acceptance is subject to the getting more yield with less Level profitability of SRI cultivation expenditure. From the next SRI l Little allocation of time for which could be understood very crop on, he will start adjusting direct contact with farmers well. SRI has taken roots most the practices to suit his (or her) which is important to get an successfully in several parts of convenience and become a innovation understood and the country. Adoption has been successful SRI farmer. started. slow in many areas, and the reasons for this could be traced Yet, not all farmers get easily l Need for frequent visits to out. These are listed below. convinced to try SRI, and those monitor the implementation. who practice it can also face l Lack of technical knowledge to 12.10.1 Farmer Level problems. So, there will be full give effective technical support. adoption, partial adoption, no- To the farmer who has been adoption, and even disadoption. cultivating rice for decades, if it is 12.10.3 Government advocated that only 5-7.5 kg seed l SRI demands more personal Level be used per hectare; that attention and constant l Inadequate understanding of seedlings be only 10-14 days old; involvement. Farmers who this opportunity to ensure that seedlings be planted only one could not afford to take rice- national and household food per hill; that hills be spaced in a growing seriously and invest security through SRI. square pattern 25 cm apart themselves in their crop shun l Lack of sense of urgency in instead of in rows; that a SRI. mechanical weeder be used in adopting water-saving l Apprehensions about the new preference to hand weeding or methods for the agricultural way of raising seedlings, herbicides; and that the field not sector. handling young seedlings, be kept continuously flooded, the l Poor operation and and square planting need to immediate reaction will be maintenance of irrigation be overcome by seeing the disbelief! facilities that would enable results. farmers to get higher yields Thus, it is imperative to convince l Resistance of contract with less application of water. the farmer of the merits of these labourers for planting in the Farmers can make SRI different changes in age-old SRI mode can be a problem, succeed with less water, but practices first by showing and as they either perceive this as this supply needs to be reliable explaining. So, demonstrations more laborious or do not like and controllable. and trainings are a must. The the idea of their making more l Prevailing mentality that farmer should be gotten to try SRI income for their employers agricultural improvement is a in a small part of his rice area, without themselves getting a matter of providing more, new adopting SRI principles properly. larger share of the benefit. and better inputs, rather than Although the impression that the l Labour scarcity for patiently and knowledgeably field makes on everyone transplanting at critical time. improving farmers' immediately after planting, l Perceived drudgery of using understanding of better looking muddy and bare, will be the mechanical weeder, agronomic practice. shocking, the subsequent although some consider it a booming growth of tillers after 3- boon.

167 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 12.11 Constraints in Adopting the Principles

The principles of SRI, viz., in carrying out square seedlings for more than a younger seedlings, wider spacing, planting. week, they will die. Indeed, this square planting, weeder use, l When using a rope for is true. Where there is seedling minimized water use, and more spacing, frequent bending mortality, a new batch of application of organic manures, over for every shift of the rope seedling can be raised within are all important, but farmers can is said to be a negative issue 10 days, giving more flexibility face some problems in adopting with labourers in some areas. than when 25-30 day seedlings the respective principles. When a roller-marker or rake are used. is used, this problem will go l Planting seedlings with their Using Younger Seedlings away because with one bend roots not thrust straight down l Farmers who depend on tanks they can plant several hills at into the soil (making the root for main field irrigation being a time. profile like a J with the root tip monsoon-dependent could not l Markers are not known to pointed upwards) is not carried start their SRI nursery if water some farmers, and they are out in general. Learning to slip is not available for planting often not easily available. a seedling in horizontally, with a root profile like an L and with young seedlings. l Field conditions should be a root tip ready to resume l Lack of faith and poor such that grid lines made by downward growth, with little understanding of how to the marker do not fade away transplanting shock, takes a prepare raised beds for a due to standing water. If the little time to learn. nursery. muddy field cannot hold the l Planting the seedling along the l Sometimes the seedling lines marked, it is too wet. So soil attached to the roots is felt growth in the raised-bed the marker is a good indicator difficult at first. Getting easy- nursery is poor due to less of optimum timing for to-manage nursery soil that fertile soil being used in the transplanting operations. permits separation of plants bed. l When planting is done on a while retaining soil around the l Seedlings can get scorched contract basis (per acre), roots can take some after a week if undecomposed labourers prefer to finish the experimentation. manure is used in the nursery planting quickly, and they can bed. feel that separating out single Water Control seedlings to transplant takes l Improper use of fertilizer to time. For SRI boost the growth of the l Inadequate structures to seedlings can also lead to l Handling the young seedlings control water supply, especially mortality. is awkward for some as they are reluctant to push the for draining excess water. Transplanting for SRI delicate little plants into the l l Discontinuous or unreliable The immediate concern of a soil. They need to learn how availability of irrigation water farmer when told to have only hardy rice plants (grasses) also encourages farmers to 16 plants per sq.m will be can be if they have a suitable flood their fields when it is whether there will be sufficient soil environment to grow in. tillers. This apprehension will available. l Mortality of single seedlings be warded off when he sees occurs in low-lying patches of l the field after 3 - 4 weeks. In areas of cascade (field-to- improperly-leveled fields. field) irrigation, water control is l Where there is labour scarcity, l Farmers feel that if heavy difficult as individual paddies the mindset of the labourers rains submerge the young do not have their own supply seems to be the main problem from a canal system.

168 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI l Young seedlings face In a study conducted by Rao et Scaling up SRI in the Timbuktu establishment problems due to al. (2007), the items perceived as region of Mali showed that the flooding if caught in monsoon driving forces for adopting SRI implementation processes and rains. were: higher grain yield (83%), approaches depended on: (i) low seed rate (81%) water technical adaptation of SRI l Seepage water near an saving (81%), more number of practices to the Timbuktu irrigation source can prevent productive tillers (80%), reduced environment, (ii) farmers' and farmers from having unflooded pest and diseases (79%), technicians' know-how of the SRI water situation in their suitability for seed technical requirements, (iii) paddies. multiplication (78%), higher collaboration with the government grain weight (47%), and good extension and research agencies, Intercultivation with quality grain (29%). The items and (iv) the funding level. SRI Weeder that were perceived as practices induced a dramatic shift restraining forces in adopting in the perception and l If one labourer has to do the SRI were: drudgery in weeding understanding of how to achieve entire operation (with 25 x 25 (90%), difficulty in transplanting sustainable and productive rice cm spacing creating four rows young seedlings (81%), difficulty cropping systems, stimulating per meter width) to in alternate wetting and drying farmers and technicians to initiate weed/aerate 1 hectare, he has of the field (58%), non- a series of innovations inspired by to walk 40 km to cover one availability of organic manures the SRI system (Styger et al. direction, and 80 km to do (51%), requirement of skilled 2011). weeding in both directions. labour (46%), and no suitable l Heavy weeders (like agricultural implements (45%). conoweeder) can cause shoulder pain, especially when 12.12 Constraints in Scaling up just beginning with a new, The scaling up of SRI in the operating delivery mechanism unfamiliar implement. country has been largely the comprising of several approaches l Weeders are often not easily result of efforts of certain as explained in the TN-IAMWARM available to the farmers. individuals and agencies who project success story. could visualize the potential of l Some of the existing weeders SRI for addressing the Most people, including scientists, do not work well in certain soil contemporary issues in rice understand the effects of SRI only conditions and get stuck or cultivation. when they see the crop growth in clogged with weeds. Weeder the field. Only those farmers who design should be appropriate In spite of the efforts of some are convinced of the advantages to field conditions. state Agricultural Departments will practice it. Thus, exposing and several CSOs, and the farmers to SRI crops in the field is l Difficulties in drafting labour assured advantages of SRI essential. for weeder operations. cultivation, rapid spread has yet to take place due to the A mechanism for raising a battery l In some deltaic areas, the following constraints: of master trainers and providing common weed Cyperus technical support at the village rotundus poses a particular Inadequate Knowledge level are crucial. These resource problem as it is not readily Exposure persons should have a thorough controlled by weeders, and understanding of SRI principles Although it would appear simple manual weeding has to be and practices and also be able to to explain SRI principles, getting resorted to. facilitate required support. Lack of farmers to adopt them requires such a system is one of the major a well-conceived and reliably-

169 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI constraints in scaling up. pivotal for SRI spread. A number adoption. Proactive state of types of weeders are Governments like Tamil Nadu, Educating farmers to know that forthcoming through innovative Andhra Pradesh, Tripura, Bihar, rice crops do not require flood ideas. and Jharkhand have allocated water is important to minimize funds for proper scaling up of SRI. water use for rice cultivation. SRI Availability of weeders is a However, a serious national requires different skills in nursery particular problem faced by initiative is still pending. raising, transplanting, weeding, many farmers, and lack of and water management. Thus, access prevents them from training and exposing farmers executing the operations at the and labourers to SRI ideas and appropriate time. Sometimes, demonstrations is essential. the available weeders are not suitable for the farmers' field Inadequate Availability of conditions, so getting better SRI Tools designs and the available supply of suitably designed and well- The weeder has become an built weeders is a priority. essential tool in SRI cultivation as it reduces labour requirements Policy Support for weeding besides having measurable and observable Lack of adequate policy and positive effects on the crop due to financial support from the intercultivation. To enable Governments is one of the major square planting, markers are also constraints for scaling up SRI very handy. Thus, the availability adoption as the efforts of CSOs of these two tools has become alone cannot achieve large-scale

12.13 Summary

The System of Rice transplanting the seedlings, necessary that the extension Intensification (SRI) is now known weeding, irrigation, and using personnel have a good knowledge in many rice-growing countries organic and inorganic sources of of the principles and practices of and in most of the rice-growing nutrients to amend the soil. SRI SRI. The farmers have to states in India. This new method also has these practices, but how understand the theoretical basis of cultivation is not easy to follow these are done with respect to of the principles and also have by a farmer just from hearing the basic principles is where the hands-on training and exposure to about it. Systematic exposure is big difference lies. Thus, unless carry out the different practices, essential to fully understand the farmers are educated thoroughly viz., raising a special nursery, principles involved and the about SRI, they are bound to face using a marker, planting single procedures to be followed. The problems in adopting it, in spite seedlings, using the weeder for six principles of SRI are to be of the proven fact that SRI brings intercultivation, and controlled followed fully to derive all the in numerous advantages to irrigation. Failure to understand potential benefits of SRI ensure the profitability of rice these will lead to lack of interest cultivation. cultivation. and fear of unsuccessful adoption.

Conventional rice cultivation In all the SRI extension under irrigated conditions programmes, whether of includes growing a nursery, government or NGOs, it is

170 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 13 RICE MARKETING

Being the main staple for people Table 13.1 Main Rice-Exporting and Rice-Importing Countries in the rice-growing regions, rice Rice-Exporting Rice-Importing is primarily produced for Countries Countries domestic consumption. International rice trade is USA Nigeria estimated between 25 and 27 India Bangladesh million tonnes per year, which corresponds to only 5-6 percent China South Africa of world production. This makes Thailand Japan the international rice market one of the smallest in the world, Pakistan Brazil compared to other grain markets such as wheat (113 million Vietnam Malaysia tonnes) and corn (80 million becoming more important export India have been fluctuating tonnes). destinations. between 1.4 million tonnes and Besides the traditional main 6.65 million tonnes. In 2008, only Global rice exports increased exporters, a relatively important 2.5 million tonnes were exported considerably after 1993, and but still limited part of the rice (http://beta.irri.org/ USDA data). reached a peak of 31.8 million that is traded worldwide comes Government policies like banning tonnes in 2006. Export of milled from certain developed countries the export of non-basmati rice, rice from India was a mere 0.5 in Mediterranean Europe and and local production and demand million tonnes in 1989, but it from the United States. dynamics affect the level of rice reached 6.7 million tonnes exports. There are two major reasons during 2001 (Fig 13.1). During the behind this: new food habits in last decade, rice exports from the more developed countries themselves are affecting demand 35.0 for rice, and new market niches are opening up in developing 30.0 World countries India (http://www.unctad.org/infocom 25.0 m/anglais/rice/ecopolicies.htm). 20.0 onnes t

Thailand, Vietnam, India and 15.0 Pakistan are the main exporters internationally (Table 13.1). The Million 10.0 major rice markets are shifting now from Mediterranean Europe 5.0 and the US, to West Asia. In 0.0 Africa and Latin America,

consumption is expanding more 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 rapidly than domestic production, so these countries are also Figure 13.1 Global and Indian milled rice exports from 1988 to 2008. Source: http://beta.irri.org/USDA

171 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Globally, the quantity of milled rice exported during 2008 was 24.1 million tonnes, out of the 459 million tonnes produced during that year, just 5.2%. The export of milled rice from India during 2008 was just 2.47 million tonnes (Table 13.2), while the production was 89 million tonnes; so exports were 2.8% of production. During that year, total agricultural exports from India were US$ 17,307 million, and cereal exports of US$ 3,493 million constituted about 20% of the total.

Various rice commodities like rice bran oil, broken rice, fermented beverages, and rice flour are also traded internationally, but there has been no significant contribution from India.

Table 13.2. Rice commodity exports in the world and India during 2008. World India Rice commodity Quantity Value Quantity Value (tonnes) (1000 $) (tonnes) (1000 $) Ric e -milled 24,131,474 16,637,798 2,474,250 2,577,400 Broken rice 2,281,999 1,057,800 2,306 425 Rice - paddy 1,992,392 872,525 11,473 4,447 Rice - husked 1,425,501 923,815 260 57 Rice flour 44,308 36,150 0 0 Rice bran oil 25,868 34,273 0 0 Rice fermented beverages 12,583 75,511 NA NA

Source : FAOSTAT, May 2011

The global rice export market is protect their producers from quality features, i.e.,pleasant highly concentrated with lower-priced imports. The small aroma, superfine grains, and contributions from Thailand amount of rice traded, relative to extreme grain elongation. About (30%), Vietnam (18%), United the amount produced, provides two-thirds of the basmati rice States (12%), Pakistan (10%), potential for highly variable produced in India is exported. China (8%), India (4%), and others world prices, resulting primarily (18%). The quality of the rice also from shifts in exportable supplies plays a role in the market shares. in the major exporting countries The share of global rice trade by and/or domestic production the type of rice is japonica (10%), shortfalls in the large consuming glutinous (5%), indica (75%), and countries (Paggi and Yamazaki aromatic (10%). 2001).

Government policies also add to Thailand, India and U.S.A. are the world price variability. only countries making parboiled Governments in developing Asian rice and exporting it. Thailand, countries seek to ensure Vietnam and India are also adequate rice supplies at low exporting 100% broken rice. prices for consumers, and Basmati rice is fetching a good higher-income Asian countries export price in the international (Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea) markets for its three district

172 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 13.1 Traditional Rice Varieties and Reported Health Benefits

The rich biodiversity in India is Traditional rice varieties In China, red rice is used for reflected in its rice genetic combine several good eating preparing vinegar, tart, resources. According to Dr. qualities, and there are some cosmetics, red kojic, and red rice Richharia, 400,000 varieties of special quality rices that can yeast. The latter, used for rice existed in India during the fetch a premium price in the medicinal purposes, is prepared Vedic period, and he estimated domestic as well as by fermenting the yeast Monascus that 200,000 varieties of rice still international markets. An array purpurea over red rice. It is said existed in India. The beginning of of such rice varieties are to promote better blood a rice breeding programme in available in different parts of the circulation and is used in treating India in 1911 exploited pure line country which can be grown in upset stomach, indigestion, selection initially. It was followed various seasons and in different bruised muscles, and hangovers. with an inter-breeding agro-climatic conditions. It is also a cholesterol-lowering programme between japonicas Traditional varieties with special product that is commercially and indicas. Introduction of aroma, medicinal values, marketed the world over. Red rice dwarf high-yielding varieties led nutritional values, and suitability in Japan is used for preparation of to a hybridization programme for special preparations, etc. are red sake, colored noodles, and between semi-dwarf Taiwanese still available and grown in cakes for ceremonial occasions. types or derivatives and certain limited areas. Some of these In Sri Lanka, red rices are a indica varieties. A research varieties also have religious and favorite as food, and some are programme was initiated during cultural significance. used as medicines. 1970 to develop hybrid rice varieties in the country, and some Some of the traditional varieties Black rice is full of antioxidant- of these have been developed and have been preferred for value- rich bran, which is found in the are being promoted. addition processing, e.g., rice outer layer that gets removed flakes, popped rice, rice during the milling process to The introduction and spread of noodles, rice-based snacks, etc. make white rice. Black-rice bran high-yielding varieties saw the Glutinous rice is used in making contains the antioxidants known erosion of traditional varieties puttu in South India. In Himachal as anthocyanins, purple and from large areas of India; but Pradesh, Jatu red rice is prized reddish pigments, also found in some are still being cultivated for its aroma and taste. Matali blueberries, grapes, and acai. because they enjoy consumer and Lal dhan of Himachal These have been linked to a preference and often have Pradesh are used for curing high decreased risk of heart disease specialized uses such as at blood pressure and fever. and cancer, improvements in weddings or other occasions. Kafalya from the hills of memory, and other health With awareness on organic Himachal Pradesh and Uttar benefits. One spoonful of black- farming and health Pradesh is used for treating rice bran - or 10 spoonfuls of consciousness, there is a growing leucorrhea and abortion cooked black rice –will contain interest in traditional varieties, complications. Kari kagga and the same amount of anthocyanin especially of those varieties Atikaya of Karnataka are used as a spoonful of fresh having special qualities for for coolness and as tonic, while blueberries, according to a new consumption and special Neelam samba is used for study presented at the American ceremonial or medicinal uses. lactating mothers in Tamil Nadu Chemical Society in Boston (Angusamy et al. 2001). (http://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEA LTH/08/26/black.rice.new.brown/)

173 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI .\In India, red rices have occupied properties. Traditional varieties selling these in supermarkets all a special positionfor many ages. such as basmati have a low across the U.S. (3,500 outlets, The founding fathers of ancient glycemic index and are useful in nationally). Consumers in the Ayurveda – Susruta (c. 400 BC), weight-reducing diets. Rice- U.S. are willing to pay about $4 for Charaka (c. 700 BC), and based oral rehydration solutions 15-ounce packets of these high Vagbhata (c. 700 AD) – refer to the (ORS) are reported to be better quality rices. Kalajeera rice offers medicinal value of shali, vrihi, and than glucose-based ORS, and renowned quality (aroma, taste, shastika rices, and they list the have been included in World elegance). There are surely a good rices according to their relative Health Organization number of indigenous Indian medicinal value, with the most recommendations (Uma et al. varieties that are quite superior useful type at the top of the list. 2008). (Uphoff, personal communication). Ancient Ayurvedic treatises laud If such traditional rice varieties the Raktashali red rice as a with special qualities are There are probably hundreds of nutritivefood and medicine. The marketed internally and rice varieties having special medicinal value of other rices internationally, there will be a qualities that are not known such as Sashtika, Sali, and huge demand. What is required widely. Thanks to the efforts of parched rice have been is proper awareness, production many NGOs and individuals, these documented in the Charaka strategies, and appropriate are coming into the open. From Samhita (c. 700 BC) and the market mechanisms. Already an effort to compile a list of such Susruta Samhita (c. 400 BC). They some market has been created varieties in India, details of 25 were used for treatment of for such varieties, especially for varieties are given in Table 13.3. various ailments such as those varieties having medicinal diarrhea, vomiting, fever, values. Most organic rice hemorrhage, chest pain, wounds, farmers grow some of these and burns. Even today, certain traditional varieties. Many NGOs rice varieties with medicinal value are also involved in conserving are used in Karnataka, Madhya and promoting traditional Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, varieties. The Centre for Uttar Pradesh, the Western Indigenous Knowledge Systems Ghats, and Himachal Pradesh to (CIKS) in Tamil Nadu, SAMBHAV treat skin diseases, blood in Odisha, and the Richharia pressure, fever, paralysis, Foundation in Chhattisgarh are a rheumatism, and leucorrhea, as few examples of such NGOs well as a health tonic and for among others. lactation. A marketing company in the USA, The famous Nivara rice of Kerala Lotus Foods of San Francisco, is widely employed in Ayurvedic California, is importing practice as a body-enriching item, 'specialty' (indigenous, to exclude toxins and delay organically-grown, fair-traded) premature ageing. Colored rices rices from several countries, (black and red) are rich in e.g., Kalajeera which is grown in minerals (iron and zinc) and eastern state of India, and is polyphenols and have antioxidant

174 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Table 13.3 List of some traditional specialty varieties in India

S.No. Name of the variety Specialty Areas of cultivation

1 Alur Sanna Tasty, suitable for porridge, good Hosagadde, Nada Kalasi, cooking quality Talaguppa – Shimoga district, Karnataka

2 Chennellu Non-scented. Red grain type used Kerala for treatment of diarrhea and vomiting. Red type given to patients recovering from jaundice

3 Chittaga Sweet rice, used for preparation Konjawalli, Mandavalli of cattle medicine - Karnataka

4 Doobraj Scented and tasty Chuhi, Bara, Dalkojageer – Madya Pradesh

5 Hakkala Kari Medicinal value for fever Moogalihaal, Karnataka Saalai

6 Hansraj Excellent aroma, very good eating Plains districts of and cooking qualities Utterakhand 7 Holabatta Tasty rice, suitable for beaten Saru, Chikkamagalur rice and curd rice District, Karnataka

8 Indrashan Good eating and cooking qualities Plains of Utterakhand

9 Jeeraha Samba Scented, preferred for biriyani Tamil Nadu

10 Jenugoodu Sweet rice, used for preparation Yalakundi, Suraguppe, of medicine for cattle Hirenellur, Kagodu – Karnataka

11 Kallimadayan Specifically used for Manapparai Tamil Nadu murukku’(snacks), suitable for meals

12 Kappakkaar Suitable for iddly, dosa, rice flakes. Tamil Nadu Used for meals in special functions 13 Karunkuruvai Suitable for iddly, dosa. Cooked Tamil Nadu rice used for medicine against the diseaseelephantiasis. Can be used as medicine for orthopaedic ailments and for filariasis. 14 Kavunginpoothala Non-scented. Given to diabetic Palakkad district, Kerala patients. High amylase content

175 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI S.No. Name of the variety Specialty Areas of cultivation

15 Kullakkaar Best for iddly, dosa. Suitable for Tamil Nadu porridge. Increases nerves strength and controls diabetes and blood pressure 16 Kuzhiyadichan Suitable for iddly, dosa. Tamil Nadu Administered for lactating mothers 17 Lochai Lohandi Tasteful, digestive, low water Bokra-Bokri, Tanghar, requirement Madhya Pradesh 18 Navali Saali Nutritious and high Daddikamalapur, mineral content Karnataka 19 Neelansamba Rice suitable for lactating mothers Tamil Nadu

20 Pichavaari Best for puttu; cooked rice Tamil Nadu administered for treating cattle

21 Ratna Chudi Sweet rice, good for popping Hosakoppa, Mallandur - Karnataka

22 Sembaalai Suitable for meals, best for Tamil Nadu popped rice 23 Shrikamal Scented and tasty Alahara, Umarghadadh, Pondikurd- Madhya Pradesh 24 Thinni Suitable for biriyani, very good Tamil Nadu for meals 25 Thooyamalli Suitable for biriyani, meals. Tamil Nadu Healthy, tasty rice, increases nerves strength, and the cooked rice is very white

Sources : Himachal Pradesh : SATHI, Thamba, Khundian, KangraDist, Karnataka: JSS Rural Development Foundation, Mysore ShivarajHungund, Dharwad ManavVikasSansthan, Kalol, Bilaspur Dist. MadhyaPradesh : MPRLP, Shahdol, Alhera. PFT Member Cluster, Tikhwa, BeohariDist Uttarakhand : College of Agriculture, GBPUAT, Pantnagar 263145 Tamil Nadu: Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai 600085 Kerala : http://kerala.gov.in/keralacalloct_07/pg16-17-18.pdf

176 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 13.2 SRI and 13.3 Factors Influencing 13.4 Summary Traditional Varieties Rice Markets The rich biodiversity available in With increasing awareness on the l Enterprise capacities : India is little known to consumers value of quality rices, markets in Management capacity, in other countries, and even future might be looking for more organization of export trade, unknown to many in diverse food as consumers linkages and market presence contemporary India itself. SRI become more discerning and can l Transport and storage: provides great opportunity to afford to upgrade the quality of Transport conditions and cost multiply these rices with a small their diet. Many organic rice are particularly sensitive quantity of seeds. Already we farmers are adopting SRI in India. factors for developing-country know that a number of the Since the seed requirement is exports, especially for the traditional ('unimproved') varieties -1 very much less with SRI, special numerous land-locked and can give yields over 10 t ha with varieties could be easily island countries. Organizing SRI management, and they conserved and popularized. logistics is a core competency command a higher market price Special rice varieties grown needed for most exporters in than do the 'improved' varieties under SRI are also being developing countries. because of consumer marketed locally. An preferences. So growing them international market has also l Government policies: with SRI methods can satisfy both been created for SRI rice. Exchange rates, fiscal policies, producers and consumers. This Madagascar Pink Rice imported export incentives, and export application of SRI principles can from Madagascar, Organic promotion. (Source : give leverage to the marketing of Mekong Flower Rice imported http://finance.indiamart.com/ specialty varieties of India not only from Cambodia, and Volcano Rice markets/commodity/rice.html) within the country, but also imported from West Java, globally. Indonesia are being marketed online at about US$ 3.64 per pound (http://www.lotusfoods.com/SRI- Rice/c/LotusFoods@SRI).

If the farmers cultivating the traditional varieties adopt SRI for increased production of these varieties, it will benefit them immensely. Besides, if national and international markets for the specialty varieties are developed, they will fetch farmers more profit. SRI can in this way help in protecting the gene pool of rice, which is dangerously narrow now.

177 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 14 CONCLUSIONS

Meeting the growing demand for approaches have only been in India are known to be making use more food grains requires more existence for the last six decades of these methods. Being an innovative approaches. Producing or so. So, SRI is about going back innovation that does not depend more with reduced drawdown of to basics – providing optimal on new or external inputs, but natural resources- land, water, conditions of soil, water and rather on changes in and fossil fuels - requires nutrients for the rice crop. management of available radically different approaches. resources, it is quite SRI is one such approach, which SRI as a term and as a package unprecedented. The pathway for is producing more while reducing of practices came to light from SRI's spread has been likewise the inputs- seed, water, Madagascar. However, some of truly unconventional as there was fertilizers, and pesticides. Since these practices were known in no standard research is it not a seed-based approach, India already at least a century accumulation in its development farmers have options of growing ago. The use of single seedlings, and little official extension whatever variety they and wide spacing, and less water - support and government or donor consumers like most. It is also the core principles and practices funding for its dissemination. It reduces the financial burden of of SRI - were experimented with has proceeded as mostly a civil farmers as it reduces their costs by Indian farmers in the early society innovation, for which a of cultivation. So there is an years of the 20th century. great variety of organization, opportunity here for farmers and However, the term SRI and its professions and individuals have Governments to capitalize on the nicely articulated principles and joined. potentials of SRI and similar practices have caught the methods to meet the growing imagination of the millions of Now there is a great opportunity concerns of food security in many farmers and the socially for established research agencies developing counties. conscious groups around the to further refine and improvise world. Although SRI was initially SRI to suit local conditions and to SRI is in some ways a very promoted by civil society groups, extend the learning from SRI conventional approach- now it is an official programme experience and study to making optimizing plants' productivity by actively promoted by agriculture less dependent on providing them with optimal field Governments in many countries. external inputs. Further debate conditions - but it came into The Ministry of Agriculture and about the merits of SRI may not existence in a somewhat Rural Development in Vietnam be a productive way of improving unconventional way, more has issued a formal decision the food security given that through the efforts of farmers October 15, 2007, acknowledging several million farmers have and civil society than from formal SRI as "a technical advance," and already adapted this method and scientific investigation. That is directing government agencies to are expecting this to be further becoming a challenge for the "guide and disseminate " this refined and improved to be even established agencies to visualize innovation. more effective. and endorse its potential. Field- based methods such as SRI were SRI came to international There are still some policy the foundations for improving the attention only after two decades makers, scientists and yields for centuries before the of its initial development in institutions who are raising seed-based approaches came Madagascar, but today farmers doubts about the merit, validity into existence. The seed-based in more than 40 countries and in and sustainability of SRI. all of the rice-growing areas of

178 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Certainly the debate on SRI For example, it is sometimes plants with those in the root should continue, as one way of objected that because SRI zones of plants grown by usual further refining the method. But management makes rice plants methods have found that often such debates are based on grow vigorously with higher phosphorus-solubilizing microbes certain prejudice and not on yields, there must be nutrient are more abundant in the former, scientific evidence. Most of these mining in the soil. This concern as are diazotrophs, i.e., nitrogen- doubts and demand for proof that may be correct, but it is based fixing organisms (Anas et al. SRI is working have come from on the non-SRI perspective that 2011). some of the institutions which are when a certain amount of expected to conduct independent nutrients are taken up by the A lot more studies need yet to be research. Some of the repeated plant to produce a unit quantity conducted on such matters, but criticisms about SRI are of yield, this higher yield means published information currently mentioned below with greater nutrient removal from available indicates increased light suggestions for resolving them. the soil. This view does not use efficiency and higher nutrient consider the return of nutrients use efficiency as well as more water use efficiency by SRI rice- 14.1 SRI Vs. Non-SRI to the soil from organic matter applications, nor does it take plant phenotypes. Studies have Understanding the results of account of the nutrient shown greater nutrient SRI might require new tools and mobilization and recycling that productivity (biomass per unit of new models. Analyzing and can be accomplished by the soil nutrient taken up) to be higher in evaluating SRI in terms of biota under conducive SRI plants. So assumptions and previously-known scientific conditions. Nor does it consider conclusions based on previous findings and currently-accepted that SRI plant phenotypes are research with non-SRI knowledge is not necessarily more efficient in utilizing phenotypes do not necessarily helpful. The facts and sunlight and converting apply. parameters accumulated by nutrients into biomass The delayed leaf senescence conducting experiments with production (Zhao et al. 2009; along with a higher leaf area rice grown withnon-SRI Barison and Uphoff, 2011). index (LAI), plus higher root practices may not apply to SRI- activity during reproductive and grown plants. The physiological The sustainability of SRI yields grain-filling periods, offer and morphological should be tracked and evaluated favourable growth conditions not characteristics of rice plants over a decade or more before experienced by a non-SRI crop. raised under SRI management drawing firm conclusions. Also, Post-flowering plant physiology is are significantly different in because SRI is not necessarily likely to alter the source-sink many respects from non-SRI an 'organic' methodology, any relationships also. The knowledge rice plants, as observed by specific soil nutrient deficiencies on carbohydrate synthesis and farmers and by researchers could be remedied with nutrient partitioning during grain-filling (Thakur et al. 2010). Thus, our amendments. In fact, a key acquired from non-SRI rice plants knowledge of plant x soil x macronutrient, phosphorus, may not help us to understand the practice interactions needs to exists in most soils in much efficiency of SRI plants. be validated rather than simply abundance, but in plant- assumed, when comparing SRI unavailable forms. Evaluations done in India and Indonesia that Similarly, there used to be performance with non-SRI rice arguments about the merit of relationships and results. compared the soil organisms in the rhizosphere of SRI rice plant density and its role in yield.

179 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI One of the core principles and assertion on which SRI was less water actually helps in practices of SRI is wide spacing of criticized is now known to be no enhancing the yields. hills with single seedlings. longer valid. Such new Previously this has been knowledge has not emerged Obviously more research is challenged saying that such through research, but through required to optimize the water practice will not yield more since the field practices demonstrated requirement for rice cultivation. with lower plant populations per by farmers. Since more and more new rice unit of area compared to non-SRI cultivation is expanding in the number of tillers on an area Rather excessive water use in uplands, often pumping water basis will be significantly lower rice cultivation has become a from great depths, a better (Sinclair, 2004; Sinclair and standard practice. But, it is still understanding of how to use Cassman, 2004). not widely recognized that the water more efficiently not only inundation of rice fields does not saves water but also saves But this has been proved wrong. contribute to yield increase or energy. SRI is certainly a great Wide spacing, starting with young growth of the rice plant. Actually, opportunity to farmers who are seedlings, transplanted carefully, deep water is used mostly to pumping water and cultivating quickly and shallow, actually control the weeds. If there is an rice in uplands. results in more productive tillers effective and more economic way per unit of area. Also, the length to control weeds, excess water of panicles and number of grains used for rice cultivation can be per panicle, as well as grain saved. SRI for the first time has weight, can be positively proved to farmers and scientists influenced by these practices. that rice does not require so This was not known before. So, an much water, and indeed that

14.2 Adoption / Partial Adoption / Non-Adoption / Disadoption

SRI is knowledge-intensive. assess disadoption separately bringing farmers to see the Most of the institutions are from the merits of SRI. There differences in the growth of an well-equipped to deal with are various pragmatic issues to SRI crop may convince them to try input-intensive methods such be resolved, or solved, with SRI out the new methods, and thus, as seed and fertilizers for like with any innovation. Once the extension strategy and improving the yields. SRI may farmers understand the support is very important for SRI appear simple, and its elements innovation, and the reasons adoption. Having data on the are each quite straightforward. behind it, there can be various reductions in cash cost and/or But it is knowledge-intensive ways to take advantage of its labor inputs, and on impacts on and requires more support and opportunities to raise farmers' net income, can also training for farmers initially. productivity if indeed there is reinforce the visual message of Like any other new methods, such a payoff to be achieved. seeing an SRI crop. particularly field-based, farmers who try the methods Since the agronomic practices of Various techniques adopted by for one year and may not SRI are different from extension agencies and civil continue for the next due to conventionally followed ones, society organizations have been various reasons. Yes, there is convincing farmers to take up helpful. Inspite of learning about disadoption of SRI by some the new practices is the difficult the promising benefits, and farmers. It is important to part of SRI extension. Just seeing successful farmers, some

180 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI farmers still do not decide to try SRI is not competing with any researchers. This is the reality. out SRI. Also, there is disadoption purchased technology; it has no So, there will be no justice in the with some farmers. While patents or royalties; there are no complaint that if SRI farmers are detailed analysis is to be taken up intellectual property rights. SRI not following all of the to understand the reasons and knowledge is available to recommended SRI practices, what dynamics of non-adoption and anyone, free. The only persons they are doing is 'not SRI.' disadoption, poor understanding who can get richer from SRI are of SRI principles, non-availability the farmers. What is required is Adopting SRI on a community of SRI tools, labour-related to help farmers realize the fact basis is one best way of scaling up constraints, insufficient water that by adopting all of the SRI. Self Help Groups (SHG) can control in some places, and the principles and using them be effectively developed and requirement of more attention appropriately, they will get more utilized in this direction. and monitoring of SRI crops benefits. This will be the Community SRI has several appear to be the most important challenge in SRI extension, advantages: constraints on adoption. Thus, moving from an input-focused l Community nurseries will continued technical support for process to a knowledge-based help make maintenance and several crop seasons and ongoing one. monitoring easier. It will also encouragement are necessary for solve the problem water most farmers to transform their It is important to mention here scarcity and unreliability cropping operations. that all of the packages of before the monsoon by practices recommended by any starting early cultivation. Some farmers adopt only some of agency, be it IRRI, ICAR or other Staggered sowing of several the SRI principles, and some institutions mandated to do that, nurseries can be done so as to skeptics object that if not all of are never fully adopted by the have at least some nurseries the basic SRI principles are farmers. So, dis-adoption or with right-aged young adopted by farmers, how can partial adoption of package of seedlings when the rains do their crop be called SRI? This practices is not unique to SRI. start. reflects the fact that a certain set From sowing to harvest, what l Trained manpower for the of principles for cultivating rice the farmer does is governed by following could be has been given a name 'SRI', and innumerable local factors that established: for nursery we do not have such history for force him or her to decide the raising, seedling pulling, any other crop. The whole practice in the field – nursery leveling the main field, purpose of recommending SRI type, variety sown, seed marker use, square planting, methods to farmers is to help treatment, seedling age, main shallow irrigation, and weeder them achieve more output with field preparation, manure operation less input costs, and also to application, number of seedlings enhance the food security of a per hill, planting density, l The implements / tools nation, not just to give publicity to planting method, water required for SRI (markers, a name. If farmers are able to management, weed weeders, laser leveler, and boost their yield and income by management, plant protection, harvester) could be commonly adopting only some of the SRI and fertilizer application, etc. If maintained and shared. principles, this is worthwhile. all the practices followed by 100 What is required is to get farmers farmers in a typical rice belt are to realize that adopting all of the listed out, probably none of them principles will give them more will match the recommendations benefits. This will be the of any BMP proposed by challenge in SRI extension.

181 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI 14.3 SRI Research

Research on SRI in India has beneficial effects. The altered farmers, and the mechanisms for been carried out on the basis leaf morphology, surface this are yet to be studied. The individual interests, with no characteristics, and extensive root system and major funding support so far for phytochemical changes in rice stronger stems (with apparently advancing scientific knowledge plants under SRI management higher silica content) appear to for SRI systematically. However, might play a role in the support these characteristics, but slowly many established interactions with pests and more thorough research remains institutions are beginning to diseases. Modified rhizosphere to be done. conduct research on SRI. But chemistry and enhanced xylem clearly this is not enough. More flow probably alter and influence There are many opportunities to systematic research on SRI, the soil microbiological activity. study the effect of SRI practices including critical evaluation of Why there is little or no rat on soil system dynamics, plant its merits, should be conducted damage in SRI crops as reported behaviour, micro-climates, in bigger way. by many farmers has not been climate change adaptability, understood scientifically up to carbon sequestration in the soil, Changes in microbiological now. socio-economic impacts activity and pest / disease especially concerning gender, interactions due to SRI Drought-tolerance, lodging- long-term effects of SRI management have been studied resistance, and typhoon- management, etc. to a limited extent, but they resistance of SRI crops have already show the potential for been frequently experienced by

14.4 Future of SRI in the Country

SRI has been found to have a 2. SRI increases the productivity farmers because it can raise number of advantages beyond of land, water, nutrients, and their food production without the most obvious one of labour; it also enhances land requiring the purchase of inputs increasing rice productivity. The and water quality by building that would require borrowing main one is bringing down the up soil fertility and reducing and debt. irrigation water requirement by agrochemical build-up in soil, 6. For climate-change conditions, nearly 30-40%. This alone groundwater and surface SRI is best suited because of its should be attractive to water bodies. lower water requirements and managers and to decision- 3. SRI exploits the genetic the resilience that it confers on makers who are responsible for potentials of rice genotypes by rice plants to deal with drought, ensuring adequate water creating better above-ground cold spells, and storm effects, supplies for agricultural, and below-ground as well as with pest and disease industrial and domestic uses. environments for plant damage. The potential of SRI to meet the growth. 7. SRI is attractive to tribal, present-day challenges in rice 4. SRI principles have been marginal and organic farmers. production is remarkable: extended to rainfed rice Its extension and extrapolation 1. SRI addresses the issues and production so that upland to a variety of other crops concerns for labour scarcity, areas, where poverty is often beyond rice can lead to water scarcity, sustainable greatest, can be benefited. widespread improvement in the productivity, input-use 5. SRI ensures household food food security and incomes of efficiency, and encourages security of resource-poor rural households. public-private partnerships.

182 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI The following are some of the l Also incentives for saving l National targets for SRI: challenges that have to be water through SRI method Policies and institutional suitably dealt with in scaling up will encourage the farmers mechanisms for designing SRI in the country. to adopt SRI. Present policies and delivering a common and incentives do not strategy for reaching a l Training and extension: encourage the careful national target of 20% of rice- Providing suitable extension application of less water to growing area under SRI, by services on SRI including achieve higher production end 2016 (XII Plan period). A demonstrations, trainings, and more income. Once the clear policy framework for exposure visits, etc. is crucial. benefits from SRI achieving an increase in rice Systematic and continued management are known by production by 10-20 % through support to farmers in farmers, they should be self- SRI spread has to be acquiring skills is crucial in sustaining because of formulated and promulgated SRI adoption, and it should farmers' economic at national level. The state continue for a few years until advantages. government in Bihar, having it becomes a common aimed for 3.5 lakh ha of SRI practice. l Tools: Providing the most production in the 2011 kharif suitable weeders in adequate season (10% of the state's l Irrigation: Improving irrigation numbers to particular rice-growing area), has service delivery in major locations, and also markers decided to set a state target of irrigation schemes. Many and other implements. 1.4 million ha for 2012 kharif, farmers even if they want to Development of motorized 40% of its rice area. reduce their water or apply in weeders to reduce the time a more scientific way are not and effort needed for It is hoped that SRI will find able to do this since the large weeding would provide a substantial and appropriate irrigation systems are not large impetus for SRI spread. support in the 12th Five Year Plan designed for SRI for India which is now under management, applying l Understanding and formulation. smaller but reliable amounts addressing the issues related of water. So there is need to to disadoption: Eliminating re-orient our irrigation the constraints related to management towards less disadoption by analysis of water-intensive and more local factors is important scientific application of water toward achieving the to rice cultivation. sustainability of SRI adoption

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205 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Uphoff, N., I. Anas, O. P. Rupela, A. K. Thakur and T. M. Thiyagarajan. 2009. Learning about positive plant- microbial interactions from the System of Rice Intensification (SRI). Aspects of Applied Biology 98:29-53.

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208 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI AgSri

AgSri is a social enterprise focused on providing solutions in the agriculture sector for improving the farm productivity and income, while reducing the inputs costs. We are working towards promoting industry-friendly policies favoring green technologies. Our concept of “More with Less” in Agriculture offers newer options for farmers and companies to adapt to simple, but integrated methods for improving the productivity while reducing the usage of seed, water, fertilizers and pesticides. The focus of our work is to support governments, farmer groups, companies and aid agencies - working on the global concern for food and water security and environment protection - on crop advisory, water management, irrigation, fertilizer and pest management, environment impact assessments and technology solutions in farm management. AgSri is significantly contributing to environment sustainability in the world through agri-business committed to sustainable agriculture.

AgSri Team Our strength is our highly experienced team who have previously worked with various International organizations and have significantly contributed in the areas of agriculture, water policy, rural development and social sector for more than three decades. Some of the members of our team have been duly credited for promoting sustainable methodologies in rice, sugarcane, wheat and other crops and for their significant contribution in other areas in the development sector. The team includes experts from the field of Agriculture, Agri-business, Forestry, Geology, GIS Hydrology, Human Resources, Soils Sciences, Rural Development and Social Sector.

What We Do AgSri offers services as consultants, as well as, on partnership basis for agriculture projects of various scope, size and resources. We offer consultancy for piloting innovative agriculture projects for governments, multilateral aid agencies and corporate companies, cutting across diverse crops and climate zones. Some of the areas AgSri can significantly contribute are: l Optimize crop management systems in rice,sugarcane and others crops to produce more with custom inputs in diverse climatic zones l Design large-scale interventions in collaboration with multilateral agencies to maximize economic benefits for farmers and industry l Specifically provide solutions for water intensive crops without compromising on the yields l Set-up process for traceability of the production process for the companies l Provide guidelines and implementation of certification process for major crops such as sugarcane, cotton, rice, wheat, etc. l Reduce the footprint of agriculture sector, while improving the income of the farmers and bringing profits to industry and providing quality products to the consumers

209 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Knowledge Resources India's growing food industry is facing crisis of human resources owing to modern technological developments. AgSri School is working towards meeting the expertise required to meet the agriculture industry's human resources needs. In collaboration with NRMC (NABARD), AgSri is building a human resources pool who will work with farmers' cooperatives and agricultural industries in implementing the sustainable green technologies, successfully.

International Exposure AgSri's unique International experience and partnership has opened up new vistas for food industry in India and globally. AgSri with Nestle International will be soon designing and implementing Responsible Source Guidelines (RSG). With Cambodian industry, AgSri is promoting SSI in South East Asia. And, SSI has also found admirers among the Cuban Cane Cooperatives too. As part of South- South Cooperation's Initiative to address the global food crisis, AgSri made exploratory visits to Tanzania, Ethiopia and Sierra Leone at the request of Indian and Global companies for introducing sustainable crop and water saving technologies.

AgSri Partners AgSri has a long standing tradition of partnership with farmers for their prosperity. Globally and in India, AgSri has joined Nestle International, Solidaridad, Triveni Sugars, National Bank for Rural Development (NABARD), Driptech USA and National Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI, Coimbatore), for providing sustainable solutions in the agriculture sector.

We are currently working with India's third largest sugar company, Triveni Engineering in Uttar Pradesh and have collaborated with Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK, Latur) in Maharashtra. Our bud chip technology is changing the way sugarcane crop is raised impacting on profits and ecology. Our Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI), which reduces inputs costs and improves productivity of sugarcane by 30 percent is being implemented in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra and is benefiting more than 5,000 farmers. By adopting SSI, the sugar mills are benefitting due to increased sugar recovery as well as improved supply of raw materials.

AgSri has partnered with Driptech USA and has introduced low cost drip systems that are easy to install and comes at one-fourth cost of the conventional drip system. AgSri aims to make drip irrigation easy and affordable to farmers and to achieve this, as a pilot project, AgSri Driptech has targeted to reach out to atleast 10,000 farmers in Andhra Pradesh in 2012-13.

AgSri in collaboration with NABARD and SBI (Coimbatore) hosted the first National Seminar on Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) in the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (Coimbatore) in 2011. Following AgSri's massive SSI promotion, the governments of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have included the SSI promotion in the 12th five year plan. NABARD is extensively promoting SSI adoption and trainings in the various states of India.

210 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI NATIONAL CONSORTIUM OF SRI (NCS)

The National Consortium on SRI is a coalition of practitioners, policy makers, resource institutions, researchers, scientists and other individuals, who are keen to spread SRI on a large scale in the country. It is a think-tank and resource-pool in which the members have come together voluntarily and committed to understand the advancement of the science, strengthen practice and take up policy advocacy in favour of SRI. The NCS emphasizes on these three pivots:

1. Science of SRI: This includes identification of the enabling factors for the full expression of the genetic potential of the rice plant without intensive inputs; conservation of natural resources; reduction in cost of cultivation; and improvement of soil health, root system and sustainable nutrient management.

2. Practices of SRI: The adoption of SRI has witnessed very rapid growth within a short span of time. This has happened mostly under Civil Society initiatives and little State support. The following issues are of critical importance- clear insights and understanding the realities of adoption and dis-adoption along with an understanding of the tangible benefits of SRI; measuring the efficiency and efficacy of the use of inputs and conservation of resources such as seeds, water, fertilizers and labour as well as organic supplements; design and spread of suitable implements; and preparation of user friendly tools and knowledge resource materials.

3. Policy on SRI: This includes influencing mainstream programmes and strategies for scaling up SRI; advocating innovative institutional architecture of extension for wider adoption and impact; convergence of multiple programmes; and evolving new forms of partnerships.

Achievements: In a short time span, the NCS has created considerable impact among stakeholders and has sensitized many policy makers. The recent outputs are the following: series of interactive policy dialogues conducted, published multi-lingual brochures, brought out a compilation of major research works on SRI, and published a Resource Book on SRI. The NCS was closely associated with the 12th Five year Plan preparation process as well. The NCS continues to be regular touch with the policy makers in providing and inputs on mainstreaming the SRI discourse.

211 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI Road Map of the NCS 1. Evolve more insights into the science of SRI and other similar agro-ecological innovations to drive the new green revolution. 2. Take up action research at the on-farm level in collaboration with scientists and practitioners including farmers, and to pilot new ideas. 3. Develop more clarity on the socio-economic impacts of SRI techniques at the family farms. Evolve strategies for capacity building of stakeholders on an ongoing basis. 4. Advocate for supportive policy and innovative communication strategies

NCS promote SRI research, bring out research documentation and engage in upscaling policy For more Information about NCS ([email protected]), contact: Dr. B C Barah, [email protected] and Mr. D. Narendranath, [email protected]

212 | Transforming Rice Production with SRI

NATIONAL CONSORTIUM OF SRI (NCS)

# 8-2-608/1/1, Gaffar Khan Colony Road No.10, Banjara Hills Hyderabad - 500 034, A.P, India Phone: 040-6514 2662, 6644 5040 / 43 www.agsri.com