Two Societies at War 1861–1865

Chapter 14 Two Societies at War 1861–1865

Teaching Resources denied that the federal government had the authority to restore the Union by Chapter Instructional Objectives force. 6. South Carolina demanded the surrender After you have taught this chapter, your students of Fort Sumter, a federal garrison in should be able to answer the following questions: Charleston Harbor. 1. Why did the North and the South choose the path 7. In response, President Buchanan ordered of military conflict in 1861? the resupply of the fort by an unarmed merchant ship. When South Carolinians 2. What were the stated war aims and military strate- fired on the ship, Buchanan refused to gies of each side as the war progressed? order the navy to escort it into the harbor. 3. How and why did the Civil War become a “total 8. Congress responded with a compromise— war”? the Crittenden plan—which called for a constitutional amendment that would per- 4. What was the significance of emancipation toward manently protect slavery from federal in- the conduct and outcome of the war? terference in any state where it already ex- 5. How and why did the North win the war in 1865? isted and for the westward extension of the Missouri Compromise line to the Califor- Chapter Annotated Outline nia border. Slavery would be barred north of the line and protected to the south, in- I. Secession and Military Stalemate, 1861–1862 cluding any territories “hereafter acquired.” A. The Secession Crisis 9. Lincoln upheld the first part of the Crit- 1. The Civil War was called the “War be- tenden plan to protect slavery where it al- tween the States” by Southerners, and the ready existed but was not willing to extend “War of Rebellion” by Northerners. the Missouri Compromise line to the Cali- 2. On December 20, 1860, the South Caro- fornia border. lina convention voted unanimously to se- 10. Lincoln declared that secession was illegal cede from the Union; “fire-eaters” else- and that acts against the Union consti- where in the Deep South quickly followed. tuted insurrection; he would enforce fed- 3. The secessionists met in Montgomery, eral laws as well as continue to possess Alabama, in February 1861 and pro- federal property in seceded states. claimed a new nation—the Confederate B. The Upper South Chooses Sides States of America. They adopted a new 1. Jefferson Davis forced the surrender of constitution and named Jefferson Davis as Fort Sumter on April 14, 1861; Lincoln its provisional president. called in state militiamen to put down the 4. Secessionist fervor was less intense in the insurrection. slave states of the Upper South, and their 2. Although some Northerners were wary of leaders proposed federal guarantees for Lincoln’s Republican administration, they slavery in states where it existed. remained supportive of the Union cause 5. In December 1860 President James and responded positively to Lincoln’s call Buchanan declared secession illegal but for the mobilization of the militias.

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3. The states of Middle and Border South 10. Lincoln replaced General McClellan with were forced to choose sides in the dispute. Ambrose E. Burnside, who later resigned Support from these states was crucial to and was replaced by Joseph (“Fighting the Confederacy because of these states’ Joe”) Hooker. high populations and access to industry 11. The Union dominated the Ohio River Val- and fuel. ley, and in 1862 General Ulysses S. Grant 4. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North took Fort Henry on the Tennessee River Carolina joined the Confederacy after the and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland fall of Fort Sumter. After Lincoln inter- River. vened, Missouri, Delaware, Maryland, and 12. In April a Confederate army caught Grant Kentucky stayed with the Union. by surprise near Shiloh; Grant forced a C. Setting War Objectives and Devising Confederate withdrawal but suffered a Strategies great number of casualties. 1. Jefferson Davis’s focus was on the defense 13. Union naval forces commanded by of the Confederacy rather than conquer- David G. Farragut captured New Orleans, ing western territories; the Confederacy the South’s financial center and largest only needed a military stalemate to guar- city, giving it a base for future naval oper- antee independence. ations. 2. Lincoln portrayed secession as an attack 14. Union victories in the West had signifi- on popular government, and he insisted cantly undermined Confederate strength on an aggressive military strategy and a in the Mississippi Valley. policy of unconditional surrender. II. Toward Total War 3. In July 1861 General Irwin McDowell’s A. Mobilizing Armies and Civilians troops were routed by P. G. T. Beaure- 1. The military carnage of 1862 forced both gard’s Confederate troops near Manassas sides into total war,utilizing all of the re- Creek (also called Bull Run). sources of both nations to win at all costs. 4. Lincoln replaced McDowell with George B. 2. After the defeat at Shiloh in April 1862, the McClellan and enlisted an additional mil- Confederate Congress imposed the first lion men, who would serve for three years legally binding draft in American history. in the newly created Army of the Potomac. 3. The Confederate draft had two loopholes: 5. In 1862 McClellan launched a thrust to- it exempted one white man for each ward Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate twenty slaves on a plantation, and it al- capital, but he moved too slowly and allowed drafted men to hire substitutes. lowed the Confederates to mount a 4. Some Southerners refused to serve, and counterattack. the Confederate government lacked the 6. Washington was threatened when a Con- power to compel them; the Confederate federate army under “Stonewall” Jackson Congress overrode state judges’ orders to marched north up the Shenandoah Valley free conscripted men. in western Virginia; Jackson won a series 5. To prevent sabotage and concerted resis- of small engagements, tying down the tance to the war effort in the Union, Lin- larger Union forces. coln suspended habeas corpus and im- 7. General Robert E. Lee launched an attack prisoned about 15,000 Confederate outside Richmond and suffered heavy sympathizers without trial. He also ex- casualties, but McClellan failed to exploit tended martial law to civilians who dis- the advantage, and Richmond remained couraged enlistment or resisted the draft. secure. 6. The Union government’s Militia Act of 8. Jackson and Lee routed a Union army in 1862 set a quota of volunteers for each the Second Battle of Bull Run in August state, which was increased by the Enroll- 1862. ment Act of 1863; Northerners, too, could 9. The battle at Antietam Creek on Septem- hire replacements. ber 17, 1862, was the bloodiest single day 7. Hostility to the Enrollment Act of 1863 in U.S. military history; Jackson’s troops draft and to African Americans spilled arrived just in time to save Lee’s troops into the streets of New York City when from defeat. Irish and German workers sacked the Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865 205

homes of Republicans, killed a dozen Afri- 7. The Union government created a modern can Americans, and forced hundreds of nation-state that raised revenue for the war black families from their homes. Lincoln by imposing broad-based taxes, borrowing rushed in Union troops to suppress the from the middle classes, and creating a na- insurrection. tional monetary system based on the Legal 8. The Union Army Medical Bureau and the Tender Act of 1862, which authored the United States Sanitary Commission pro- issue of $150 million in treasury notes, vided medical services to the soldiers and soon to be known as greenbacks. tried to prevent deaths from disease, which 8. The Confederacy lacked a central govern- killed more men than did the fighting. ment. It financed about 60 percent of its 9. The Confederate health system was poorly expenses with unbacked paper money, organized, and soldiers died from camp dis- which created inflation; citizens’ property eases at a higher rate than Union soldiers. rights were violated in order to sustain the 10. Women took a leading role in the Sanitary war. Commission and other wartime agencies; III. The Turning Point: 1863 Dorothea Dix was the first woman to re- A. Emancipation ceive a major federal appointment. 1. As war casualties mounted in 1862, Lin- 11. Women staffed growing bureaucracies, coln and some Republican leaders ac- volunteered to serve as nurses, and filled cepted Frederick Douglass’s argument and positions traditionally held by men. began to redefine the war as a struggle 12. A number of women took on military against slavery. duties as spies, scouts, and (disguised as 2. Exploiting the disorder of wartime, tens of men) soldiers. thousands of slaves escaped and sought B. Mobilizing Resources refuge behind Union lines, where they 1. The Union entered the war with a distinct were known as “contrabands.” advantage; its economy was far superior to 3. Congress passed the First Confiscation Act the South’s, and its arms factories were in 1861, which authorized the seizure of equipped for mass production. all property—including slaves—used to 2. The Confederates had substantial indus- support the rebellion. trial capacity, and by 1863 they were able 4. In April 1862 Congress enacted legislation to provide every infantryman with a mod- ending slavery in the District of Columbia, ern rifled-musket. and in June it enacted the Wilmot Proviso. 3. Confederate leaders counted on “King 5. In July 1862 the Second Confiscation Act Cotton”to provide revenue to purchase declared “forever free” all fugitive slaves clothes, boots, blankets, and weapons and all slaves captured by the Union army. from abroad. 6. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation of 4. The British government never recognized January 1, 1863, changed the nature of the the independence of the Confederacy, but conflict: Union troops became agents of it did recognize the rebel government as a liberation. belligerent power with the right under in- 7. To reassure Northerners who sympathized ternational law to borrow money and pur- with the South or feared race warfare, chase weapons. Lincoln urged slaves to abstain from all 5. To sustain the allegiance of Northerners to violence. their party while bolstering the Union’s B. Vicksburg and Gettysburg ability to fight the war, the Republicans 1. Vicksburg, Mississippi, surrendered to the raised tariffs; created a national banking Union army on July 4, 1863, followed by system; devised a system of internal im- Port Hudson, Louisiana, five days later, es- provements, especially railroads; and de- tablishing Union control of the Mississippi. veloped the Homestead Act of 1862. 2. Grant had cut off Louisiana, Arkansas, 6. The Confederate government’s economic and Texas from the rest of the Confeder- policy was less coherent. The Davis ad- acy; hundreds of slaves deserted their ministration built and operated shipyards, plantations. armories, foundries, and textile mills; 3. The battle at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, commandeered food and raw materials; was a great Union victory and the most and requisitioned slaves to work on forts. lethal battle of the Civil War. 206 Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865

4. After Union victories at Gettysburg and casualties and military stalemate threat- Vicksburg, Republicans reaped political ened Lincoln with defeat in the November gains in their elections, while Confederate 1864 election. elections went sharply against politicians 9. To punish farmers who provided a base who supported Davis. for Jubal Early and food for Lee’s army, 5. The Confederates’ defeats at Vicksburg Grant ordered General Philip H. Sheridan and Gettysburg ended their prospect of to turn the region into a “barren waste.” winning foreign recognition and acquiring 10. Grant’s decision to carry the war to Con- advanced weapons from the British. federate civilians changed the definition of 6. British manufacturers were no longer de- conventional warfare. pendent on the South for cotton; however, B. The Election of 1864 and Sherman’s March they were dependent on the North for 1. In June 1864 the Republican convention cheap wheat. Also, the British championed endorsed Lincoln’s war measures, de- the abolitionist cause and wanted to avoid manded the surrender of the Confederacy, provoking a well-armed United States. and called for a constitutional amendment IV. The Union Victorious, 1864–1865 to abolish slavery. A. Soldiers and Strategy 2. The Republican Party temporarily re- 1. Lincoln initially refused to consider blacks named itself the National Union Party and for military service; nonetheless, by 1862, nominated Democrat Andrew Johnson for some African Americans had formed their vice president. own regiments in South Carolina, 3. The Democratic convention nominated Louisiana, and Kansas. General George McClellan, who promised 2. The Emancipation Proclamation changed to recommend an immediate armistice popular thinking and military policy; and peace convention if elected. some northern whites argued that if blacks 4. On September 2, 1864, William T. Sher- were to benefit from a Union victory, they man forced the surrender of Atlanta, should share in the fighting and dying. Georgia; Sherman’s success gave Lincoln a 3. As white resistance to conscription in- victory in November. creased, the Lincoln administration was 5. The pace of emancipation accelerated; recruiting as many African Americans as it Maryland and Missouri freed their slaves, could. followed by Tennessee, Arkansas, and 4. Military service did not end racial dis- Louisiana. crimination, yet African Americans volun- 6. On January 31, 1865, the Republican- teered for Union military service in dis- dominated Congress approved the Thir- proportionate numbers. teenth Amendment, which prohibited 5. Lincoln put Ulysses S. Grant in charge of slavery throughout the United States. all Union armies and directed him to ad- 7. Sherman declined to follow the Con- vance against all major Confederate forces federate army into Tennessee after the simultaneously; they wanted a decisive capture of Atlanta; instead he wanted to victory before the election of 1864. “cut a swath through sea” that would dev- 6. Grant knew how to fight a modern war astate Georgia and score a psychological that relied on technology and focused on victory. an entire society, and was willing to accept 8. After burning Atlanta, Sherman destroyed heavy casualties in assaults on strongly de- railroads, property, and supplies during fended positions in the belief that at- his march to the sea; many Confederate tempts of earlier Union commanders “to soldiers deserted and fled home to protect conserve life” through cautious tactics had their farms and families. prolonged the war. 9. In February 1865, Sherman invaded South 7. Lee was narrowly victorious in the battles Carolina with a desire to wreak vengeance of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court upon the state where secession had begun. House. At Cold Harbor, Grant eroded 10. Because of class resentment from poor Lee’s forces, yet the Union losses were whites, the Confederacy had such a man- even greater. power shortage that they were going to 8. Union and Confederate soldiers suffered arm the slaves in exchange for their free- through protracted trench warfare around dom; the war ended before this had a Richmond and Petersburg; the enormous chance to transpire. Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865 207

11. The symbolic end to the war occurred on greenbacks Paper money issued by the U.S. Treasury April 9, 1865, when Lee surrendered to during the Civil War to finance the war effort. Grant at Appomattox Court House, Vir- Greenbacks had the status of legal tender in all ginia; by May the Confederate army and public and private transactions. Because they were government had dissolved. issued in large amounts and were not backed by 12. For the South, the Union armies had de- gold or silver, the value of a greenback dollar fell stroyed slavery as well as the Confederacy during the war to 40 cents (but much less than the and much of the South’s economy. Almost notes issued during the Revolutionary War, which 260,000 Confederate soldiers paid for se- became virtually worthless) and recovered only as cession with their lives. the Union government won the war and pro- 13. For the North, the struggle had preserved ceeded to reduce its war-related debt. (438) the Union and destroyed slavery, but the cost of victory was enormous in terms of Lecture Strategies money, resources, and lives, with 360,000 Union soldiers dead and hundreds of 1. Lincoln’s attitude toward slavery and African thousands maimed. Americans has been much debated. Write a lecture that traces how Lincoln moved from emphasizing Key Terms national unity as the only purpose of the war to including the end of slavery as a primary aim. Dis- total war A form of warfare, new to the nineteenth cuss his racial views and their influence on his pol- and twentieth centuries, that engaged all of a soci- itics. Lincoln’s free-soil principles represented a ety’s resources—economic, political, and cul- compromise with abolitionism and were conso- tural—in support of the military effort. Govern- nant with his doubts about the inherent capabili- ments mobilized massive armies of conscripted ties of African Americans. Discuss how emancipa- civilians rather than small forces of professional tion allowed Lincoln to put his beliefs about soldiers. Moreover, they attacked civilians and in- slavery into effect. Explore how the valor of Afri- dustries that supported the war efforts of their en- can American soldiers might have affected him. emies. Witness Sherman’s march through Georgia Question whether Lincoln’s attitudes toward slav- in the Civil War, and the massive American bomb- ery and African Americans were representative of ing of Dresden, Hamburg, and Tokyo during those of the North or whether he was more liberal World War II and of North Vietnam during the than most Northerners. Vietnam War. (434) 2. Both the North and the South experienced serious habeas corpus Latin for “bring forth the body,”a legal internal conflict during the war. Write a lecture writ forcing government authorities to justify their that discusses how the war challenged the stability arrest and detention of an individual. Rooted in of both societies by heightening class and racial English common law, habeas corpus was given the conflict. Relate how the draft led to active and pas- status of a formal privilege in the U.S. Constitu- sive resistance and compare this resistance in the tion (Article 1, Section 9), which also allows its North and South. Explain how the North’s eco- suspension in cases of invasion or insurrection. nomic programs represented an attempt to During the Civil War, Lincoln suspended habeas strengthen industrial capitalism and appeal to corpus to stop protests against the draft and other western settlers. Discuss the northern emphasis on anti-Union activities. The USA Patriot Act (2001) voluntary compliance with war measures, particu- likewise suspends this privilege in cases of sus- larly the draft. Discuss southern resistance to the pected terrorism, but the constitutional legitimacy Confederate government in the form of food riots of this and other provisions of the act has yet to be and refusal to sell supplies to Confederate troops. decided by the courts. (434) Explore the formation of West Virginia. Discuss the ways in which slaves hampered Confederate “King Cotton” A term used to describe the impor- activities and the contributions northern African tance of raw cotton to the nineteenth-century Americans made to the Union cause. economy. More specifically, the Confederate belief during the Civil War that their cotton was so im- 3. Write a lecture examining Lincoln’s treatment of portant to the British and French economies that civil liberties during the Civil War. Explore when those governments would recognize the South as and in what ways Lincoln disregarded constitu- an independent nation and supply it with loans tionally guaranteed civil liberties in order to put and arms. (436) down antiwar activities in the North. Lincoln has 208 Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865

been called both generous and dictatorial. Con- be much admired; a list of other southern leaders sider the problem of internal dissent and freedom should include Longstreet and Jackson. Although of speech during the war by asking students to the text discusses northern political leaders during think about issues related to the modern War on the war, southern politicians are not mentioned Terrorism and the Patriot Act. frequently. Discuss the lives of men such as Jeffer- son Davis and Alexander Stephens. What similari- 4. The Emancipation Proclamation transformed the ties did they share? war, and the enlistment of African Americans con- firmed that transformation. Explore the reasons why African Americans enlisted, and discuss their Reviewing the Text experiences in the Union army. Many African Americans first learned to read in the army, and These questions are from the textbook and follow each that later enabled them to participate in Recon- main section of the narrative. They are provided in the struction governments. Explain the segregation, Computerized Test Bank with suggested responses, for limited work assignments, and pay differentials your convenience. under which they served. Discuss how they and some white officers attempted to change those Secession and Military Stalemate, 1861–1862 policies. Explore the impact their enlistment had (pp. 424–434) on the northern population. 1. Why was there no new compromise over slavery in 5. Why did the South lose? Write a lecture that dis- 1861? cusses the differences in industrial capacity and their impact on the war’s outcome. Explore the dif- •Previous failed compromises regarding the ficulties Lincoln and Davis had in finding suitable spread of slavery to new states and territories in- generals. Explain the strategy and tactics of both dicated to participants that more compromise sides; ask whether Confederate leaders were too would also fail. prone to attack even in disadvantageous situations. • Lincoln’s election in November of 1860 created a Compare and contrast the generalships of Lee and secession movement that by December had led Grant. Most of the military campaigns and their to the withdrawal of several southern states. attendant destruction occurred on southern soil. •Confederates fired on support ships in late 1860 How do you think this affected the will to persevere attempting to resupply a federal garrison at Fort in the South and North, respectively? Explain. Sumter. 6. The Civil War is often called the first “modern war.” 2. Why did most of the border states remain in the Write a lecture that explores the technological and Union? conceptual changes that the war introduced. Dis- cuss how European battles were conducted in the •Border states remained in the Union because eighteenth century. Explain the evolution of Lin- there were large numbers of loyal unionists coln’s thinking in this area. Explore how the Union within the states, to maintain economic devel- strategy gradually changed, resulting in Sherman’s opment, to avoid war with the federal govern- activities in Georgia and South Carolina. Show ment over their geographical closeness, and be- how the Civil War, as a total war, was a precursor of cause they did not have to give up slavery to twentieth-century conflicts. Finally, discuss the remain in the Union. new technology, from the rifle-musket to the use of telegraphs and railroads, and show how those in- 3. Why did the Confederacy—and the Union—de- novations changed the face of warfare. cide to go to war in 1861? What were the military goals of each side? 7. Biography is an approach that appeals to many students. Write a biographical-centered lecture •Confederacy: States in the Lower South, espe- based on the military history of the Civil War. Se- cially South Carolina, wanted to secede as early lect one or several key military players and discuss as 1850. Lincoln’s election to the presidency in how their lives influenced the Civil War, and how 1860, viewed as an act of aggression against the war impacted them. Describe what their lives slave-owning society, compelled the proponents were like before the war, the opportunities the war of secession to achieve their goals. presented, and their lives after the war. Examples • Union: Initially, President Buchanan did not include men such as Grant, McClellan, and Sher- want to use federal authority against the seces- man for the North. For the South, Lee continues to sionist states in 1860. When Lincoln took the Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865 209

over the office in 1861, however, he expressed his •Antislavery Republicans initiated policies, such willingness to enforce federal law. After the hos- as the Confiscation Act, that brought blacks tility of the Confederate government forced the closer to being freed en masse by the federal gov- surrender of Fort Sumter on April 14, 1861, Lin- ernment. In 1862 they persuaded Congress to coln called the state militias into federal service. end slavery in the District of Columbia, outlaw • Northern military goals: Force rebellious states slavery in the federal territories, and help to pass back into the Union through an active military a Second Confiscation Act in 1862. Lincoln built campaign after diplomacy had failed. on these initiatives. • Southern military goals: Maintain a defensive •Contrabands forced the issue by seizing freedom guerilla war, gain European economic and mili- for themselves through escape from slavery to tary support, wait for the North to lose public Union lines. Thousands of these displaced peo- support for war, and maintain slavery as a useful ple presented a problem for Lincoln because military measure. Union generals and Congress created policies le- gitimizing their wartime freedom and service for Toward Total War (pp. 434 –439) the Union cause. 1. Which government—the Union or the Con- 2. Why were the battles at Gettysburg and Vicksburg federacy—imposed greater military and economic significant? How did they change the tide of war burdens on its citizens? How successful was that strategically? Diplomatically? Psychologically? strategy? •The two battles were Union victories that de- •The Confederacy imposed greater economic and moralized the southern army and population military burdens: It drafted citizens and a while invigorating northern public opinion greater ratio of the male population before the about winning the war. Union did, compelled citizens to provide money •The South lost the economic, diplomatic, and and goods in greater amounts to support the military support of Britain after the battles were war, and printed paper money instead of in- over. creasing taxation to pay for the war, leading to •The South lost many troops in both battles; massive inflation. General Lee’s Army of Virginia was nearly de- •The strategy was unsuccessful because a sound stroyed at Gettysburg. financial system was needed to pay for the war, •The Vicksburg campaign cut the South geo- inflation impoverished southern families, requi- graphically in half, facilitated Union occupation sitioning goods impoverished southern domes- of the Deep South, and prevented the Confeder- tic economy, and the draft led to manpower ate army’s use of the Mississippi River. shortage at home. The Union Victorious, 1864–1865 2. What were the main economic policies enacted by (pp. 444–453) the Republican-controlled Congress? 1. What was the effect of emancipation on the poli- •There was a government-assisted national eco- tics and military affairs of the North? nomic development that surpassed Henry Clay’s • Emancipation produced a racist backlash American System, which included raising tariffs among white voters fearful of insurrection and to win political support of northeastern manu- economic competition with newly freed slaves. facturers and workers, forcing local banks to ac- • Emancipation provided the Democratic Party cept federal charters and regulations; funding a with gains in key political posts, calling into nationally financed system of internal improve- question Republican war strategies and giving ments; and passing the Homestead Act of 1862 more power to peace proposals. to raise revenues from the sale of public lands. •Militarily, emancipation made possible the offi- cial use of blacks as soldiers in the Union army, The Turning Point: 1863 (pp. 439–444) which increased manpower and transformed the war into a war to end slavery. 1. Antislavery Republican politicians and the thousands of “contrabands” played a role in President 2. What were the strengths and weaknesses of Lincoln’s decision to declare and sign the Emanci- Grant’s military strategy and tactics? How was pation Proclamation. What role did each of them Grant’s way of warfare different from traditional play? military practice? 210 Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865

• Strengths: The massive movement of troops to •Northern victory resulted from a total war strat- attack all Confederate armies, the use of indus- egy, economic strangulation of the South based trial technology, targeting the entire South for on northern industrial output, a larger man- occupation, the acceptance of heavy casualties, power pool from immigrant arrivals, and the and the use of railroad transportation were suc- creation of a strong centralized economy to pay cessful strategies and tactics. for the war. • Weaknesses: Grant lost many troops and was nicknamed “the butcher” due to his aggressive 2. In 1860, the institution of slavery was firmly en- style and targeting of civilians and cities. His trenched in the United States; by 1865, it was dead. style of warfare also cost the federal government How did this happen? How did Union policy to- much money. ward slavery and enslaved people change over the • Differences: Grant fought a modern form of war course of the war? Why did it change? that relied on the Industrial Revolution, massive casualties, rapid movement of troops through •Union policy toward slavery changed during the rail transport, and total war. war from a toleration of slavery if the South came back into the Union, to a more pragmatic policy of using the institution to help win the war, and 3. Describe Sherman’s hard-war strategy. How did he finally as a moral tactic to generate public support pursue this strategy? With what results? to stay the course of the war and end slavery. •After Vicksburg, Sherman swung his armies into •The policy changed primarily because of the ef- the Southeast, moving northward along the east forts of escaped slaves, free blacks like Frederick coast toward the capital of the Confederacy, Douglass, Radical white Republicans, and other Richmond, Virginia. abolitionists who called for the use of black •Hard or total war included using troops to at- troops and the need to make the war a war to tack the civilian population through the de- end slavery. After seeing the carnage of battle struction of industry, farms, and entire cities of and listening to black leaders, President Lincoln the Deep South. Also known as “scorched earth adjusted his opinion, and recognized the wis- policy,”the effects were devastating to all aspects dom of altering the Union’s policy toward slav- of southern life. ery and slaves. •The results were a massive destruction of southern industry and economy, the demoralization of Confederate families, the capturing of sup- Class Discussion Starters plies, military occupation of the South by the 1. How might the war have been different if Ken- North, and lasting animosity by Southerners to- tucky, Maryland, and Missouri had seceded? ward the federal government. Possible answers Chapter Writing Assignments a. The loss of Kentucky and Missouri would have made it much more difficult for Union troops These questions appear at the end of Chapter 14 in the to keep the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers open. textbook. They are provided in the Computerized Test Bank with suggested responses, for your convenience. b. Without Kentucky and Missouri, Union troops would not have been able to penetrate the Deep 1. As the war began, politicians and ordinary citizens South as easily. in both the North and the South were supremely confident of victory. Why did Southerners believe c. Without Maryland, the Union would have lost they would triumph? Why did the North ulti- Washington, D.C. mately win the Civil War? d. With Maryland in the Confederacy, Rebel •Southerners were confident that Europe would troops would have been able to invade Pennsyl- help finance the war, that the South possessed vania and New Jersey. sufficient manpower and wealth in the form of cotton and slaves, that northern public opinion 2. How did the war change women’s lives? would not support a long and protracted war Possible answers against the South, and that southern white men possessed a special fighting spirit that Yankees a. Women who lived near the fighting feared being did not. caught in battle or facing marauding troops. Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865 211

b. Farm women had to do additional work when their men joined the army. 5. How might the war have been different if Great Britain had entered on the side of the Confederacy? c. New fields of employment in nursing and civil service were opened to women. Possible answers a. The Union navy probably would not have been 3. How did the Civil War affect the barriers of class, able to blockade the southern coastline. race, and gender? b. New Orleans, and thus the Mississippi River, Possible answers probably would have remained under Confed- a. Class distinctions were heightened because erate control. young men with resources could buy their way c. The Confederacy would have had access to out of military service. more and better weaponry. b. Men of all classes served together in both armies. d. Union attention would have been divided be- c. Racism increased in the North as young white tween the Confederacy and Great Britain. men resisted fighting in the Union army and re- sented the hiring of African Americans to break 6. What effect did domestic opposition, such as that labor strikes. presented by the Peace Democrats, have on Lin- d. African Americans eventually were enlisted by coln’s policies? both sides, but they served in segregated units Possible answers in the North and barely had time to enlist in the South before the war was over. a. Lincoln chose Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, as his vice president in 1864 in order to appeal to e. Women filled farm, nursing, and civil service northern Democrats. jobs previously held by men. b. He was slow to move on the issue of slavery, not 4. Although the Thirteenth Amendment did not go wanting to offend northern moderates, Demo- into effect until after the war was over, how did the crats, and voters in the border states. war and Union policies hasten the end of slavery? c. He suspended habeas corpus and other tradi- Possible answers tional, constitutionally guaranteed rights to move quickly against antiwar Democrats. a. General Benjamin Butler refused to return slaves who had escaped to Union lines, a policy 7. How would the war have ended if the Union had formalized in the First and Second Confisca- continued to emphasize military conflict rather tion Acts. than the total war concept of Lincoln, Grant, and b. In 1862 Congress abolished slavery in the Dis- Sherman? trict of Columbia. Possible answers c. In 1862 Congress abolished slavery in the terri- a. The war would have lasted much longer, and tories. northern civilian support for it might have de- d. As of January 1, 1863, the Emancipation Procla- clined. mation freed slaves in states and areas rebelling b. The Confederate army would have held out, de- against the Union. teriorating into guerilla bands with significant e. Union enlistment of African Americans in- local support; this could have prolonged the creased the northern commitment to abolition. conflict for many years. f. Toward the end of the war, Jefferson Davis and c. There might have been no definitive end to the the Confederate Congress agreed to enlist and war, as southern civilians would have refused to free slaves who would fight for the Confeder- accept defeat. acy. While a few blacks actually fought for the d. The South would have sunk into chaos, victim- South, more remained in service and support ized by guerilla bands of ex-Confederates; roles. Nonetheless, this move challenged south- slaves would have resorted to violence; famine ern racist views regarding the capability of Af- and disease would have cut down civilians of rican Americans. both races. 212 Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865

8. Why did the North win the Civil War? words. When they are finished, ask for answers to particular questions that you find revealing about Possible answers Lincoln’s connection to the war, such as: Why did a. The North’s greater population and manufac- Lincoln issue the Emancipation Proclamation? turing capacity overwhelmed southern re- What role did blacks play in shaping his thinking sources by 1865. about the war? b. In the long run, Grant—with his determination to take the war to southern society—was a better military strategist than was Lee. Oral History Exercise c. Union military leaders executed superior oper- •Oral interviews are invaluable in revealing the Af- ational campaigns. rican American slave experience during the Civil War. Ask students why this is the case. Then bring d. The southern commitment to states’ rights into class a series of Works Progress Administra- weakened the South’s ability to marshal its soci- tion oral interviews and create an in-class exercise ety. based on the entries. Be sure to bring short entries e. Lincoln did a better job directing the war in the that are written both in Standard English and areas of military strategy, economic policy, and southern black dialect. Ask students to compare political direction than did Jefferson Davis. and contrast the entries and, through a brain- storming exercise, provide key factors explaining f. The South’s physical capacity to wage war had the impact of the war on slave life. Also ask the been destroyed by 1865. The South simply students about the impact of the interviewer and could no longer sustain armies in the field given interviewing process on the interviewee and the the devastation inflicted on its manufacturing, content of the entry. What portrait of the war’s transportation, and agricultural assets. impact on slave life surfaces from the entries as a whole? This exercise also works well as a test ques- Classroom Activities tion or paper assignment. 1. Bring in some maps that reveal the strategies and military movements of both armies during the Civil War. Then divide the class into two or more Working with Documents groups to study the maps. Ask them to compile talking points to answer two questions: How did COMPARING AMERICAN VOICES both sides fight the war? Why did the Union win the conflict? Write their ideas on the board. You Blacks and Whites Describe might want to ask a counterfactual question, such the End of Slavery (p. 442) as: What would have happened if Lincoln had 1. How does Elizabeth Mary Meade Ingraham react been assassinated early in the war? to the end of slavery? How does her reaction com- 2. Divide the class into small groups and ask the pare with those of the other slave owners de- groups to explain the various options available to scribed in the interviews? What are the owners’ both the North and South regarding secession. strategies and goals with regard to their workers? Did the southern states need to leave the Union? •Ingraham reacts by attempting to bargain with Did the North need to use violence against the and convince her former slaves to remain with South? After fifteen minutes, ask the groups to de- her. velop a written statement making a forceful argu- •Some other owners become angry and attempt ment to answer the question. Write their ideas on to kill their slaves before freeing them. Some de- the board, then ask the class as a whole to rank the mand back the resources they had given their most important factors explaining the political de- slaves, like clothing. Some take freedom in velopment of secession. stride. Most expect former slaves to continue to 3. Bring in a list of long quotes extracted from Lin- serve them since they had purchased the slaves coln’s Emancipation Proclamation or any of his before the war. major speeches during the war. Read one of these •Owners aim to secure the continuing services of aloud to the students, then ask them to write a their slaves by convincing them that they are paragraph explaining the meaning of Lincoln’s family and need employment to survive. Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865 213

2. Do you think the interviewers’ race or outlook af- explanation help us understand the free-soil fected the content of the interviews here? Is it im- movement? portant that some transcriptions are in Standard •Slavery was opposed on the basis of radical Euro- English and that others are in black dialect? pean notions of class equality, a moral hatred of •The outlook and race of the interviewer proba- undemocratic practices and beliefs, and a pride bly played a role in shaping the interviews. A in wanting a nation free of slavery. white interviewer’s bias can be found in an at- •The free-soil movement was based on class equal- tempt to recapture black dialect, or to rewrite ity and the need to rid the nation of slavery to the interview in Standard English. Sentences help the white working class earn more income could have been left out. Blacks may have feared by making the nation based on free labor only. white interviewers because of the racist nature of southern society. 2. Why, as late as 1864, did the federal government lack control over Missouri, a border state that re- 3. What impact do you think the age of the ex-slaves mained in the Union? What clues does Duvergier had on their stories? How might the passage of de Hauranne provide? decades have affected their memory of events? Is •Missouri was basically a rebel state, with most of it significant that most of those interviewed were the population pro-South. Union strategy was to either children or teenagers when slavery ended? bypass Missouri in favor of subduing the deep •The passage of time and senility may have led to southern states. The presence of General Fremont omissions or inclusion of events that did not had also quieted ethnic antagonisms. occur. The fact that the former slaves interviewed were children during slavery means that 3. Ethnic rivalries loomed large in the civil warfare in they recall events from a child’s perspective, and Missouri. As you read the chapter, look for other only experienced slavery for a brief part of their ethnic conflicts that exploded during the war. Why lives. did they do so? •Ethnic conflicts exploded during the war based 4. What specific event or set of factors prompted on the pent-up animosities between ethnic each of these former slaves to claim his or her free- groups before the war. Particular war issues, dom? Can you detect any patterns in the stories? such as the draft, aroused resentment among What are they? certain groups, such as the immigrant Irish, who •Factors included being insulted by white mis- had more to loose as drafted soldiers than more tress’ claims of ownership; being told by former wealthy Anglo Americans who could afford to masters that they were free; the need to earn an pay for a substitute. The New York City draft income to pay for food, housing, and the needs riots of 1863 are a case in point. of children; the need to reclaim children from other masters. Reading American Pictures •Former slaves were surprised at learning of freedom. They then either left or attempted to rene- gotiate their unofficial labor contracts into a free What Do Photographs Tell Us About labor arrangement. Many slaves remained on the Civil War? (p. 452) the home plantation because they had no place 1. Study the picture on page 422. Then look at the else to go to secure food and shelter. Many slaves picture above of the emaciated body of a Massa- felt angry and bitter about their enslavement, as chusetts soldier who has just been freed from a well as elated about their new freedom. Confederate military prison. Which image is more powerful intellectually? Emotionally? How do you V OICES FROM ABROAD think nineteenth-century Americans responded to the two photographs? Ernest Duvergier de Hauranne: •The nakedness and emaciated state reveals the German Immigrants and the Civil War humanity of the soldier and is a more powerful image. Nineteenth-century Americans undoubt- within Missouri (p. 429) edly were horrified at seeing the war’s impact on 1. According to Duvergier de Hauranne, why did people. Photography was a new science, and nu- German immigrants oppose slavery? How does his dity was frowned upon, making the image all the 214 Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865

more provocative and emotionally heart- • Freedmen and Southern Society Project wrenching for people who had not yet known www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/home.html total war on a national scale. An award-winning site that captures the drama of war and emancipation in the words of 2. The second image shows Captain (later General) liberated slaves and defeated masters. George A. Custer (right) conversing quietly with a captured Confederate officer. These men had just • National Civil War Association tried to kill each other. Why are they now behav- www.ncwa.org/ ing with such civility? The rules of war? Respect This site documents the activities of one of between officers? the many Civil War reenactment organizations in the United States. •A nineteenth-century officer’s code of conduct, influenced by Europe, brought professional soldiers from both sides together in ways that tran- Films scended political loyalties. The men could have • Glory (1989, TriStar Pictures, 122 minutes) been friends before the war, perhaps at West Directed by Edward Zwick, this excellent Point, since the Civil War was fought on both film highlights the experience of black soldiers sides by Americans. in the Civil War. 3. Why did the photographer, the great Mathew • The Civil War (1990, PBS documentary, 8 hours) Brady, take this picture of Custer? Brady chose his Directed by Ken Burns, this unparalleled images carefully so that they conveyed meaning or documentary examines the causes and impact of a perspective on events. Is the black boy, the the Civil War. Southerner’s slave property, the clue to the meaning of this picture? Do you think Brady is suggest- • Gettysburg (1993, New Line Cinema, 254 minutes) ing that the struggle is really about the values and Directed by Ronald F. Maxwell, this lengthy ideology of white men? reenactment of the Civil War focuses on the generals and officers behind the conflict. •This photo was taken to illustrate two aspects of the conflict: the role of African Americans as symbolized by the slave boy and the unity or Literature brotherhood between white men on both sides, •C.Vann Woodward, ed., Mary Chesnut’s Civil illustrating the gentlemanly nature of the war. War (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1981) An incisive portrait of southern society 4. Look carefully at the picture of the destroyed from the diary of a planter’s wife. buildings in Richmond on page 453. What does the presence of the women in the right foreground •Michael Sharra, Killer Angels (New York: Viking add to the image and to its effect on the viewer? Press, 1974) A realistic and influential novel about the •The women in the image are dressed in dark Battle of Gettysburg. clothing, which makes them look as though they are in mourning, or as though they are ghostly •Eric Foner, ed., Frederick Douglass on Slavery and figures. The presence of the women serves to the Civil War (New York: Dover, 1990) highlight the consequences of the severe devas- A revealing selection of Douglass’s views on tation portrayed in the rest of the photograph. African Americans in the Civil War and the role of slavery and blacks in the conflict. Electronic Media Web Sites Additional Bedford/St. Martin’s • Selected Civil War Photographs Resources for Chapter 14 http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/cwphtml/ cwphome.html FOR INSTRUCTORS This Library of Congress site provides a plethora of images of the war, principally by Transparencies Mathew Brady and other well-known photogra- The following maps and images from Chapter 14 are phers. It includes a link to another Library of available as full-color acetates: Congress site containing portraits of Civil War officers, politicians, and cultural figures. • Fields of Death Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865 215

•Map 14.1 The Process of Secession, 1860–1861 • THE PUBLIC ART OF CIVIL WAR COMMEMORATION: A •Map 14.2 The Eastern Campaigns of 1862 Brief History with Documents,by Thomas Brown, •Map 14.3 The Western Campaigns, 1861–1862 University of South Carolina •Map 14.4 Lee Invades the North, 1863 • HOSPITAL SKETCHES by Louisa May Alcott, Edited •Map 14.5 The Closing Virginia Campaigns, 1864– with an Introduction by Alice Fahs, University of 1865 California, Irvine •Map 14.6 Sherman’s March through the Confed- • Abraham Lincoln, Slavery, and the Civil War: Se- eracy, 1864–1865 lected Writings and Speeches, Edited by Michael P. •Map 14.7 The Conquest of the South, 1861–1865 Johnson, Johns Hopkins University •Captain George A. Custer and a Confederate Pris- oner •A Federal Prisoner FOR STUDENTS

Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM Documents to Accompany America’s History The following documents and illustrations are avail- The following maps, figures, and images from Chapter able in Chapter 14 of the companion reader by Melvin 14, as well as a chapter outline, are available on disc in Yazawa, University of New Mexico: both PowerPoint and jpeg formats: 1. Charles Memminger, South Carolina Secedes from •Map 14.1 The Process of Secession, 1860–1861 the Union (1860) •Map 14.2 The Eastern Campaigns of 1862 2. Constitution of the Confederate States (1861) •Map 14.3 The Western Campaigns, 1861–1862 3. Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address (1861) •Map 14.4 Lee Invades the North, 1863 4. Mary Boykin Chesnut, The Crisis at Fort Sumter •Map 14.5 The Closing Virginia Campaigns, 1864– (April 1861) 1865 5. The Work of the United States Sanitary Commis- •Map 14.6 Sherman’s March through the Confed- sion (1864) eracy, 1864–1865 6. Slave Runaways in South Carolina (1861) •Map 14.7 The Conquest of the South, 1861–1865 7. Charlotte Forten, A Northern Black Woman • Figure 14.1 Economies, North and South, 1860 Teaches Contrabands in South Carolina (1862) • Fields of Death 8. Adalbert John Volk, J.F. Meeks, Lincoln and Eman- •Agitating for Secession cipation (1864) •The Bombardment of Fort Sumter, 1861 9. Anna Elizabeth Dickinson, The New York City •The Battle of Antietam: The Fight for Burnside’s Draft Riots (July 1863) Bridge 10. Abraham Lincoln, The Gettysburg Address (1863) •Draft Riots and Antiblack Violence in New York 11. Confederates Debate Emancipation (1863–1864) City 12. Weekly Anglo-American,Letters to the Editor •Hospital Nursing (1864) •The War’s Toll on Civilians 13. Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address •Black Soldiers in the Union Army (1865) •Grant Planning an Attack •William Tecumseh Sherman •Captain George A. Custer and a Confederate Pris- Online Study Guide at oner bedfordstmartins.com/henretta •A Federal Prisoner •The Devastation of War The Online Study Guide helps students synthesize the material from the text as well as practice the skills his- Using the Bedford Series with torians use to make sense of the past. The following America’s History,Sixth Edition map, visual, and documents activities are available for Chapter 14: Available online at bedfordstmartins.com/usingseries, this guide offers practical suggestions for incorporat- Map Activity ing volumes from the Bedford Series in History and Culture into the U.S. History Survey. Relevant titles for •Map 14.6 Sherman’s March through the Confed- Chapter 14 include eracy, 1864–1865 216 Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861–1865

Visual Activity Critical Thinking Modules at bedfordstmartins.com/historymodules •Reading American Pictures: What Do Photographs Tell Us About the Civil War? These online modules invite students to interpret maps, audio, visual, and textual sources centered on Reading Historical Documents Activities events covered in the U.S. history survey. Relevant modules for Chapter 14 include •Comparing American Voices: Blacks and Whites •Who Freed the Slaves?: Frederick Douglass and Describe the End of Slavery the Freedman’s Monument, 1876 •Voices from Abroad: Ernest Duveyier de Haur- anne: German Immigrants and the Civil War within Missouri