Some Glimpses of British and American Nature

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ФГБОУ ВПО «Пензенский государственный университет» Пензенский государственный педагогический институт имени В. Г. Белинского

T. Polukarova, N. Kostina

Some Glimpses Of British and American Nature

(For students of faculties of foreign languages)

Пенза, 2013

УДК 91 (420 + 73) (02) : 20

ББК 26.89 (4 Вел + 7 Сое) : 81.2 Англ я 73

Полукарова Т. А., Костина Н. Ю. Some Glimpses of British and American Nature: учебное пособие по лингвострановедению и страноведению для студентов факультетов иностранных языков педагогических ВУЗов. – Пенза. – 2013. – 73 с.

Брошюра является продолжением серии учебных пособий по лингвострановедению. В центре внимания – своеобразие природных условий Великобритании и США, природоохранная деятельность в двух странах, а также культурная значимость объектов природы. Собранный материал дает представление об некоторых особенностях слов-названий животных, птиц и растений в английском языке.

На обложке – арчимбольдеска С. Трофимовой (2012).

Contents Foreword……………………………………………………………………….…4 Part 1. Great Britain……………………………………………………………....5 1.1. The Beauty of Britain (J. B. Priestley)…………………………………….…5 1.2. Exploring England…………………………………………………………....7 1.3. Welsh Natural Heritage………………………………………………………21 1. 4. The Nature of Scotland……………………………………………………...26 1.5. Northern Ireland...... 30 1.6. Man and Nature: the British Experience……………………………………..31 1.7. Language Tracks……………………………………………………………..39 Part 2. The USA…………………………………………………………………...43 2. 1. The Face of the Land…………………………………………………….…..44 2. 2. Lure of the Wilderness………………………………………………………46 2. 3. Need for Conservation…………………………………………………….....47 2. 4. National Parks and Forests…………………………………………………..49 2. 5. Vegetation…………………………………………………………………....51 2. 6. Wildlife……………………………………………………………………....53 2. 7. Birds as Symbols of the USA………………………………………………..54 2. 8. Plants as Symbols of the USA……………………………………………….60 2. 9. Animals as Symbols of the USA…………………………………………….64 List of Animal and Plant Names………………………………………………..68 Illustrations………………………………………………………………………73

Foreword It’s a beautiful world…

For centuries on end had the Man felt “the child of Nature” who lived under her watchful eye. Years of life in the natural surroundings have summed up into the immense cultural heritage centered around this subject. Now that the man- made world has expanded so much that no single stone seems to be untouched, we have realized how important it is to preserve the beauty around us. Alas, we seem to preserve it from our own selves! In this little book we focus our attention on the nature and wildlife of two English-speaking countries: Great Britain and the USA. A special emphasis is made on the need for conservation and the measures taken in this direction in both countries. Our next concern was to outline the significance of the objects of nature as cultural signs. We have selected patterns of symbolic use in the images of animals, birds and plants. There is also a linguistic twist in the knot. Our angle of vision brings to light semantic features of the English animal and floral word stocks. The book is supplied with a list of names animal and plant names to expand the vocabulary of the English learners. We feel that the illustrations of S. Trophimova give the booklet a special tint of emotion. Our work was being affected by the sense of nature’s uniqueness and, with luck, it will generate this feeling in our readers.

Authors

Part 1. Great Britain 1.1. The Beauty of Britain J. B. Priestley The beauty of our country – or at least all of it south of the Highlands – is as hard to define as it is easy to enjoy. Remembering other and larger countries, we see at once that one of its charms is that it is immensely varied within a small compass. We have here no vast mountain ranges, no illimitable plains, no leagues of forest, and are deprived of the grandeur that may accompany these things. But we have superb variety. A great deal of everything is packed into little space. I suspect that we are always faintly conscious of the fact that this is a smallish island, with the sea always round the corner. We know that everything has to be neatly packed into a small space. Nature, we feel, has carefully adjusted things – mountains, plains, rivers, lakes – to the scale of the island itself. A mountain 12,000 feet high would be a horrible monster here, as wrong as a plain 400 miles long, a river as broad as the Mississippi. In America the whole scale is too big, except for aviators. There is always too much of everything. There you find yourself in a region that is all mountains, then in another region that is merely part of one colossal plain. You can spend a long, hard day in the Rockies simply travelling up or down one valley. You can wander across prairie country that has the desolating immensity of the ocean. Everything is too big; there is too much of it. Though the geographical features of this island are comparatively small, and there is astonishing variety almost everywhere, that does not mean that our mountains are not mountains, our plains not plains. Consider the Lake District. You can climb with ease – as I have done many a time – several of its mountains in one day. Nevertheless, you feel that they are mountains and not mere hills – as a correspondent pointed out in The Times recently. This same correspondent told a story that proves my point. A party of climbers imported a Swiss guide into the Lake District; and on the first morning, surveying the misty, jagged peaks before him, he pointed to a ledge about two thirds of the way up and suggested that the

5 party should spend the night there. He did not know that that ledge was only an hour or two’s journey away and that before the light went they would probably have conquered two or three of these peaks. He had not realized the scale of the country. He did not know that he was looking at mountains in miniature. What he did know was that he was certainly looking at mountains, and he was right, for these peaks, some of them less than 3,000 feet high, have all the air of great mountains. My own favourite country, perhaps because I knew it as a boy, is that of the Yorkshire Dales. For variety of landscape, these Dales cannot be matched in this island or anywhere else. A day’s walk among them will give you almost everything fit to be seen on this earth. Within a few hours, you have enjoyed the green valleys, with their rivers, fine old bridges, pleasant villages, hanging woods, smooth fields; and then the moorland slopes, with their rushing streams, stone walls, salty winds and white farmhouses; and then the lonely heights, which seem to be miles above the ordinary world. Yet less than an hour in a fast motor will bring you to the middle of some manufacturing town. Another characteristic of our landscape is its exquisite moderation. It looks like the result of one of those happy compromises that make our social and political plans so irrational and yet so successful. It has been born of a compromise between wildness and tameness, between Nature and Man. In many countries you pass straight from regions where men have left their mark on every inch of ground to other regions that are desolate wildernesses. Abroad, we have all noticed how abruptly most of the cities seem to begin: here, no city; there, the city. With us the cities pretend they are not really there until we are well inside them. They almost insinuate themselves into the countryside. This comes from another compromise of ours, the suburb. There is a great deal to be said for the suburb. To people of moderate means, compelled to live fairly near their work in a city, the suburb offers the most civilized way of life. Nearly all Englishmen are at heart country gentlemen. The suburban villa enables the salesman or the clerk, out of hours, to be almost a country gentleman. (Let us admit that it offers his wife and children more 6 solid advantages.) A man in a newish suburb feels that he has one foot in the city and one in the country. As this is the kind of compromise he likes, he is happy. We must return, however, to the landscape, which I suggest is the result of a compromise between wildness and cultivation, Nature and Man. One reason for this is that it contains that exquisite balance between Nature and Man. We see a cornfield and a cottage, both solid evidences of Man’s presence. The fence and the gate are man-made, but are not severely regular and trim as they would be in some other countries. The trees and hedges, the grass and wild flowers in the foreground, all suggest that Nature has not been dragooned into obedience. Even the cottage, which has an irregularity and coloring that make it fit snugly into the landscape (as all good cottages should do), looks nearly as much a piece of natural history as the trees: you feel it might have grown there. In some countries, that cottage would have been an uncompromising cube of brick which would have declared, “No nonsense now. Man, the drainer, the tiller, the builder, has settled here.” In this English scene there is no such direct opposition. Men and trees and flowers, we feel, have all settled down comfortably together. The motto is, “Live and let live.” This exquisite harmony between Nature and Man explains in part the enchantment of the older Britain, in which whole towns fitted snugly into the landscape and it was impossible to say where cultivation ended and wild life began. It was a country rich in trees, birds, and wild flowers, as we can see to this day.

1.2. Exploring England England comprises most of the central and southern two-thirds of the island of

Great Britain, in addition to a number of small islands: the Isle of Wight, the Isle of Sheppey, Hayling Island, Foulness Island, Portsea Island, Canvey Island, Mersea Island, Walney Island, Portland and Wallasea Island and others of which the largest is the Isle of Wight. The Isle of Man and Channel Islands do not form part of either the United Kingdom or England. England has 4,422 km of coastline, much less than the deeply indented Scottish coastline. The English coastline varies a great deal by the seas and regions 7 it borders. An interesting ecosystem influencing the English coast in the north is the North Sea. The North Sea An epeiric (or “shelf”) sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north. It is more than 970 km long and 580 km wide, with an area of around 750,000 square km. The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features. In the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas the south consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the dense population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it, there have been a number of environmental issues affecting the sea’s ecosystems. Environmental concerns — commonly including overfishing, industrial and agricultural runoff, dredging, and dumping among others—have led to a number of efforts to prevent degradation of the sea while still making use of its Over 230 species of fish live in the North Sea. Cod, haddock, whiting, saithe, plaice, sole, mackerel, herring, pouting, sprat, and sandeel are all very common and are fished commercially. Due to the various depths of the North Sea trenches and differences in salinity, temperature, and water movement, some fish such as blue-mouth redfish and rabbitfish reside only in small areas of the North Sea. Crustaceans are also commonly found throughout the sea. Norway lobster, deep-water prawns, and brown shrimp are all commercially fished, but other species of lobster, shrimp, oyster, mussels and clams all live in the North Sea. Recently non-indigenous species have become established including the Pacific oyster and Atlantic jackknife clam. The coasts of the North Sea are home to nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary, Fowlsheugh Nature Preserve, and Farne Islands. These locations provide breeding habitat for dozens of bird species. Tens of millions of birds make use of the North Sea for breeding, feeding, or migratory stopovers every year. 8

Populations of black legged kittiwakes, Atlantic puffins, Northern fulmars, and species of petrels, gannets, seaducks, loons (divers), cormorants, gulls, auks, and terns, and many other seabirds make these coasts popular for birdwatching. The North Sea is also home to marine mammals. Common seals, and harbour porpoises can be found along the coasts, at marine installations, and on islands. The very northern North Sea islands such as the Shetland Islands are occasionally home to a larger variety of pinnipeds including bearded, harp, hooded and ringed seals, and even walrus. North Sea cetaceans include various porpoise, dolphin and whale species. The wildlife of the North Sea has suffered from pollution, overhunting, and overfishing. Flamingos, pelicans, and great auk were once found along the southern shores of the North Sea, but went extinct over the 2nd millennium. Gray whales also resided in the North Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlantic in the 17th century. Other species have dramatically declined in population, though they are still found. Right whales, sturgeon, shad, rays, skates, salmon, and other species were common in the North Sea until the 20th century, when numbers declined due to overfishing. The English Coast The North Sea coast of England is mainly flat and sandy with many dunes and is similar to coastlines across the sea in the Netherlands. It is an important area of bird life and is a habitat for many shore and wading birds. Along the English Channel, the South Coast builds up into steep, white cliffs which are often seen as an iconic symbol of England and

Britain. The coastline of Devon and Cornwall has similarities to that of Brittany in France directly opposite. In North West England the coastline is mainly flat and sandy, with the only notable cliffs along this stretch of coast being at St Bees Head in Cumbria. The 9

English Irish Sea coast is an important area of estuaries and bird life, with Wirral being a peninsula bounded by two rivers, the River Dee and the River Mersey. Liverpool and Merseyside are areas of high population and important industry along this coast, with tourist resorts of Southport and Blackpool being further to the north. The English Irish Sea coast hosts two important geographic areas, Morecambe Bay, a large bay, and the Furness and Walney Island areas. Further north into Cumbria the Sellafield Nuclear Power Station lies along this coast. The English section of the Irish Sea coast ends at the border with Scotland in the Solway Firth. English Landscape Terms The English landscape names are often confusing. For instance, the words moor and heath refer to the open areas covered with heather, but a moor is hilly, while a heath is flat. In other cases, the things may be similar from the geographical point of view, but the vegetation that grows there or the shapes of hills may be responsible for the use of different terms. For instance, a valley between the hills is called a coomb in Cornwall, a chine in Hampshire, a dale in Yorkshire and a glen in Scotland. Geographically they may be alike but the colour and/or the shape of rocks are different: the hills around a Cornish coomb are covered with heather, while on both sides of a Hampshire chine are bare cliffs, and the hills on both sides of a Yorkshire dale are more round, resembling a basket of eggs. With raised areas the situation is not easier. They say “mount/mountain” (from Latin mōns/mont-) for land over 600 meters over the sea level; “cliff” (from Germanic klibam) for steep sides of high areas; “rock” for hard solid substance that forms part of the Earth’s surface; “hill” (from West Germanic *χulni) for raised areas smaller than mountains; “fell” (related to Old Norwegian fjall) for a hill or area of high land in northern England. English lakes are rarely called in a simple way. The majority of such water bodies are meres (from Germanic *mari) – Windermere, tarns (related to Old 10

Norwegian *tarnu) and waters – Wastwater. Mere seems the least common and water the most common. It is a bliss for the learners of English that rivers are commonly named by that plain word. However the very heart of the river-name is an ancient word. Research shows that many of hydronyms are the oldest existing words in English. Some of them date back to pre-Celtic times: Avon – means “a river”, Cam – “winding”, Thames – “dark river”, Tyne – “water”. Besides this group of words the following toponyms are of pre-Celtic origin: Cumbria – “valley”, Dover – “waters”, Kent – “border”, York – “a place where yew-trees grow”. Noteworthy is the fact that the farther a traveler moves in the northward direction, the more geographical names with Norwegian correlations he comes across. The tendency is to be accounted for by the Viking settlements within the kingdom of Danelaw in IX AD. Mountains England is generally lower and flatter than the rest of the UK, but has two main divisions in its form – the lowland areas of the south, east, and Midlands and the more rugged and upland areas of the north and west. Much of England consists of rolling hills, but it is generally more mountainous in the north with a chain of mountains, the Pennines, dividing east and west. Other hilly areas in the north and Midlands are the Lake District, the North York Moors, and the Peak District. Hilly areas include the Cotswolds, the Chilterns, and the North and South Downs. In England, a mountain is officially defined as land over 600 metres, so most are concentrated in Northern England. Some hill and mountain chains in England are:

 The Cumbrian Mountains – the highest mountains in England, containing Scafell Pike;

 The Cheviots – some refer to these as an extension of the Southern Uplands in Scotland;

 The Pennines which characterize much of Northern England and are often dubbed “the backbone of England”;

 The North York Moors – an area of hills and moorlands beside the North Sea;

 Exmoor – uplands beside the Bristol Channel;

 Dartmoor – an area of uplands in the heart of Devon;

 The Cotswolds – a stereotypical English rural area;

 Chilterns – a collection of low hills;

 South Downs – low hills close to the English Channel which form the white cliffs of the English South Coast;

 Shropshire Hills – uplands near Wales. The Pennines The name ‘Pennines’ is evidently derived from Celtic *pen / ben – mountain peak. It might be closely related to an earlier name (or names) for the hills of a Cumbric origin, like the hill Pen-y-ghent in northern Yorkshire. However this etymology is contested by some scientists. Often described as the “backbone of England”, the Pennines form a more or less continuous range stretching from the Peak District in Derbyshire, around the northern and eastern edges of Lancashire through the Yorkshire Dales past the Cumbrian Fells to the Cheviot Hills on the Anglo-Scottish border. The Pennines have been formed as a broad anticline with it axis extending in a north–south direction. Carboniferous

Limestone along with Millstone Grit prevail. The limestone is exposed in the North Pennines and to the south in the Derbyshire Peak District. In the Yorkshire Dales this limestone exposure has led to the formation of large underground cave systems and watercourses, known as 12

“gills” and “pots” in the Yorkshire dialect. Erosion of the limestone has also led to some unusual geological formations in the region, such as the limestone pavements of the Yorkshire Pennines. Between the northern and southern areas of exposed limestone (between Skipton and the Peak District) lies a narrow belt of exposed gritstone. Here, the shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit form high hills occupied by moorland with the higher ground being uncultivable and barely fit for pastures. Flora in the Pennines is adapted to moorland and subarctic landscapes and climates. The flora found there can be found in other areas of moorland in Northern Europe and some species are also found in areas of tundra: bracken, heather, sphagnum, and coarse grasses such as cottongrass, purple moor grass and heath rush. The first trees to settle were willow, birch and juniper, followed later by alder and pine, elm, lime and oak. Fauna in the Pennines is similar to the rest of England and Wales, but the area hosts some characteristic species. Deer are found throughout the Pennines and many species of animals that are rare elsewhere in England can be found here. Arctic Hares were introduced in the 19th century. Large areas of heather moorland in the Pennines are good for driven shooting of wild Red Grouse. Rivers The longest river in the UK is the River Severn which has its source in Wales, forms much of the Anglo-Welsh border, and flows into the Bristol Channel. The longest river entirely within England is the River Thames which flows through the English and British capital, London. The Vale of York and The Fens host many of England’s larger rivers. Lakes Although the largest nation within the UK, England is relatively absent of large lakes, with many of its former wetlands being drained throughout the Middle 13

Ages. Most of its largest lakes lie within the aptly named Lake District in Cumbria, Northern England. Here the following lakes may be found (in the order of size): Windermere, Kielder Reservoir, Ullswater, Bassenthwaite Lake, Derwent Water. Only one of the lakes in the region is called by that name, Bassenthwaite Lake. Lake District The Lake District, also commonly known as The Lakes, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous not only for its lakes, forests and mountains but also for its associations with the early 19th century poetry and writings of William Wordsworth and the other Lake Poets. The Lakes were designated a National Park on 9 May 1951, becoming the second National Park in the United Kingdom after the Peak District. It is the most visited national park in the United Kingdom with 15.8 million annual visitors and over 23 million annual day visits. All the land in England higher than three thousand feet above sea level lies within the National Park, including Scafell Pike, the highest mountain in England. It also contains the deepest and longest lakes in England, Wastwater and Windermere, respectively. As the highest ground in England, Scafell Pike naturally has a very extensive view, ranging from the Mourne Mountains in Northern Ireland to Snowdonia in Wales. The Lake District takes the form of a roughly circular upland massif deeply dissected by valleys. It is the abundance of larger and smaller lakes which has led to the area becoming known as the Lake District. The mountains of the Lake District are also known as the “Cumbrian Mountains”, although this name is less frequently used than terms like “the Lake District” or “the Lakeland Fells”. Many of the higher fells are rocky in character, whilst moorland predominates at lower altitude. Vegetation cover across better drained areas includes bracken and heather though much of the land is boggy, due to the high rainfall. On many steeper slopes oak and coniferous forests are to be found. The mountains are broken into separate blocks by valleys. 14

Wildlife in the Region The Lake District is home to a plethora of wildlife, due to its range of varied topography, lakes and forests. It provides a home for the red squirrel and colonies of sundew and butterwort, two of the few carnivorous plants native to Britain. The Lake District is a major sanctuary for the red squirrel and has the largest population in England. The Lake District is home to a range of bird species: golden eagle, osprey, red kite, buzzard, dipper, peregrine and raven, ring ouzel and redstart being seasonal residents. The lakes of the Lake District support three rare and endangered species of fish: the vendace, which can be found only in Derwent Water; the schelly, which lives in Brothers Water, Haweswater, Red Tarn and Ullswater; and the Arctic charr, which can be found in 9 lakes. Protected Areas England’s natural environment is unique and makes a major contribution to national and regional character. The geology, soils, landscapes and biodiversity along with marine and coastal ecosystems are a rich inheritance. There are several types of zones protected by law, including Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Marine Protected Areas and National Parks. National Parks are extensive tracts of country that are protected by law for future generations because of their natural beauty and for the opportunities they offer for open air recreation. The parks are living and working landscapes. There are nine National Parks in England plus the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, which has equivalent status. These areas account for eight per cent of England’s land area: The Broads, Dartmoor, Exmoor, Lake District, New Forest, Northumberland, North York Moors, Peak District, South Downs, Yorkshire Dales.

The Broads It was designated under the Broads Act 1988. This atmospheric landscape is one of England’s finest wildlife areas. Five main rivers flow through the Broads, making the area resemble the fingers of a giant hand. It is an enchanted land of mysterious fens; slow, winding waterways; wet, tangled woodlands and acres of marshes. Water and land seem to merge on these flood plains, which stretch from Norwich in the west to the sea at Great Yarmouth in the east. There are 60 or so broads and other waterbodies. It is hard to believe but the broads are man-made. Many of the shallow, reed-fringed lakes are connected to the river by dykes, providing safe, lock-free navigation for about 200 km. Water levels in some places are still managed today by a network of drainage equipment including water pumps. Around 70 traditional drainage mills survive today – providing iconic cultural interest in this vast, open landscape. Spectacular wildlife includes species such as kingfishers, marsh harriers, a growing population of bitterns, otters, swallowtail butterflies, the hawker dragonfly, fen orchid and holly-leaved naiad. Dartmoor National Park Dartmoor is England’s richest National Park for evidence of humankind’s influences on the landscape within which they live. Its legacy of prehistoric and more recent remains make Dartmoor of huge interest to archaeologists. Designated in 1961, it covers an area of 954 sq km of mainly high, boggy land divided by the River Dart. The main land cover is one of open moorland and heath which accounts for around half of the National Park. Instantly topographical features include the dramatic granite stone outcrops called tors. The softer river valleys, with their ancient clapper bridges, provide a welcome contrast to the stark magnificence of the moorland expanses.

In terms of biological interest Dartmoor is of international importance for its blanket bogs, upland heaths, upland oakwoods and cave systems. Other significant habitats include valley mires, Rhos pasture and grassmoor. 350 native Dartmoor ponies can still be found living on Dartmoor’s commons. A historical landscape, Dartmoor includes the highest concentration of prehistoric stone rows in Britain as well as surviving Bronze Age field systems. Bronze and Iron Age hut circles and hillforts are visible in several places. Tin mining remains can be seen about the Moor, the last working mine closed in 1939. Exmoor National Park Exmoor contains a wide variety of magnificent landscapes in its 693 sq km. The moorland plateau terminates with the tallest cliffs in England, overlooking the Bristol Channel on the National Park’s northern boundary. Inland, the grass moorland of the former Royal Forest is surrounded by heather-covered moors, intersected by round-sided coombes. The mosaic of habitats support a great diversity of wildlife including wild deer, rich lichen communities, rare fritillaries, all sixteen species of British bat and three indigenous species of Whitebeam. Bird species encountered in moorland areas include merlin, Dartford warbler, stonechat and grasshopper warbler.

New Forest National Park

The New Forest is a rich landscape with a strong sense of identity, history and culture within its community. It is the most intact surviving example of a medieval hunting forest and pastoral system in England owing its origin to William the Conquerer who, in 1079, decreed that the area should be set aside as a royal hunting ground.

The diversity of its landscape is unique, and includes woodland, open heathland, river and coastal habitats. Much of its landscape is important for nature conservation with around a half also being nationally or internationally valuable. Areas of note include its ancient woodlands and coastal reaches which provide a home for many wader and wetland birds as well as extensive recreational opportunities for walkers and horseriders. A remote and seemingly wild landscape, the New Forest can be a landscape of wilderness and escape from the pressures of development within south east England. Northumberland National Park Perhaps best known by its association with Hadrian’s Wall, this beautiful landscape conveys a real sense of openness to those who come to enjoy it. England meets Scotland on the north-western border of this remote National Park, where the moors and grassland of the Cheviot Hills are divided by deep burn valleys. In the east lies the Upper Coquet Valley and Simonside Hills with the valleys of the North Tyne and Redesdale to the west. To the south runs part of Hadrian’s Wall, a World Heritage Site, riding along the imposing ridge of the Whin Sill. Forests now cover once open moorland above them. The area boasts a wide range of species and habitats including curlew, red squirrel, upland rivers and burns, ancient woodland, upland hay meadows, blanket bog and heather moorland. North York Moors National Park The North York Moors National Park is a place where nature and history inspire each other. Its diverse landscape of moorland, dales, woodland and coast rises and falls around the signs of times past including ruined abbeys, ancient churches and the traces of a once bustling industrial heritage.

Wide sweeps of heather moorland flush a vivid purple in late summer and provide a stunning contrast to the patchwork of farmland, woodland and charming villages found in the green dales that run through the moorland. The big skies and far-reaching views from the relatively flat moor tops afford a real sense of space and bring a feeling of peace and harmony. Over a fifth of the National Park is covered by woodland with some of the largest concentrations of veteran and ancient trees in northern England. Large coniferous plantations make up a large proportion of the overall woodland cover. Combined with pockets of grassland, heathland and blanket bog plus a vibrant network of rivers and upland streams, this mix of habitats supports a wide variety of wildlife from ground-nesting birds such as curlew, lapwing and golden plover to Duke of Burgundy Butterflies, pearl-bordered fritillaries and freshwater pearl mussels. Peak District National Park The South West Peak is mainly characterized by mixed moorland and grassland with small, scattered farmsteads. Much of the National Park is valued at a national and international level for habitat or ecosystem attributes. Large tracts of habitat of note include the ‘semi-natural’ habitats of blanket bog, upland heath and limestone dale. There are a number of national at risk species including twite, short-eared owl, white-clawed crayfish and Derbyshire feather-moss. The White Peak forms the central core of the National Park, a landscape of deep dales and undulating fields characteristic of limestone country. Its name 19 derives from its distinctive geology which provides the grey and white stone used extensively for building and walling materials. The Dark Peak is more remote area of peat moorland with edges of precipitous millstone grit laced with heather and bracken that lies to the north of the park. In the east, the Dark Peak descends into the Derwent Valley which has a more varied landscape of river corridor habitats, parkland and ancient woodlands. Its highest point is Kinder Scout at 636 m.

South Downs National Park

On 12th November 2009 Hilary Benn, Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs signed an order confirming the designation of the South Downs National Park. Yorkshire Dales National Park Rich in cultural associations ranging from Wuthering Heights to Emmerdale, the striking landscape of the Yorkshire Dales is a familiar one for many. Species of note in the area include nationally important populations of breeding waders, black grouse, yellow wagtail, skylark, rare and scarce lime-loving plants such as birds- eye primrose, rigid buckler fern and globeflower, baneberry, northern brown argus butterflies, red squirrels and atlantic white-clawed crayfish. Flower rich meadows and pastures survive in the sheltered dales. Extensive areas of moorland, particularly in the north and east are managed for grouse shooting with careful management providing a range of heights and ages in the heather blanket. Limestone is at the heart of the Yorkshire Dales, appearing dramatically as cliffs, gorges and pavements, and providing a landscape of pastoral valleys patterned with dry-stone walls, barns and stone-built villages. Waterfalls are numerous, and the streams sometimes vanish into the system of caves, channels and shafts that honeycomb the rock. On the 20 fells, millstone grit often overlies the limestone, giving a bleaker, heather-covered aspect to the Park that is in striking contrast to the deep, sheltered dales. Formed over time by the action of rivers and glaciers there are 20 named examples of dales (or deep valleys), each one distinctive in their character and identity. England certainly adds a lovely part to the Earth’s biospheric mosaics.

1.3. Welsh Natural Heritage Wales (Welsh: Cymru) is a generally mountainous country which is part of the United Kingdom. It is situated on the south-western side of Great Britain, between the Irish Sea to the north and the Bristol Channel to the south. It is bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean, St George’s Channel and the Irish Sea to its west. It has a total area of 20,779 km2. It has over 1,200 km of coastline, and includes offshore islands of which the largest is Anglesey. Much of Wales is mountainous, particularly in three main regions: Snowdonia in the north west, the Cambrian Mountains in mid Wales, and the Brecon Beacons in the south. Snowdonia contains the highest peaks, topped by Snowdon (Welsh: Yr Wyddfa) at 1,085 m. The 14 (or possibly 15) peaks over 3,000 feet (914 m) are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s. Seven Wonders of Wales is a traditional list of seven geographic and cultural landmarks in Wales:  Snowdon,  the Gresford bells (the peal of bells in the medieval church of All Saints at Gresford),  the Llangollen bridge (built in 1347 over the River Dee),  St Winefride’s Well (a pilgrimage site at Holywell in Flintshire),  the Wrexham steeple (16th century tower of St. Giles Church in Wrexham),  the Overton yew trees (ancient yew trees in the churchyard of St Mary’s at Overton-on-Dee) and 21

 Pistyll Rhaeadr (a 73 metre waterfall).

The “wonders” are part of the traditional rhyme: Pistyll Rhaeadr and Wrexham steeple, Snowdon’s mountain without its people, Overton yew trees, St Winefride wells, Llangollen bridge and Gresford bells. Lakes and Waterfalls The largest natural lake in Wales is Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake), followed by Llangorse Lake. Wales contains many man-made reservoirs, some of which are popular resorts for outdoor activities such as sailing and fishing. The largest are in the Elan Valley, including the Claerwen. Other notable reservoirs include Lake Vyrnwy, Talybont Reservoir, and Llyn Brianne. Wales has many waterfalls, including some of the most striking in the United Kingdom. One such is the 73.2 m Pistyll Rhaeadr meaning “spring of the waterfall” in Welsh. It is formed as the Afon Disgynfa drops over a Silurian cliff. The 19th century English author George Borrow remarked of the waterfall, “I never saw water falling so gracefully, so much like thin, beautiful threads, as here.” Other notable waterfalls include, in North Wales, Aber Falls (Welsh: Rhaeadr Fawr, “great waterfall”) at Abergwyngregyn and the Rhaeadr Cynfal falls in Ffestiniog (including Rhaeadr y Cwm). National Parks Wales has three designated national parks:

 Brecon Beacons National Park, in the southeast of Wales,

 Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, along the Pembrokeshire coast,

 Snowdonia National Park in the Snowdonia region of northwest Wales. Brecon Beacons National Park

The Brecon Beacons National Park was established in 1957. It covers 1344 km² and encompases four main regions – the Black Mountain in the west, Fforest Fawr (Great Forest) and the Brecon Beacons in the centre, and the confusingly named Black Mountains in the east. The western half gained European and Global status in 2005 as Fforest Fawr Geopark. This includes the Black Mountain, the historic extent of Fforest Fawr, and much of the Brecon Beacons and surrounding lowlands. The Brecon Beacons are said to be named after the ancient practice of lighting signal fires (beacons) on mountains to warn of attacks by invaders, or more recently to commemorate public and national events such as coronations or the Millennium. Most of the National Park is bare, grassy moorland grazed by Welsh mountain ponies and Welsh mountain sheep, with scattered forestry plantations, and pasture in the valleys. It is known for its remote reservoirs, waterfalls including the 27 metre Henrhyd Waterfall and the falls at Ystradfellte, and its caves, such as Ogof Ffynnon Ddu. The Brecon Beacons Mountain Centre was opened in 1966 to help visitors understand and enjoy the area. Due to the relative remoteness and harsh weather of some of its uplands, the Park is used for military training.

Pembrokeshire Coast National Park The National Park has a varied landscape of rugged cliffs, sandy beaches, wooded estuaries and wild inland hills, covering a total area of 629 km2. It falls into four distinct sections. Running clockwise around the coast, these are the south Pembrokeshire coast, including Caldey Island; the Daugleddau estuary; the St Bride’s Bay coast, including the coastal islands; and the Preseli Hills However, not all of the park is coastal, and there are even forests and marshes on the edges of the park.

In 2011 National Geographic magazine voted Pembrokeshire the second best coastal destination in the world.

Snowdonia National Park The English name for the area derives from Snowdon, which is the highest mountain in Wales at 1,085 m. It covers 2,140 km2 and has 60 km of coastline. In Welsh, the area is named Eryri. One assumption is that the name is derived from eryr (“eagle”), but others state that it means quite simply Highlands. Prior to the designation of the boundaries of the National Park, the term “Snowdonia” was generally used to refer to a much smaller area, namely the upland area of northern Gwynedd centred on the Snowdon massif, whereas the national park covers an area more than twice that size extending far to the south into Meirionnydd. The natural forests here are of the mixed type, the commonest tree being the Welsh oak. Birch, ash, mountain-ash and hazel are also common. The Park also contains some large (planted) coniferous forested areas such as Gwydir Forest near Betws-y-Coed, although some areas, once harvested, are now increasingly being allowed to regrow naturally. Northern Snowdonia is the only place in Britain where the Snowdon Lily, an arctic-alpine plant, and the rainbow-coloured Snowdon beetle, and the only place in the world where the Snowdonia hawkweed grows. One of the major problems facing the Park in recent years has been the growth of invasive species which has a tendency to take over and stifle native species. As a result there are a number of desolate landscapes. Rare mammals in the park include otters, polecats, and the feral goat, although the pine marten has not been seen for many years. Rare birds include raven, peregrine, osprey, merlin and the red kite. Welcome to Wales!

1. 4. Nature of Scotland Located in Northern Europe, Scotland comprises the northern one third of the island of Great Britain as well as 790 surrounding islands encompassing the major archipelagoes of the Shetland Islands, Orkney Islands and the Inner and Outer Hebrides. Shetland and Orkney, together with Fair Isle and Stroma are referred to as the Northern Isles. The largest island surrounding Scotland is Lewis and Harris with a total land area of 2,225 km2.. The geography of Scotland is highly varied, from rural lowlands to barren uplands, and from large cities to uninhabited islands. Each part of Scotland has a distinctive character, contributing to a sense of national and local identity, also known as a ‘sense of place’. The diversity of landscapes and townscapes provides a living canvas of Scotland’s history, reflecting ways of life and traditions that are deeply engrained in Scotland’s culture. Scotland’s only land border is with England, which runs for 96 kilometres in a northeasterly direction from the Solway Firth in the west to the North Sea on the east coast. The Atlantic Ocean, which fringes the coastline of western and northern Scotland and its islands, influences the temperate and the maritime climate of the country. Scotland has 9,911 km of coastline. The west coast in particular is heavily indented, with long promontories separated by fjordlike sea lochs. Major sea lochs include Loch Fyne, Loch Long, Loch Ryan, and others. The east coast is more regular, with a series of large estuarine inlets, or firths, and long sandy beaches, for example at Aberdeen. Much of the the east coast has several significant estuaries and other nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary and Fowlsheugh, both of which have been designated as Important Bird Areas.

Scotland contains the most mountainous terrain in Great Britain. The major division of Scotland is the Highland Boundary Fault, which separates the land into ‘highland’ to the north and west, and ‘lowland’ to the south and east. The Highlands of Scotland are largely mountainous, and form the highest ground in the UK: they are bisected by the Great Glen into the Grampian Mountains to the southeast and the Northwest Highlands. The Scottish Lowlands can be further subdivided into the Southern Uplands, an area of rolling farmland and high moorland, and the lowland farmland of the Central Belt and eastern Scotland. The Cuillin on the Isle of Skye, represents a major mountain range that is not located on the Scottish mainland. Located at the western end of the Grampian Mountains, at an altitude of 1,344 m, Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Scotland and Great Britain. Ben Macdui and Braeriach are, respectively, the second and third tallest peaks in Scotland. Mountains in Scotland are categorised by their height. Peaks over 914.4 m are known as Munros. There are 284 Munros in Scotland, all within the Highlands. Corbetts are peaks with an altitude of between 750 and 900 m, with a relative height of at least 150 m. Southern Uplands

The southern 20% or so of the country makes up the Southern Uplands, a pastoral upland area characterized by lines of hills divided by broad valleys. It is

27 also home to some of the most remote and least populated areas in Scotland and to the country’s highest village, Wanlockhead, at 467 m. The Pentland Hills and the Lammermuir Hills are several of the local ranges which make up the Southern Uplands. In addition to the main upland zones in southern Scotland there are many individual hills, not part of any range. Several of these elevations are volcanic in origin and are known by the Scots word Law, meaning hill. North Berwick Law and Traprain Law are two examples of these extinct volcanic outliers. Central Lowlands The Central Lowlands can be thought of, very roughly, as the next 20% of the country as you progress north from the English Border and include the Forth-Clyde valley. The Central Lowlands were also the home of widespread industrialization from the late 18th century onwards. This was based on the large and widely scattered reserves of coal and iron ore found across most of the Central Lowlands, whose use was supported by the development of canals and then of railways. Deep-mined coal and large scale iron and steel works are no longer part of the picture in Scotland. The Sidlaw Hills to the north of Dundee, the Ochils to the east of Stirling and the Campsie Fells to the north of Glasgow constitute important upland ranges in the Central Lowlands. Highlands By far the largest zone, the Highlands comprises the north western 60% of Scotland. The Highlands are extensive mountainous areas rising to peaks of a maximum height of around 1300 m. Scotland’s mountains are not high by international standards but their exposure to highly changeable and unpredictable

28 weather patterns influenced by the meeting of Atlantic and European air streams gives them a seriousness out of proportion to their height. The area of the Highlands is split in two by the line of a rift valley, known as the Great Glen. The land to the north west of the Great Glen is usually referred to as the North West Highlands, with that to its east forming the Grampians. The Grampians are characterized by large areas of upland plateau, while the North West Highlands have a much rougher, rockier look and feel, with the landmass deeply indented by numerous sea lochs. Lakes Freshwater bodies in Scotland are known as lochs, with the exception of the Lake of Menteith and one or two man- made “lakes”. 90% of the standing fresh water volume of Great Britain lies within Scotland. Loch Lomond is the largest freshwater body in Britain by area, although with a capacity of 7.45 km3 Loch Ness is the most voluminous. The water in Loch Ness is nearly double that of all the lakes of England and Wales combined. Protection of Nature There are currently two National Parks in Scotland: Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park (2002) and the Cairngorms National Park (2003). Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park is a national park in Scotland centred on Loch Lomond. It includes several ranges of hills, the Trossachs being the most famous. The park is the fourth largest in the British Isles, with a total area of 1,865 km². It includes 21 Munros (including Ben Lomond, Ben Lui, Beinn Challuim, Ben More and two peaks called Ben Vorlich), 20 Corbetts, two forest 29 parks (Queen Elizabeth and Argyll) and 57 designated special nature conservation sites. The park consists of many mountains and lochs, and the principal attractions are scenery, walking, and wildlife. The Cairngorms National Park covers the Cairngorms range of mountains, and surrounding hills. It covers an area of 4,528 km2. The Cairngorm Mountains are a spectacular landscape having a large upland plateau. Aviemore is the busy and popular holiday destination most people have heard of but others are worth spending some time in as well. Scotland’s landscapes are one of the country’s greatest assets, yet they are undergoing a great deal of change. It is essential to look after the landscapes and ensure that the distinctiveness of each part of Scotland is not lost.

1.5. Northern Ireland Northern Ireland is a part of the UK located on the northern tip of the Isle of Ireland. The highest peak of Northern Ireland’s geography is Lough Neagh, at 391 km2 the largest freshwater lake both on the island of Ireland and in the British Isles. A second extensive lake system is centred on Lower and Upper Lough Erne in Fermanagh. There are substantial uplands in the Sperrin Mountains with extensive gold deposits, granite Mourne Mountains and basalt Antrim Plateau, as well as smaller ranges in South Armagh and along the Fermanagh–Tyrone border. None of the hills are especially high, with Slieve Donard reaching 849 metres being Northern Ireland’s highest point. Belfast’s most prominent peak is Cavehill.

The Lower and Upper River Bann, River Foyle and River Blackwater form extensive fertile lowlands, with excellent arable land also found in North and East Down, although much of the hill country is marginal and suitable largely for animal husbandry. The valley of the River Lagan is dominated by industrializedBelfast. There are, at present, no national parks in Northern Ireland and moves to establish a national park in the Mourne Mountains have proved to be controversial. If established, it would stretch from Carlingford Lough to Newcastle and Slieve Croob, creating a tourism boom and up to 2,000 jobs. On the other hand, there are fears that it could drive up house prices making it difficult for young, local couples to set up home in the area.

1.5. Man and Nature: the British Experience Man is the product of nature. Since ancient times the mysteries of wildlife have taken up people’s minds and hearts. The culture of the British nation is dominated by profound devotion to naturalness in all its forms. Among the true passions of a Briton are animal breeding and racing, hunting and gardening. The British love for animals is stronger than ever due to companionship needs, security or just simply for more family fun. Contemporary research shows that there are 27 million pets in the country and 43% of households contain at least one furry, feathery or scaly family friend, making pets well and truly part of the UK’s landscape. Top 10 pets of the UK are dogs, cats, rabbits, birds, hamsters, horses/ponies, snakes, gerbils, tortoises/turtles, even rats. Among the most popular dogs are labrador, border collie, Jack Russell terrier, Yorkshire terrier, German shepard, Rottweiler / dalmation, Bischon Frise, cocker spaniel/ shitzu, labradoodle/ golden retriever, greyhound / Chihuahua. Racing is ever competing in popularity with Association Football. Among the most common are horse races and greyhound races. The irresistible temptation for the British heart is the gambling part of the process. On particular days of the most famous races people all over the country bet on the results. 31

There is a long history to hunting experience in England. Hunting on the British Isles with birds or specially bred and trained dogs has always been the sport of nobles, in large part because they owned or controlled much of the land suitable for the activity. Some procedures haven’t changed much since the time of Romans. It was a sport, not the serious pursuit of food, which pitted the hounds against the hare and against each other. Chasing of a wild animal was associated with a nostalgic, lost happiness; it provided a chance to escape from the cares of politics with a few friends; riding at speed gave the hunter such exercise, which was an essential element in a gentleman’s healthy living. It also allowed the rich nobles to show off their fine horses, hawks, clothing, and weapons. Horses were shown off by their breeding and ranked by endurance, speed, beauty, and strength. From the hunting rounds the wealthy would often establish a breeding tree of some sort in an attempt to create the perfect breed. Through centuries hunting was deemed by most to be not only a symbol of knighthood, but an activity that marked out the true gentleman. Those of rank were expected to take part because sporting events trained men for war, whereas the laborers had to work six days a week and could not participate. Modern hunting seems to have lost much of its primness and social distinction turning into a rather expensive kind of sport. They say every Englishman is a country man at heart. However many years he has lived in the city, he does not really believe he really belongs there. As he looks out of the window of his flat over the vast desert of brick and concrete, he has in his mind a vivid picture of the day when he will live in a thatched cottage with roses around the porch and hollyhocks in the garden, and breathe in the fresh air of the unspoilt countryside. It is a long distance love affair. Thus most English try to procure themselves bits of natural surrounding no matter how small it might be. Noteworthy is the fact that gardening provokes the British competitive spirit. Flower-shows and vegetable shows with prizes for the best exhibits are immensely popular. Here is an extract from Agatha Christie’s “The Body in the Library”: “Mrs. Bantry was dreaming. Her sweet peas had just taken a First at the flower show. 33

The vicar, dressed in cassock and surplice, was giving out the prizes in the church. His wife wandered past, dressed in a bathing suit, but, as is the blessed habit of dreams, the fact did not arouse the disapproval of the parish in the way it would assuredly have done it in real life. Mrs. Bantry was enjoying her dream a good deal.” The issue of the “Englishness” of gardening is most probably seen in the concept of the “English Garden” which emerged in the early 18th century. The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century. Mythology Mankind has developed two views of the Nature’s kingdom: scientific which claims to be objective and naïve with folk legends, myths, superstitions and beliefs. The latter is of primary importance for those interested in the nation’s inventory of symbols and metaphors. Symbolism in flora and fauna is evidently formed within two time spans: pre- Christian and Christian. Early pre-Christian view is often based on the cult of nature, the trees being associated with gods and animals assuming human features. It is known that in ancient Greece and later Rome birds were taken for messengers of Gods since they came down on men from the sky – Gods’ dwelling space. Association seems to be the main vehicle of symbolism in folklore. Thus, we may be not far from truth suggesting that having seen the raven prey on decaying flesh the bird itself was connected with death. Hence its symbolism – the messenger of death. It is believed when a raven comes to the left shoulder, a ill luck is to come; when to the right – good luck. In some parts of Britain birds are protected due to ancient beliefs: 34

chough – in Cornwall – it is believed to be the incarnation of King Arthur’s soul; swan – Northern Ireland – the incarnation of the soul of one of Irish Princesses; storm petrel – protected by sailors – it is believed that the souls of dead sailors turn into this bird. A brief look at Celtic animal symbolism seems to be of some interest. Animals in Celtic and Welsh mythology are tied in with fertility and vitality, because they are living, moving, and growing. They also provide vitality and continued life for the tribes through their meat, skins, and bones. In addition, they are a connection to the realm of spirits and the gods. This connection is seen through their use in the hunt, search for secrets and wisdom. Birds, fish, serpents, deer, cattle, swine, and so on all tend to be used as symbols. Boars, fishes, serpents, birds, and herd animals are the most frequently described. In addition to representing fertility and wealth, boars symbolize courage and strong warriors they are strong, dangerous, and very hard to kill. Their appearance in dreams and visions also indicates warriors. Fish, salmon in particular, are associated with knowledge. A wise magician in Celtic mythology was found in a fish weir. Their wisdom can also be passed on by eating. Serpents and dragons symbolize trouble. Whenever they appear, strife and infertility follow. King Arthur’s troubles with the future of his kingdom are presaged by dreams of dragons and serpents. Birds are usually used to represent prophetic knowledge, bloodshed, and skill. In an omen, birds can be either the message or the messenger. The interpretation of their calls and movements can lead to knowledge of future events. Birds, especially ravens and crows, usually presage bloodshed and battle, when they are associated with it, sticking with the theme of prophesy. Horses, cattle, and pigs represent fertility. Horse, cattle, and pig bones are found in Welsh and Celtic graves indicating that they were very important to those 35 cultures. The prosperity of the clan is reflected in the prosperity of its herds. Later, pigs became added to the diet of the Irish. Horses were also seen to symbolize fertility. The bull, which is the leader of the cattle, symbolized the herd and its fertility just as the king would symbolize the clan and its fertility, thus joining the fertility of the horse with the tribe’s. Fertility and continuation of the clan was a major concern of the Celtic and Welsh peoples. Here again, animals figured strongly with fertility in Celtic and Welsh mythology. A prosperous tribe was indicated by healthy, plentiful animals. With infertility were associated dragons. The coming of Christianity has brought new images. Animals and birds appeared in some Biblical and Gospel parables thus the birds were divided into holy (dove, swan, lark) and uncleanly (haggister, crow, hawk, griffin). Imaginary animals and birds (dragon, unicorn, phoenix and others) are part of the world’s culture. Pictorial Signs There are some types of human activities where natural objects are widely used as pictorial signs with some special meanings. We are mainly talking of political symbols and heraldry. The British coat-of-arms pictures a lion and a unicorn horse at a shield with coats of arms of England, Wales and Scotland. The lion is the emblem of deathless courage. The unicorn

signifies readiness for all employments for King and country. The coat-of-arms of England is a red shield with the picture of three yellow lions on it. The emblem of England has been a red rose since the time of the war between two families of noblemen in the XV century: the Lancasters and the Yorks (the Duke of Lancaster had a red rose for an emblem and the Duke of York used a white rose). The Lancasters took the upper hand in the war so their emblem is now the symbol of the country. The emblem of Wales is leak or daffodil because it is believed that St. 36

David (the patron saint of Wales) was living on bread and leaks for several years. The daffodil is associated with St. David’s day. Scotland has a thistle for its emblem. According to a legend it saved the country from the invasion of Norsemen. The floristic sign of Northern Ireland is a little shamrock which represents the doctrine of trinity. In heraldry most animals are broadly classified, according to their natural form, into beasts, birds, sea creatures and others, and the attitudes that apply to them may be grouped accordingly. Beasts, particularly lions, most often appear in the rampant position (depicted standing on paws); while birds, particularly the eagle, most often appear displayed (depicted with wings spread). While the lion, regarded as the king of beasts, is by far the most frequently occurring beast in heraldry, the eagle, equally regarded as the king of birds, is overwhelmingly the most frequently occurring bird, and the rivalry between these two is often noted to parallel with the political rivalry between powers. The beast most often portrayed in heraldry is the lion. Other beasts frequently seen include the wolf, bear, boar, horse, bull or ox, and stag. The tiger (unless it is a Bengal tiger) is a fanciful beast with a wolflike body, a mane and a pointed snout. Dogs of various types, and occasionally of specific breeds, occur more often as crests or supporters than as charges. The unicorn resembles a horse with a single horn, but its hooves are usually cloven like those of a deer. The griffin combines the head (but with ears), chest, wings and forelegs of the eagle with the hindquarters and legs of a lion. The male griffin lacks wings and his body is scattered with spikes. The bird most frequently found in coat armory, by far, is the eagle in its various forms, including the ubiquitous eagle displayed, eagles in other poses (such as statant or rising), the demi-eagle (an eagle displayed, shown only above the waist), the double-headed eagle of imperial fame, and a few other forms (triple- headed eagles are not unknown, and one eagle appearing in the Codex Manesse curiously has its wing bones fashioned into additional heads). The eagle 37 symbolized strength, courage, farsightedness and immortality. It is considered to be the king of the air and the messenger of the highest Gods. Mythologically, it is connected by the Greeks with the God Zeus, by the Romans with Jupiter, by the Germanic tribes with Odin, by the Judeo-Christian scriptures with God, and in Christian art with Saint John the Evangelist. The double eagle gained its fame in the arms of the Byzantine, Holy Roman, Austrian and Russian empires. The martlet, a stylized swallow without feet (sometimes incorrectly, at least in the Anglophone heraldries these days, said to have no beak), is a mark of cadency in English heraldry, but also appears as a simple charge in undifferenced arms. The pelican is notable as frequently occurring in a peculiar attitude described as in her piety (i.e. wings raised, piercing her own breast to feed her chicks in the nest, which is how it is actually often blazoned, ‘in its piety’ being a fairly modern conceit). This symbol carries a particular religious meaning, and became so popular in heraldry that pelicans rarely exist in heraldry in any other position. Distinction is however observed, between a pelican “vulning herself” (alone, piercing her breast) and “in her piety” (surrounded by and feeding her chicks). Other birds occur less frequently. The category of sea creatures may be seen to include various fish, a highly stylized “dolphin”, and various fanciful creatures, sea monsters, which are shown as half-fish and half-beast, as well as mermaids and the like. The “sea lion” and “sea horse”, for example, do not appear as natural sea lions and seahorses, but rather as half-lion half-fish and half-horse half-fish, respectively. Fish of various species often appear in canting arms, e.g.: pike, also called luce, for Pike or Lucy; dolphin (a conventional kind of fish rather than the natural mammal) for the Dauphin de Viennois. The escallop (scallop shell) became popular as a token of pilgrimage to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela. The sea-lion and sea-horse, like the mermaid, combine the foreparts of a mammal with the tail of a fish, and a dorsal fin in place of the mane. (When the natural seahorse is meant, it is blazoned as a hippocampus.) The sea-dog and sea-wolf are quadrupeds but with scales, webbed feet, and often a flat tail resembling that of the beaver. 38

Reptiles and invertebrates occurring in heraldry include serpents, lizards, salamanders and others, but the most frequently occurring of these are various forms of dragons. The “dragon”, thus termed, is a large monstrous reptile with, often, a forked or barbed tongue, membraned wings like a bat’s, and four legs. The wyvern and lindworm are dragons with only two legs. The salamander is typically shown as a simple lizard surrounded by flames. Also notably occurring (undoubtedly owing much of its fame to Napoleon, though it also appears in much earlier heraldry) is the bee. 1.6. Language Tracks With the majority of common English animal, bird and plant names we seem to enter a realm of words which origin is to be traced in Germanic languages: “grass” from Germanic *ghrasan, “tree” – *trewam, “wood” – *widuz, “bear” – *beran, “fly” – *fleugh, “fish” – *fiskaz, “fox” – *fuxs, “frog” – *froskas, “goat” – *ghaitaz, “goose” – *ghans, “hawk” –*χabukaz, “mouse – *mūs, “sheep” –*skæpa. They have survived the overwhelming influence of French borrowings. The most of this word stock are polysemantic words with wide and often complicated webs of figurative meanings: animal – 1) somebody who behaves in a violent or cruel way, a savage; 2) – (inf.) used in talking of a type of persons. We may justly conclude that this group is at the core of the English emotional and expressive vocabulary. Using single-word animal metaphors, one ‘treads on eggs’ as he is just on the border of being rude: ape – (inf.) smb who is rude or stupid; chicken – (inf.) coward; vulture – (inf.) smb who tries to gain an advantage from weaker people; donkey – a fool; mouse – smb who is quiet and prefers not to be noticed; sheep – smb who does the same as everybody else without thinking; fox – smb clever at tricking people. Literary use and positive evaluations are quite rare: lion – (lit.) a powerful, impressive or brave man. Caricaturistic by nature, comparisons man-animal seem to deprive the man of his blind “king of nature” vision of the world, replacing it with a healthy “peer vision”: (as) angry as a hornet; bald as a coot; big as an elephant; blind as a bat/mole; brave as a lion; busy as a bee; crazy as a loon; cunning/sly as a fox; 39 dead as a dodo; drunk as a skunk; eager as a beaver; fat as a pig; free as a bird; gentle/innocent as a lamb; happy as a lark; hairy as a gorilla/monkey; high as a kite; hungry as a wolf; lame as a duck; playful as a kitten; poor as a church mouse; quiet as a mouse; sick as a parrot; slippery as an eel; slow as a snail/tortoise; strong as an ox/bull/bear; stubborn as a mule; tall as a giraffe; wise as an owl. Expanded metaphors and set expressions give direct peer vision when situations from natural environment are projected on the human world: like a snake in the grass – smb’s behavior is not to be trusted; to be a fly on the wall – watch what people are doing without being noticed; to be in the lion’s den – to be in a situation where a lot of people criticize or attack you. Expressions with constructed peer vision describe animals would-be behavior in the man’s world: like a bull in a china shop – awkward; to have a frog in the throat – not to be able to speak. Out dining, a young alligator, When asked if he’d have coffee later, Just shook his large head And pleasantly said, ‘I was planning on having the waiter.’ Thus animal metaphors as a rule are unflattering; they tend to strip the man of the covers of false pride, returning him to where he once had belonged – to the jungle: Said an ape as he swung by his tail To his children both female and male, ‘From your offspring, my dears, In a couple of years, May evolve a professor at Yale.’ Set off against such a background, names of plants seem to be used in less offensive projections of the human world: the English rose – an attractive English woman with an appearance traditionally thought to be typical of English women, as cool as a cucumber – very calm, not to have a bean – to have no money, like 40 two peas in a pod – quite alike, to be out of smb’s tree – not to think in a sensible or clear way, to have a feather in smb’s cap – to display cowardness. We have started by saying that a man’s interest to nature is insatiable. We shall finish by noticing that Nature’s resources of images for the Man’s imagination have proved to be illimitable.

Sources Wikipaedia www.EnglishinRussia.com www.dognews.co.uk www-personal.umich.edu www.tudorplace.com MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. – Second edition. – Lnd.- N Y, 2007 The Oxford Concise Dictionary of English Etymology / Edited by T. F. Hoad. – Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. – 1996 Завалишина Ю. Г. Зоонимы и фитонимы в русской и английской паремиологии в аспекте этнического менталитета: диссертация кандидата филологических наук. – Курск, 1998. – 220 с. Химунина Т. Н. В Великобритании принято так (об английских обычаях). Учебное пособие для педагогических институтов и факультетов иностранных языков. – Л.: Просвещение, 1974. – 295 с. с илл.

Part 2. The USA

Introduction

The main landmass of the United States lies in central North America, with Canada to the north, Mexico to the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the pacific Ocean to the west. The two newest states, Alaska and Hawaii, are separated from the continental United States: Alaska borders on northwestern Canada, and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.

The diversity of the country stems from the fact that it is so large and has so many kinds of land, climate and people. It stretches 2,575 kilometers from north to south, 4,500 kilometers from east to west. The deep-green mountain forests of the northwest coast are drenched with more than 250 centimeters of rain each year. At the other extreme, the deserts of the southwest receive less than 13 centimeters annually. A traveler from almost any other country can find parts of the United States that remind him of home. There are pine forests dotted with lakes, and mountain peaks covered with snow. There are meadows with brooks and trees, and sea cliffs, and wide grassy plains, and broad spreads of grapevines, and sandy beaches.

In some parts of the United States, the pattern of life seems to have happened by accident. Sometimes when families moved westward to new farmland their wagons broke down or they became ill along the way. As a result, today, almost 200 years later, their descendants are farmers in little hidden valleys where few would expect people to live. But these are exceptions. Most people live and work as they do because the resources of their part of the country have opened certain opportunities and closed others. Traditional occupations, political borders, feudal customs have been less important in the United States than in many other countries. 43

2.1. The Face of the Land

On a topographic map of the United States, the mountains look like jagged masses, the plains like vast open flat spaces, and the rivers like meandering threads. Today, highways, railways, and transcontinental aircraft cross the land in different directions, making travel easy. But only a few generations ago the topographic features on the map represented great dangers and difficulties. Today’s visitors, riding over a good road in the cascade Mountains in the west coast states of Oregon and Washington, may see marks on the rocks made by ropes where pioneer settlers painfully lowered their horses and wagons down cliffs to reach the fertile river valley far below. In the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, the main route now runs through a mountain pass which was once too narrow for a wagon to go through. Pioneer families reaching that pass had to take their wagons apart piece by piece, carry them through, and then reassemble them on the other side.

Modern means of communication and transportation have enabled man to overcome these obstacles. Poles and wire now carry electric power and telephone communication over ridges that are so deep in snow that only persons wearing snowshoes or skis can reach them. Railroads run along the sides of mountains or in tunnels through them. Bridges have been built over valleys and rivers. Highways run through the burning heat of deserts.

Much of the geography and history of the United States was determined some 10,000 to 25,000 years ago. At that time the great northern ice cap flowed over the North American continent and ground into it a number of major changes. These ice flows determined the size and drainage of the great Lakes. They changed the direction of the Missouri River and carved the channel of the Hudson

River. They pushed soil off a huge part of the Central Agricultural Basin- one of the richest farming areas in the world.

On the Atlantic shore of the United States, much of the northern coast is rocky and uninviting, but the middle and the southern Atlantic coast rises gently from the sea. It starts as low, wet ground and sandy flats, but then becomes a rolling coastal lowland somewhat like that of northern and western Europe. The Appalachians, which run roughly parallel to the east coast, are old mountains with many coal-rich valleys between them. To the west of the Appalachians lie plateaus built up over the centuries from bits of stone that were washed down the mountains and then cut into small hills by streams. Beyond is the great central Lowland which, in its configuration, resembles the plains of Eastern Europe.

North of the Central Lowland, extending for almost 1,600 kilometers, are the five Great Lakes which the United States shares with Canada. The lakes, estimated to contain about half of the world’s fresh water, were gorged out of the land by the ice that once covered the northern United States.

West of the Central lowland are the great Plains. They are stopped by the Rocky Mountains, “the backbone of the continent.” The Rockies are considered young mountains: of the same age as the Alps in Europe, the Himalayas in Asia, and the Andes in South America. Like these ranges they are high, rough and irregular in shape.

At first sight, the land west of the Rockies appears to be tumbled masses of mountains. Actually, however, it is made up of quite distinct and separate regions, shaped by different geological events. One region was formed of material which was washed down from the Rockies and pressed into rock. This now encompasses the high Colorado Plateau, in which the Grand canyon of the Colorado River is cut, 1.6 kilometers in depth. But another region, the high Columbia tableland to the 45 north, was created in much the same way as the great Deccan Plateau in India: lava poured from inside the earth, burying old mountains and filling valleys to a depth of thousands of meters.

Volcanoes also built the Cascade Mountains. The Sierra Nevada range and the ridges of the great Basin, on the other hand, were formed when a strained portion of the earth’s crust broke into high tilted blocks of rock. At the border of the Pacific Ocean lie the Coastal ranges, relatively low mountains, in a region where occasional earthquakes show that the process of mountain-building has not stopped yet.

2.2. Lure of the Wilderness

Lonely and isolated, early settlements of northern Europeans in the New World huddled near the Atlantic coastline. Inland, they faced a vast, frightening, unknown and mostly forested wilderness.

Settlers viewed this wilderness both as a source of danger and a source of wealth. Dangerous beasts posed a serious threat anywhere outside the settlements. The native people were numerous, and their reaction to the sudden appearance of new settlers unpredictable. On occasions scouts and explorers vanished into the immensity of the forests.

Though the wilderness awed the early settlers, it also attracted them. It provided a wealth of timber for building and use as fuel. In many areas, game animals were plentiful. Beavers, foxes and other small animals provided valuable furs for sale to Europe.

Explorers who did return from the continent’s interior told stories of high mountains, great fertile valleys, grassy plains, mighty rivers and lakes as big as inland seas. To the people who told the stories and to the people who heard them, the wealth and resources of the New World appeared limitless. All that seemed necessary was courage and hard work to create a paradise on Earth.

2.3. Need for Conservation

The frontier experience of moving westward and breaking new ground gave Americans several traditions. One was of independence, self-reliance and resourcefulness. Another, unfortunately, was a tradition of wasteful uses of natural resources. Land, water, timber and wild animals seemed so plentiful that people on the frontier thought these resources would never run out. For a long time it was easier and cheaper to abandon worn-out farmland than to nurse it back to productive use.

However, not all Americans feel this way. From the early colonial period, many Americans have argued for the preservation of forests, lakes and rivers and the careful use of farmland. Even the young George Washington, as a Virginia surveyor, was an early pioneer in conservation.

By the mid-1800s the need to conserve natural resources acquired a special urgency. The buffalo herds were rapidly disappearing. So were many other animals, including wolves, passenger pigeons, fur seals and sea otters. Forests were being destroyed by logging and forest fires. Rivers and lakes were being clogged and polluted with the waste of logging and mining.

2.4. National Parks and Forests

Several naturalists called for action by the American people and government to save the nation’s natural heritage. Chief among them was John Muir (1838- 1914). Muir, who was born in Scotland, roamed through the West studying and describing the natural wonders of his adopted land. He also campaigned vigorously for a national effort to save those natural wonders for future generations. It was largely through his efforts that wilderness lands were set aside as public parks. The first of these was the Yosemite Grant in California. This consists of a beautiful valley surrounded by cliffs and pinnacles. Giant Sequoia trees and other rare plants grow there. Muir was also mainly responsible that Sequoia and General Grant were established in 1890. Two years later he founded the Sierra Club. A century later it became one of the most powerful environmental organizations in the world with over 650,000 members.

Yosemite was made a national park in 1890, but it wasn’t the first. That honor went to Yellostone, a 2.25 million-acre (one million hectares) tract of wilderness land established as a national park in1871. Among the national parks the Grand Canyon, Yosemite Valley, Yellow Stone and Death Valley are the most famous.

Muir used to have long walks in the wilderness and “campfire talks” with President Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt, who knew and loved the vast, unspoiled beauty of the American west, began fighting for conservation as soon as he came into office in 1901. Sweeping provisions made to conserve the natural resources of the nation were among the most important achievements of the Roosevelt’s administration.

Roosevelt established the first wildlife sanctuary, Pelican Island, in 1903. Following the lead of Presidents Harrison and Cleveland, and much to the anger of the lumber industry, he sighed laws which saved 60 million acres of forests. 49

Many national parks and national forests were set aside as reserves after 1901, and a National Park Service was set up to administer them in 1916. By 1990 the U.S. National Park system had grown to include some 360 different areas from coast to coast, in Hawaii and Alaska, of which the Grand Canyon, the Everglades, and the Sequoia national Parks are just a few of the best known of the present 50 national parks. The National Park system is an American example of conservation that has since been imitated by many countries around the world.

Private groups and government agencies came into existence to regulate and restore wildlife, to conserve soil and water, and to manage fishery resources. However, though most Americans have become committed to conservation, a legitimate debate continues over setting a proper balance between conservation and the development of America’s natural resources for the sake of promoting national economic welfare and energy self-sufficiency.

Starting around 1880, a number of programs were set up to reclaim eroded land. Farmers were encouraged to buy or build small windmills to pump irrigation water out of deep wells. Later, rivers were dammed and irrigation canals built to provide additional water. Farmers introduced new types of wheat which could resist cold winters and hot, dry summers, and experimented with contour plowing and crop rotation methods. More recently, agricultural researches have developed a method of planting without plowing. Known as conservation tillage, it involves leaving the previous crop’s residue on the surface to lessen soil erosion. Then, instead of scarring the soil with plow blades, rows of tiny holes are punched in the soil to accept the new seeds.

The westward flow of settlements across the United States first led to wasteful attitudes and practices. Later there developed a popular grass-root concern for natural resources that gains strength year by year. Americans have pioneered many 50 conservation efforts. In the creation of large national parks and forests, they’ve set an example for the world.

2.5. Vegetation

When early voyagers approached the land that is now the United States, they noticed a sweet and surprising “land smell,” a clue that they were near the shore. This “land smell” came from the great , thick forest that covered all the eastern part of the country that stretched about 1,600 kilometers westward until it met the tall grass of the prairies.

No one knows just why the woods ended where they did, or why the tall grass of the prairies – the wide rolling and almost treeless plains – began at that point. The reason still remains shrouded in mystery, for the eastern part of the prairies’ tall grasslands have soil that will support tree life. One explanation has it that the Indians burned off the forest in order to force game animals out to hunters. Another reason given is that perhaps some early special conditions of soil and rainfall were responsible. This was accepted as a more plausible explanation, but nobody really knows. Nevertheless, the early settlers wrote that the prairie grass was very beautiful, interlaced with flowers in the spring, and so tall that a man on foot could not see over it.

It is clear why the tall grass became short grass farther west – lack of rain. The transition line roughly follows the important 50-centimeter rainfall line, which runs north and south almost through the middle of the country. To the west of the rainfall line there is too little rain, east of the line there is enough rain for the plants to grow well.

Still farther west, the plant life looks different. Forests cover the slopes where mountains catch enough rain. A few favored grassy meadows lie in the high mountain valleys. On the dry lowland – and on the high tablelands – dry, harsh bushes grow; so do kinds of grass common to arid regions, with places here and there too dry or too full of salt for even this poor desert growth.

In the east the principle trees are spruce, poplar, birch and fir. The Northern Appalachians and the Great Lakes are dominated by mixed forests of birch, beech, maple, hemlock and pine. The greatest wonder of all are the forests of sequoia and fir trees on the northwest coast, where the mountains catch the heavy Pacific rains. These great trees, some of which are 3,000 years old, are among the largest and oldest living things known. Some were seedlings when Troy fell, and already giants when Rome was founded. The silent forests are filled with columns of great trunks lighted dimly by sun filtered through leaves far above. Most of these forests are protected by law and preserved as a national treasure.

Much of southern Florida and the lower Mississippi River valley are covered by march grasses.

Grasslands cover much of the interior lowlands. But the natural vegetation has been largely removed and replaced in the USA. Nowadays the grasses of the plains and prairies are mostly European imports.

Scrublands usually develop under very dry conditions. They are concentrated in the lowlands of the interior West. The vegetation varies from the cacti of the Southwest to the dense, brushy chaparral of southern California and the mesquite of Texas.

In the tundra of the far North there are grasses, lichens and mosses. 52

2.6. Wildlife

The animal population of the United States was both numerous and prolific in aboriginal times. Since the advent of the white man, with his firearms and with his need of land for agriculture, the animal population has been greatly reduced. Whole species have been exterminated, or preserved in other than the wild state.

The northeastern forests abounded in animals of all kinds and sizes. Deer, raccoons, skunks, grey and red squirrels, black bears, rabbits and hares, beavers, minks, and moles were common. Great flocks of birds were present, including migratory wild fowl. Reptiles included turtles, salamanders, and several species of snakes.

In the forests of the southeast opossums abounded and along the coasts were alligators and sea cows. Crocodiles were present in the extreme south of Florida. Great numbers of large birds, such as the flamingo, the whooping crane, were common in the swamps and marshes.

The Interior Plains had vast herds of grazing animals, especially bisons (buffaloes) and antelopes. The higher mountains of the West were the home of the mountain sheep, mountain goat, grizzly bear, marmot, and rock rabbit.

The deserts have a highly specialized world, equipped to avoid heat and reduce water losses to a minimum, like the sidewinder rattlesnake, which keeps much of its body off the ground to avoid contact with that searing surface.

Deer, raccoons, skunks, black bears, grizzly bears, hares, beavers, minks, moles, bisons (buffaloes), antilopes, sheep, goats and many other wild animals can be found in the national parks or national forests. 53

In the deserts and in the south of the country among the reptiles there are turtles, salamanders, snakes and alligators. In Florida one can see such birds as flamingoes, whooping cranes, etc.

2.7. Birds as symbols of the USA

Traditionally all the states of the United States have their own state bird, flower and tree. For example, in Alabama the state bird is a yellowhammer, the state flower is a camellia, the state tree is a southern pine. In Alaska the state bird is a willow ptarmigan, the state flower is a forget-me-not, the state tree is a Sitka spruce. In Arizona the state bird is a cactus wren, the state flower is a saguaro cactus flower, the state tree is a paloverde. In Arkansas the state bird is a mockingbird, the state flower is an apple blossom, the state tree is a pine.

As the Americans say, the national floral emblem should represent the virtues of their land and be national in character.

The Bald Eagle

The American eagle, king of the skies is so truly representing of our might and power.

The Bald Eagle: a large North American bird with a white head and neck is the national bird of the US.

The American bald eagle (Haliaeetus Leucocephalus) was adopted as the official emblem of the United States of America in 1782. The bald eagle was chosen because of it’s majestic beauty, great strength, long life, and because it’s native to North America. In the wild, an eagle will live 30-35 years (up to 50 years in captivity). A full-grown Bald Eagle has a wingspan of up to 7 foot. They fly up to 30 miles an hour and can dive at 100 miles an hour! Eagles feed primarily on fish, supplemented by small mammals, waterfowl, and carrion.

Benjamin Franklin in a letter to his daughter:

“For my own part I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen the Representative of our Country. He is a Bird of bad moral Character. He does not get his Living honestly. You may have seen him perched on some dead Tree near the River, where, too lazy to fish for himself, he watches the Labour of the Fishing Hawk; and when that diligent Bird has at length taken a Fish, and is bearing it to his Nest for the Support of his Mate and young Ones, the Bald Eagle pursues him and takes it from him.

With all this Injustice, he is never in good Case but like those among Men who live by Sharping & Robbing he is generally poor and often very lousy. Besides he is a rank Coward: The little King Bird not bigger than a Sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the District. He is therefore by no means a proper Emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America who have driven all the King birds from our Country....

I am on this account not displeased that the Figure is not known as a Bald Eagle, but looks more like a Turkey. For the Truth the Turkey is in Comparison a much more respectable Bird, and withal a true original Native of America... He is besides, though a little vain & silly, a Bird of Courage, and would not hesitate to

55 attack a Grenadier of the British Guards who should presume to invade his Farm Yard with a red Coat on.”

Eagles mate for life, and an established pair will use the same nest for many years. Over the years some nests become enormous – they can reach a diameter of 9 feet and weigh as much as 2 tons! The female lays 2 or 3 eggs and both parents share incubation and guard them diligently against predators such as squirrels, gulls and ravens. While the chicks are small, the parents move about the nest with their talons balled up into fists to avoid harming them.

In 1782 there were between 25,000 and 75,000 birds in the lower 48 states alone. But farmers considered bald eagles vermin and shot them on sight. As people started moving west, much of the nesting territories and food sources of the eagle diminished. By the late 1800’s, eagles were becoming very scarce.

In 1940 the Bald Eagle Act was passed and eagle populations began to recover. But pesticides were starting to be used extensively about this same time. Plants sprayed with DDT were eaten by small animals, which in turn were eaten by eagles. Both the adult birds and their eggs were affected. The eggshells were too thin to withstand incubation and were crushed (or simply did not hatch). Large quantities of DDT were found in the fatty tissues of dead eagles, and by 1963 their numbers had fallen to a mere 417 nesting pairs.

The Endangered Species Acts of 1966 and 1978 helped to protect the bird, but banning of DDT in 1972 was the most effective in the bald eagle’s recovery. By the year 2000 the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed that the eagle be declared fully recovered, but as no plan to manage the species exists, it is still listed as “Threatened.”

The Wild Turkey

Founding father Benjamin Franklin wanted the wild turkey to be adopted as our national emblem.

The wild turkey was designated official Alabama game bird in 1980. A true native American, the eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) is the largest and most widely distributed of the six recognized subspecies of wild turkey in North America . The male can grow up to four feet tall and weigh well over 20 pounds. Hens may be almost as tall but usually weigh no more than 12 – 14 pounds. The wild turkey is also an official state symbol of Massachusetts, South Carolina, and Oklahoma.

Native Americans enjoyed an abundance of turkeys for thousands of years before settlers arrived in the New World, although Indians generally avoided eating turkey (regarding it as “starvation food” – believing that turkey was fit to hunt only by children, women, and Europeans). The Indians valued turkeys more for their feathers and as spiritual symbols.

By the early 1900’s wild turkeys had all but disappeared (a result of commercial harvesting and habitat destruction). Fortunately, conservation and wildlife organizations intervened, and the wild turkey made a dramatic recovery – today 6.4 million wild turkeys roam the lower 49 states.

Turkeys are unique, resilient, and prolific. The male turkey (Tom) strives to mate with many females. Toms begin their breeding displays in early spring – strutting proudly for the hens with fanned tail and fluffed feathers. The Toms’ head turns a bright red during this mating display.

Toms have nothing to do with the poults (baby turkeys), leaving all nesting and rearing chores to the female. A turkey hen lays 9 – 12 eggs in a shallow nest where she incubates her clutch for about 28 days. She then leads her newly hatched brood to forage for insects, berries and seeds.

Blue Hen Chicken

The blue hen chicken was designated the official state bird of Delaware in 1939. The history of this symbol stems from the Revolutionary war when Delaware soldiers were compared to fighting cocks.

The Cardinal

Seven different states have the cardinal as their state bird: Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, North Carolina, Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia. Mockingbird

Tennessee selected the mockingbird (genus Mimus polyglottos) as official state bird in 1933, selected from an election conducted by the Tennessee Ornithological Society. Northern Mockingbirds are related to the brown thrasher and the catbird.

Mockingbirds have extraordinary vocal abilities – they can sing up to 200 songs, including their own melodious songs, the songs of other birds, insect and amphibian sounds, even an occasional mechanical noise. The mockingbird is considered one of the finest songbirds in northern America.

American Robin 59

Wisconsin designated the American robin (Turdus migratorius) as the official state bird in 1949 (voted on by the school children of Wisconsin in 1926-27). One of America’s favorite songbirds, robins are watched for each year as the heralder of spring.

Robins were named by early settlers after the familiar robin red-breast of Europe (a bird with similar markings that is not closely related to the American Robin). The most widespread thrush in North America (because of its adaptation to human-modified habitats), robins are a familiar backyard bird often observed pulling up earthworms on suburban lawns.

The American robin has many vocalizations – rich songs composed of long phrases and “whinny” and “tut” calls. The female is muted in color compared to the male. The American Robin is also the state bird of Michigan, and Connecticut.

2.8. Plants as Symbols of the USA

The most common state tree is the pine tree. It is the state tree of Alabama, Arkansas, Idaho, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico, and North Carolina.

The Rose

The rose is the most common state flower. Four states have it: Georgia, Iowa, New York, and North Dakota. Washington, D. C. also has it.

The rose was designated the official flower and floral emblem of the United States of America in 1986. The rose has been around for about 35 million years

60 and grows naturally throughout North America. The petals and rose hips are edible and have been used in medicines since ancient times.

Roses are red, pink, white, or yellow and can have a wonderfully rich, almost intoxicating aroma. The rose is a symbol of love and beauty (as well as war and politics) the world over. Each of the 50 states has also adopted an official state flower (see state flowers list), including the rose in New York, the Oklahoma rose in Oklahoma, Cherokee rose in Georgia, and the wild prairie rose in Iowa and North Dakota).

The rose was designated official state flower of New York in 1955. The rose has been around for about 35 million years and grows naturally throughout North America. The petals and rose hips are edible and have been used in medicines since ancient times.

Rose hips (the fruit of the rose which forms at base of the flower) are a nutritional treasure chest – rich in vitamins (C, E, and K), pectin, beta-carotene, and bio-flavinoids. These elements produce a strong antioxidant effect which protects and enhances the immune system. Rose hips improve blood cholesterol and pressure, digestive efficiency, and weight management (and are also a special winter treat for birds and wild animals).

The rose is a symbol of love and beauty (as well as war and politics) the world over. The rose is also America’s national flower, the state flower of Georgis is the Cherokee rose, and the wild prairie rose is state flower of Iowa and North Dakota). See all 50 states.

The Marigold

There is support for designating the native marigold as official floral emblem for the United States. One proponent (Everett Dirksen) made a colorful argument in 1967:

Mr. President:

On January 8, 1965, I introduced Senate Joint Resolution 19, to designate the American marigold as the national floral emblem of the United States. Today I am introducing the same resolution with the suggestion that it again be referred to the Committee on the Judiciary.

The marigold is a native of North America and can in truth and in fact be called an American flower.

It is national in character, for it grows and thrives in every one of the fifty states of this nation. It conquers the extremes of temperature. It well withstands the summer sun and the evening chill.

Its robustness reflects the hardihood and character of the generations who pioneered and built this land into a great nation. It is not temperamental about fertility. It resists its natural enemies, the insects. It is self-reliant and requires little attention. Its spectacular colors – lemon and orange, rich brown and deep mahogany – befit the imaginative qualities of this nation.

It is as sprightly as the daffodil, as colorful as the rose, as resolute as the zinnia, as delicate as the carnation, as haughty as the chrysanthemum, as aggressive as the petunia, as ubiquitous as the violet, and as stately as the snapdragon.

It beguiles the senses and ennobles the spirit of man. It is the delight of the amateur gardener and a constant challenge to the professional.

Since it is native to America and nowhere else in the world, and common to every state in the Union, I present the American marigold for designation as the national floral emblem of our country.”

Orange Blossom

The orange blossom (Citrus sinensis) was designated as the state flower of Florida in 1909. The blossom of the orange tree is one of the most fragrant flowers in Florida. Millions of white flowers from orange trees perfume the air in central and southern Florida during orange blossom time. Florida also recognizes the orange as official state fruit and orange juice as the state beverage.

Citrus fruit, especially oranges, are a major part of Florida’s economy. Florida produces the majority of citrus fruit grown in the United States (in 2006, 67 percent of all citrus, 74 percent of oranges, 58 percent of tangerines, and 54 percent of grapefruit). About 95 percent of commercial orange production in the state is processed (mostly as orange juice).

Apple Blossom

Arkansas designated the apple blossom as the official state flower in 1901. Arkansas was once a major apple producing state and still has an Arkansas apple festival each year in the town of Lincoln (in Washington county).

California Poppy

The California poppy was designated the state flower of California in 1903. California Indians valued the poppy as a food source and for the oil extracted from the plant. Also known as the flame flower, la amapola, and copa de oro (cup of gold), the poppy grows wild throughout California.

Every year, April 6 is California Poppy Day and May 13- 18 is Poppy Week. Gold is a theme in California state symbols – the state colors are blue and gold, the state nickname is The Golden State, and gold is the official state mineral.

Mistletoe

Oklahoma designates mistletoe (phoradendron serotinum) as the official state floral emblem. Mistletoe is the oldest of Oklahoma’s symbols (adopted in 1893 – 14 years before statehood).

Mistletoe grows on trees throughout the state and is particularly common in the southern regions of Oklahoma. The dark green leaves and white berries show up brightly during the fall and winter in trees that have shed their own leaves.

Mistletoe is a parasite that taps into a host tree’s transport system for minerals and water (mistletoe is an evergreen and also performs photosynthesis on its own).

2.9. Animals as Symbols of the USA

Maine Coon Cat

The Maine coon cat was recognized as the official state cat of Maine in 1985. Well established more than a century ago, Maine coon cats are one of the oldest natural breeds in North America. Though tabby coloring is most well-known, Maine coons come in many colors. 64

Maine coon cats are tall, muscular, and big-boned with long, smooth, heavy, water-resistant coats and long, bushy tails. Males average 13 to 18 pounds (it is not uncommon to reach 25 pounds). Females average 9 to 12 pounds. These beautiful cats are superbly equipped for Maine’s harsh winters. In addition to their unique luxurious coat, the ears are more heavily furred (both inside and on the tips) than many breeds, and Maine coon cats have big, round, tufted feet that serve as snow shoes. Most coon cat breeders believe that the breed originated as a mix of the pre- existing shorthaired domestic cats and foreign longhairs (possibly Angora types introduced by New England seamen, or longhairs brought to America by the Vikings). Cats are also recognized as state symbols in Massachusetts (tabby cat) and in Maryland (calico cat).

American Buffalo (Bison bison)

The magnificent American buffalo was recognized as the official animal symbol of Kansas in 1955. A male bison can weigh over 1800 pounds and is 6 foot tall at the shoulder. Buffalo once roamed the American prairie by the tens of millions and provided a way of life for the plains Indians. European settlers hunted buffalo to the brink of extinction – it’s estimated that between 300 – 500 animals remainedwhen the federal government passed stricter game laws in 1889.

The Buffalo is also featured on the U.S. Mint’s bicentennial quarter for Kansas, the official state seal, and the state flag of Kansas. The buffalo is an inseparable part of American history; no other wild animal has played such a significant role in human affairs. The tribes of the American plains relied on bison for food, shelter, clothing, and as a powerful spiritual symbol.

Literature

Geography and Environment by Michal Cusack. The United States Information Agency, 1986. An Outline of American Geography. – the United States Information Agency; Stevenson , Douglas K. American Life and Institutions. Revised Edition. – Leipzig, 1996 Smith, K. B. Pictorial Atlas of the United States and Canada. Ottenheimer Publishers, Inc., 1996 Timanovskaya N. Spotlight on English-speaking Countries. – Тула: Автограф, 1998. http://www.statesymbolsusa.org/National_Symbols/Bird_bald_eagle.html

List of Animal and Plant Names

A blue hen chicken – цыпленок голубой alder – ольха курицы alligator – аллигатор blue-mouth redfish – красная нерка antelope – антилопа boar – хряк ape – человекообразная обезьяна bracken – папоротник-орляк apple blossom – цветы яблони brown shrimp – бурая креветка Arctic charr – арктический голец bull—бык Arctic hare – арктический заяц butterwort – жирянка ash – ясень buzzard – канюк, сарыч Atlantic puffin – атлантический тупик Atlantic white-clawed crayfish – C атлантический рак cactus (pl. cacti) – кактус auk – гагарка cactus wren – кактусовый крапивник California poppy – калифорнийский мак B camellia – камелия baneberry – воронец колосистый carnation – гвоздика bat – летучая мышь cetacean – китовые bean – боб, фасоль chaparral – чапарель (вечнозеленое bearded, harp, hooded and ringed seal – растение Северной Америки) тюлень chihuahua – чихуахуа beaver – бобер chough – клушица bee – пчела chrysanthemum – хризантема beech – бук clam – двустворчатый моллюск birch – береза coarse grass – дикие травы bison (buffaloe) – зубр, американский cocker spaniel – кокер-спаниель бизон cod – треска bittern – выпь collie – шотландская овчарка black grouse – черная куропатка coon cat – самка енота black legged kittiwake – черноногая coot – лысуха моевка cormorant – большой баклан blanket bog – стелющиеся болота cottongrass – пушица crocodile – крокодил

68 crow – ворона giraffe – жираф crustacean – ракообразные globeflower – купальщица cucumber – огурец goat – коза curlew – кроншнеп golden eagle – золотой орел golden plover -- золотая ржанка D golden retriever – золотой ретривер (порода собак) daffodil – нарцисс grasshopper warbler – кузнечиковый певец dalmation – далматин, порода собак grassmoor – пустошь, покрытая травой Dartford warbler – дартфордский певец greyhound – борзая deep-water prawn – глубоководная griffin – (мифолог.) грифон креветка grizzly bear – медведь гризли deer – олень gull – чайка Derbyshire feather-moss – дербиширский мох dipper – оляпка H dodo – додо (ископаемая птица) haddock – пикша dolphin – дельфин haggister – (диал.) сорока dragon – (миф.) дракон hamster – хомяк hawk – ястреб E hawker dragonfly – ястребиная стрекоза eagle – орел hay – солома elephant – слон hazel – лесной орех, лещина elm – вяз heather – вереск hemlock – болиголов herring – сельдь F holly-leaved naiad – наяда feral goat – дикая коза hornet – шершень fir – пихта flamingo – фламинго J forget-me-not – незабудка juniper – можжевельник fries – мальки

G K kingfisher – зимородок gannet – олуша gerbil – песчанка 69

L O labrador – собака породы «Лабрадор» oak – дуб lamb – ягненок opossum – опоссум lapwing – чибис orange blossom – цвет апельсинового leek – лук-порей дерева lime – лайм настоящий (разновидность orchid – орхидея лимона) osprey – скопа lizard – ящерица otter – выдра lobster – омар oyster – устрица loon – полярная гагара P M Pacific oyster – тихоокеанская устрица mackerel – скумбрия paloverde – пало-верде maple – клен parrot – попугай march grass – весенние травы pea – горох marigold – бархатцы pearl mussel – жемчужная мидия marmot – сурок pearl-bordered fritillary – перламутровка marsh harriers – болотный херриер peat – торф martlet – черный стриж pelican – пеликан merlin – кречет peregrine – сапсан mermaid – (мифолог.) русалка petrel – буревестник mesquite – мескитовое дерево petunia – петуния mink – норка pike – щука mire – топь, трясина pine – сосна mistletoe – омела pine marten – куница mockingbird – пересмешник pinniped – ластоногие mole – крот plaice – камбала mountain-ash – рябина обыкновенная polecat – хорек mussel – мидия pony – пони poplar – тополь N porpoise – морская свинка northern fulmar – полярный глупыш pouting – французская тресочка Norway lobster – норвежский краб primrose – примула purple moor grass – сереневая трава

shrimp – креветка R sidewinder rattlesnake – гремучая змея Sitka spruce – ситкская ель rabbitfish – химера skate – скат raccoon – енот skunk – скунс raven – ворон skylark – жаворонок ray – скат snail – улитка red kite – красный коршун snake – змея red osprey – красная скопа snapdragon – львиный зев red squirrel – красная белка Snowdon beetle – сноудонский жук redstart – горихвостка Snowdon Lily – сноудонская лилия rich lichen – густой лишайник Snowdonia hawkweed – горлюха rigid buckler fern – щитовидный ятсребинковая папоротник sole – морской язык ring ouzel – оляпка southern pine – южная сосна robin – малиновка sphagnum – торфяной мох rock rabbit – кролик sprat – килька rottweiler – ротвейлер spruce – ель

stonechat – чекан S sturgeon – осетр saguaro cactus – гигантский кактус sundew – росянка сагуаро saithe – сайда T salamander – саламандра tern – крачка salmon – лосось thistle – чертополох sandeel – песчанка tortoise/turtle – черепаха schelly – сельдевидный сиг twite – горная чечетка sea cow – ламантин seaduck – нырковая утка sequoia – секвойя U serpent – ( мифолог.) змий unicorn – (мифич.) единорог shad – алоза upland oakwood – высокогорная дубрава shamrock – кислица обыкновенная shitzu – шитзу V short-eared owl – короткоухая сова vendace – сиг

71 violet – фиалка wild turkey – дикий индюк vulture – гриф willow – ива willow ptarmigan – белая куропатка W walrus – морж Y Welsh mountain sheep – валлийская yellowhammer – овсянка обыкновенная горная овца yellow wagtail – желтая куропатка Welsh oak – валлийский дуб yew – тис whale – кит Yorkshire terrier – йоркширский терьер whitebeam – рябина ария whiting – мерланг Z whooping crane – американский журавль zinnia – цинния wild deer – дикий олень wild red grouse – дикая шотландская куропатка

Illustrations

Page 21. S. Trophimova. A Melody. 2011. Page 31. S. Trophimova. White Lillies. 2010. Page 42. S. Trophimova. Butterflies and grass. 2011. Page 48. S. Trophimova. A Bouquet with a Peony. 2011. Page 57. S. Trophimova. The Last Leaves. 2009. Page 67. S. Trophimova. In the Middle of a Wild Garden. 2010.

Полукарова Татьяна Алексеевна,

Костина Наталья Юрьевна

Some Glimpses

Of British and American Nature

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