Indian Mathematician O Born in Kerala, He Completed His Studies at the University of Nalanda O He Found Lengths of Chords of Circles

III SEMESTER B.COM/BBA

3.8 SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Study Material

Prepared By, Department of Commerce / Department of Business Administration

SYLLABUS

Sl.no Name of the unit Pg. No 1 Introduction to Science 3 2 Modern Science and Its 30 Impact on Societies 3 Science, Life and 36 Livelihoods

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE

Some other common definitions of science:

 Systematized knowledge in general

 Any of the branches of natural or physical sciences

 A particular branch of knowledge

The word Science comes from Latin word "scientia" meaning "knowledge" and in broadest sense it is any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice being capable of resulting in prediction. Facets of Science:

1. Science is both a body of knowledge and a process 2. Science is exciting 3. Science is useful 4. Science is ongoing 5. Science is a global human endeavor HISTORY OF GREEK SCIENCE

 GREEK SCIENCE is strongly associated with Athens, because of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.  Aristotle inaugurates scientific zoology in his reliance on careful observation.  He is particularly acute in his study of marine life, having much to say on the habits of fishes, the development of the octopus family, and the nature of whales, dolphins and porpoises.  He is also a pioneer in attempting a system of classification.

 Observing an unbroken chain of gradual developments, as the life of plants shades into that of animals, he acknowledges the complexity of the subject and seems almost to glimpse the pattern of evolution.

Science 16th century

 1543 – Copernicus: heliocentric model  1543 – Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy  1552 – Michael Servetus: early research in Europe into pulmonary circulation  1555 – Vesalius: no holes exist. And blood cannot pass from one side to another.  1570s – Tycho Brahe: detailed astronomical observations. Accurate position of stars.  1572-Brahe saw new star Nova.  1600 – William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field

Science 17th century

 1609 – Johannes Kepler: first two laws of planetary motion  1610 – Galileo Galilei: SidereusNuncius: telescopic observations  1628 – William Harvey: Blood circulation. Also he realized that heart is pump.  1638 - Galileo Galilei: laws of falling body  1632-Galileo published book ―Dialogue concerning the Two chief World Sytems.‖  1634--Galileo published book about mechanics ―Dialogue concerning Two new science.‖  1656- Christiaan Huygens made first pendulum clock.  1658-Jan Swammerdam: observed red blood corpuscles.  1661-Marcello Malpighi discovered capillaries  1661-Robert Boyle published the skeptical chemist,laid foundation of modern chemistry.  1662 – Robert Boyle: Boyle's law of ideal gas  1665 - Robert Hooke: Discovers the Cell in his book Micrographia  1669 – Jan Swammerdam: Species breed true  1672 – Sir Isaac Newton: discovers that white light is a spectrum of a mixture of distinct colored rays  1673 - Christiaan Huygens: first study of oscillating system and design of pendulum clocks  1675 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Observes Microorganisms by Microscope  1676 – Ole Rømer: first measurement of the speed of light  1687 – Sir Isaac Newton: Classical Mathematical description of the fundamental force of universal gravitation and the three physical laws of motion  1687 – Sir Isaac Newton: published PhilosophiaeNaturalis principia Mathematica 

Science 18th century

 1746-Petrus van Musschenbroekinvented a way of storing electricity called ―Leiden Jar”.  1750 – Joseph Black: describes latent heat  1751 – Benjamin Franklin: Lightning is electrical  1751- Axel Cronstedt discovered nickel.  1752- Benjamin Franklin proved that lightning is form of electricity.  1756- Joseph Black discovered carbon-di-oxide.  1766- Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen and studied its properties.  1772-Danniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen.  1778 – Antoine Lavoisier (and Joseph Priestley): discovery of oxygen leading to end of Phlogiston theory  1781 – William Herschel announces discovery of Uranus, expanding the known boundaries of the solar system for the first time in modern history  1784-John Goodrick discovered variable stars.  1785- James Hutton published his book ― theory of earth‖  1786-Caroline Herschel became first women to discover comet.

Science 19th century

 1800 – Alessandro Volta: discovers electrochemical series and invents the battery  1802 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: teleological evolution  1803-1805-John Dalton published his atomic theory.  1819-1820 – Hans Christian Ørsted discovers that a current passed through a wire will deflect the needle of a compass, establishing a deep relationship between electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism).  1824 – Carnot: described the Carnot cycle, the idealized heat engine  1830- Charles Lyell published book Principles of geology  1831 – Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction  1843 – James Prescott Joule: Law of Conservation of energy (First law of thermodynamics), also 1847 – Helmholtz, Conservation of energy  1846 – William Morton: discovery of anesthesia  1846 – Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest: discovery of Neptune  1851-Helmholtz invented the ophthalmoscope.  1859 – Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection  1861 - Louis Pasteur: Germ theory  1865 – Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics

 1869 – Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table  1896 – Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity  1898 – Marie Curie discovers polonium, radium, and coins the term "radioactivity"  1900 – Max Planck: Planck's law of black body radiation, basis for quantum theory  Note: energy is exchanged in packets called quantum. REVOLUTION IN PHYSICS Revolution: a. The movement of an orbiting celestial object, as a star or planet, completely around another object b. Apparent movement of the sun and stars around the earth c. The time taken for a body to go around an orbit and return to its original position

About Copernicus:

Copernicus: Nicolas Copernicus developed the heliocentric model of the universe. This states that the sun is the center, and that the earth revolves around it. Despite his calculations, many scholars disagree with his theories and continue to believe in the geocentric model proposed by the ancient Greek Ptolemy1500 years earlier. Explanation to Copernicus universe The major features of Copernican theory are:

1. Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles (epicycles). 2. The center of the universe is near the Sun. 3. Around the Sun, in order, are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. 4. The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis. 5. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance to the stars.

6. The Earth is just another planet (the third outward from the Sun).

7. The stars are distant objects that do not revolve around the Sun.

8. The Earth is assumed to rotate once in 24 hours.

GALILEO GALILEI Galileo‘s groundbreaking inventions and discoveries earned him the title "father of modern science, father of modern observational astronomy, father of science, father of modern physics Galileo's most original contributions to science were in mechanics:

 He helped clarify concepts of acceleration, velocity, and instantaneous motion.

 Galileo's effect on Astronomy

 Galileo did not invent the telescope (known since at least 1590).

 It was invented by Hans Lippershey

 Using the newly invented telescope, Galileo discovered  The four large moons of Jupiter (evidence that the solar system contained bodies that did not orbit Earth),  The phases of Venus (the first observational evidence not properly explained by the Ptolemaic theory) and  The rotation of the Sun about a fixed axis as indicated by the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots;  ―The Starry Messenger‖ made Galileo a celebrity in Italy.

 Galileo was first one to :

 See Craters on moon

 See Phases of Venus

 Satellites of Jupiter

 Others independently used telescopes on celestial objects at nearly the same time. Galileo had the best publicity.

Galileo‟s work:  Experiments in Motion  Among Galileo's contributions to physics is  The law of falling bodies, which states that objects fall at the same speed regardless of weight or shape.  Galileo also first developed the concept of inertia -- the idea that an object remains in rest or in motion until acted on by another force -- which became the basis for one of Isaac Newton's laws of motion.

Points to remember in Revolution in physics:  Anaximander: Introduced Aperion endless or unlimited primordial mass, which is the source of all things and responsible for gneisses and decay.  Heraclitus : Is the philosopher of everything flows . o He questioned about senses which shows different world to each individual.  Empedocles : Described the mystery of universal regularities poisted four eternal and unaltered elements producing phenomena of changing things.  Farady : Explained induction law on 1832.  Kepler 3rd law formula : u2 R = K. u is the velocity of planet and R is distance from sun and k is constant.  Newton formula : mu2 /R = GM = K,since M is the mass of sun .G is proportionality factor.  J.vonSoldner : German mathematician ,in 1801 confirmed corpuscular theory by computing the trajectory of a corpuscle of light that passes close to periphery to sun.  Dalton : Individuals substance cannot be further be broken down to chemical methods.  Becquerel : Discovered in 1896 that heavy atoms are unstable.  Thomson : Discovered electrons in 1897 and suggested that: o Dalton‘s atom is divisible substance o Atom is made up of number of –ve charged electrons.  Angstrom : In 1871 measured the wavelength of the visible lines of hydrogen spectrum .

AGE OF ENLIGHTMENT 1. When historians discuss the ―Enlightenment,‖ they are usually referring to 18th century Europe (France and England in particular). 2. The Enlightenment was a period of in which people began to change their views on the world and on society. 3. In many ways, this change marked the beginning of the modern era. 4. The members of the enlightenment often gathered in French salon. 5. The most important factor in the development of the Enlightenment was the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. 6. Scientific Revolution a. It was a period between 1500 – 1700 b. The Scientific Revolution led people to view the world in a different light.

c. It challenged the power of the Church. d. It formed the foundation of all modern sciences. 7. Enlightenment ideas helped open people‘s minds to a new way of thinking and not to except the ways of the past. a. The ideas: i. Challenged old ways of thinking. ii. Questioned divine-right of rule. iii. Taught that people should be able to gain material well-being, social justice, and happiness in this life, not just the next. 8. Enlightenment Thinkers a. Many Enlightenment thinkers were also mathematicians and scientists. b. They viewed changes in science as going hand in hand with changes in philosophy. c. Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679) d. John Locke (1632–1704) e. Voltaire ( real name ---François Marie Arouet) (1650 – 1722) f. Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755) g. Jean-Jacque Rousseau (1712 – 1778)

9. Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679), a. English philosopher, famous book: Leviathan, established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the idea of social contract. b. In this sate of nature, everyone would be able to do whatever they wanted. This would mean also that people could do anything they wanted to others as well. c. To avoid this, free men have a social contract in establishing a government.

d.People get civil rights in return for having a government ( a state) rule them. His ideas endorsed a strong government and in part formed the basis of federalism.

10. John Locke(1632–1704)

• Developed new ideas about the rights of the people and their relationships to their rulers • Locke‘s ideas about the sovereignty and rights of the people were radical and challenged the centuries-old practice throughout the world of dictatorial rule by kings, emperors, and tribal chieftains.

• He also wrote that government was created by consent of the governed in order to protect these natural rights.

• If the government did not protect these rights he said that people had the right to rebel and dissolve the government.

• This was the philosophical justification of the American Revolution.

• He wrote about the natural rights of Life, Liberty and Property.

• Government is formed to protect people‘s natural rights.

• Government should have limited power.

• The type of government should be accepted by all citizens.

• Rejected absolute monarchy and thereby sides with Parliament against the Stuart Kings.

• Government has an obligation to those it governs.

• People have the right to overthrow government if it fails its obligations or takes away natural rights (revolution)

• Influenced the American belief in self-government.

• Locke wrote that: All people are free, equal, and have “natural rights” of life, liberty, and property that rulers cannot take away.

• All original power resides in the people, and they consent to enter into a “social contract” among themselves to form a government to protect their rights. In return, the people promise to obey the laws and rules established by their government, establishing a system of ―ordered liberty.‖

10. Montesquieu 1689-1755 a. French political thinker. b. His famous book, the Spirit of the Laws (1748) argued: i. That no single set of laws could apply to all peoples at all times and in all places (i.e. monarchy was not necessarily the appropriate government everywhere). ii. We can see his ideas about separation of governmental powers reflected in the United States Constitution. The separate branches of government are the legislative, judiciary, and the executive.

11.Jean-Jacque Rousseau (1712 – 1778)

 He was born in Geneva, Switzerland but was banned from his homeland.  Above all, he was a political philosopher.  He disputed the radical individualism of his time, the individualism of those like John Locke.  He believed that the deciding factor in political decisions should be the general will of the people.  That is to say, a vote would be taken and the majority vote would be taken to indicate the will of the people.

 The central concept in Rousseau's thought is "liberty," and how people often have to give up their liberty. At the foundation of his thought on government and authority is the idea of the "social contract," in which government and authority are a mutual contract between the authorities and the governed.  This contract implies that the governed agree to be ruled only so that their rights, property and happiness be protected by their rulers.  Once rulers cease to protect the ruled, the social contract is broken and the governed are free to choose another set of governors or magistrates.  This idea would become the primary force in the Declaration of Independence.

12. Voltaire Lived from 1694-1778.

 He believed in the possibility of social change and reform.  Voltaire was a prolific writer, and produced works in almost every literary form, authoring plays, poetry, novels, essays, historical and scientific works, over 20,000 letters and over two thousand books and pamphlets.  ―Man is free at the instant he wants to be.  ― Le secret d'ennuyerestcelui de tout dire. ―The secret of being a bore is to tell everything.‖

1. What is the Enlightenment?

A period of time in the 18th century when people began to change the way they felt about themselves, the role of the church, and their view of the world.

2. Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of happiness are considered what? Natural Rights.

3. What Enlightenment Thinkers influence the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution? Locke, Rousseau

4. Major Ideas of the Enlightenment

1. Hobbs -- Social contract—Federalism 2. Locke --- life, liberty and property--- Declaration of independence 3. Voltaire -- Tolerance, reason, freedom of religion and speech – Bill of Rights 4. Montesquieu -- Separation of Powers. 5. Rousseau - Religious Freedom

Points to remember:  Who wrote Don Quixote? o Cervantes and he was from Spain  What was Don Quixote about o It was a story about an idiotic knight--the book made fun of knights and the middle ages.  What was significant about Don Quixote? o It was the first novel (fiction-- not a true story)  What did Hobbes argue was the best form of government in Leviathan? o Absolutism: to manage behavior o The Leviathan, or sea monster, represents the all powerful government Hobbes believed exist to avoid chaos  Who wrote the Two Treatises of Government? o John Locke  What did Locke argue was the best form of Government? Why? o Democracy was the best form of Government. o B. Locke believed in democracy because he argued the people were SOVEREIGN--the people have ultimate power  What three rights did Locke say the Government MUST protect? o Life, liberty, and property  What affects did John Locke have on the United States? o He influenced the Declaration of Independence.  Who wrote The Spirit of Laws? o Baron de Montesquieu  What idea about the structure of government did Montesquieu express in Spirit? o ―separation of powers‖ o --3 branches of government  Why did Montesquieu advocate ―separation of powers‖? o In order to avoid one person gaining all the power (NO ABSOLUTISM!)

 If Montesqueiu is AGAINSTabsolutism, then which thinker does he disagree with?

o Thomas Hobbes  What affect did Montesquieu have on the United States ? o Montesquieu influenced the U.S. Constitution  What was Voltaire famous for saying? o ―I disapprove of what you say, but will defend to the death your right to say it‖  What does this quote defend? o Freedom of speech and religion  What was Voltaire‘s opinion on the relationship between religion and the government? o There should be ―separation of church and state‖  Who wrote the Social Contract? o Jean-Jacques Rousseau  What does Rousseau say about ―The Social (or society‘s) Contract?‖ o It is a contract between the people and their rulers  What does Rousseau say should happen if this contract is broken by the rulers? o The people should rebel!  Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? Which Enlightenment thinker influenced it the most? o Thomas Jefferson o John Locke

RENAISSANCE IN EUROPE

A. Italy‟s Advantages:

The period from 1300 to 1600 is called the Renaissance by historians.

1. The Renaissance means “rebirth,” in this case a rebirth of art and learning from Greece and Rome.

2. Where did the Renaissance begin? Italy. It eventually spread to northern Europe.

3. Who supported Renaissance artists? Merchants and political rulers

4. Renaissance scholars looked down on the art and literature of the Middle Ages.  One reason the Renaissance began in Italy was that artists and scholars drew inspiration from the ruins of Rome that surrounded them.

5. In the 1300s, scholars began studying ancient Latin manuscripts, which had been preserved by monks in monasteries. .

B. Classical and Worldly Values:

1. The study of classical texts led to humanism. Humanism: a Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements.

2. While most people remained devout Catholics, the basic spirit of the Renaissance was secular. Secular: worldly rather than spiritual.

3. During the Renaissance, the ideal individual sought to master almost every area of study. Such an individual was called a “Renaissance man.”

C. Renaissance Revolutionizes Art:

1. Renaissance artists often portrayed religious subjects in their art work. Unlike medieval artists, however, they used a realistic style copied from

14 classical models. Greek and Roman subjects also became popular.

2. Works of Michelangelo: The dome of St. Peter‘s Basilica; the Sistine Chapel Ceiling; the David;Pieta;Creation of Adam

3. Works of Leonardo Da Vinci: Mona Lisa; The Last Supper

4. Works of Raphael: Madonna and Child

SECTION 2: THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE:

A. The Northern Renaissance Begins:

1. By the late 1400s, Renaissance ideas had spread to northern Europe— especially England, France, and Germany.

2. While Italy was divided into city-states, England and France were unified under strong monarchs, who played a major role in introducing Renaissance styles to northern Europe.

3. When war broke out between France and Italy, a number of Italian artist and writers fled to safety in northern Europe,  Bringing with them the styles and techniques of the Renaissance.  In addition, artists who studied in Italy also carried Renaissance ideas north when they returned home.

B. Northern Writers Try to Reform Society:

1. Renaissance ideas greatly influenced the writers and philosophers of northern Europe.  These writers adopted the ideal of humanism.  However, some gave it a more religious slant. Because of this, some northern humanists are also called Christian humanists.

2. The best known Christian humanist was Desiderius Erasmus of Holland.  Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rulers.  He also thought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible. Erasmus‘ most famous work was The Praise of Folly.

3. Many Renaissance writers began writing in the vernacular.

4. Petrarch wrote sonnets or fourteen-line poems.

5. William Shakespeare, arguably the greatest playwright of all time, also wrote in Renaissance England. o His most famous plays include the . tragedies MacBeth, . King Lear, . Hamlet, . Romeo and Juliet, and the comedy A Midsummer Night‘s Dream

B. Printing Spreads Renaissance Ideas:

1. A new invention, the printing press, also helped spread Renaissance ideas.

 When was the printing press invented and by whom? 1455; Johann Gutenberg

2. What was the first full-size book printed with movable type? The Bible

3. The creation of the printing press was revolutionary.  It allowed one printer to produce hundreds of copies, all exactly alike, of a single work.  For the first time, books were cheap enough that many people could buy them.

4. The availability of books encouraged people to learn to read and so caused arise in the literacy rate.  Writing in vernacular languages also increased because even people who couldn‘t afford to go to school could now buy books.

5. Printers also produced the Bible in the vernacular, which allowed more people to read it.  People began to interpret the Bible for themselves and  to become more critical of the priests and their behavior.

Points to remember:

 Oil-based paints were used for the first time.

 Artists began to paint in perspective (3D) and use shading.

 Artists painted everyday life instead of religious scenes.  Leonardo Da Vinci – a great painter, sculptor, architect, scientist and engineer.  Da Vinci: o The first scientist to perform human dissections of the body to study anatomy. o Drew the first sketches of man in flight using wings. o Sketched plants and animals.

 Navigation and Exploration: o Advances in technology helped to make exploration of the world possible. o The introduction of latitude lines on maps made it easier for navigators to find their way. o Discovery of new ocean currents. o New instruments allowed sailors to locate their positions. o New ships could carry enough food and water for longer voyages. o Larger ships with new sails and better steering devices made longer voyages possible.

Industrial Revolution

 Industrial revolution took place from the 18th to 19th centuries.  The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes.  Transition included : o Going from hand production methods to machines, o New chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, o Improved efficiency of water power, o The increasing use of steam power, o The development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system.  There was change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal.  Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution  Textile industry first to use modern production methods.

 The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and industrialisation spread to Western Europe and North America.  GDP: Gross Domestic Product.  Textiles – Mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water.  The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.  Steam power – The efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between 1/5th and 1/10th as much fuel.  Iron making – The substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron and wrought iron production.  The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760.  The puddling process produced iron at a lower cost than the finery forge.  The rolling mill was 15 times faster than hammering wrought iron.  Hot blast (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production.  Machine tools The Industrial Revolution created a demand for metal parts used in machinery  Chemicals: The Thames Tunnel opened 1843.  Cement was used in the world's first underwater tunnel.  Production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt first partner) in 1746.  In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British , patented a chemical process for making portland cement.  Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel.  Gas lightning large-scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton and Watt.  The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820.  Glass making: new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process.  Cylinder process was developed in Europe during the early 19th century.  In 1832, Cylinder process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass.  Crystal palace is the example of sheet glass.  Paper machine: A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert.

 The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier.  Agriculture: JethroTull invented an improved seed drill in 1701.  Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730, was the first commercially successful iron plough.

Science 20th century

 1905 – Albert Einstein: theory of special relativity, explanation of Brownian motion, and photoelectric effect  1906 – Walther Nernst: Third law of thermodynamics  1911 – Ernest Rutherford: Atomic nucleus  1912 – Alfred Wegener: Continental drift  1913 – Niels Bohr: Model of the atom  1915 – Albert Einstein: theory of general relativity – also David Hilbert  1915 – Karl Schwarzschild: discovery of the Schwarzschild radius leading to the identification of black holes  1915-Wegener proposed continental drift.i.e all continents were joined and they have drifted apart.  1926-Arthur Eddington suggested that stars are powered by nuclear fusion.  1927 – Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty principle (Quantum mechanics)  1929 – Edwin Hubble: Hubble's law of the expanding universe  1928 – Alexander Fleming: Penicillin, the first beta-lactam antibiotic  1930- Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto.  1932 – James Chadwick: Discovery of the neutron  1934 – Clive McCay: Calorie restriction extends the maximum lifespan of another species  1937-First radio telescope was built.  1947 – William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invent the first transistor  1953 – Crick and Watson: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology  1963 – Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis).  1964 – Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks leading to the standard model  1967 – Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar  1983 – Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction, a key discovery in molecular biology.

 1986 – Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz: Discovery of High-temperature superconductivity  1990- The Hubble Space Telescope was launched.

History of Science in context with India

History of science in Mathematics:

 The most fundamental contribution of ancient India in mathematics is the invention o Of decimal system of enumeration, including the invention of zero. o The decimal system uses nine digits (1 to 9) and the symbol zero (for nothing) to denote all natural numbers by assigning a place value to the digits  Aryabhata (475 A.D. -550 A.D.) is the first well known Indian mathematician o Born in Kerala, he completed his studies at the university of Nalanda o He found lengths of chords of circles. o gave the value of as 3.1416 o . He also wrote a text book for astronomical calculations, Aryabhatasiddhanta.  Brahmagupta (598 A.D. -665 A.D.) is renowned for introduction of negative numbers and operations on zero into arithmetic. o His main work was Brahmasphutasiddhanta o This work was later translated into Arabic as Sind Hindi o He formulated the rule of three and proposed rules for the solution of quadratic and simultaneous equations. o He was the first mathematician to treat algebra and arithmetic as two different branches of mathematics. o He is also the founder of the branch of higher mathematics known as "Numerical Analysis".  Indian mathematics was the development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and arc tangent) by mathematicians of the Kerala School in the fifteenth century  Madhava gave an approximation to Pie of 3.14159265359, o which goes far beyond the four decimal places computed by Aryabhata. o Madhava deduced his approximation from an infinite series expansion for Pie by 4 that became known in Europe only several centuries after Madhava

History of science in Astronomy

 The first records of sophisticated astronomy in India date back to at least 2000 BCE, where they are found in the Rigveda (c1700-1100 BCE), one of the primary and foremost texts of Hinduism.  The Rigveda shows that the Indians divided the year into 360 days, and the year was subdivided into 12 months of 30 days.

History of science in Linguistic :

 The earliest known linguistic activities date to Iron Age India (~8th century BC) with the analysis of Sanskrit  The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is Pāṇini's Aṣtādhyāyī ("Eight-Chapter Grammar") dates back to the 5th century BCE  Pali the language of the Buddhist canonical writings, is the oldest literary Prakrit. It remains in use in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand  History of science in Medicine:  About 1000 BC, doctors in northern India wrote the Atharvaveda, a medical textbook explaining how to treat diseases  The surgeon Sushruta may have lived about 500 BC. o Sushruta left a book, the Samhita, explaining his surgical methods. o Sushruta described how to pull teeth, how to fix broken bones, and how to fix blockages of the intestines. o He didn't have any anesthesia other than wine.

History of science in Metallurgy:

 The origin of metallurgy in India to 1st millennium BC. In ancient Vedic texts, there is sufficient mention of metals to support the fact that people of that era made use of metals in creating weapons, armour, ornaments, statues, pillars, artifacts, and–believe it or not–medicine.  Iron: o The Iron Pillar in Delhi is proof of advanced metallurgy in ancient India. The pillar weighs over six tonnes, is more than seven metres tall, and is constructed on a single forge.

 Gold o The deepest ancient gold mine in the world was situated in Karnataka in India, with carbon dates from 1st millennium BC

 Zinc

o Ancient mining sites found in Rajasthan reveal the use of highly developed metallurgical technology for extraction of zinc in ancient India. o It is also believed that the production of zinc during that era was very common, and there is evidence to suggest that zinc was first produced in India.

 Sliver o The discovery of ancient coins made of silver suggests that the metal was well in use in ancient India. o The Aravalli region in northwest India is supposed to have been producing silver from about the mid of 1st millennium BC onwards, ranking it among the few major ancient silver-producing sites.  Copper o Copper and its alloys were used to create copper-bronze artifacts in India during 2nd millennium BC. o Bronze images of Buddha and Hindu deities found in Magadha and Varanasi are ample proof of the rich use of copper technology in ancient India.

Indian mathematician

 Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinentfrom 1200 BC until the end of the 18th century.  In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 AD to 1200 AD), important contributions were made by scholars like o Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.  The decimal number system in use today was first recorded in Indian mathematics.  Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept o of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. Aryabhatta

 Aryabhatta was born in 476A.D in Kusumpur, India.  He completed his studies at the university of Nalanda  He was the first person to say that Earth is spherical and it revolves around the sun.

 He gave the formula (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab  He taught the method of solving the following problems:  Aryabhatiya (499 A.D.), he made the fundamental advance in finding the lengths of chords of circles, by using the half chord rather than the full chord method used by Greeks.  He gave the value of pi as 3.1416, claiming, for the first time, that it was an approximation.  He also gave methods for extracting square root.  He also wrote a text book for astronomical calculations, Aryabhatasiddhanta.  Even today, this data is used in preparing Hindu calendars (Panchangs).  In recognition to his contributions to astronomy and mathematics, India's first satellite was named Aryabhatta. Brahmagupta

 Brahma Gupta was born in 598A.D in Pakistan.LaterBramagupta belonged to the city of Ujjain.  He gave four methods of multiplication.  He gave the following formula, used in G.P series  He gave the following formulae : o Area of a cyclic quadrilateral with side a, b, c, d= √(s -a)(s- b)(s -c)(s- d) where 2s = a + b + c + d  In his work on arithmetic, Brahmagupta explained how to find o the cube and cube-root of an integer and o gave rules facilitating the computation of squares and square roots  His most famous text, the ―Brahmasphut- asiddhanta‖, were brought in piture by the 8th Century.  Regarded as the man who used zero as a number, negative numbers. Bhaskaracharay

 He was born in a village of Mysore district.  He was the first to give that any number divided by 0 gives infinity (00).  He has written a lot about zero, surds, permutation and combination.

 He wrote, ―The hundredth part of the circumference of a circle seems to be straight. Our earth is a big sphere and that‘s why it appears to be flat.‖  He gave the formulae like sin(A ± B) = sinA.cosB ± cosA.sinB Bhaskara-I

 He was born at Bori, in Parbhani district of Maharashtra state in India in 7th century.  He was the first to write Hindu-Arabic numerals and with zero with a circle.  He was an exponent of Aryabhatta, named Aryabhatiyabhasya.  He gave importance to sine function in Aryabhatiyabhasya.  He represented number using nonliving and living thing  For eg:- 1 was for moon , 2 was for eyes,wingsetc, 5 was for the senses of humans.  His famous books include Laghubhaskariya and Mahabhaskariya.  Not to be mistaken for Bhaskara II of 12thcentuary Mahavira

 He was a jain Mathematician  His celebrated work was Ganithasarangraha.  He showed ability in quadratic equations, indeterminate equations. Exploration in field of medicine

 Ayurvedic medicine -- also known as Ayurveda -- is one of the world's oldest holistic (whole-body) healing systems.  Ayurveda means "life-knowledge‖.  Ayurveda consist of 2 Sanskrit words- ‗ayur‘ meaning age or life and ‗veda‘ means knowledge.  Ayurveda constitutes ideas about : o Ailments and diseases. o Their symptoms diagnosis and cure. o It relies on herbal medicine, including extract of plants of medicinal value.  The origins of Ayurveda are also found in the Atharvaveda.  It contains 114 hymns and incantations described as magical cures for disease.

 Ancient scholars of Indian like Atreya and Agnivesa have dealt with principles of Ayurveda back in 800 BC.  The oldest known Ayurvedic texts are the SuśrutaSaṃhitā and the CharakaSaṃhitā. o It contains information about diseases, their diagnosis and expected cures.  CharakaSaṃhitā: o It deals with a variety of matters covering physiology , etiology and embryologic, concepts of digestion , metabolism and immunity. Shusruta - Ancient Indian Surgery

o Shushruta- Samhita is the oldest treatise dealing with the practical problems of surgery and obstetrics.  Shushruta- Samhita written by Shushruta who studied human anatomy in great detail with aid of a dead body.  He lived in Kashi, the modern day Varanasi.  Shushruta- Samhita records the detail description of the steps to be taken during the performance of a surgical operation.  There are eight main divisions in Shushruta- Samhita , o Chedya ( Excision) o lekhya (Scarification), o Vedhya ( Puncturing) , o Esya (Exploration), o Ahrya ( Extraction), o Vsraya (Evacuation) and Sivya (Suturing).  Shushruta was equipped with excellent surgical skills and elevated the practical science of surgery to the level of art.  He excelled in plastic surgery (rhinoplasty) and ophthalmology (removing cataracts).  One of the greatest contributions of Shushruta was the restoration of mutilated nose or rhinoplasty. Metallurgy

 The wootz,crucible and stainless steel were discovered in India .  They were widely exported in classic Mediterranean world.

 It was known from Pilny and Elder as ferrumindicum.  Indian Wootz steel was held in Roman empire and was considered as best.  During middle age it was imported in Syria to produce special techniques ―Damascus steel ―. Laser and photonic application

 Laser is an optical device.  Laser emits coherent light (electromagnetic radiation).  A laser that emits light follows a process of optical amplification.  Lasers emits light in a narrow beam, low divergence beam, with a narrow wavelength spectrum.  Supermarket bar code scanner was the first laser application introduced in 1974.  Laser disc player was introduced in 1978.  Compact disc player was introduced in 1982 and was more popular than laser disc.  The first working laser was demonstrated on May 16 ,1960 by Theodore Maiman Hughes research laboratories.  Laser applications are: o Compact disc and DVD players. o Fiber optic communication. o Bar code reader, laser printer and laser pointers. o In manufacturing . Laser are used for cutting bending and welding. o In science . Laser spectroscopy o In military . Range finding, target designation and illumination. . Marking targets. . Guiding munitions, missile defence. . Electro optical countermeasures (EOCM).

o In medicine . Bloodless Surgery, diagnostic and therapeutic application. . Laser healing. . Kidney stone treatment. . Eye treatment. o In research . Spectroscopy, laser ablation. . Laser annealing, . Laser scattering . Laser interferometry . LIDAR (light detection and ranging).

o Laser skin procedures . Acne treatment . Cellulite reduction  A laser beam with high beam quality is used to drill very fine and deep holes.  Laser processes material without touching them  Laser marking on plastic can be done with low power levels.  Cutting welding or drilling on metal requires kilowatts.  Laser scanners are based on collimated laser beam.  Lasers can scan 3-D object.  Optical sampling is a technique applied for the characterization of last electronic microcircuits.  Laser projection displays RGB(Red,Green, Blue)used for cinemas, home videos,flight simulators .  OCT optical tomography.  Laser cooling makes it possible too bringclouds of atoms or ions to extremely low temperature.  Laser guides stars are used in astronomical observatories in combination with adaptive optics for atmospheric correction.  High power laser system might play a role in electricity generation.  Laser induced nuclear fusion investigated as an alternative to other types of fusion reactors. Photonics:

 Photonic is the technology of generating and harnessing light and other forms of radiant energy whose quantum unit is photon.  Photonic application uses photon.  A single optical fiber has the capacity to carry 3 million telephone calls.  Coherent light beam (lasers) has high bandwidth.  Coherent light beam can carry more information than radio frequency and wave length.  Fiber optics allows light to be piped through cables.

 Application of : o Aerospace technology. o Agriculture : . Uses satellite remote sensing to detect large scale crop effects, scanning technology. . Biomedicine use testing and analysis device such as non –invasive glucose meter. o Construction includes scanning site topography,laser bar codereders. o Engineering , micro technology and nanotechnology . Uses laser in manufacturing of electrical device, motor engine, semi conductor.

o Green solution . Photovoltaic devices (PVDs) are used for solar electric panels. o Environmental technology: . Uses ultra violet Doppler optial absorption spectroscopy (UV-DOAS) to monitor air quality. o Information technology . Uses optics for data storage, ultrafast data switching . o Homeland security . DNA scanning , laser forensics , retinal scanning, o Biotechnology . Optical spectrometer and other optical device are being used to verify o Solid state lightning . Light emitting diodes(LEDs) are replacing incandescent bullbs . CFL - COMPACT FLUORESCENT LIGHTNING. Microscopy

 Microscopy comes from greek word :mikro,small+skopep  Microscopy is the examination of minute object by means of microscope  Life science o Cell biology research o Blood microscopy o Surgical o Immunohisto chemistry – in cancer research .  Nanotechnology o Concept and dangers of nanotechnology. o Nanobots uses in medicine and industry o Carbon nanotubes o Biotechnology  Pathology o Histopathology o Digital pathology o Cytopathology o Phytopathology o Forensic pathology

THEORY OF EVOLUTION

1. Evolution is a change in heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations. 2. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at level of biological organization. 3. Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by Charles Darwin. 4. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection, published in his book On the Origin of Species (1859). 5. Traits vary among individual with respect to morphology, physiology, and behavior- phenotypic variation 6. Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction- differential fitness 7. Traits can be passed from generation to generation – heritability of fitness 8. Natural selection is the only known cause of adaptation, but not the only known cause of evolution. 9. Evolution is a cornerstone of modern science 10. Gregor Mendel‘s genetics and August Weismann‘s germ plasmas theory was the key to the Modern Synthesis. 11. Darwin‘s theory of natural selection was based on the idea of ―survival of the fittest‖ 12. Alleles are the different forms of the same gene 13. The Modern Evolutionary Synthesis identifies mutation as being central to natural selection. 14. Mutation provides and maintains genetic variation amongst individual in a population. 15. Gene Flow is the movement of genetic information from one population to another. 16. Genetic drift is change of gene frequency from one generation to next. 17. The era before the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis is known as ―THE ECLIPSE of DARWIN‖. 18. Epigenetic is inheritance of the expression of genetic systems by non-genetic change. 19. Darwin‘s Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor. 20. Darwin‘s general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic descent with modification.

DISCOVERY OF ANTIBIOTICS 1. Antibiotics or antibacterial are a type of antimicrobial used is the treatment and prevention of bacterial infection 2. Antibiotics may either kill or inhibit the growth of the bacteria 3. Antibiotics are also effective on fungi and protozoans 4. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as common cold or influenza, and may be harmful when taken inappropriately. 5. Antibiotics are powerful infections that fight bacterial infections. 6. Using antibiotics when you don‘t need them or not using them properly can add to antibiotic resistance. 7. A bactericidal antibiotic kills the bacteria, Penicillin is a bactericidal. 8. A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying. 9. During 1940s and 50s, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline were discovered and Selman Waksman used the term ―antibiotics‖ to describe them. 10. Sir Alexander Fleming, a Scottish biologist, defined new horizons for modern antibiotics with the discoveried of enzyme lysozome( 1921) and the antibiotic substance pencillium(1928). 11. The discovery of penicillin from the fungus Penicilliumnotatum perfected the treatment of bacterial infections. 12. When an antibiotic drug no longer has an effect on a certain strain of bacteria, those bacteria are said to be antibiotic resistance. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics are key factors contributing to antibiotic resistance. 13. When penicillin and other antibiotics were first introduced, they were perceived as wonder drugs because they worked quickly and with relatively few side-effects. 14. Multidrug-resistant bacteria, informally called ―super bugs‖. 15. Antibiotics that can destroy only a few species of bacterium infection is known as narrow spectrum antibiotics, antibiotics that can destroy wide range of organisms are known as a broad spectrum antibiotics.

SOAPS, DETERGENTS, POLYMERS AND CHEMICALS

1. Soap is a salt of a fatty acid. 2. The earliest known recipe is credited to the ancient Babylonians around 2800 B.C 3. Throughout history, soap was mentally used for treatment of skin diseases. 4. Common soap bars were invented in the 19th century 5. The first soaps were used in the textile industry and for skin diseases. 6. Almost 5000 years ago, it was discovered in ancient Babylonia that mixing animal fats with wood ash and water created a cleansing substance. 7. A detergent is a chemical substance we use to break up and remove grease and grime. 8. Soap is simply one kind of detergent. 9. Both soaps and detergents are called as surfactant as they are surface active agent which work on dirt and remove them from the surface of cloth. 10. The use of soaps is limited a they are not useful in hard water while detergents are effective in hard water. 11. Hard water contains salts of Ca and Mg, which are major cause of non-lather condition. 12. Soap is made up from natural materials therefore generally used in personal hygiene. 13. Detergents contain synthetic chemicals so tend to provide more cleaning power. 14. Detergents can be used easily in hard water compare to soap. 15. When Soap is added in hard water, it develops a type of film which leaves a deposit on the surface, On the contrary detergents do not form any film in hard water due to the presence of metal ions. 16. Detergents are non-biodegradable as they are formed with synthetic chemicals, soaps are made up of vegetable oils and fatty acids therefore they can easily decompose in the presence of microorganisms, hence they are bio-degradable. 17. Poly means ―many‖ and ―mer‖ means ―part‖ or ―segment‖. 18. Mono means one, so monomers are those itty molecules that can join together to make a long polymer chain. 19. Polymers are made up of many molecules all strung together to form really long chains 20. Polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. 21. Polymer is derived from greek word. 22. Rubber is the most important of all elastomers 23. The two main types of plastics are thermoplastics and thermosets. 24. Thermoplastics soften on heating and harden on cooling while thermosets, on heating. 25. Thermoplastics account for the majority of commercial usage 26. Chemical is the substance with a distinct molecular composition that is produced by or used is a chemical process. 27. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure.

28. Methadone is a synthetic used legally to treat addiction to narcoties and relive severe pain 29. Crack Cocaine is a highly addictive and powerful stimulant derived from powdered cocaine 30. Heroin is produced from morphine 31. Inhalants are chemical vapors that produce mind-altering effects. 32. Dextromethorphan is a cough suppressant available in over-the-counter cough and cold medications. 33. Depressants are chemical agents used to include sleep, relieve stress and anxiety 34. Stimulants, reserve the effects if fatigue on both mental and physical tasks, two commonly used stimulants are nicotine and caffeine 35. Narcoties are used therapeutically to treat pain, suppress a cough, alleviate diarrhea and induce anesthesia.

GENETICS AND HUMAN HEALTH

1. Genetics is the study of genes. 2. Genetics is the study of how living things receive common traits from previous generations. 3. These traits are described by the genetic information carried by a molecule called DNA. 4. DNA refers to deoxyribonucleic acid. 5. A gene is a hereditary unit consisting of DNA. 6. Mendel‘s experiments with peas led him to realize the heredity in sexual reproduction works by the mixing of separate factors. 7. The combination of Darwin‘s theory and our current understanding of heredity led to the birth of the scientific are called ―population genetics‖. 8. Chromosomes are sub-cellular structure that exist in the nucleus . 9. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes existing in the human cell. 10. Humans have two types of chromosomes – sex chromosomes and autosomes. 11. Chromosomes are made up of tightly packed lengths of Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid commonly referred to as DNA. 12. Proteins are molecules that play an important role in determining the structure and function of the body‘s cells tissues and organs. 13. Proteins are made up of amino acids 14. Alternative forms of the same gene are called alleles. 15. Dysfunctional gene, behavior is commonly termed as a mutation. 16. Gene mutation exist is the egg is sperm egg; children can inherit the defective gene from their parents.

17. Chromosomal Disease occur when the entries chromosome , or large segments of an chromosome, is missing, duplicated or otherwise altered, Down syndrome is a prominent example if a chromosomal abnormality. 18. Single-gene disorders disease occur when an alternation occurs in a gene causing one gene to stop working. An example of a single gene disorder is sickle –cell anaemia. 19. Mutlifactoral disorders disease occur as the result of mutations in multiple genes, frequently coupled with environmental causes. 20. Genes are also known to play a role in the occurrence of infectious diseases like tuberculosis and AIDS as well as some no communicable disease like cancer and diabetes. 21. Heredity means the sum of all biological process by which particular characteristics are transmitted from parents to their offspring. 22. DNA is made up of four chemical bases: Adenine (A), Cytosine(C), Thymine (T), and Guanine(G). These bases are combined into pairs- adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine- to make up the rugs of the DNA ladder. 23. Each rung is most accurately called as a base pair. 24. The exact order in which these base pairs are combined is called the DNA sequence. 25. Genes are the sections of DNA that form the individual units of heredity. 26. Genes are carried on chromosomes and contain instructions for making molecules called proteins. Each protein enables the cell to perform certain functions. 27. A genetic disease is any disease that is caused by an abnormality in an individual genome, the person‘s genetic makeup. 28. Some genetic disorders are inherited from the parents, while other genetic disorders are caused by acquired changes or mutations in preexisting gene or group of genes. 29. Mutations can occur randomly or due to some environmental exposure. 30. Single gene inheritance also called Mendelian or monogenetic inheritance. This type of inheritance is caused by changes or mutations that occur in the DNA sequence of a single gene. Ex: sickle cell anemia, Huntington‘s disease, cystic fibrosis etc.

NUCLEAR ENERGY /ATOMIC ENERGY

Atomic Energy is energy carried by atoms. Atomic energy is the source of nuclear power.

Atomic Energy may include:

 Nuclear binding energy, the energy required to split a nucleus of an atom.

 Nuclear potential energy, the potential energy of the particles inside an atomic nucleus.  Nuclear reaction, a process in which nuclei or nuclear particles interact resulting in produces different from the initial.

FISSION AND FUSION

 Fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei  Fusion is the combining of nuclei to form a bigger and heavier nucleus.  Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission are different types reactions that release energy due to the presence of high-powered atomic bonds between particles found within a nucleus.  In fission, an atom is split into two or more smaller, lighter atoms.  Fusion occurs when two or smaller atoms fuse together, creating a larger, heavier atom.

Nuclear Fission:

 Natural occurrence of the process, Fission reactiondoes not normally occur in nature.  Energy released, the energy released by fission is a million times greater than that released in chemical reactions, but lower the energy released by nuclear fusion.  Nuclear weapon, once class of nuclear weapon is a fission bomb, also known as an atomic bomb or atom bomb.  Fuel, Uranium is the primary fuel used in power plans.

Nuclear Fusion:

 Natural occurrence of the process, Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun.  Energy released, the energy released by fusion is three to four times greater than the energy released by fission.  Nuclear weapon, one class the nuclear weapon is the hydrogen bomb‖ which uses a fission reaction to ―trigger‖ a fusion reactions.  Fuel, Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium and Tritium) are the primary fuel used in experimental fusion power plans.

Fission and Fusion Chain Reaction:

 Fission and fusion nuclear are chain reactions, meaning that one nuclear event causes at least one other nuclear reaction.  The result is an increasing cycle of reactions that can quickly become uncontrolled.  Fission chain reactions happen when neutrons bombard unstable isotopes.  A fusion chain reaction develops only under extreme pressure and temperature conditions  In fission, energy is gained by splitting apart heavy atoms, into smaller atoms such as iodine, cesium, strontium, xenon and barium etc  Fusion is combining light atoms

 Chain reaction is the key to fissions reactions, but it can lead to a runaway process, as in a nuclear bomb.

ATOMIC REACTOR:

 Atomic reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses controlled nuclear fission to generate energy  A nuclear reactor, formerly known as atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction.  Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in propulsion of ships.

POWER PLANT:

 Power planet refers to a building or group of buildings in which electricity for a large area is produced.  A power plant or a power generating station is basically an industrial location that is utilized for the generation and distribution of electric power is mass scale.

THERMAL POWER STATION:

 In thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is the most conventional method of generating electric power.  It uses coal as the primary fuel  In India bituminous coal or brown coal are used as fuel of boiler which has volatile.

NUCLEAR POWER STATION:

 In nuclear power generating stations radioactive elements like Uranium and Thorium are used as the primary fuel.

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION:

 Hydro-electric plants the energy of the falling water is utilized to drive the turbine which is urn the generator to produce electricity.  The Hydraulic power is naturally available renewable energy.

POWER GENERATION:

 Solar power generation (making use of the available solar energy)

 Geo-Thermal power generation (energy available in the earth‘s crust)

NUCLEAR WEAPON:

 Nuclear is an explosive device whose destructive potential derives from the release of energy that companies the splitting or combing of atomic nuclei  Nuclear weapon is a weapon of mass destruction, any weapon that employs a nuclear reaction for its explosive power is called Nuclear Weapon.  Nuclear weapons are the most powerful fighting tools that the world has ever known.  The destruction caused from the bombing of Japanese cites HIROSHIMA and NAGASAKI in 1945, the world became aware of the strength and ability to cause great damage that these weapons posses.

CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT:

 The Chernobyl disaster also referred to a Chernobyl or the Chernobyl accident , occurred on 26th April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear power plant in Ukraine(then officially the Ukrainian SSR)  The explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, which spread over much of the western USSR and Europe.  The Chernobyl disaster was the worst nuclear power plant accident in history.  On Saturday,26th April 1986 at reactor number four of the Chernobyl Plant , which is the near city of Pripyat and in proximity to administrative border with Belarus and the Dnieper River.

THE GREEN REVOLUTION IN INDIA

1. The Green Revolution was a period when the productivity of global agriculture increased drastically as a result of new advances.

2. During this time period, new chemical fertilizers and synthetic herbicides were created.

3. The chemical fertilizers made it possible to supply crops with extra nutrients and , therefore increase yield.

4. The newly developed synthetic herbicides and pesticides controlled weeds, deterred or killed insects and prevented diseases, which also resulted in higher productivity.

5. During this time period, high yield crops were also developed and introduced. High yield crops are crops that are specifically designed to produce more overall yield.

6. A method known as Multiple Cropping was also implemented during the Green Revolution and lead to higher productivity.

7. Multiple cropping is when a field is used to grow two or more crops throughout the year, so that the field constantly has something growing on it.

IMPACT OF GREEN REVOLUTION IN INDIA

1. Increase in Agricultural Production- The introduction of Green revolution in 1967- 68 has resulted in phenomenol increase in the production of agricultural crops especially in food grains. From 1967 onwards, the Green Revolution aimed at bringing about a Grain Revolution. Among the food grains, it is the wheat crop which drew maximum benefit from Green Revolution. The production of wheat has been increased by more than three times between 1967-68 and 2003-04, while the overall increase in the production of cereals was only two times. On account of this reason it is said that the Green Revolution in India is largely the Wheat Revolution.

2. Prosperity of Farmers- With the increase in farm production, the earnings of the farmers also increased.

3. Reduction in import of food grains- Due to increase in production of food grains, their was a drastic reduction in their imports.

4. Capitalistic farming- Big farmers having more than 10 hectares of land have tended to get the maximum benefir from Green revolution technology by investing large amount of money in various inputs like HYV seeds, fertilizers, machines, etc. This has encouraged capitalistic farming.

5. Industrial Growth- Green Revolution brought about large scale farm mechanization which created demand for different types of machines like tractors, harvesters, threshers, cobines, diesel engines, electric motors, pumping sets, etc. Besides demand for chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, etc. also increased considerably. Consequently industries producing these items progressed by leaps and bounds. Moreover several agricultural products are used as raw materials in various industries. These industries are known as agro based industries. Textile, sugar, vanaspati, etc. are some examples of agro based industries.

6. Rural employment- There was an appreciable increase in the demand for labour force due to multiple cropping and use of fertilizers.

WHITE REVOLUTION

1. VergheseKurien (26 September 1921 to 9 September 2012) is known as “father of the White Revolution” for his billion-litre idea (Operation Flood), the world‟s largest agricultural development programme.

2. This transformed India from a milk deficient nation to the world‘s largest milk producer.

3. Dairy farming has become India‘s Largestself sustaining industry.

4. He founded around 30 institutions of excellence (like AMUL, GCMMF, IRMA, NDDB) which are owned, managed by farmers and run by professionals.

5. As the founding chairman of Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), Kurien was responsible for the creation and success of the Amul brand of dairy products.

6. A key achievement at Amul was the invention of milk powder processed from buffalo milk (abundant in India), as opposed from that made from cow milk, in the then major milk producing nations.

7. This led prime Minister LalBahadurShastri to sppoint him the founder chairman of National dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1965, to replicate Amul‘sAnand model nationwide.

8. White Revolution also refers to ―Operation Flood‖, launched in 1970 is a project of National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), which was the world‘s biggest dairy development programme, that made India a milk-sufficient nation , the largest milk producer in the world.

9. VergheseKurien was made the chairman of NDDB by the then Prime Minister of India, ShriLalBahadurShastri, and he was the chairman and founder of Amul as well.

DAIRY DEVELOPMENT

1. Dairy Farming is a class of agriculture for long term production of milk, which is processed (either on the farm or at a dairy plant, either of which may be called a dairy) for eventual sale of a dairy product.

2. In simple words, Dairy Farming refers the business of farming to produce milk and mil products.

3. India ranks first among the world‘s milk producing nations since 1998 and has the largest bovine population in the world.

4. Dairying has become an important secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed the most important role in providing employment and income- generating opportunities particularly for marginal and women farmers.

5. About 15.4 million farmers have been brought under the ambit of 1,60,000 village level dairy corporative societies upto March 2014.

6. Government of India is making efforts for strengthening the dairy sector through various Central sector schemes like ―National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development‖, ―National Dairy Plan(Phase 1)‖ and ―Dairy Entrepreneaurship Development Scheme‖.

7. The new scheme National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development (NPBBDD) has been launched by merging four existing schemes i.e. Intensive Dairy Development Programme (IDDP), Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk production (SIQ & CMP), Assistant to Cooperatives and National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding with the budget provision of Rs. 1800 crores for implementation during 12th plan.

GENE REVOLUTION

1. The Gene Revolution is the application of bio-technology in food production.

2. It is of great potential to farmers as it provides them with disease-free planting material and develops crops that resist pests and diseases, reducing use of chemicals that harm the environment and human health.

3. It can provide diagnostic tools and vaccines that help control devastating animal diseases.

4. It can also improve the nutritional quality of staple foods such as rice and create new products for health and industrial uses.

GM CROPS

1. Genetically modified crops (GMC‘s, GM crops or biotech crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques.

2. In most cases, the aim is to produce a new trait in the plants which does not naturally occur in the species.

3. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, or resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. Resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.

4. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

5. Genetically Modified Crops are crops which have had their DNA altered in a way that does not occur naturally.

6. Individual genes which promote durability or nutritional value are transferred from one organism to another to create biologically robust plants.

BENEFITS OF GENETIC MODIFICATION CROPS

1. Insect/pest resistance- the benefits of the ‗BT cotton‘ are a reduction in pesticide use, an increase in yields and profits, and health benefits for farm workers who often apply pesticides without protective clothing.

2. Disease resistance- plants can be genetically modified to be resistant to bacterial, fungal or viral infestation. Examples include research on sweet potatoes to improve viral resistance and bananas modified to resist the Black Sigatoka fungus.

3. Crops that can withstand environmental stresses (eg. Drought, heat, frost, acid or salty soil)- a gene from a plant which can survive prolonged water stress in desert conditions has been introduced into rice. This allows rice to produce a sugar that protects the plant during dehydration, allowing it to survive periods of drought.

4. Herbicide tolerance- plants can be genetically modified to be tolerant to a specific weed killer. This allows farmers to control a wide range of weeds with less weed killer while not affecting the modified crop.

5. Improved nutritional value- crops can be genetically modified to contain additional nutrients that are lacking from the diets of many people in developing countries. One example is golden rice which has been modified to have enhanced levels of Beta-carotene, in order to help prevent vitamin A deficiency.

6. Biopharmaceuticals- plants could be genetically modified to produce vaccines or other medicines. Potatoes have been modified to produce edible vaccines against E. coli bacteria which cause diarrhea.

INFORMATION REVOLUTION

Information Revolution refers to development of technologies (such as computers, digital communication, microchips) in the second half of the 20th century that has led to dramatic reduction in the cost of obtaining, processing, storing, and transmitting information in all forms (text, graphics, audio and video).

INFORMATION REVOLUTION IN INDIA

1. Information technology in India is an industry consisting of two major components: IT services and business process outsourcing (BPO).

2. Bangalore is considered to be the silicon valley of India because it is the leading IT exporter.

3. According to Gartner, the ―Top Five Indian IT Services Providers‖ are Tata Consultancy Services, Infosys, Cognizant, Wipro, and HCL Technologies.

4. India‘s ICT (information, communication and technology) revolution and its attendant benefits have been much talked about.

5. The first phase was driven by home grown skilled engineers developing code and applications for foreign clients who found it cheaper to ‗outsource‘ such labour to Indian companies.

6. Software and IT is the largest contributor to India‘s exports.

7. The PII (Public Information Infrastructure) will create access, connectivity and systems to integrate- geographical and sectoral boundaries and applications to revolutionize how we access and process information.

IMPACT OF INTERNET AND WEB-BASED TECHNOLOGIES

1. Internet is a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication protocols.

2. Internet is a means of connecting a computer to any other computer anywhere in the world via dedicated routers and servers.

3. When two computers are connected over the internet, they can send and receive all kinds of information such as text, graphics, voice, video and computer programmes.

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF INTERNET

1. Internet search engines are the best information retrieval systems available. They bring any kind of information for internet users, from local restaurants to international news.

2. The internet provides some of the most effective means of communication among people, including online emailing and instant messaging.

3. The internet makes possible for business and companies to do transactions with their clients and customers.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF INTERNET

1. Illegal or inappropriate materials can be found on the internet.

2. Some people in recent years have illegally downloaded music or other copyrighted material for free. This action has had a negative impact on the music industry and has led to several lawsuits.

WEB-BASED TECHNOLOGIES

1. A Web-based application refers to any programme that is accessed over a network connection using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol, rather than existing within a device‘s memory.

2. Web-based applications often run inside a web browser.

3. However, web based applications may also be client based, where a small part of the programme is downloaded to a user‘s desktop, but processing is done over the Internet on an external server.

4. Web-based applications are also known as Web apps.

5. There are many different web based programming languages like HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), CSS (cascading style sheet) and JavaScript.

6. There are Content Management Systems like Word Press, Drupal, and Joomla, e-commerce, web editors, social media, etc.

IMPACT OF HIGH-TECH DEVICES ON EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE FACETS OF HUMANS

Technology also has a lot of negative effects such as isolation, lack of social skills, obesity, depression, poor sleeping habits, pollution, increased bullying, lack of privacy, tendonitis in the thumb (for of Repetitive Stress Strain Injury caused by frequent use of thumb to press buttons on mobile phone), etc.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

ENERGY ISSUES

1. Energy is the measure of the ability of a body or system to do work or produce a change, expressed usually in joules or kilowatt hours (kWh). 2. No activity is possible without energy and its total amount in the universe is fixed. 3. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be changed from one type to another. 4. The two basic types of energy are: a.Potential: Energy associated with the nature, position, or state (such as chemical energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy) b.Kinetic: Energy associated with motion (such as a moving car or a spinning wheel).

5. Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work.

6. Energy exists in several forms such as heat, kinetic, or mechanical energy, light, potential energy, electrical or other forms.

7. According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of a system remains constant, though energy may transform into another form.

8. eg. Two billiard balls colliding, for example, may come to rest, with the resulting energy becoming sound and perhaps a bit of heat at the point of collision.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

There are two sources of energy sources. They are:

a. Primary Energy Sources b. Secondary Energy Sources

Primary Energy Sources take many forms, including nuclear energy, fossil energy like oil, coal and natural gas and renewable sources like wind, solar and hydropower. These primary sources are converted to electricity.

A Secondary Energy Source is one which flows through power lines and other transmission infrastructure to your home and business.

ENERGY ISSUES IN INDIA

India is the world‘s fourth largest energy consumer. Its energy needs continue to increase, but national energy shortgaes and an inadequate energy shortgae could perpetuate national energy poverty.

ENERGY PROBLEMS CONFRONTING INDIA

1. Coal production remains key to energy mix: Coal remains an essential staple to India‘s energy needs. Owing to summer heat, frequent labour strikes, and natural disasters, India has had a harder time meeting growing market demands and faces the likelihood of growing coal imports. 2. Fourth largest consumer of oil and petroleum in the world:India has a high dependence on imports for its petroleum needs and is the world‘s fourth largest importer of crude oil. 3. Relies on imports to meet growing demand for gas: Domestic natural gas production has fallen in recent years and there are challenges in obtaining natural gas from other countries. 4. Electricity shortages hurt industrial output: Growing demand and electricity shortages contribute to electricity shortfalls. Electricity shortages have resulted in loss of profits and loss of productivity in plants and businesses.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1. Wind, solar and biomass are three emerging renewable sources of energy.

2. Renewable energy is defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human time scale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.

SOLAR ENERGY

1. It is the most readily available source of energy. 2. It is non-polluting and helps in lessening the greenhouse effect. 3. Through Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) cells, solar radiation gets converted into DC electricity directly. 4. This electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored in the battery. 5. This stored electrical energy can be used at night also. 6. SPV can be used for a number of applications such as domestic lighting, street lighting, village electrification, water pumping, desalination of salty water, powering of remote telecommunication repeater stations, and railway signals.

WIND ENERGY

1. Wind energy or wind power is the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. 2. 3. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power.

4. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity to power homes, businesses, schools and the like. 5. A wind turbine is a popluar name for a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electrical power. 6. A wind turbine, like aircraft propeller blades, turn in the moving air and power an electric generator that supplies an electric current. 7. Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups- horizontal axis variety like the traditional farm windmills used for pumping water, and the vertical axis design, like the eggbeater style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. 8. Wind is a form of solar energy. 9. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth‘s surface, and the rotation of the earth.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WIND GENERATED ELECTRICITY

A RENEWABLE NON-POLLUTING RESOURCE: Wind enegy is a free, renewable resource and is also a source of clean non-polluting electricity.

COST ISSUES: The technology requires a higher initial investmentthan fossil-fuled generators. However wind costs are much more competitivewith other generating technologies because there is no fuel to purchase and minimal operating expenses.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS: There is some concern over the noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and birds and bats having been killed by flying into the rotors.

SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT ISSUES: The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that

1. It is intermittent and does not always blow when electricity is needed. 2. Wind cannot be stored (however wind generated electricity can be stored in batteries) 3. Good wind sites are often located in remote locations far from areas of electric power demand (such as cities) 4. Wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land, and those alternative uses may be more highly valued than electricity generation.

BIOFUELS ENERGY 1. Bio fuels are produced from living organisms or from metabolic by-products (organic or food waste products) 2. It is originally derived from the photosynthesis process and can be referred to as solar energy source.

3. It is defined as a renewable source of energy, which is produced from biological material or biomass, such as sugarcane, corn, cellulose or vegetable oils. 4. The most widely spread types of biofuel are ethanol and biodiesel.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS 1. Substitution of gasoline with biodiesel or ethanol can significantly reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. 2. Biodiesel is a better option for diesel engine as compared to conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel provides better lubrication and leaves fewer residues in the engine after its burning. 3. Biodiesel is completely biodegradable and safe. 4. However growing popularity of biodiesel requires more and more lands to be used for growing plants as the resource for biofuel.

CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Climate change is large-scale, long term shift in the planets weather patterns or average temperatures.

2. Climate change is a change in global or regional climate patterns, and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon di-oxide produced by the use of fossil fuels.

3. Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e. decades to millions of years).

4. Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processed, variations in solar radiation received by the Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions.

5. Certain human activities have also been identified as significant cause of recent climate change, also called ―global warming‖.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Natural Causes- The Earth‘s climate can be affected by natural factors that are external to the climate system, such as changes in volcanic activity, solar output, and the Earth‘s orbit around the Sun. Of these the two factors relevant on timescales of contemporary climate change are changes in volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation.

2. Human Causes- Climate Change can also be caused by human activities, such as burning of fossil fuels and the conversion of land for forestry and agriculture..the dominant product of fossil fuel combustion is carbon di oxide, a greenhouse gas. The overall effect of human activities since the Industrial revolution has been a warming

effect, driven primarily by emissions of carbon di oxide and enhanced by emissions of other greenhouse gases.

3. Short lived and long lived climate factors- Carbon di oxide is the main cause of human induced climate change. It has been emitted in vast quantities from the burning of fossil fuels and it is a very long lived gas which means it continues to affect the climate system during its long residence time in the atmosphere. However fossil fuel combustion, industrial processed, agriculture and forestry related activities emit other substances that also act as climate forcers. Some such as nitrous oxide are long lived greenhouse gases, like carbon di oxide and contribute to long term climate change.

Other short term climate forcers have climate cooling effects, most notably sulphate aerosols.

Fossil fuel combustion emits sulphur di oxide into the atmosphere (in addition to carbon di oxide), which then combines with water vapour to form tiny droplets (aerosols) which reflect sunlight. Sulphate aerosols remain in the atmosphere for only a few days (washing out what is referred to as acid rain) and so do not have the same long term effect as greenhouse gases.

GLOBAL WARMING

1. Global warming is the increase of Earth;s average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases, such as carbon di oxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape earth.

2. Global warming is a problem of too much carbon di oxide in the atmosphere which acts as a blanket, trapping heat and warming the planet.

3. As we burn fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas for energy or cut down and burn forests to create pastures and plantations, carbon accumulates and overloads our atmosphere.

4. Certain waste management and agricultural practices aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global warming gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.

MOLECULAR BASIS OF DISEASE

 Molecular medicine is the application of Molecular Biology and Molecular Genetics.  Pathogens is the manner of development of a disease.

 A vaccination is a treatment which makes the body stronger against particular infection.  Immune system is made up of cells T cells and B cells.  Vaccines are called immunizations, needles or shots.  Vaccines create immunity.  Small pox caused by „variolavirus‟.  Edward Jenner discovered protective effect of cow pox „vaccinia viruses‟.  Type of vaccine: o Live-attenuated (weakened) vaccines o Inactivated Vaccine o Virus Like particles Vaccine o Subunit Vaccine.  Inactivated Vaccine: It consists of virus or bacteria which are grown and killed using heat or formaldehyde. Inactivated virus or bacteria cannot be replicated. Ex : . Viral: polio vaccine(Salk vaccine) and influenza vaccine . Bacterial: typhoid vaccine, cholera vaccine, plague vaccine, and pertussis vaccine  Attenuated Vaccine: In Attenuated, live virus or bacteria with very low virulence are administrated. Attenuated virus or bacteria can be replicated (locally or slowly). Ex : . Viral: chicken pox vaccine, Oral polio vaccine (Sabin), rotavirus vaccine, and yellow fever vaccine. Rabies vaccines are now available in two different attenuated forms, one for use in humans, and one for animal usage. . Bacterial: BCG vaccine,Typhoid vaccineand Epidemic typhus vaccine.

 Virus like particle vaccine: It consist of viral protein derived from structural proteins of a virus. They have highly repetitive, multivalent structure and are more immunogenic than subunit vaccine. Ex: Human papilloma virus, Hepatitis B.

 Subunit vaccine: It presents an antigen to the immune system without viral particles. It elicit weaker antibody response than other classes of vaccines. Ex: Plague immunization.

MODERN SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS

1) The Scientific method a. It is the only scientific way accepted to back up a theory or idea. b. It is used by researchers to support or disprove a theory. 2) The Scientific Method involves 5 steps: a. Problem or Question b. Hypothesis c. Experiment d. Results e. Conclusion 3) Observation: Information or data is gathered by careful observation. 4) Results: Experiment using the method you came up with and record the results. 5) Conclusion: State whether your prediction was confirmed or not and try to explain your results. 6) Science is divided into a. Physical science b. Earth science c .Life science 7) Maths is not applied science but it also falls under science 8) Physical science includes : a. Physics b. Chemistry c. Astronomy 9) The earth science consist of: a. Geology :The science which deals with the physical structure and substance of the earth b. Paleontology : The branch of science concerned with fossil animals and plants.

c. Oceanography :Deals with the physical and biological properties and phenomena of the sea d. Meteorology: Phenomena of the atmosphere, especially as a means of forecasting the weather. 10) Life Science includes(Biology) : a. Botany: Study of plants. b. Zoology: Study of animals. c. Genetics: Study of genes. d. Medicine 11) A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. 12) A theory or guess can also be called as hypothesis. 13) Hypothesis is defined as : a. ―A tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena‖. 14) A scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. 15) A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further research. 16) Null Hypothesis: It attempts to nullify the difference between 2 sample means. 17) Experimentation is an act of conducting a controlled test or investigation 18) ExperimentationDefinition : a. ―A set of actions and observations performed to verify or falsify a hypothesis or to research a causal relationship between phenomena‖. 19) Experiments vary greatly in their goal and scale, 20) Experiments rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. 21) A true experiment is thought to be the most accurate experimental research design. 22) For experiment to be classed as a true experiment design it must: a. The sample groups must be assigned randomly b. There must be a viable control group c. One variable can be manipulated and tested. d. The tested subjects must be assigned to either control or experimental groups. 23) 3 criteria that makes a good experiment:

a. Singularity: It test only one variable in the situation. b. Reproducibility: It can be done by other scientist to verify the results. c. Utility :The answer matters to human life in some way 24) Theorizing is a form of theory or theories about something

NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology (―nanotech‖) is the manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supra molecular scale.

Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nano scale which is about 1 to 100 nanometers.

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely small things and can be used across all the other science fields.

The ideas and concepts behind Nanoscience and nanotechnology stared with a talk entitled “There‟s Plenty of room at the Bottom” by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society Meeting at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) on December 29,1959.

CONCEPTS IN NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY:

1. One nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of a meter. 2. There are 25,400,000 nanometers is an inch. 3. A sheet of newspaper is about 100,000 nanometers thick. 4. Nanosciencean nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control individual atoms and molecules. 5. Once scientists had the right tools, such as the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM),the age of nanotechnology was born.

Examples of Nanotechnology Applications : Nanotechnology is an emerging science the studies materials at the nanometer scale billionths of a meter

Quantum Dot:

 Certain types of light - emitting diodes or LED‘s use a nanotechnology called quantum dots.  These are tiny clusters of compound such as zinc sulfide or cadmium selenide that range in size from 2 to 10 nanometers in diameter and contain about 50 atoms  These clusters produces light under electrical stimulations

 The size of the quantum dot dictates the wavelength of the light and therefore its color- small once produce blue light and larger once create red light.  Quantum dots find their way into devices for lighting and video displays

Buckytube Transistors:

 Computes, smart phone and other high-tech devices would not be possible without extreme miniaturization of transistors and other components.  Scientist have designed working transistors made of ―buck tubes‖, tubes of pure carbon that measure less than 10 nanometers is diameter

Memory:

 Memory is an electronic component essential to modern digital devices.  Example of a nanotechnology-based computer storage is ― Millipede Memory‖

AFM and STM:

 To work with nanometer-scale material, scientists need a way to ―see‖ these small objects.  Two electronic devices, called the Atomic Force Microscope and the Scanning Tunneling Microscope, Produce detailed images of atomic and molecular structure.

Nanowires:

 Nanowires are potentially useful in display screens for laptop computers and cell phones, they carry electrical current to tiny elements in the display, yet are invisibly thin and allow light to pass through.

Applications of Nanotechnology:

 Nanotechnology is being used in developing countries to help treat diseases and prevent health issues. The term for this kind of nanotechnology is nanomedicine.  Nanotechnology is also being applied to or development for applications to a variety of industrial and purification process.

SMART MATERIALS:

 Smart materials can be regarded as materials that respond to a change of temperature, humidity, contact with water, electrical current or other inputs.  They usually change in terms of colour or shape when responding to an input.

Examples:

Piezoelectric Materials: Materials that produce a voltage when stress is applied.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA):

 SMA wire is sometimes called ―Nitinol‖, as it s a compound of nickel and titanium.  The material can also be ‗programmed ‗to remember a shape.

Hydrochromic Inks: These inks change when they make contact with water.

Polymorph : It is a thermoplastic material that can be shaped and reshaped any number of times.

Hydromorphic Polymers:

 There are polymers that expand and contract on contract with water  This smart material is sometimes used in toys that can expand up to five times their original size, such as bath toys

Hydrocarbon Encapsulating Polymers:

 These are polymers that absorb oil, forming a rubbery substance.  This has a potential application for the prevention of oil slicks, at sea

Aroma Pigments

 These are inks that release as aroma when scratched or rubbed.  The aroma is held within the pigment/ink as micro- capsules.

A Brief Survey of Smart Materials:

Smart Materials: Materials that change its characteristic (mechanical, electrical, appearance) size and even shape when exposed to particular external condition (temperature, light, magnetic field, electric power etc.)

Color Changing Materials: An effect known almost to everyone is color change, Both Photochromic and Termchromic materials react in this way and are used in paints, inks and other different applications. Photochromic materials react when exposed to UV-light and termochromic materials react to heat

Light-emitting Materials: Next group of smart materials is called Light-emitting Materials. When exposed to particular external condition is emits light.

 Electroluminescent materials: when stimulated electronically they produce a light of different colors. While they are emitting light no heat is produced , which means that their transformation of electric power to light is very good.  Fluorescent materials: reacts only to UV rays or X-rays .It only last as long as it is exposed to the light

Florescent Effect:Phosphorescent or afterglow material produce visible or invisible light as a result of a light of a shorter wavelength, like UV rays and X-rays. The effect is seen after the source of light is removed.

Moving Materials:

 Dielectric Elastomers: It‘s also called electrostictivepolymers, it can reduce or increase its volume by 30%, when exposed to electric field.  Piezoelectric materials: Theyare used mostly for sensors. The moments their shape is changed or it is exposed to mechanical force; an applied electric field produces a small mechanical stress. Air-bag sensor is made of piezoelectric materials .It senses the force of car collision and sends off a signal for air-bag to open.  Smart gels: Theyare made of cross-linked polymer network inflated with solvent such as water , and can reduce or increase its volume up to 1000x.  Shape memory alloys or Thermo responsive: Materials are metals and are the most importance type of the smart material. When are curved and than heated to defined temperature it returns back to their original shape.Because they can endure extreme burdens are used in medicine, car industries and in production of parts of aeroplane and helicopters.

Rheological Materials:

Magneto-rheological and Electro-rheological Fluids-These materials are orginallaly liquid, (similar to engine oil), and can change state instantly (they become rubber) through the application of an electric or magnetic charge .When charge is removed it returns back to previous state. These liquids are used mostly for shock absorbers, dampers for vehicle seats and exercise equipment.

SPACE SCEINCE

 The study phenomena occurring in the upper atmosphere, in space, or on celestial bodies other than earth is called Space Science.  Space Science is a discipline related to or dealing with the problems of space fight.

History of Space Exploration:

 In 1958 the united states government launched the national aeronautics and space act to regulate all activities that pertain to space exploration.

Beginning of Space Exploration:

 On October 4, 1957 the Soviet Union sent the first unnamed mission into space.  They launched a satellite called Sputnik I, which successfully remained in outer space for 3 months; On November 3, 1957 they subsequently launched another satellite known as the Sputnik II which carried a dog into orbit for 7days

The Space Race:

 After the Soviet Union launched two successive satellites, the American were not to be outdone, and they launched their 1st successful satellite Explorer 1 on January 31, 1958.  They followed this with the launch of Explorer 2 on march 5, 1958 which failed to reach orbit.

Man in Space:

 The first successful manned space mission was launched by Russia on April 12, 1961, carrying a young man known as Yuri Gagarin.  The spacecraft was Vostok 1, and it orbited around the earth in 1 hour 48 minutes. One month later, the Unites states launched their first manned space mission with astronaut Alan Shepard, who managed to complete a suborbital flight.  John Glen achieved his first orbital fight on February 20, 1962.

Neil Armstrong:

 Neil Armstrong and his crew in the Apollo 11 made a safe landing on the moon on July 20, 1969.  Neil Armstrong proceeded to make the first moon walk.

The Space Race:

 On January 27th 1967 the Apollo 1, which was also known as Apollo/Saturn 204, caught fire during its simulation launch, killing all crew members.  Russia‘s attempt to land on the moon ended in tragedy too when the Soyuz I encountered technical problems soon after its launch.

Sputnik and US AEROSPACE PROGRAMME

 July 1957 to December 1958 would be called the International Geophysical Year, or IGY.

Development of Sputnik:

 Sputnik being the first man-made satellite launched in 1957 to orbit the earth.

 Sputnik- Russian for ― companion ― or ― spouse‖- also a name applied to certain spacecraft launched under the soviet space programme.  Sputnik programme was the world‘s first successful one to launch a rocket, a living being, and a human into Earth orbit.  October 4, 1957 Sputnik 1- the first manmade object ever to leave the earth‘s atmosphere. It launched from BaikomurConsmodrome in Kazakhstan, the part of the former Soviet Union.  The word‘s first artificial satellite was about the size of a beach ball (58 cm or 22.8 inches in diameter)  Sputnik II was launched, carrying a much heavier payload, including a dog named Laika.

Modern Satellites:

 Satellite refers to an artificial body placed in orbit round the earth or another planet in order to collect information or for communication.  A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or star. For example Earth is a satellite because it orbits the sun. Likewise the moon is a satellite because it orbits earth. Usually the word ‗satellite‘ refers to a machine that is launched into space and moves around earth or another body in space.

Importance of Satellites:

 Satellites looking toward earth provide information about clouds, oceans, land and ice.  They also measure gases in the atmosphere, such as ozone and carbon dioxide and the amount of energy that earth absorbs and emits and satellites , monitor wildfires , volcanoes and their smoke.

Hubble Space Telescope- brought the beauty and mystery of space to more people than any other observatory.

Galaxy 14- this communication relay carries digital TV signals for much of the east coast, including ESPN, Lifetime ,Sci-FI, CNN A&E and my personal favorite the history channel.

GOES -12- Goes-12 keeps a constant watch on weather conditions in most of North America.

NOAA 17: NOAA satellite has asynchronous orbits, spinning around the globe to spot developing weather patterns that affect billions of people.

LANDSAT 7: NASA and the US Geological Survey teamed up in the 1970s to create a catalogue of Earth images shot from space.

NASA: NASA stands for National Aeronautics and space administration. NASA is a United States government agency that is responsible for science and technology.

Administration of NASA: The administrator of NASA is charlicbolden.NASA‘s Headquarter is in Washington D.C .

Remote Sensing with reference to Indian space programme:

 Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) are a series of Earth observation satellites, build, launched and maintained by Indian Space Research Organization  Flights of Bhaskhar and Bhaskar 2 satellites launched in 1979 and 1981.  Indian began to develop the indigenous Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite program to support the national economy in the areas of agriculture, water resources , forestry and ecology , geology, water sheds, marine fisheries and costal management.  National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) for which the department of space (DOS) in the nodal agency providing operational remote sensing data services.

IRS Data Applications:

 Data from Indian Remote sensing satellites are used for various application o resources survey and management t under the National Natural resource Management.

The capacity building programme of ISRO for IRS and other remote sensing applications is through Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) Dehradun and Center of Space Science and Technology Eduation in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTEAP) (UNaffiliated). Center located at Dehradum of Uttarakhand State in India.

NOTE: I would request all the students to first go through the above notes thoroughly. The below mentioned objective type questions are for your practice.

Bangalore University - Science and Society –Points to remember

1. The first Renaissance scientist was a man named ------A. Nicolaus Copernicus B. Galileo Galilei C. Johannes Kepler D. Isacc Newton Answer: A 2. Which is following fact true about Nicolaus Copernicus theory on planet earth? A. Earth is not the center of the universe B. Earth is the center of gravity and the lunar sphere C. Earth‘s motions include rotation, revolution, and annual orientation/tilting of the axis D. All the above Answer: D 3. The heliocentric model of Copernicus theory states about. A. Earth Centered Universe B. Sun Centered Universe Answer: B 4. Which is the fact true about ‗Sun Centered Universe‘? A. The only planets known and found were Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn B. All the planets were orbiting around the Sun C. Moon ignored the Sun‘s orbit and orbited around the Earth‘s orbit D. All the above Answer: D 5. Who proposed that the earth rotates daily and revolves around the sun? A. Archimedes B. Pythagoreans C. Galileo Galilei D. Johannes Kepler Answer: A 6. DNA without introns is A. B-DNA B. Z-DNA C. Nuclear DNA D. Mitochondrial DNA Answer: D 8. Largest and the most developed part of the human brain is A. Cerebellum B. Forebrain c. Hypothalamus D. Midbrain Answer: A 9. Science is ______activity. A. Individual B. Social C. Mandatory D. None of the above Answer: B 10. ______is American author and professor of Biochemistry. A. J.F Nash B. Issac Newton C. Charles Darwin D. Issac Asimov Answer: D 11. ______is the biggest satellite of solar system A. Ganymede B. Tollymede C. Satranus D. None of the above Answer: A 12. What is the maximum speed possible for any wave in the solar system? A. Every wave can have its own speed

B. Speed of light C. Speed of electron D. None of the above Answer: B 13. ______is the father of nuclear Physics. A. Faraday B. W.L Bragg C. Chadwick D. Rutherford Answer: D 14. Mendel worked on ______plant. A. Ground nut B. Cashew nut C. Pea plant D. Tea-plant Answer: C 15. The phenomenon of light to change its wavelength when it transverses a transparent material is called A. Photo electric effect B. Raman Effect C. Dispersion D. Theory of relativity Answer: B 16. Study of earth‘s atmosphere is called ______A. Physiology B. Astronomy C. Hydrology D. Meteorology Answer: D 17. Cosmology is a study of A. Religion B. Universe C. Skin D. None of the above Answer: B 18. ______is a statement that we assume is true A. Logic B. Hypothesis C. Inference D. Axiom Answer: D 19. ______introduced scientific method A. Isaac Newton B. Francis Bacon C. Albert Einstein D. Charles Darwin Answer: B 20. Knowledge from experience or experiments is called ______Knowledge. A. Hypothesis B. Inference C. Theorem D. Empirical Answer: D 21. E=mc2 is an equation to prove A. Photo electric effect B. Radio activity C. Brownian motion D. Theory of relativity Answer: D 22. Inexorable means A. Unchanging B. Changing C. Relative D. Destructive Answer: A 23. Primitive observer defined natural phenomenon as activity of

A. Super natural forces B. Humans C. Machines D. None of the above Answer: A 24. Feudalism was replaced by……………………. A. Humanities B. scientific revolution C. Religion D. Ideology Answer: B 25. Science and Technology in Ancient India is a work by………. A. Joseph Needhan B. D.P Chattopadhyaya C. SushilKanar Mukherjee D. John Bernal Answer: B 26.……………..is classical age of Indian science. A. 300-600 AD B. 700-1200 AD C. 400-900 A.D D. 900-1200AD Answer: C 27. Greeks are to thank…………………for their scientific tradition A. Babylonians B. Egyptians C. Indians D. Both (a) and (b) Answer: D 28. Arthur Schopenhauer is a ………..philosopher A. German B. British C. American D. French Answer: A 29. The clay which showed the properties of nitroglycerine is called……………. A. Safety powder or dynamite B. dynamo C. Gun powder D. Hydrogen Answer: A 30. ----- is the founder president of the West Bengal Academy of Science and Technology. A. Prof. N.R Dhar B. J.C Ghosh C. J.N Mukherjee D. Sushil Kumar Mukharjee Answer: D 31. ______made science possible. A. Feudalism B. Capitalism C. Poverty D. Political reasons Answer: B 32. Ayurveda emerged during ______period A. Post-Vedic period B. Vedic period C. Indus valley D. Modern Answer: D 33. Einstein received Nobel Prize for Physics in A. 1919 B. 1920 C. 1921 D.1922 Answer: C 34. C.V Raman won Nobel Prize for A. Literature B. Chemistry C. Physics D. Peace Answer: C

35. True goal of scientific research is A. Experimentation B. Theorization C. Contribute to knowledge D Material prosperity. Answer: C 36. ______is a discovery of Alexander Fleming. A. Pencillin B. Radio C. Television D. Small-pox vaccine Answer: A 37. Science is ______activity. A. Individual B. Social C. Mandatory D. None of the above Answer: B 38. Average weight of man‘s brain is ………………………….than woman‘s. A. Greater B. Lesser C. Equal to D. None of the above Answer: A 39. Who is the father of genetics. A. Charles Darwin B. Gustavo Kernel C. Gregor Mendel D. Isaac Asimov Answer: C 40. What is a problem of the entire West A. Poverty B. Illiteracy C. The gulf between arts and science D. Language Answer: C 41. ……………….. Was the beginning of all scientific activities of England A. Elizabethan period B. Victorian age C. Modern period D. Jacobean period Answer: B 42. Origin of species is a work by A. Mathew Arnold B. Charles Darwin C. Albert Einstein D. Sigmund Freud Answer: B 43.………………………… conflicted with faith in the Victorian period A. Science B. Philosophy C. Mathematics D. None of these Answer: A 44. The first unfavorable condition for the underdevelopment of science and its history is……… A. Few know the entirety of science B. Few are capable of investigation by him all scientific questions C. Both (A) and (B) D. None of these Answer: C 45. M.Berthelot disproved theory of ……… A. Evolution B. Natural selection C. Vitalism D. Origin of the universe Answer: C

46. ----- is a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences. A. Empirical Research B. Qualitative Research C. Quantitative Research Answer: B 47. Researchers use ------to explore the behavior, perspectives, feelings and experiences of people and what lies at the core of their lives. A. Empirical Research B. Qualitative Research C. Quantitative Research Answer: B 48. The natural science model has which of the following scientific approach? A. Positivism B. Objectivism C. Naturalism D. All the above Answer: D 49. Every individual has a capacity to develop into a worthy person is propounded by A. Cognitive theorist‘s B. Psychoanalytic theorists C. Humanistic theories D. Behavioristic theorists Answer: C 50. The model which includes sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory is proposed by A. Jenkin and Dallenbach B. Broadbent C. Hermann Ebbinghaus D. Atkinson and Shiffrin Answer: D

Points to Remember

● Crossing between genetically dissimilar plants is Hybridization.

● GM Crops are another way of improving the crop by introducing a gene that would provide the desired characteristic.

● Two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same piece of land is called mixed cropping. Ex. Wheat+ Gram; Wheat+ Mustard

● Weeds are unwanted plants in the crop field; Insect pest is nuisance in the crop field

● Fish production is aquaculture. Growing of marine fishes is called mariculture.

● Bee Culture: It is useful for honey, wax, and medicinal preparations. It also helps for additional income to the farmer.

● Industrial Revolution: A series of changes took place that transformed Great Britain in particular and Europe in general.

● The term „Industrial Revolution‟ was coined by Blanqui, a French socialist in 1837.

● The Industrial Revolution began in England in 1750.

● The Renaissance and the Reformation movements can be regarded as the precursor of the Industrial Revolution.

● Political stability and availability of coal and iron were the two important causes that made England the first country to experience the Revolution.

● The Flying Shuttle was invented in 1733 by John Kay.

● The Spinning Mule was invented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton.

● In 1769, James Watt improved on the existing steam engines and made an engine which could drive the piston backward and forward and turn the wheels. ● George Stephenson is regarded as the father of the railway system.

● In 1853 the first railway line was laid to carry passengers from Mumbai to Thane.

● The first warship built of iron plates was the ‗Warrior‘ in 1860.

● Japan was the first Asian country to be industrialized.

● The two economic effects of the Industrial Revolution were urbanization and emergence of factory system.

● Inventions of Isaac Newton:Calculus, prisms;a new type of telescope; the laws of motion

● Newton's Laws of motion: Isaac Newton was the first person to understand how objects move in outer space. 1. An object continues at rest or in motion in a straight line ,2. The acceleration of an object is inversely proportional to its mass, 3. To every action there is an opposite and equal reaction.

● Epistemology is the theory of knowledge and is concerned with the question of what counts as valid knowledge.

● Methodology refers to the principles and ideas on which researchers base their procedures and strategies.

● Cold or flu-like illnesses are caused mainly by viruses and therefore will not respond to antibiotics.

● Antibiotic-resistant bacteria: MRSA and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). Multi-resistant E. coli and Acinetobacter,

● Conventional genetic disease: Sickle cell disease

● Antibiotics have only been available to treat bacterial infections since 1941

● In science, a hypothesis is an idea or an explanation that could be tested through study and experimentation.

● Lasers are widely used in manufacturing, e.g. for cutting, drilling, welding, cladding, soldering (brazing), hardening, ablating, surface treatment, marking, engraving.

● Medical applications of Lasers.Eye surgery, vision correction (LASIK), dentistry, dermatology (e.g. photodynamic therapy of cancer).

● Antibiotics work in either of the following two ways: 1. A Bactericidal antibiotic kills the bacteria 2. A Bacteriostatic antibiotic stops bacteria from multiplying by interfering

● Common viral infections that do not benefit from antibiotic treatment include:Cold, Flu (influenza), Bronchitis, Most coughs, Most sore throats, Some ear infections, Some sinus infections, Stomach flu (viral gastroenteritis)

❖ History of science – 1200‘s : ● Robert Grosseteste – proposed a proper method of scientific investigation and experimentation.

❖ History of science : 1400‘s ● Leonardo Da Vinci began his notebooks in pursuit of evidence that the human body is microcosmic.

● Johannes Gutenberg was a German craftsman who is the inventor of first printer in 1450.

● Martin Behaim was a German mapmaker, navigator and merchant.He made the earliest globe called the ―Nurnberg Terrestrial Globe‖

❖ History of science : 1500‘s ● Nicolaus Copernicus discovered the heliocentric model of the solar system in 1543.

● Versalius published the first accurate drawings of the human body.

● Ambrose Pare (1575) a French army surgeon, was the first person to successfully use bandages and soothing ointments to treat wounds and prevent infections.

● Zacharias Janssen was Dutch lens-maker who invented the first compound microscope in 1595.

❖ History of science : 1600‘s

● Johannes Kepler built the laws of planetary motion.

● Galileo improved on a new invention in 1610 based on mathematically based theory.

● Isaac Newton developed his laws of motion in 1600s.

● William Harvey (1628), proved for the first time, that the heart was a pump and circulated blood around the body.

● The Royal Society publishes Robert Hooke‘s Micrographia (1665), containing landmark drawings made using a microscope.

❖ History of science during 1700s ● Benjamin Franklin discovered (1752) that lightning is an electrical action. study of oceanography and meteorology.

● The English astronomer, Edmund Halley (1705) successfully predicted the appearance of Halley‘s Comet, using the latest telescope and mathematical calculations.

● William Herschel (1781) discovers a new body in the solar system and reported to the Royal society as GeorgiumSidus later on it was renamed as Uranus in 1783.

Unit I - MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS MCQ – The underlined options are considered to be the opt answers 1. The word science comes from the a) Latin b) Greek c) Sanskrit d) English 2. The word science comes from the Latin ―scientia‖, meaning. a) Natural Phenomena b) Knowledge c) Physical evidence d) Experimentation 3. Science refers to – a) A system of acquiring knowledge b) A system of natural phenomena c) a system of physical evidence d) A system of experimentation 4. ----- is a systematic and logical approach in discovering how things in the universe work. a) History b) Astrology c) Science d) Mathematics 5. The purpose of science is the systematic study of – a) Make a system of natural phenomena b) Produce useful models of reality c) Make a system of physical evidence d) Make a system of experimentation 6. A social science is the systematic study of ---

65 a) The natural world b) Models of reality c) Human behavior and society d) Experimentation 7. Anatomy is the study of – a) Structure of an animal or plant b) Life on earth and in space c) Structure and interactions of the complex organic molecules found in living systems 8. Evolutionary biology is the study of – a)Structure of an animal or plant b) Life on earth and space c) dealing with plant life d) Evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on earth 9. Genetics is the study of --- a) Human evolution, variation and classification b) Cell structure and function c)Heredity d) Dealing with plant life 10. Immunology is the study of --- a) All aspects of the immune system b) Human evolution, variation and classification c) Heredity d) Dealing with plant life 11. Neuroscience is the study of --- a) Structure or function of the nervous system and brain b) Structure and function of the macromolecules c) Human evolution, variation and classification d) Microorganisms – bacteria, protozoan parasites, viruses and fungi 12. Toxicology is the study of --- a) The structure of an animal or plant b) The nature, effects and detection of poisons c) All aspects of the immune system d) Microorganisms – Bacteria, protozoan parasites, viruses and fungi 13. The English word scientist was first coined by a) Landsteiner b) Oldham c) Einstein d) William Whewell 14. Empirical investigation of the natural world has been described since classical antiquity by a) Haber b) Oldham c) Einstein d) Aristotle 15. Scientific methods have been employed since the middle ages by --- a) Haber b) Ibn al-Haytham c) Oldham d) Einstein 16. Which stage scientists do not always possess exquisite technical skills? a) 2nd stage b) 3rd stage c) 4th stage d) 1st stage 17. In 1543 --- proposed to switch the places of the Earth and the Sun. a) Nicholas Copernicus b) Galieo c) Oldham d) Einstein 18. Who hoped that ―my labors contribute somewhat even to the Commonwealth of the Church‖? a) Oldham b) Nicholas Copernicus c) Galileo d) Einstein 19. The surface of the Moon is not smooth, uniform, and precisely spherical as a great number of philosophers believe it to be, but is uneven, rough, and full of cavities and prominences, being not unlike the face of the Earth, relieved by chains of mountains and deep valleys. a) Nicholas Copernicus b) Galileo c) Oldham d) Einstein 20. Who laid down the first accurate laws of motion for masses? a) Nicholas Copernicus b) Galieo c) Oldham d) Einstein 21. Who introduced telescope? a) Nicholas Copernicus b) Galieo c) Oldham d) Haber 22. The Renaissance was a time of great --- change in Europe. a) Social b) Cultural c) Both d) None of these

23. The Renaissance spanned from the a) 13th to the 16th centuries b) 14th to the 16th centuries c) 14h to the 15th centuries d) 15th to the 16th centuries 24. The Renaissance birthplace a) Italy b) America c) India d) Australia 25. The European renaissance began in Northern Italy in a) 1th century b) 12th century c) 13th century d) 14th century 26. The _____ city is considered the birth place of renaissance. a) London b) Delhi c) Paris d) Tuscan 27. New way of thinking, sparked by a philosophy known as a) Humanism b) socialism c) behaviorism d) Politics 28. Pioneering renaissance scientists and inventor include a) Galileo Galilei b) Leonardo da Vinci c) Both d) none of these 29. In 1507 an Italian writer named ______published a famous book called ‗The Courtier‘. a) Nicholas Copernicus b) Oldham c) Count Baldassare Castiglione d) Haber 30. Rediscovery of rational civilization exemplified by a) Greece b) Rome c) Both d) None 31. Representation of property owners‘ interest is called a) Politics & the state b) Ideology c) Agricultural development d) Infrastructure 32. Property right as central to conception of right is called a) Politics & the state b) Ideology c) Agricultural development d) Infrastructure 33. The creation of agricultural surplus is called a) Politics & the state b) ideology c) Agricultural development d) Infrastructure 34. Road and canal systems, port and ships called a) Politics & the state b) ideology c) Agricultural development d) Infrastructure 35. The first stage of the industrial revolution: a) Consumable goods production b) Capital goods production c) Standardization d) Productivity 36. Second stage of the industrial revolution: a) Consumable goods production b) Capital goods production c) Standardization d) Productivity 37. Who did the first moonwalk in 1969? a) American buzzAldin b) Landsteiner c) Oldham d) Einstein 38. The first moonwalk in the year- a) 1968 b) 1969 c) 1967 d) 1970 39. The first airplane was flown in --- a) 1902 b) 1901 c) 1903 d) 1904 40. The structure of DNA was determined --- a) 1963 b) 1953 c) 1967 d) 1970 41. Who discovered penicillin? a) James Watson b) Alexandar Fleming c) Oldham d) Einstein

42. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by --- a) James Watson b) Landsteiner c)Oldham d) Einstein 43. Quantum theory was proposed by --- a) Planck b) Landsteiner c) Oldham d) Einstein 44. Who discovered human blood groups? a) Planck b) Landsteiner c) Oldham d) Einstein 45. Establishment of the scientific study of animal behavior a) Cornell b) Meitner c) Lorenz d) Heisenberg 46. Birth of radio astronomy a) Jansky b) Cornell c) Meitner d) Heisenberg 47. First electron microscope- a) Tatum b) Mayor c) Krebs d) Ruska 48. Discovery of the neutron a) Wieman b) Chadwick c) McCarty d) Borlaug 49. Discovery of the positron, first antimatter particle a) Wieman b) McCarty c) Anderson d) ornell 50. Magnitude scale for earthquakes a) Cornell b) Meitner c) Richter d) Heisenberg 51. Theory of nuclear force a) Yukawa b) McCarty c) Borlaug d) Kapitza 52. Discovery of the citric acid cycle a) Krebs b) Wieman c) Mccarty d) Cornell 53. Nuclear reactions in stars were found out by a) Wieman b) McCarty c) Bethe d) Cornell 54. Evidence in bacteria that DNA is the genetic material a) MacLeod b) McCarty c) Borlaug d) Kapitza 55. The Start of the Mexican wheat improvement program, leading to the ―green revolution‖ a) McCarty b) Borlaug c) Kapitza d) Ornell 56. Formulation of the one-gene, one-enzyme hypothesis a) Cornell b) Meitner c) Heisenberg d) Beadle & Tatum 57. Radiocarbon dating a) Libby b) McCarty c) Borlaug d) Kapitza 58. Initial elucidation of the reactions involved in photosynthesis a) Wieman b) Calvin c) Mccarty d) Borlaug 59. Invention of the transistor a) Shockley b) McCarty c) Borlaug d) Kapitza 60. Production of amino acids in early Earth‖ conditions a) Miller & Urey b) Cornell c) Meitner d) Heisenberg 61. First complete DNA sequence of an organism a) Sanger b) Wieman c) McCarty d) Borlaug 62. First extra solar planet identified by a) Mayor b) Bednorz c) Tatum d) Meitner 63. The definition of Modern Science is defined as an attitude of observation and experimentation quite often with the inclusion of mathematics to explain those a) Observations b) Experimentation c) Mathematics d) None of these 64. Modern science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences which study the

a) Material world b) People and Societies c) Mathematics d) Experimentation 65. The social sciences which study -- a) Material world b) People and Societies c) Mathematics d) Experimentation 66. The formal science like a) Material world b) People and Societies c)Mathematics d) Experimentation 67. The result of a process of inductive reasoning – a) Scientific Method b) Mathematical Method c) Hypothesis d) None of these 68. The process of Hypothesis Testing has – a) 6 Step b) 7 Step c) 5 step d) 8 Step 69. Allows extra time for everything that can and will go wrong a) Murphy‟s law b) Newton law c) Ohms law d) None of these 70. The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including- a) Natural sciences b) Social sciences c) None of these d) Both a and b

71. The history of the arts and humanities is termed as --- a) Natural sciences b) Social sciences c) History of scholarship d) None of these 72. Proto-Mathematics from- a) 30000 BCE, up to 2000 BCE b) 2000 BCE up to 800 BCE c) 800 BCE to 1500 CE d) 1400 CE to 1500 CE 73. Ancient Mathematics from— a) 30000 BCE, up to 2000 BCE b) 2000 BCE up to 800 c) 800 BCE to 1500 CE d) 1400 CE to 1500 CE 74. Mercantile Mathematics from a) 30000 BCE, up to 2000 BCE b) 2000 BCE up to 800 BCE c) 800 BCE to 1500 CE d) 1400 CE to 1500 CE 75. Classical Mathematics from- a) 30000 BCE, up to 2000 BCE b) 2000 BCE up to 800 BCE c) 800 BCE to 1500 CE d) 1400 CE to 1500 CE 76. Pre-Modern Mathematics from a) 30000 BCE, up to 2000 BCE b) 1500 CE up to 1700 CE c) 800 BCE to 1500 CE d) 1400 CE to 1500 CE 77. Modern Mathematics from --- a) 30000 BCE, up to 2000 BCE b) 2000 BCE up to 800 BCE c) 1700 CE to 1950 CE d) 1400 CE to 1500 CE 78. Post-Modern Mathematics from

69 a) 30000 BCE, up to 2000 BCE b) 2000 BCE up to 800 BCE c) 800 BCE to 1500 CE d) 1950 CE to present 79. Yukti means a) Skill b) Human intervention c) Both d) None of these 80. Daiva means a) Divine b) Skill c) Human intervention d) None of these 81. In India the field of Ayurveda, depended heavily on the use of a) Herbs b) Plants c) Animals d) None of these 82. Traditional Indian herbal remedies are a) Neem b) Turmeric c) Both a and b d) None of these 83. The plants were first used for medical purposes a) Vaccination b) Rhinoplasty c) Herbalism d) None of these 84. Atharvaveda dating from the early a) Iron Age b) Bronze Age c) Aluminium Age d) None of these 85. Ayurveda, meaning a) Complete knowledge for long life b) Complete knowledge c) Long life d) None of these 86. Ayurveda famous texts belong to the schools of a) Charaka b) Sushruta c) Both a and b d) None of these 87. Which medicine got deep roots and royal patronage during medieval times. a) Unani b) Ayurveda c) Both a and b d) None of these 88. The wootz steels were discovered in a) India b) Japan c) England d) Iran 89. The first basic step in metallurgy is a) Identifying and discovering its usefulness b) Locating metals in quantity c) Mining the ores d) Melting the metal 90. The second basic step in metallurgy is a) Identifying and discovering its usefulness b) Locating metals in quantity c) Mining the ores d) Smelting the metal 91. The third basic step in metallurgy is a) Identifying and discovering its usefulness b) Locating metals in quantity c) Mining the ores d) Smelting the metal 92. Basic ages of metals in the ancient world a) Copper Age b) Bronze Age c) Iron Age d) All the above 93. Copper Age a) 4000 – 3000 BCE b) 3000-1000 BC c) 1000 BCE to the present d) None of these 94. The Bronze Age a) 4000 – 3000 BCE b) 3000-1000 BC c) 1000 BCE to the present d) None of these 95. The Iron Age a) 4000 – 3000 BCE b) 3000-1000 BC c) 1000 BCE to the present d) None of these

Unit II - MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

MCQ – The underlined options are considered to be the opt answers 1. Darwinism is a theory of --- a) Biological evolution b) Physical evolution c) Geometric evolution d) None of these 2. Darwinism is a theory developed by – a) Charles Darwin b) Weismann c) Bhaskaran d) None of these 3. Genetic drift is change of a) Gene frequency in same generation b) Appearance of recessive genes c) Gene frequency from one generation to next d) None of these 4. Which one of the following changes involved in irrelevant, in the evolution of man? a) Perfection of hand for toll making b) Change of diet from hard nuts and hard roots to soft food c) Loss of tail d) Increase in the ability to communicate with others and develop community behavior 5. The first domesticated animal by primitive man was a) Cat b) Cow c) Dog d) Horse 6. Which of the following is a living fossil? a) Mirabilis Jalapa b) Ginkgo Biloba c) PinusLongifolia d) DalbergiaSissoo 7. Reason of diversity in living being is a) Mutation b) Long term evolutionary change c) Gradual change d) Short term evolutionary change 8. 1st life on earth was a) Cyanobacteria b) Chemohetrotrophs c) Autotrophs d) Photoautotrophs 9. There is no life on the moon due to the absence of a) O2 b) Water c) Light d) Temperature 10. Darwin in his ―Natural selection Theory‖ did not believe in any role of which one of the following in organic evolution? a) Parasites and predators as natural enemies b) Survival of the fittest c) Struggle for existence d) Discontinuous variations 11. Which one of the following phenomena supports Darwin‘s concept of natural selection in organic evolution? a) Development of transgenic animals b) Production of ‗Dolly‘, the sheep by cloning c) Prevalence of pesticide resistant insects d) Development of organs from ‗stem cells‘ for organ transplantation 12. Two nucleotide sequences found in two different species are almost exactly the same. This suggest that these species a) Are evolving into the same species b) Contain identical DNA c) May have similar evolutionary histories d) Have the same number of mutations 13. The theory that evolutionary change is slow and continuous is known as a) Punctuated equilibrium b) Geographic isolation c) Speciation d)Gradualism 14. The concept that species have changed over long periods of time is known as a) Ecology b) Embryology c) Spontaneous generation d) Organic evolution 15. Which group of organisms is believed to be among the earliest to evolve on Earth? a) Arthropods b) Coelenterates c) Protozoans d) Reptiles 16. Which concept was not included in Charles Darwin‘s theory of natural selection? a) Survival of the fittest b) Struggle for existence c) Overproduction of offspring d) Punctuated equilibrium

17. Darwin‘s theory of evolution is based on the concept of a) Use and disuse b) Mutations c) Natural selection d) Hybridization 18. Antibiotic resistance can a) Inherent b) Acquired c) Either be inherent nor be acquired d) Both 19. Acquired resistance occurs when a bacterium that was originally sensitive to an antibiotic develops a) Resistance b) Attraction c) Both d) None of these 20. Which of the following inhibits DNA gyrase? a) Pencillin b) Trimethoprim c) Chloramphenicol d)Ciprofloxacin 21. Regarding the ―azole‖ group of antifungals a) Fluconazole has low water solubility b) Ketoconazole may be given IV/PO c)Intraconazole undergoes renal elimination d) They work by reduction of ergosterol synthesis by inhibition of fungal cytochrome P450 enzymes 22. Which of the following is a second generation cephalosporin? a) Ceftazidime b) Cephalothin c) Cefotaxime d) Cefaclor 23. The cephalosporin with the highest activity against gram positive cocci is a) Cefaclor b) Cephalothin c) Cefuroxime d) Cefaclor 24. Which of the following is considered to be bacteriostatic? a) Pencillin b) Chloramphenicol c) Ciprofloxacin d) Cefoxitin 25. Half-life of amphotericin B is a) 2 seconds b) 20 minutes c) 2 hours d) 2 weeks 26. Soap and detergents are the source of organic pollutants like; a) A glycerol b) Polyphosphates c) Sulphonated hydrocarbons d) None of these 27. Soap is a salt of a a) Fatty acid b) Amino acid c) Citric acid d) None of these 28. Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for a) Washing b) Bathing c) Cleaning d) All the above 29. Soap in used in a) Textile spinning b) Lubricants c) Both d) None of these 30. Fats and oils are composed of a) Triglycerides b) Glycosides c) Both a and b d) None of these 31. Term ―lye soap‖ refers almost exclusively to soaps made with a) Sodium carbonate b) Sodium hydroxide c) Sodium peroxide d) None of these 32. The soap has history going back as far as --- thousand years a) 4 b) 5 c) 6 d) 3 33. The earliest known soap recipe is credited to the ancient Babylonians a) 3800 B.C b) 2400 B.C c) 2500 B.C. d) 2800 B.C. 34. Throughout history soap was medically used for treatment of a) Skin diseases b) Liver diseases c) Heart diseases d) Eye diseases 35. Common soap bars were invented in the a) 16th Century b) 17th century c) 19th century d) 18thcentury 36. The first soap was discovered almost --- years ago.

a) 4000 b) 5000 c) 2000 d) 3000 37. The first soap was discovered in ancient a) Babylonia b) Greece c) Rome d) All the above 38. The first soap was discovered by mixing a) Animal fats b) Wood ash c) Water d) All the above 39. The first soaps were used in the a) Textile industry b) Skin diseases c) Both a and b d) None of these 40. Liquid soaps are formulated for cleaning the a) Body b) Feature skin conditioners c) Both a and b d) None of these 41. Heavy duty hand cleaners are available as a) Bars b) Liquids c) Powers d) all the above 42. Bluing absorbs the --- part of the light spectrum a) Yellow b) Red c) Green d) None of these 43. Boosters enhance the a) Soil and stain removal b) Brightening c) Buffering d) All the above 44. Enzyme presoaks are used for soaking items before washing to a) Difficult stains b) soils c) Both d) None of these 45. Fabric softeners impact a a) Pleasing fragrance b) Make ironing easier c) both a and b d) None of these 46. Dishwashing products include detergents for a) Hand b) Machine dishwashing c) Specialty products d)All the above 47. Glass cleaners – oily soils found on glass, and dry quickly without streaking. a) Loosen b) Dissolve c) Both a and b d) None of these 48. Drain openers --- kitchen and bathroom drains. a) Unclog b) Clog c) Block d) None of these 49. Creation of automatic dishwasher powders, fabric softeners a) 1950s b) 1960s c) 1970s d) 1980s 50. Prewash stain removers, enzyme presoaks a) 1950s b) 1960s c) 1970s d) 1980s 51. Multifunctional products (detergent + softener), liquid soaps a) 1950s b) 1960s c) 1970s d) 1980s 52. Polymers are large molecules composed of --- chemical units. a) Repeated b) Enhanced c) Less d) None of these 53. The smallest repeating unit is called a a) Mer b)MM c)CM d) None of these 54. The term polymer is derived from the --- words a) Greek b) Latin c) American d) None of these 55. Mers meaning --- a) Many parts b) Less parts c) Small parts d) None of these 56. Who announced in 1907 the synthesis of the first truly synthetic polymeric material? a) Leo Baekeland b) Goodyear c) Darwin d) None of these

57. First truly synthetic polymeric material a) Bakelite b) Neoprene c) Nylon d) PVC 58. Who found that acetylene could be made to add to itself forming dimers and trimers. a) Julius A. Nieuwland b) Goodyear c) Darwin d) None of these 59. Neoprene was found by a) Goodyear b) Amold Collins c) Darwin d) None of these 60. Nylon was found by a) Dupont b) Goodyear c) Darwin d) None 61. PVC was initially formed by German chemist --- in 1872, a) Eugen Baumann b) Goodyear c) Darwin d) None of these 62. Polystyrene was probably first formed by German apothecary a) B. F. Goodrich b) Goodyear c) Eduard Simon d) None of these 63. Polystyrere was probably first formed by German apothecary in a) 1829 b) 1849 c) 1839 d)1859 64. Various uses of polymers are: a) Elastomers b) Plastics c) Fibers d) all the above 65. Rubber is the most important of all elastomers. a) Elastomers b) Plastics c) Fibers d) all the above 66. – is used to extract metals like thorium, vanadium and zirconium from their compounds by displacement reactions, a deoxidizers a) Calcium b) Calcium Carbonate c) Alcohols d) Alkenes 67. Is a synthetic narcotic used legally to treat addiction to narcotics and relieve severe pain? a) Methadone b) Crack cocaine c) Powdered cocaine d) none of these 68. Atomic energy carried by a) Atoms b) Protons c) Electrons d) None of these 69. The term atom was popularized by a) Ernest Rutherford b) H. G Wells c) Darwin d) None of these 70. One of the well-known elements used in nuclear fission is a) 235U b) 245U c) 225U d) 135U 71. The main design is the pressurized water reactor (PWR) which has water at over a) 300OC b) 200OC c) 400OC d) 500OC 72. Which statement best describes the structure of an atom? a) A positive core surrounded by electrons packed tightly around it b) A particle comprised of a mixture of protons, electrons and neutrons c) A tiny nucleus of protons and neutrons with electrons orbiting around it d) A large core of protons and electrons surrounded by neutrons 73. Thermal neutrons have energy around a) 100ev b) 10ev c) 1ev d) all the above 74. Moderators are used in the nuclear reactors to a) Generate neutrons b) Absorb neutrons c) To slow down the neutrons d) Produce neutrons 75. Cadmium rods are used in a nuclear reactor to a) Generate neutrons b) Absorb neutrons c) To slow down neutrons d) Produce neutrons 76. In the nuclear reactor at Trombay which of the following is used as moderator a) Ordinary water b) Cadmium c) Copper d) Heavy water

77. Which of the following is the best nuclear fuel? a) Neptunium 293 b) Plutonium 239 c) Uranium 236 d) Thorium 236

Unit III - MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Agriculture, along with the fisheries and forestry, account for _____ of the nation‘s GDP and is its single largest contributors. a) One third b) two third c) half d) one 2. Agricultural export constitutes a ______of the total export of the country. a) 2nd b) 3rd c) 5th d) 4th 3. NDDB means a) National daily development board b) National dairy development board c) National dairy developing board d) National development dairy board 4. With an annual output of 130 MT, _____ is the largest producer of the milk in the world. a) India b) China c) Japan d) None 5. In 2013-14 India achieved a record food grain production of a) 254 MT b) 264 MT c) 269 MT d) 274 MT

6. DES means a) Directorate of economics and statistics b) Directorate of ecology and statistics c) Directorate of ergonomics and statistics d) None 7. Which sector is the backbone of Indian economy? a) Service sector b) Financial sector c) Tourism sector d) Agricultural sector 8. Who announced the introduction of National Food Security act? a) Pranab Mukherjee b) Manmohan Singh c) P. Chidambaram d) Arunjaitley 9. When NFSM launched? a) Mid of 9th five year plan b) End of 10th five year plan c) mid of 11th five year plan d) End of 11th five year plan 10. Who announced the launched of rashtriyakrishivikasyojana ? a) NarendraModi b) Dr. Manmohan Singh c) AtalBihari Vajpayee d) I.K Gujral 11. Which among the following does not belong to welfare schemes for the farmers? a) Kisan credit card scheme b) SHG Bank Linkage Programme c) National Agricultural Insurance Scheme d) Employee Referral Scheme 12. When did the government present Kisan credit card scheme? a) April 1853 b) August 1998 c) July 1991 d) November 1995 13. When was ‗On Farm Management Scheme‘ launched? a) July 2000 b) March 2002 c) March 2004 d) January 2004 14. When was ‗Micro Irrigation‘ launched? a) March 2002 b) March 2004 c) January 2004 d) January 2006 15. The Blue Revolution is related with? a) Fish production b) Food grain production c) Oilseed production d)Milk production 16. Indian agriculture is typically characterized as …

75 a) Land surplus, labor scare economy b) Land surplus, labor surplus economy c) Land scare, labor surplus economy d) Land scare, labor scare economy 17. Dr. M. S Swaminathan has distinguished himself in which of the following fields? a) Nuclear physics b) Agriculture c) Astrophysics d) Medicine 18. The Green Revolution in India was the outcome of the efforts of who amongst the following? a) M. S. Swaminathan b) C. Rangarajan c) K.V Kamath d) Rakesh Mohan 19. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was established in the year… a) 1970 b) 1975 c) 1977 d)1982 20. The head office of the NABARD is located in? a) Lucknow b) Hyderabad c) New Delhi d)Mumbai 21. Where is the central rice research institute located? a) Bangalore b) Kanpur c) Coimbatore d) Cuttack 22. NABARD was established in the … a) Fourth Five year plan b) Fifth Five year plan c) Sixth Five year plan d) Eighth Five year plan 23. Who is known as Father of White Revolution in India? a) M. S. Swaminathan b) V. Kurien c) K.N Bahal d) B.P. Pal 24. Which is the highest food grain producing Indian state, as per 2013-2014? a) Madhya Pradesh b) Punjab c) Uttar Pradesh d) Maharastra 25. Which is the highest coarse cereal producing Indian state, as per 2013-2014? a) Karnataka b) Maharastra c) Rajasthan d) Uttar Pradesh 26. Which Indian state has the largest area irrigated by water tanks, as 2013-14? a) Andhra Pradesh b) Karnataka c) Tamilnadu d) Uttar Pradesh 27. Which is the biggest milk plant in India? a) Verka milk plant b) Mother Diary c) Burnett Diary d) Lorenae Diary 28. Which of the following is a human made input of agriculture? a) Relief of the land b) Irrigation Facilities c) Earthworms d) Crops 29. Which is also known as the golden fiber? a) Cotton b) Wheat c) Silk d) Jute 30. The two most important staple food crops of the world are – and --- a) Ragi&Bajra b) Tea & Coffee c) Rice & wheat d) Milets& Maize 31. It is also known as ―Monoculture‖, i.e. single crop grown over a large area. a) Commercial Grain Farming b) Plantation farming c) Multiple Farming d) Mixed farming 32. In Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of --- are grown in a year known as ―Aus, Aman and Boro‖. a) Paddy b) wheat c) Pulses d) Maize 33. Which one is not a millet crop? a) Jowar b) Ragi c) Wheat d) Bajra 34. The word ‗Agriculture‘ has been derived from two … words

a) German b) American c) Latin d) Arabic 35. Cultivation of the grapes is also known as …. a) Viticulture b) Horticulture c) Sericulture d) Pisciculture 36. The term white revolution refers to the a) Increased production of food grains b) Increased production of Milk c) Increased production of eggs d) Increased production of Fish 37. Who was the father of Operation Flood? a) Dr. Norman Borlaug b) Dr. M. S. Swaminathan c) Dr. VergheseKurien d) Dr. William Gande 38. Which state is the biggest tea producer in the country? a) Andhra Pradesh b) Sikkim c) Assam d) West Bengal 39. Which is not a Kharif Crop? a) Jowar b) Maize c) Groundnut d) Wheat 40. When a community development program (CDP) started? a) 1952 b) 1953 c) 1954 d) 1955 41. Green revolution started in a) 1964-65 b) 1965-66 c) 1966-67 d) 1967-68 42. White revolution is associated with a) Milk b) Milk products c) Both d) None 43. The gene revolution is the application of --- in food production. a) Bio-technology b) Technology c) Both d) None 44. The information revolution began with the invention of the... a) Integrated circuit b) Computers c) both d) none 45. The information revolution started around a) 1000 BC b) 2000 BC c) 3000 BC d) 4000 BC 46. The information revolution started around 3000 BC with the --- pictographs. a) Sumerian b) American c) Indian d) Chinese 47. The WWW means that a) World Wide Web b) World Work Web c) Both d) None 48. Internet works on a) Packet switching b) Circuit switching c) Both d) None 49. Which one of the following is not an application layer protocol used in internet? a) Remote procedure call b) Internet relay chat c)Resource reservation protocol d) None of these 50. Which protocol assigns IP address to the client connected in the internet? a) DHCP b) IP c) RPC d) None 51. Which one of the following is not used in media access control? a) Ethernet b) Digital subscriber line c) Fiber distributed data interface d) none 52. TCP/IP is a: a) Network hardware b) Network software c) Protocol d) None 53. OSI stands for: a) Open system Interface b) Out System Interface c) Open System Interconnection d) Out System Interconnection

54. TCP/IP mainly used for: a) File Transfer b) Email c) Remote Login Service d) All the above 55. IPX/SPX used for: a) Linux b) Unix c) Novel Net ware d) Windows 56. NetBIOS is developed by: a) Microsoft d) IBM c) Sun d) None 57. Which network architecture is developed by IBM? a) System Network Architecture b) Digital Network Architecture c) Boroughs Network Architecture d) Distributed Network Architecture 58. Which is the lowest layer of TCP/IP model? a) Host to Host Layer b) Network Access Layers c) Internet Layer d) application Layer 59. The most common method for gaining access to the Internet is through a --- a) Dump terminal b) Virtual provider or computer c) Point-to-point computer d) Provider or host computer 60. The term ISP refers to a) Internal software protocol b) International Shareware pool c) Internet service provider d) Interface standard protocol 61. The extensions .gov, .edu, .mil and .net are called a) DNAs b) E-mail targets c) Domain codes d) Mail to address 62. URL is an acronym for --- a) Uniform Resource Locator b) Uniform Resource Link c) Universal Reference Locator d) Unlimited Real-time Language 63. When surfing the web, the browser interprets the HTML command found in a document file, and displays it as a(n) a) Applet page b) Java page c) Web page d) Domain page 64. HTML is an acronym for – a) Hyperlink Markup Language b) Hypertext markup Language c) Hypertext Markup Link d) Hypertext Modern Language 65. Connections to other documents or to other locations within a website are a) Filters b) hyperlinks c) plug-ins d) bots 66. Hyperlinks in a Web document typically appear as a) Bolded and underlined b) Italicized and underlined c)Underlined and colored d) Bolded and italicized 67. Applets are typically written in a programming language called a) XML b) Basic c) Pascal d) Java 68. Which of the following are not required in order to send and receive e-mail? a) Email account b) Web page c) Access to the Internet d) E-mail program 69. Which of the following is not one of basic elements of an e-mail message? a) Header b) Footer c) Message d) Signature 70. An internet standard for transferring files is known as a) IRC b) Telnet c) FTP d) WAIS 71. A(n) --- can be used to block access to specific sites. a) Filter b) Hardware block c) Censor d) Rubicon

72. Which of the following is a non-renewable resource? a) Coal b) Forests c) Water d) Wildlife 73. Which among the following is not a renewable source of energy? a) Solar Energy b) Biomass energy c) Hydro-power d) Geothermal energy 74. Identify the non-renewable energy resource from the following… a) Coal b) Fuel cells c) Wind power d) Wave power 75. Which of the following is a disadvantage of most of the renewable energy sources? a) Highly polluting b) High waste disposal cost c) Unreliable supply d) High running cost 76. Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight into: a) Chemical energy b) Biogas c) Electricity d) geothermal energy 77. Which among the following is not an adverse environmental impact of tidal power generation? a) Interference with spawning and migration of fish b) Pollution and health hazard in the estuary due to blockage of flow of polluted water into the sea c) Navigational hazard d) None 78. A fuel cell, in order to produce electricity, burns: a) Helium b) Nitrogen c) Hydrogen d) None 79. Fuel cells are; a) Carbon cell b) Hydrogen battery c) Nuclear cell d) Chromium cell 80. A module is a: a) Series-arrangement of solar cells b) Parallel arrangement of solar cells c) Series-parallel arrangement of solar cells d) None 81. The efficiency of solar cells is about: a) 25% b) 15% c) 40 d) 60% 82. Which of the following area is preferred for solar power plants? a) Coastal areas b) Hot, arid zones c) Mountain tops d) High rainfall zones 83. Which power plant is free from environmental pollution problems? a) Thermal power plant b) Nuclear power plant c) Hydro-power plant d) Geothermal energy power plant 84. Climate change is primarily caused by the building up of --- in the atmosphere. a) Greenhouse gases b) CO2 c) Nitrogen d) None 85. The global increase of methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to a) Agriculture b) Industries c) Soil erosion d) None 86. Global warming is a specific example of the broader term a) Climate change b) environment change c) Health change d) None 87. The observed increase in the average temperature of the air near earth‘s surface and oceans in recent decades a) Environment change b) Global warming c) Health change d) None 88. The first known use of wind power was in a) 6000 BC b) 4000 BC c) 5000 BC d) 3000BC 1. How many matched chromosomes does a mature ovum contain? A. 43 B. 46 C. 23 D. 22 2. Which are the chemical substances that facilitate direct communication between neurons?

A. Neurohonnones B. Neuromodulators C. Neurotransmitters D. Neuro peptides 3. The study of the nature of knowledge is called A. Epistemology B. Epiphenomenalism C. Empiricism D. Euphemistic labeling 4. Insomnia is a characteristic feature of A. Schizophrenia B. Depression C. Epilepsy D. Psychosis 5. It is a situation that occurs when stimuli or events increase the availability in memory or consciousness of specific types of information held in memory- A. Association B. Mnemonics C. Cognition D. Priming 6. In 1900 Max Planck discovers … A. Quanta - the basis of quantum theory B. Telegraph Signal C. Radio D. Television 7. In 1901 Guglielmo Marconi in Newfoundland receives the first telegraph signal, sent from Cornwall in Great Britain… A. Quanta - the basis of quantum theory B. Telegraph Signal C. Radio D. Television 8. In 1903 The Wright brothers successfully demonstrated …. A. Motor powered flight B. Satellite C. Radio D. Television 9. During which of the following year Albert Einstein publishes the ‗Special Theory of Relativity‘? A. 1910 B. 1905 C. 1920 D. 1915 10. Which of the following was the invention of Paul Ehrlich during 1909? A. Sickle Cell disease B. Antibiotic c. Vaccination D. Finds a cure for syphilis disease 11. Who discovered the structure of the atom in 1913? A. Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford B. Einstein C. Marconi D. Galileo 12. Who invented the moving assembly line for mass production of automobiles in 1913? A. Planck B. Henry Ford C. Bohr D. Rutherford 13. Which of the following year Household appliances appear - the vacuum cleaner, electric shaver, spin dryer, electric refrigerator, frozen foods, speaker radio? A. 1920's B. 1930‘s C. 1940‘s D.1950‘s 14. During 1922 --- was discovered by Frederick Banting and Charles Best? A. Insulin B. Antibiotic C. Vaccination D. Sickle cell disease 15. Which of the following item was discovered in 1923 by Vladimir Zworykin? A. television B. television camera C. Radio D. Telephone 16. Who discovered the first new galaxy besides our own in 1924? A. Frederick B. Logie C. Bohr D. Edwin Hubble 17. Who made the first television broadcast over radio waves in 1926? A. Frederick B. Edwin Hubble C. Logie D. John Logie Baird 18. Pencillin G destroys few species of bacteria whereas, --- is an effective Antibiotic against wide range of organism. a) Tetracycline a)Daptomycin c) Linezolid d) None

19. Which of the following diseases should not be treated with antibiotics/ a) Respiratory Illness in children b) Ear infections and Eczema c) sinusitis d) All the above

20. Which of the following is said to be a type of plastic? a) Thermoplastics b) Thermosets c) Both d) None

21. Detergent contains which of the following chemicals in it? a) Phosphates and acids b) Cationic c) Anionic d) All the above

22. Which of following metal compound for the displacement reaction we use calcium? a) Thorium b) Vanadium c) Zirconium d) All the above

23. Which of the following chemical is used in the preparation iron, steel and cement/ a) Calcium b) Calcium Carbonate c) Ammonia d) All the above

24. Which of the following chemical is used in fertilizers/ a) Ammonia and Ammonium Salts b) Calcium c) Calcium Carbonate d) None

● 1927 Georges Lemaitre puts forward Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe

● 1929 Edwin Hubble puts forward the theory of the expanding universe

● 1932 James Chadwick describes the nucleus of the atom as composed of protons and neutrons

● 1945 The first atomic bomb is detonated in New Mexico. Atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan a month later.

● 1945 The first electronic computer - The Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer (ENIAC) - is demonstrated.

● 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick, with the contribution of Rosalind Franklin and others, discover the double helix structure of DNA, the building block of life

● 1960 Stephen Hawking publishes his Grand Unified Theory of the origin of the universe

● 1961 The Soviet Union puts the first astronaut into orbit around the Earth

● 1967 Christiaan Barnard carries out first human heart transplant

● 1969 Dorothy Hodgkin describes the molecular structure of insulin

● 1970‘s computerized tomography (CT scan) to look at soft tissues

● 1971 Gilbert Hyatt and Intel make the first commercial computer microprocessor

● 1996 'Dolly' the sheep is born in Scotland. She was produced by cloning a single mammary cell.

● 1950 Gertrude Elion develops chemotherapy to treat leukaemia

● 1952 Jonas Salk produces a vaccine against poliomyelitis

Chemical Abuse and its Effect

● Methadone – It is a synthetic narcotic used to treat addiction.

● Crack Cocaine- Highly addictive and over use of it leads to aggressive and paranoid behavior,

● Powdered Cocaine – Over use of it affects individuals with restless, irritable. ● Heroin, Dxm, Dextromethorphan, Depressants, Stimulants, Narcotics and Inhalants may also cause lot of side effects. Atomic energy ● The nuclear fission of heavy elements is highly exothermic and releases about 200 million eV. ● Chernobyl is the accident occurred during an experiment with radioactive material. Space Sciences ● 1957 Soviets launched first artificial satellite Sputnik 1 into space. ● Russian Lt. Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit Earth in Vostok 1. ● The first U.S satellite Explorer 1 went orbit in 1958. ● Skylab is the first America‘s space station. ● Mariner spacecraft was orbiting and mapping the surface of Mars. ● Voyager spacecraft have sent the images of Jupiter and Saturn and their rings and moons. ● National Aeronautics and Space administration (NASA) ● National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ● Missile Defense Agency (MDA) ● Missile Defense agency (MDA) ● Air Force space Command (AFSPC) ● Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) ● Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) ● Geosynchorous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) ● Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS)

● National Natural Resources Management System (NMRMS) ● Department of space (DOS) Genetics ● Multiple genes and their relationships with one another is said to be Genomics. ● Relationship between genes and the environments is termed as epigenetics. ● DNA – Deoxyribonucleic ● DNA consists of four chemical bases: Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). ● Nucleotide has jointly a base sugar and phosphate. Nanotechnology ● Nano sized materials in the range of 0.1 nanometer to 100nm is said to be nano sized materials. Smart Materials ● Shape memory alloys – Hot water valves in the coffee machine and water sprinklers in the fire systems ● Piezoelectric materials – used for contact sensors for alarm systems and in microphone and headphone ● Quantum tunneling composite – membrane switches used in mobile phones, pressure sensors and speed controllers ● Electroluminescent materials – give out light when an electric current is applied to them ● Color-change materials – Thermochromic materials change color as the temperature changes. ● Internet Technology ● WWW – World Wide web ● TCP – Transmission Control Protocol ● IP – Internet Protocol ● Spamming – Unwanted bulk e-mails ● Virus – Disrupts the normal functioning of computer systems ● Pornography – Biggest threat related to mental health related life ● Document Type Definition – DTD ● HTML – Hyper Text Markup Language ● XML – Extended Markup Language ● CGI – Common Gateway Interface ● IRT – Internet Related Technologies ● HTTP-Hyper Text Transfer Protocol ● Insomia– sleep disturbances. ● INAPC-Indian National Active Place for Climate ● UNFCC- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Copernicus Galileo Kepler (Heliocentric system)The birth of modern astronomy

Galileo-Experimental observations as the basis for science The birth of modern astronomy

Pre Final Exam 1. How many matched chromosomes does a mature ovum contain? A. 43 B. 46 C. 23 D. 22 2. Which are the chemical substances that facilitate direct communication between neurons? A. Neurohonnones B. Neuromodulators C. Neurotransmitters D. Neuro peptides 3. The study of the nature of knowledge is called A. Epistemology B. Epiphenomenalism C. Empiricism D. Euphemistic labeling 4. Insomnia is a characteristic feature of A. Schizophrenia B. Depression C. Epilepsy D. Psychosis 5. It is a situation that occurs when stimuli or events increase the availability in memory or consciousness of specific types of information held in memory- A. Association B. Mnemonics C. Cognition D. Priming 6. In 1900 Max Planck discovers … A. Quanta - the basis of quantum theory B. Telegraph Signal C. Radio D. Television

7. In 1901 Guglielmo Marconi in Newfoundland receives the first telegraph signal, sent from Cornwall in Great Britain… A. Quanta - the basis of quantum theory B. Telegraph Signal C. Radio D. Television 8. In 1903 The Wright brothers successfully demonstrated …. A. Motor powered flight B. Satellite C. Radio D. Television 9. During which of the following year Albert Einstein publishes the ‗Special Theory of Relativity‘? A. 1910 B. 1905 C. 1920 D. 1915 10. Which of the following was the invention of Paul Ehrlich during 1909? A. Sickle Cell disease B. Antibiotic c. Vaccination D. Finds a cure for syphilis disease 11. Who discovered the structure of the atom in 1913? A. Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford B. Einstein C. Marconi D. Galileo 12. Who invented the moving assembly line for mass production of automobiles in 1913? A. Planck B. Henry Ford C. Bohr D. Rutherford 13. Which of the following year Household appliances appear - the vacuum cleaner, electric shaver, spin dryer, electric refrigerator, frozen foods, speaker radio? A. 1920's B. 1930‘s C. 1940‘s D.1950‘s 14. During 1922 --- was discovered Frederick Banting and Charles Best? A. Insulin B. Antibiotic C. Vaccination D. Sickle cell disease

15. Which of the following item was discovered in 1923 by Vladimir Zworykin? A. television B. television camera C. Radio D. Telephone

16. Who discovered the first new galaxy besides our own in 1924? A. Frederick B. Logie C. Bohr D. Edwin Hubble 17. Who made the first television broadcast over radio waves in 1926? A. Frederick B. Edwin Hubble C. Logie D. John Logie Baird 18. The first Renaissance scientist was a man named ------A. Nicolaus Copernicus B. Galileo Galilei C. Johannes Kepler D. Isacc Newton 19. Which is following fact true about Nicolaus Copernicus theory on planet earth? A. Earth is not the center of the universe B. Earth is the center of gravity and the lunar sphere C. Earth‘s motions include rotation, revolution, and annual orientation/tilting of the axis D. All the above 20. The heliocentric model of Copernicus theory states about. A. Earth Centered Universe B. Sun Centered Universe C. Both D. None 21. Which is the fact true about ‗Sun Centered Universe‘? A. The only planets known and found were Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn B. All the planets were orbiting around the Sun C. Moon ignored the Sun‘s orbit and orbited around the Earth‘s orbit D. All the above 22. Who proposed that the earth rotates daily and revolves around the sun? A. Archimedes B. Pythagoreans C. Galileo Galilei D. Johannes Kepler 23. DNA without introns is A. B-DNA B. Z-DNA C. Nuclear DNA D. Mitochondrial DNA 24. Largest and the most developed part of the human brain is A. Cerebellum B. Forebrain c. Hypothalamus D. Midbrain 25. Science is ______activity. A. Individual B. Social C. Mandatory D. None of the above 26. ______is American author and professor of Biochemistry. A. J.F Nash B. Issac Newton C. Charles Darwin D. Issac Asimov 27. ______is the biggest satellite of solar system A. Ganymede B. Tollymede C. Satranus D. None of the above 28. What is the maximum speed possible for any wave in the solar system? A. Every wave can have its own speed B. Speed of light C. Speed of electron D. None of the above 29. ______is the father of nuclear Physics. A. Faraday B. W.L Bragg C. Chadwick D. Rutherford 30. Mendel worked on ______plant. A. Ground nut B. Cashew nut C. Pea plant D. Tea-plant 31. The phenomenon of light to change its wavelength when it transverses a transparent material is called A. Photo electric effect B. Raman Effect C. Dispersion D. Theory of relativity 32. Study of earth‘s atmosphere is called ______A. Physiology B. Astronomy C. Hydrology D. Meteorology 33. Cosmology is a study of

A. Religion B. Universe C. Skin D. None of the above 34. ______is a statement that we assume is true A. Logic B. Hypothesis C. Inference D. Axiom 35. ______introduced scientific method A. Isaac Newton B. Francis Bacon C. Albert Einstein D. Charles Darwin 36. Knowledge from experience or experiments is called ______Knowledge. A. Hypothesis B. Inference C. Theorem D. Empirical Answer: D 37. E=mc2 is an equation to prove A. Photo electric effect B. Radio activity C. Brownian motion D. Theory of relativity Answer: D 38. Inexorable means A. Unchanging B. Changing C. Relative D. Destructive Answer: A 39. Primitive observer defined natural phenomenon as activity of A. Super natural forces B. Humans C. Machines D. None of the above Answer: A 40. Feudalism was replaced by……………………. A. Humanities B. scientific revolution C. Religion D. Ideology Answer: B 41. Science and Technology in Ancient India is a work by………. A. Joseph Needhan B. D.P Chattopadhyaya C. SushilKanar Mukherjee D. John Bernal Answer: B 42.……………..is classical age of Indian science. A. 300-600 AD B. 700-1200 AD C. 400-900 A.D D. 900-1200AD Answer: C 43. Greeks are to thank…………………for their scientific tradition A. Babylonians B. Egyptians C. Indians D. Both (a) and (b) Answer: D 44. Arthur Schopenhauer is a ………..philosopher A. German B. British C. American D. French Answer: A 45. The clay which showed the properties of nitroglycerine is called……………. A. Safety powder or dynamite B. dynamo C. Gun powder D. Hydrogen Answer: A 46. ----- is the founder president of the West Bengal Academy of Science and Technology.

A. Prof. N.R Dhar B. J.C Ghosh C. J.N Mukherjee D. Sushil Kumar Mukharjee Answer: D 47. ______made science possible. A. Feudalism B. Capitalism C. Poverty D. Political reasons Answer: B 48. Ayurveda emerged during ______period A. Post-Vedic period B. Vedic period C. Indus valley D. Modern Answer: D 49. Einstein received Nobel Prize for Physics in A. 1919 B. 1920 C. 1921 D.1922 Answer: C 50. C.V Raman won Nobel Prize for A. Literature B. Chemistry C. Physics D. Peace Answer: C 51. True goal of scientific research is A. Experimentation B. Theorization C. Contribute to knowledge D Material prosperity. Answer: C 53. ______is a discovery of Alexander Fleming. A. Pencillin B. Radio C. Television D. Small-pox vaccine Answer: A 54. Science is ______activity. A. Individual B. Social C. Mandatory D. None of the above Answer: B 55. Average weight of man‘s brain is ………………………….than woman‘s. A. Greater B. Lesser C. Equal to D. None of the above Answer: A 56. Who is the father of genetics. A. Charles Darwin B. Gustavo Kernel C. Gregor Mendel D. Isaac Asimov Answer: C 57. What is a problem of the entire West A. Poverty B. Illiteracy C. The gulf between arts and science D. Language Answer: C 58. ……………….. Was the beginning of all scientific activities of England A. Elizabethan period B. Victorian age C. Modern period D. Jacobean period Answer: B

59. Origin of species is a work by A. Mathew Arnold B. Charles Darwin C. Albert Einstein D. Sigmund Freud Answer: B 60.………………………… conflicted with faith in the Victorian period A. Science B. Philosophy C. Mathematics D. None of these Answer: A 61. The first unfavorable condition for the underdevelopment of science and its history is……… A. Few knows the entirety of science B. Few are capable of investigation by him all scientific questions C. Both (A) and (B) D. None of these Answer: C 62. M.Berthelot disproved theory of ……… A. Evolution B. Natural selection C. Vitalism D. Origin of the universe Answer: C 63. ----- is a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences. A. Empirical Research B. Qualitative Research C. Quantitative Research Answer: B 64. Researchers use ------to explore the behavior, perspectives, feelings and experiences of people and what lies at the core of their lives. A. Empirical Research B. Qualitative Research C. Quantitative Research Answer: B 65. The natural science model has which of the following scientific approach? A. Positivism B. Objectivism C. Naturalism D. All the above Answer: D 66. Every individual has a capacity to develop into a worthy person is propounded by A. Cognitive theorist‘s B. Psycho analytic theorists C. Humanistic theories D. Behavioristic theorists Answer: C 67. The model which includes sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory is proposed by A. Jenkin and Dallenbach B. Broadbent C. Hermann Ebbinghaus D. Atkinson and Shiffrin Answer: D 68. The process of increase in food-grain production is said to be --- A. Green Revolution B. White Revolution C. Agricultural Revolution D. Crop Revolution 69. The method of crossing between genetically dissimilar plants are said to be --- A. Kharif Crop B. Genetically Modified Crop C. Mixed Crop D.Hybridization

70. Weeds and insect‘s pests are said to be … A. Unwanted in the crop field B. Nuisance in the crop field C.Both A and B D. Useful for production 71. Which of the following is said to be Cereals? A. Wheat and Rice B. Mail and Oats C. Both A and B D. None 72. Which of the following fact is true about Kharif crop? A. Crops grown in rainy season B. Paddy, Soya Bean and Ground Nut C. Both A &B D. None 73. The method used in the way of improving the crop by introducing a gene that would provide the desired characteristic is said to be A. Hybridization B. Genetically Modified Crops C. Kharif Crop D. None 74. Two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same piece of land is said to be --- A. Mixed crop B. Hybridization C. Genetically Modified crop D. None 75. Scientific management of animal livestock, includes feeding, breeding and diseases control is said to be --- A. Animal Husbandry B. Animal based farming C. Both A and B D. None 76. Which of the following process carried out by both Aquaculture and Mariculture? A. Fish Production B. Growing of Marine Fish C. Both D. Growing of Flowers 77. Who coined the term ‗Industrial Revolution‘ in 1837? A. Blanqui a French socialist B. John Kay C. Samuel Crompton D. James Watt 78. Where did the Revolution begin and when? A. England in 1750 B. England in 1837 C. Europe in 1750 D. None 79. Which of the following two movements can be regarded as the precursor of the Industrial Revolution? A. The Renaissance and the Reformation B. Political stability C. Availability of coal and iron D. All the above 80. When and by whom was the Flying Shuttle invented? A. 1733 by John Kay B. 1837 by Blanqui C. 1779 by Samuel Crompton D. None 81. In which year and who was the Spinning Mule invented? A. 1733 by John Kay B. 1837 by Blanqui C. 1779 by Samuel Crompton D. None 82. What is the importance of James Watt in the year 1769? A. Steam Engine B. Flying Shuttle C. Printing Press D. Transistor 83. Who is regarded as the father of the railway system? Where was the railway line to carry passengers laid in 1830 between Liverpool and Manchester? A. George Stephenson B. Blanqui C. John Kay D. Samual Crompton 84. Where was the first railway line built in India in 1853? A. Mumbai to Punjab B. Mumbai to Thane C. Mumbai to Kerala D. None 85. Who improved on Hargreaves‘ Spinning Jenny? A. Blanqui B. Richard Arkwright C. John Kay D. Samual Crompton 86. Name the first warship built of iron plates in England in 1860. A. Flying Plate B. Warrior C. Winner D. Warship 87. Name the first Asian country to be industrialized. A. Singapore B. India C. Japan D. None 88. What is IRS?

A. Indian Railway System B. Indian Recruitment System C. Indian Remote Sensing Satellite D. None 89. Who created the first aircraft to carry a human? A. Soviat Union B. England C. Japan D. None 90. Who are all called as important socialist thinkers? A. Karl Marx and Robert B. Owen and Charles Fourier C. Saint Simon D.All of the above 91. The process of Triangulation has which of the following? A. Data Sources b. Theories C. Researchers D. All of these 92. What is intron? A. Nucleotide sequence within a gene B. Part of an atom C. Both D. None 93. What is the name of conventional genetic disease? A. Sickle cell disease B. Insomnia C. Pornography D. Syphilis 95. Who was the mathematician that gathered information about optics and hydrodynamics during 1400‘s A. Leonardo da vince B. Georg Purbach C. Johannes Gutenberg D. Martin Behaim 96. Who developed Astrology? A. Babylonians B. Chaldeans C. Babylonians and Chaldeans D. Greeks 97. Chloramphenicol is considered to be --- A. Bacteriostatic antibiotic B. Stops antibiotic metabolism C. Both D. None 98. A supposition which is put forward as a probable explanation of a given fact is said to be --- A. Working Hypothesis B. Proving of Hypothesis C. Verification of hypothesis D. Hypothesis 99. --- and --- are used in scientific exploration to gather data and help answering the questions about the natural world. A. Rulers and Balance B. Telescopes and microscope C. Thermometers and Cylinders D. All the above 100. Which of the following are Antibiotic-resistant bacteria‘s A. MRSA and E. coli B. Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci (VRE) C. Multi-resistant and Acinetobacter D. All the above 101. Which are all the following bacterial infections can be cure by Antibiotics? A. Pneumonia B. Meningitis C. Both D. None 102. In 1628, who proved for the first time, that the heart was a pump and circulated blood around the body/ A. William Harvey B. Christian Huggens D. Marcello Malpighi D. Christopher Merrett 103. Which of the following disease will not respond to antibiotics? A. Cold B. Flu C. Bronchitis D. All the above 104. Who Proposed Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927? A. Georges Lemaitre B. Christian Huggens C. Marcello Malpighi D. Christopher Merrett

105. Who proposed the theory of the expanding universe in 1929?

A. Georges Lemaitre B. Edwin Hubble C. Marcello Malpighi D. Christopher Merrett 106. Who invented the cyclotron to study the behavior of accelerated atomic particles in 1931? A. Ernest Lawrence invents B. Georges Lemaitre C. Marcello Malpighi D. Christopher Merrett 107. Who described the nucleus of the atom as composed of protons and neutrons in 1932? A. James Chadwick B. Georges Lemaitre C. Marcello Malpighi D. Christopher Merrett 108. Who demonstrated the first controlled nuclear reaction in 1942? A. Georges Lemaitre B. Marcello Malpighi C. Christopher Merrett D. Enrico Fermi 109. Which of the following is said to be the first electronic computer ? A. EDVAC B. Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer (ENIAC) C.Both D. None 110. Who invented the transistor in 1947? A. Georges Lemaitre B. Marcello Malpighi C. Christopher Merrett B.William Shockley