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Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Provenance of the Ca. 3.26 Ga Mapepe Formation in the Manzimnyama Syncline, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa

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Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Provenance of the Ca. 3.26 Ga Mapepe Formation in the Manzimnyama Syncline, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa STRATIGRAPHY, SEDIMENTOLOGY AND PROVENANCE OF THE CA. 3.26 GA MAPEPE FORMATION IN THE MANZIMNYAMA SYNCLINE, BARBERTON GREENSTONE BELT, SOUTH AFRICA A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE Danielle Bridgette Zentner June 2014 © Copyright by Danielle Zentner 2014 All Rights Reserved ! ii! ABSTRACT The Barberton greenstone belt in South Africa contains some of the oldest, well- preserved sedimentary rocks known from mid-Archean time. These rocks represent an important record of surface conditions and sedimentary processes on early Earth. A recent campaign by the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program acquired five cores in the belt, one of which, the BARB4 core, targeted a deep-water sedimentary sequence of banded iron formation (BIF), banded ferruginous chert (BFC) and siliciclastic rocks in the Manzimnyama Syncline. The Manzimnyama Syncline is located in a little studied area in the southeastern extent of the belt near the Swaziland border. Extensive commercial forest cover in the area has obscured the surface stratigraphy, but the acquisition of the ~540 m long BARB4 core permits detailed analysis of a continuous, relatively unweathered succession for the first time. This thesis combines, 1) sedimentological analysis from a high-resolution core description of the lithic sandstone section and along-strike outcrops at the surface with, 2) geochemical analysis of shale sampled along the core length. Sedimentological analysis reveals a coarse-grained, sand-rich (N/G=0.96) deep- water system dominated by sedimentation from high-density turbidity flows. The beds, which average 16 cm in thickness, have predominately massive, poorly sorted bases with thin, flat-laminated and rarely cross-laminated tops. These beds, which often contain mud rip-up clasts and chert plates, were emplaced primarily via rapid suspension settling of sediment from collapsing, high-density flows. The tabularity of the beds and the lack of large-scale scour suggests the flows probably deposited in an unconfined setting, most likely a frontal lobe location at the terminus of the feeder system. The paucity of mud suggests that the feeder system was likely not a levee-confined conduit, but was instead a canyon or similar incisional feature. Transport distance through the conduit was probably short, based on lack of grain size fractionation expected from flow filtering during a long run-out distance. The siliciclastic sediments had a coeval lateral facies relationship with the orthochemical deposits. This is attested to by, 1) gradational contacts and inter-bedded nature of the sequence, including siliciclastic turbidite beds within the BIF section, siliciclastic material in chert-plate breccia beds in the BFC section, and centimeter-scale chert horizons in the finest-grained section of the siliciclastic section, and, 2) the deformed chert plates in the turbidite beds that were clearly still soft at the time of deposition and likely represent the Archean equivalent of mud rip-up clasts. Petrographic examination of the sandstone indicates that, while the grains are pervasively seritized and silicified, grain textures and relict crystal shapes are still largely preserved. Quantitative point counting results show relative modal abundances of iv polycrystalline quartz (chert) fragments (51.8%) and volcanic lithic fragments (41.0%), with monocrystalline quartz (5.7%) and feldspar (1.5%) as minor components. Geochemical analysis of shale indicates pervasive metasomatism, which remobilized all labile species, depleting the rocks of Na2O, CaO and Sr while enriching the shale with K, Ba and SiO2. Metasomatic overprinting and Al-poor source rocks, such as komatiite and chert, complicate assessment of weathering conditions in the source area, but the preservation of volcanic grains suggests that the weathering environment was not extreme. Major oxide, trace and rare earth element (REE) abundances in shale indicate a mixed felsic and mafic source, with high Ni and Cr values suggesting some contribution of sediment from ultramafic rocks. Mafic and ultramafic material was likely sourced from proximal uplifts of Onverwacht Group strata. In contrast, the felsic signature likely originates from the tuffaceous products of explosive dacitic volcanism, as the feldspar- and quartz-poor sandstone composition indicates that the plutonic roots of the belt had not been accessed by erosion. REE analyses reveal lower ∑REE, increasing values of Eu/Eu*, and decreasing LaN/YbN ratios with stratigraphic position, pointing to an evolution from a felsic source to a more mafic source over time, which is supported by similar trends in major oxide and trace element ratios with depth. This trend may be the result of either, 1) deeper-level incision into mafic rocks in the source area with time, 2) decrease in explosive dacitic volcanism with time, or 3) a combination of both volcanism and evolution of the source area. The petrographic and geochemical results support the findings of previous studies that indicate the southern facies Fig Tree Group rocks are distinct from those north of the Inyoka fault. The sandstone composition and shale geochemistry of the Manzimnyama Syncline strata, however, compare favorably with the Mapepe Formation rocks in the Barite Syncline and the Granville Grove fault area of the Central Domain. This suggests, that despite the apparent absence in the study area of impact-related spherule beds characteristic of the basal Fig Tree Group contact, these strata are genetically related to the Mapepe Formation north of the Heights Syncline and south of the Inyoka fault. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENts I would like to thank my advisor, Donald Lowe, for introducing me to the Barberton Mountain Land and unfamiliar world of the Archean Earth. Steve Graham was a first-rate reviewer, with a great eye for writing style and provided many excellent suggestions for improving the manuscript. I had many conversations about my rocks with Tim McHargue, whose input helped enormously. Rónadh Cox was, as always, a fountain of good advice from afar. An especially big thanks goes to Christoph Heubeck, for both insightful conversations about field matters and for brightening up the field seasons with his masterfully told stories. Gary Byerly shared critical age dates from the field area. Ian Hagmann and Gail Mahood provided key input on petrography, and Sam Johnstone assisted with the FFT analysis. My “accountability buddy”, Lizzy Trower Stefurak, in particular, was a great source of support and a sounding board in the final months. Barry Shaulis provided editorial help as did my boyfriend, who is possibly the most patient man I have ever met, and was unfailingly supportive and helpful. Thank you to Glenn and Joni Sharman for watching my dog when I was away from campus. The office staff, including Stephanie, Yvonne, Alyssa, Daisy, and Lauren, all deserve thanks for their quick and professional assistance with my questions. Many good times were had in the field with the Barberton Greenstone Academy. Martin Homann, Sami Drabhan, Henry Nordhauß, Paul Fugmann, Nadja Drabon, Lizzy Trower Stefurak, Nicholas Decker, and Kimberly McManus were all excellent field assistants and are good friends. Some of my fondest memories of my time at Stanford come from our antics at the Old Coach Road Guesthouse after long field days. Thank you to Lili and Adriaan for being gracious hosts. I want to thank Sappi Forest Products for granting access permission to the field area. Much of my funding came from the Stanford Project on Deep-water Depositional Systems (SPODDS) affiliates and the Stanford School of Earth Sciences, without which I would not have had the opportunity to go to South Africa and to complete this work. Finally and above all, I would like to thank my family and especially my indomitable mother. I consider myself a very lucky person to have you all. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: SEDIMENTOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY OF AN ARCHEAN DEEP-WATER SEQUENCE FROM THE CA. 3.26 GA MAPEPE FORMATION, MANZIMNYAMA SYNCLINE, BARBERTON GREENSTONE BELT, SOUTH AFRICA ABSTRACT 1 INTRODUCTION 2 GEOLOGIC SETTING 3 Study Area 6 Structure 6 Stratigraphy 7 Core 8 METHODS 9 Core statistics 10 RESULTS 10 Lithofacies La: Amalgamated sandstone 10 Interpretation 11 Lithofacies Lsm: Inter-bedded sandstone and mudstone 12 Interpretation 12 Lithofacies Lm: Inter-bedded mudstone and sandstone 13 Interpretation 14 Synthesis 15 Core to outcrop correlation 16 DISCUSSION 16 CONCLUSIONS 21 REFERENCES CITED 23 vii CHAPTER 2: SHALE GEOCHEMISTRY AND SANDSTONE PETROGRAPHY OF THE CA. 3.26 GA MAPEPE FORMATION, SOUTHEASTERN BARBERTON GREENSTONE BELT, SOUTH AFRICA ABSTRACT 61 INTRODUCTION 61 GEOLOGIC SETTING 62 Study Area 65 METHODS 66 Sandstone petrography 66 Shale geochemistry 67 RESULTS 67 Petrography 67 Geochemistry 70 Major elements 70 Rare earth elements 70 Trace elements 71 DISCUSSION 72 Alteration 72 Weathering 72 Provenance 73 Comparison to Fig Tree Group in other areas of the BGB 77 CONCLUSIONS 78 REFERENCES CITED 80 SUMMARY 113 APPENDIX A 115 APPENDIX B 141 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Point counting scheme for framework grain modal abundances of 15 sandstone samples from the BARB4 core. 108 Table 2. Major, trace and REE abundances from 15 shale samples extracted from the BARB4 core. 110 ix LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER 1 Figure 1. Location maps and stratigraphic columns for the Barberton greenstone belt (BGB) and in the study area. 29 Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic columns for formation of the Fig Tree Group with age and stratigraphic relationships from Lowe and Byerly (1999). 31 Figure 3. High-resolution scans of banded iron formation (BIF) and banded ferruginous chert (BFC) from the BARB4 core. 33 Figure 4. Correlation of BARB4 core to field measured sections. 35 Figure 5. Summary figure of Lithofacies La. 37 Figure 6. Outcrop photos of lithofacies from field measured sections. 39 Figure 7. High-resolution core scans showing examples of grading profiles observed in the BARB4 core.
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