442 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE

The Curse of Columbus: The Vanquished Airport of the Americas

CARMINA SANCHEZ DEL VALLE Hampton University

coincide with the celebration of the fifth centenar! ol the arriral of Columbus to the Americas. It Mas built to the One thmh-s izaturall~of the airport as an intepal part of detriment of the families M ho had settled in the area, and whose a connecting parh sj stem (.. .) tlzouglz as jet (. . .) 14 P communities were razed to make room for the extensive onlj see a great jeld that llus not let found 7ts log~cal esplanade that senes as the podium for the building. place in either the czvic structure or in the boundless sj.sten7 that is fast drawzng all countries closei to one ltter the monument's conlpletion architects in the Dominican anotl~er. Republic unco\ered the histoi? of the competition. Emilio Josi: - Albert I

.manufar:turers ol' airplanes and airships were in tlie Inited Dirigible- 11ad Iwen t air! ing paa,en,nrrs in Europe smte 1910. States. England. France. Germany. and Ital!. Third. political In the (.I.;.. the ZR-3 zeppelin -'Lo? Angeles." Iwilt In tlie Yay disagreements among the go\-erninents of the :Iineric:an nations in 1924. pl o\ ided transcontinental passenger sen ire to. among \\-as causing geopolitical tensions. and hampering the exercise other places. Pananla arid . By 1925. ailports in of good\rill among nations. Specificall!-. General Trujillo's coup Berlin (Tcrripelhofer). Paris (Le Bourget). Amsteldarn. and in the in 1931. arid his repreesi1-e London (C ro~don)11dd naiting looms arid bureaux de cha~ige.'~' gowrnrnent exacerbated this situation. Fourth. inassix~efunding The) nele considered to be the most luxurious of t11ei1 time. \\as needed to support the construction of the project. which The wedth) saat air tral el a< euclusi\ el? theirs. This fascination could riot be undertaken single-handedly I?! an!; one nation. It a\ith and populaiit! of ail traael promoted world tlael." It had been agreed; member nations of the Pan-.American Lnion could be

[Is] there not to be an, arch~tectureof tlte air, us ihere ON ARCHITECTS AND AIRPLANES nolt 1s an arclntecture of the nlglzt. .. - Albert Iielsej ' Horc do 1.o~Izke the ent~resite ji-om the bud's-ej.e perspectile. Mr. Webster? n'e must place extra impor- Jean Baptiste Marie Veusnier. French aeronautical theorist and tance on this since the alr chauffeurs t( 111 usual!\. -general. was the inaentor of the dirigibleb . and the first to approach tl~elrcon ~~zlescencel~ome bx air. And - tllejirst design "permanent airship hangars and portable camas hangars in~pressionmust also be the strongest. for use in the field.'"- Meusnier recognized rigid frame fljing - Paul Sclleerbart xessely. mhen not in use. required developing new forrns of storage space. The liistoi~of architecture first recorded airship Zt the turn of the 20th centuq. futuristic literature pla! ed with L A related structures with EugZne Fre!sineta3 1905 airship lm- xisions of cities where automobiles and airplanes competed for gars in Orly. Hence. both Xleusnier and Fre!ssinet can be public space. Some satirized the ungainliness implied b! the considered to be the first airport architects. xisions. For example. the illustrators llbert Robida and Henri Lano* in France concocted imager; of the monurrienth of Paris During the First F orld war. British. Flench. Germans. and the disappeaiing under a cloud of hallooris and airships. 1dra~ing 1 nited States rnilitar! made use of all air palter a\ ailable at the for an article nritten hj the Brazilian aviator Santos Duniont. time: halloons. airqhips. and aiiplanes. The morld %ar I Lanos shoued hotre Dame's cathedral conberted into a balloon adxanced de\eloprnents in aliation. and opened the \\a! for station." Life magazine in a 1910 issue published an illustra- significant cornmrrrial passenger air tralel in the late 1920's. tion titled ""Lnited Air Terminal" \\it11 the caption: "The arriaal Ahead\ in 1919 Pan American a orld Airwa!< had projected of an aeiial transatlantic liner on the roof of a \e\$ lork that won commercial axiation in South and Central linerica Sk) scraper.'"'- This illustration anticipated perhdps the design uould ""amount to great I olume of I~usine~s.*'~Pan American for the Enlpire State Building. Its accompanying description inauguiated -'oificial mail senice 1)etmeen Key Best and close1 follo~edthe language used b! the author of the Hal ana."" through a contract M it11 the L .S. go1 ernment in Colurribus llernorial Lighthouse in the program for the air and 19%:. sea hub. 444 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

it a time uhe~ra xildent hiqtoiicdl ecleiti(ism doniindted intlud~ripmodclc 01 \\hat tlie iolnlrlg gerie~ationuill -cc (...) architectural placticc. the Coluinlru~ \Ieniorial Lighthou-e plans and dla~\ingsof tlie Iw?t Europcan a~iationa~ihitec- competition demanded a nev t~poloq.The t ompetition iort cd tuie.^'-- -Iccording to Szuroy. uhen the financial 1ndrLet architects to consider a futuristic imager! that had Iwen cia~hrdin 1929. the grand idea* \\ere ternporaril~alrandoned. prexiouslj rewrxed onl! to illustrate norl's of fiction and 1 isionaq utopias. STEERING THE COMPETITIOR For tlie first tl~irt! !ears 01 the 20th centur?. aichitects seemed not to be taliing part in the shaping of the architecture for air Ke are dec1lrl7p I( ltlr rntanprblc arnr a\ i. tllozluands of tra\el.18 In 1913 Antonio Sant'Clia projected a station for mles long. Tlrc /enach-\ old e7~1mountam must be airplanes and trains ~ithfunicular and elelators. Sant'Elia was co17szdered, for some dm the trunk-route ncrocs tills not obli~iousto the industrial efier~escencethat surrounded island 111 hh~e to be 51-stenratlcallj marked and l~gltted. Wan. mhich included the Caproni airplane manufacturirig - Albert ICelse~'~ plant.'" Paul Scheerbart in 1917 published a visionar, no~el about a architect from that specialized in glass Albert Kelse!. technical advisor for the Pan American Lnion. architecture to be seen from the air. Also in 1917. Tony Garnier \\as responsible for defining the rules and program for the \\as presenting his plan for an industrial cit!. In Vers une filernorial Lighthouse competition. and for providing a contex- Architecture. first published in 1923. Le Corbusier included tual narratile. R ith Paul P. Cret. a graduate from the Ecole des images of the Farman. the Bleriot. and tlie Caproni h!droplane Beaux Arts established in Philadelphia. ICelsej uon the among others. But it \\as not until the umeiling of the Plan competition for the Pan- 4nlerican building in % ashington. D.C. \-oisin in 1925. when he addressed airfields bj planting them in ICelsej mas born in St. Louis. arid raised in Philadelphia. He the heart of the rieM cit!. In 1926. Hugh Ferris \+as painting studied at the Unix ersity of Perinsyl~ania uhere he won a aerial traffic pattellis. and Fritz Lang's Metropolis film \\as Tra~elingScholarship in 1890. In 1896 he \\a< an apprentice in released. the office of T.P. Chandler. Later he moled to the office of Cope and Stewardson. He opened his 01411 firm with I

competition. Ernldded in this directire ilom the Goleiriing inlagination." On a pragmatic lelel. rt~co~ii~neridatic~~is\\ere hard \+as an interest on air transportation. rthicl~ had riot made for the selectio~iof structure arid cwnstruction niateiials: surfaced until then. Tlie celebrated pilot Chailes Lindhergli *-propell! piotected ~tiucturalstrel flame, of reinforced con- p~disedthe initiati~ebecause the building of the IIemoiial crete. faced up to a ceitain height ltith a nobler material."" In coupled nit11 air tra\el ~ould-'aid to a large extend in the the second stage designer3 ueie adlisd not to use glass drr elopment of these islands.-"- hecause of its cost and fragilit!. Tlic go\ernment of tlle Repuhlic vas a130 co~lditionedh! the rule.. of the colnpetit~on. The architects registel ed for the competition elected the jun of First. the land \+asto sta! as a restiicted district propert! of tlie auardb. It \+as to be composed b! three architectb. one Go\ ern~nentof the Dominican Repuhlic. Secondly. tlie pol elm representing each 01 three continents: Europe. hortli Anierira. ment would not auov the construction ok "'commercial btiuc- and South America. The jurj was to relie\+ both stages of the tures skyscrapeis. factories. billboards. oi inferior housei." competition. Each registered participant Mas aslced to send thee listb \+it11 no more than ten nameb each. for tlie thiee The Memorial's design \+as to he supplemented l\ith a master continents. Iielse! identified the names cited most often. and plan comprising an airport. It \+as to prolide for anrillary collated three lists. one for each continent. He sent the list* to facilities. mooring mast and one runna! three hundred feet participants and asked them to select one name and file ~ideand one mile long: an "*official center'" uith offices arid alternates from each. residences for high government officials. including the presi- dent of the republic: and a small neighborhood of residences. The resulting jury nas formed b! Horacio Acosta l Lara of Kelsej articulated a strong argument for locating an airport on Liuguay. representing Latin -1merica: of Finland this site. He enlisioned "one great ethereal a\ enue uniting t~o representing Europe: and Raymond Hood of the Lnited Sates vast continents (...) a liea~enl~high~aj."~~ \loreover. he representing Yorth Inierica. Hood had non the Chicago argued "the most direct route from Montreal to Buenos lires" Tribune conipetition in 1922. designed the lmerican Radiator passed over the Doniiriicari Republic. This fact. he claimed. building in 1924. and the Daily Press in 1928. hile the demonstrated \+ithout an! doubt tlle selected site "could be a Columbus ZIemorial Lighthouse conipetition nas in progress. hahay station. and perhaps in time, the greatest airport of the his office nas bus! designing the hIcGra~+-Hillbuilding in he\\ K estern Hemisphere."" Iielsej referred to the project as the lolli. and the . Eliel Saarinen became "'great Pan-American Airport."' Ironicallj . in tlie prop am bno~nin the US. for haling won second place in the Chicago Iielsej reconiniended placing the airport and accessories as far Tribune competition. He \+aslice-president of the International awaj as possible from the IIernorial. In agreement uith the Planning Conferences. and active in a number of professional vieus of the time. for Iielsej airports \+ere areas of noise and organization^. R right. who substituted Hood in the 2nd stage of t~rrnoil.~" the competition. expressed surprise as to why Saarinen \+as representing '"Europe from Imerica." Howeler. it is clear \right respected Saarinen's work since he recognized him as Kelse? also oflered examples of nev nell designed airports in '.the most accomplibhed foreign e~lectic."'~4costa y Lara \$as Nel+ Iorb. Philadelphia. Rio de Janeiro and Buenos iires. In president of the I rupajan Society of Irchitects. professor at Nev J'orli he referred to plans for an airport on a central island the Lnilersitj of AIontelideo. and member of the Central in the harbor. In Philadelphia he described a plan of major Llni~ersit! Council. proportions for the construction of a grand central terminal for ocean ships. railwa!s. land-planes. seaplanes and airship* uith The project brief for the 1928 call for proposals read as follows: marehouses. hangars. and repair shops on a site next to the Delax\are Rix er. %hen 2.500 acres of waterside propertj for uhat is to hecome a carefully restricted Pan-American Park: the In his program brief for the second stage of the competition. problem first of all is to find the best site for the Columbus Iielse~added to hib oiiginal recornmendations building "huiii- Vemorial Lighthouse: -the best for a beacon to guide cane-proof iefuges foi aircraft (...) stark and rnaisixe hangars naaigation both b~ sea and bj air - the best for a for Zeppelins. and fortified slots in the earth for airplanes.", in commemoratile moriurnent - the best for a great interna- lie\+ of the ."ialages of the iecent hunicane." He piaked tional center.^'-" German arid Srandina~ian~ubriiissioris tor .houing the hest understanding of the problem. His report also included Competitors wele ail'ed to bring to hear on the design its suggestions for the location and direction of the beam of light p~oxiruit! to the harbor and the "ancient rit!" across the Ozarria that mas to guide aIiators. Co~n~etitors\+ere named that the Riler. They \+ere to place the nloriunlent on a high point to be Iliation Department of the 1.5. Department of Commerce seen o\er the treetops. to incorporate a chapel and a museum. adaised against "a great xrrtical colu~nnof light shoot tliiough to pro~ideat least one relolling '*lantern". and to when seen the zenith." ' Bj this time the L .S. Irm! Air Sen ire had lrom a distance hale a significance that ~ould'"grip the standards fo~olientation marking- and lighting, guideline* for 446 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

airr~ortdesign. anti \\as umrking on a rating s!-P~CIII to evaluate airport facilities. ser\-ices. and landing areas nationall!-.

The fi~stqtdge of the con~petitionattracted one thousand tuent! ~ixlegiqtrants. Of these. 356 plojects \\ere lerei~edfrom 38 nations. a total oi 2.400 dravings. - 1selection of the proposals cubmitted Mere sho~nin 1929 in the "art palaces*' of El Retilo Parb in Madrid. arid her in the Palazzo delle Esposizioni in Rome. Ten projecta \jete adxanced to the aecond phace. arid ten otheis recei~edhonorable mentions. On the selected finalists. the jur! stated the! uere choferi for their plorriise. more than for theil perfection." Initiall! the jurl oi auald had \\anted to return the ten \\inning entries to each of its designers mithout publicl! exhibiting them. Howe~er. the Central Society of kchitecta in Madrid demanded that the toriditions established Fig. 1. kft: Proposal submitted /?I, TOT?\. Gornirr. L,\.o~I~.F~OIZCP: center: at the beginning of the competition Mere respected. and the \otrr Dame cathpdral refirhislzed as a Onlloon ,tation. Hewi Lnnos. 190.5 projects nere iricluded in the exhibition. (taker7 ,fi.onz The Hiaton of the Future): right: Prrymsal whmitted Ov C;. T. Kruutiko~..J.\: firentzoc.. and A. U.Bou~ir. 1losc.011.. Russia. Among the projects exhibited onlj ten projects nere from Latin America. lone of these projects. although a feu mere com- strained. Could Hood ha\ e recomrnerided U right to Iyelse!? mended in 1ielsej"s report. recei~eda\\ards. 4 felt of thebe \exertheless. it proved adlantageous for U right to be part of architects, such as Carlos Obregon Santacilia of Mexico. Fla~io the ju?. During the Depression he spent his time lecturingd4 de Rezende Canalho of Brazil. and Pedro -4. Castro of Puerto and this trip. his first to Brazil. helped inrrease his notoriet! Rico had uell established reputations in their countries. Se\ en abroad. It coincided \\ith Lucio Costa's resignation as Director projects from the Soliet Union Mere exhibited. Tuo of the of the Escola Uacional de Belas 4rtes. and the students' relolt insisting on his return.lJ Costa's decision Mas caused b! some of architects \\ ere \\ell recognized at the time: Iconstantin RIelni- lie\ and Uicolai Ladoxskq. AIelniko\ had gained international the faculty's opposition to instituting a '*functional" course notorietj in 1925 for the design of the Soviet Palilion at the parallel to the existing Beaux Arts course. The students Exposition des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels held in Paris. celebrated U right's support of Costa. The latter \+as reinstated Ladolslij. a rationalist. represented the camp opposed to but nas finalh dismissed in 1933.*' 1lelnilto\'s seeminglj intuiti~edesign process. Iielsey noted that in Madrid. Jlelnilio~.'~\+as; the most discussed design.'q In his autobiographj. Fright tells about the people he net and 4costa \ Lara. in a lecture presented in 1946 described the places he -visited ~ithhis wife mhile in Brazil. but proxides hlelnilto\'s design as rare and extralagant. product of a brain little insight about the competition. It is also difficult to that seeks success through originality. but that fails \+hen a establish !X right's position to\+ards airports. because feu superior inspiration is missing.'" explicit comments on this topic are readil! mailable. The clearest statement is the progra~nmatic description for the Kelsej expressed his personal viens in exe1-y description in the design of an automobile and airplane filling station and senice report for the first stage. Some of the comments are insightful station: from our perspective. For example. he calls E.L. Harrison's ploject. an architect from Alemphis. -.the jazz architecture of -'And the aeroplane nil1 be remodeled some da! as a self- todav."ll He comnlcrith that Ton\ Garnier's proposal for a tall. . A contained nlechanical unit. Then it \+ill pirli up and monumental circular railwaj climbing to the top of the continue this surface traffic as super-tratfic in air. routed lighthouse had made the king of Spain '-dizz!."'? Kelse! anjwhere on earth. Then. and not until then. the airport criticizes Soviet architects I de~eloped.if at all. And. two of them arid Fright \\ere friend?. although later their relation became ere replaced b! completely new propmala. " 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 447

The p~copocar. old let eritlj 1'IIE LIGHTIIOLSE IS BUILT ;iaduated aichitect horn \ottingllani. England vas pi\rn the f1r3t prize in final stage of the co~npetition." 4 one line note ieco~dithe attendance of the l1dste1 Buildeis' A-ociation Pie-ident to a dinnel gi~eri b~ the "Lrii~els~t~Student;' Aichitrctuial Soriet, in RIarichestei on Octobei 28 [1031] to honoi \Ir. Glea\ c." The jul2.a comment ah t~anbcribed111 the media \\as: "the finished rnpmoiial should apprar in it* stalk sirnpliutj a; though leal ed bj the elernpntal fort eh. \+hich 1 of ~uccesbion e~entsaffected thr realization of the project" in

T~ujillo'. go\ ~iunientpiorided Crlea) c \\it11 a 4zeal)le arnour~t Pl~otogiapli~of one of the models oi the 1.1ghtliouie \Iemo~ial ot Inone\"' to huild a rnodel to he exliil~ited at the 1933 \\el e appdwntl~ 11ul~lishcd in the RIB 4 Jour~dand in a (.hicdgo Exporition. and another to he rhoun at the be\\ 1 oik rleT\spaper in Buerio~\ire$ in 1 9 Z 6. 4( osta \ Lala obiening d Fail of 1939. The (;ooti\\ill Flight* of 1937. intended to raiie ..copious aut~rlithonou~Vexican deco~ation" COT ering- the funds for tlie ~onstructior~oi tlie nio~iunlerit.\\ele cut slioi-t facade? of the \leniorial. p~ornptlq rontacted Saaririen and vher~or1 their return home. three of the foul plaries crashed in R right to recpiie co~npliante to the ~iriningscheme. Saarineri a stolrn. 4 I)orninitar~ a\idtol pilotd Co16n. tlie plane that lesponded that the elaborate ele\ation nas a '.decorative sur\i\ed. Thir ~epresenteda \ icton foi Trujillo'. legirnr. Colon nionstrosit~."*'"He suggested that if the project \\as l~uiltkith it. Ildd ]wen one of the t~ocornhat planes obtained through the the rrle~nberr ot the jur? must be releafed from Iia\ing an! ITS. Uepartnient of State in 1932. responsibilit!. Wright rrplied that he knev nothing about the situation. let. lie concurred with 4costa q Lara's leasons for questioning the changes. The decoration \$as eliminated. To facilitate huilding tlie capital needed. in 1938 the Pan American Lnion determined the anlourit each nation ~ould In 1948 in an apparent rush to build. Trujillo ordered the contribute. At the top of the list mas the US.. folloued b, Brazil construction of a reclining cross on the Memorial's site to be and Mexico. The arnount Mas calculated as a percentage of each demolished when the first section of the monument mas nation's b~dget.~"Starting in 1937 Pan American nations began erected. President Rooberelt sent a message to the inauguration issuing cornrnemoratix e stamps to support the Memorial's oi the reclining cross. In it he stressed the need for all Pan construction. ETen the Rotary Club International mith chapters - American nations to contribute funds committed to the in lorth and South America appro~rda resolution to rontrib- construction of the Memorial. Rooselelt extolled the project as ute a nominal sum for the construction. a constant r~minderto the nations of the continent of the essential unit) of ideals. interest. and purposes." Gleal e ~isited The language of a resolution presented to Pan l~nrricanUnion Santo Donlingo in 1950 to establish the exact location of the members indicates that the Memorial was scheduled to begin monument. allowing for the clearing and le~eling of the area. In construction in 1942. but participant nations had yet to release 1955. Trujillo made funds available to further the construction their contributions. LA conimemorati~ecolumn l+as made from of the monument. and hired the architectural engineers \ irgilio stone extracted from the ruins of the first city La Isabela. and Phrez Bernal and Leo Pou Richart. In 1960, Trujillo's regime mas placed on the site in 1944 to celebrate the 100th uas unleashing all its strength in a genocidal attack on anni\ersar~of the founding of Santo Dominpo." In 1945 the po~ernrnentopponents. The Organization of Xinerican States Directixe Council of the Pan American Union in a resolution (former Pan American Union) imposed sanctions. reminded nations to prolide the amounts specified in 1938. Possiblq focused on the idea of building the monument. in Trujillo \\as assassinated in 1961. The construction of the 1946 Trujillo appointed a committee to ox~rseethe construc- Memorial r4as abandoned until the late 1980's. when it was tion. His government signed a contract uith Gleaxe who \\as to incorporated into the uorlts for the celebration of the fifth pro~idearchitectural senices. Gleaxe submitted structural and centenail. of Columbus" arri~alin the Americas. architectural plans. specifications. design and budget in Febru- arq of 1948." The Dominican Republic uas covering all -1 barrage of articles denouncing the injustices committed to expense<. build the monument. the cost incurred. and the problematic

Fig. 3. Ir,/i: Horcrrio :lcosrc~ I. Lnrn rrcrtli~yjrr\- of ciii.nrrlc report ill 1929: right: CIrn~~o>cot~tro~~~~~airrl 1016 to 1948 ruodrl. 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 449

ymbolisni started appearing in the early nineties when had to jrr eliminated. Ilbert kelse~'..dewriptivn of the site. in construction was close to completion. The project. ~+hichhad his .impressions' book. indicates a colon^ of Chinese immigrant been redured to a park and monu~nentalreliqua~: hox. \+as farrners had settled in the area. In the earl! nineties protest described in an article published in the {T.S. as an '.a~+kward. sparhed because owners tlere minimall! compensated for their Latino- Le~iathan.beached and peering out ~tisthll~ houses. and a heaq-handed approach was used to remoxe toward the It was also described as a "nlulti-store! car them from their propert!. In fact. one of the articles pointed to park."" and a "Pharaonic project. a cream colored-pyramid the death of a man. ~hosuffered a heart attack. after been laid out in the shape of a cross.'""- informed that his house \+as to be demolished.-' Other news articles denounced that houses vere demolished while their The s~mbolicalrole of the project had lost validit\. Gleal e. the o\\ners vere occupying them. To rnalce matters worse. \+hen it architect. had written the lighthouse beacon ~ouldbe a proxed difiicult to elinlinate all the neighborhoods b) the date '-syrnbol of the Christianizing mission of the conquest of of the inaupration. a ball Ilas built to separate and hide them Imerira."" To ful-the1 this intention the architect had planned from the monument's lie\\. The wall described hj the to inscribe a quote fiom Columbus on the monument's wall: go\ernment as an '-ornamental"'-hlernent Mas decorated with 'You shall put up crosses on all roads and pathwajs. for as. God black crosses. Its detractor* called it the *'wall of shame."?. The be praised. this land helongs to Christians. the rememhlance of architect that directed the monument's construction. Te6filo it must be presened for all time."" Columbus' misbion in the Carbonell. argued the uall was '.out of harmonj with his Americas had been exposed as a massacre of the indigenouc building."-6 people. This redefinition of the "discover) of Imerica". naturall~diminished qupport for the project. Also. at the time of Todav Columbus Memorial Lighthouse sits on the immense it3 inaupration. a stoq circulated about .*the curse of esplanade obli~iousto the children uho ride their bikes on its Columbus." which further complicated the meaning of the ramps. It is a huge emptj locked box ~haitingto be filled. Its monument. The rumor claimed the curse was triggered when balls haxe been inscribed with the names of the Pan American Columbus name was mentioned. or when an artifact celebrated nations. The Pope-s message. dehered on the inauguration. his deeds.-" The curse turned the monument into a sign ol bad has also been carved in stone: ""recordando aquel aiio de 1492 luck. This is ~erifiedh~, the fact that the lighthouse uaa also the en que las nales de Espaiia. piadas por Col6n. llevaron a esas materialization oi Balaguer's policies.-' uho had hanlirupted tierras fecundas la semilla del e~ange1io."-- The black crosses the countr!. Perhaps in an ironic waj. the curse \+as used to have faded from the mall of shame. but the \\all is still there. explain Plesident Balaguer's absence from the inauguration ceremon!. who was attending to his sister's funeral. NOTES The lighthouse- ronstruction required an inxestment of $50 to $70 million. a sum that was pro1 ided b! the go\ ernrnent of the ' V1,rt.t krls~!, P~.ogrumand h'ulr~of rllr (.ol~p/itiorrfor the Selertion (fan Dorniriitan Republic. The ohscenit) of spending such an 4rrl11t1~for the .Ilonr~~ne~ltcllLighthu~rsr. Boolt 11: I~n~~-rssrr~rrsqf cmrl enornious amount of rnonej on a monument \+hen there Mere Ol~scw(jt~on.~/I). a11 +(hi/rc/. (Pa-~hneri(.anL11ior1). 164. innumerable unfulfilled pressing needs. was the subject of man^ 11e1+

To finish the construction of the ~nonumrnt.the settlement5 that had .prouted in the area after their first remo~alin 1930 450 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

11) U~JIWIwlsr!. 1'1-op-trn~crud Rules uf thr. Ci~~rywtitio~~~IIItliij .Selrctio/r (I/ i~n urrh~t~vt,fi~r-he IIo~~rc~nr~~~td Lighthoi~sc~ 1rhi1~11 /h~ rr~~tiom of tlw ti~~;-/drvill ":ri~ I1,rul ll~mrrla..'Thr Cult of the Iirplanr 1r11orrg I > Rlilitar! Rlrn and rwcr i~ithe 1)omirritun 12epuhlic to thi~~nr~inorx- oj'Ch~istoph~~ (i~lu~nhl~s. (Tire Llorninii~ati~riurirlp the L.S. 01,cupatiou and thr Trr!jillo Rrgirllr." irr Close Pa~r-~hrrrimnb~~io~r. 1028). 17. t.'rxounters of'Empre: Il>itin,g thr, Culr~~ralHi\torx- u/ ,/ (.S.- I.uti~~ .In;e~i(~un 3" Ihid.. 18. Rrlotions. ids. (;ilhert \I. .losepli rl al. (1)urharn and Londou: Duke " Illid.. 37. I ni\-crsit! Press. lY98). 269. It IIIUP~br noted that international civil f'l!ing \\as initiated in 1019 nith ser\-ire from Hounslo~\.Lollrim to Le Bourpet. 3L lbid.. 3;. Pari.i. "lir Srniw 111 Paris Attracts Lurldoneri." \ew Pork Time\. 27 \ug.. 1014. 1i.t: Pw~C)~wstHistorical Rie\\spapers Tht Net* lorli Times (18.:; - 3' Tn a 19211 article a jr~urnalistwriting f'nr The Nm 10rk Times attests: ..the Current file). inlrrlran airport at tile monlent is a hlot on the landscapcl- a bigger e!esore ' '3 illiam E. Bro\\n Jr. -'Pan Im:\Iia~lli's Rings to thr E orld." T11r .~~~LITu/~f. than tllr old railwa! station used to be in the nrharr srerre." He proposes I)ccorcitice and PI-opupnda Arts. 11.23. (Florida Theme isiur). 115. instead "a bort of' park centre \irr\ed hnthe gri~rrrid. and troni the air 'IJ C. J. Blov,. lirport Terininals. Reprint. ((Ixfortl: Arclritertoral Press. 1098). 8. appr a> a chief omanlent ill a Prrrian carpet." H. 1. Hrocli . 'G\ing Thou+r to our Nr\\ lirports". ?'he \etv lork Time.\. 30 Drcember 1918. l' The airship Graf' Zepellin pro~itiedlorr;-range lnxnr! passenper sen-ire from P.01: ProQuest Hidurical 3e~cpapersThe \iiw lurk 'I'imes (I857 - Crlrrrnt (krman! ~IIthe L1.I. Geza Szurm!. The (lrnrricun Airport. (bt. Paul. \lin~lesota:JIB1 Publi~hingCo~nparl!. 2003). 80. t:i le) "\illiam E. Brown Jr.. Pan Am: Rliarrri's Bir~.to the E-orld. '' -Uhert helsr!. Propln and Rules oj'the Ser,unil Colnpetitioti fi~rthe .ielralon of o11 .lrchitecr j'uc the Ilr~nun~~ntulLighthouse (. . .) C~I-istq~hrrColurnli~s l3 111 1927 a proup of sugar planters Ira1111) H.L Harp hod invrated on an air [\\ith report of the intwnational jury]. (The Pan-lrnrricar~I nion. 1930). 1.31. line fl!.ing paraerlgers from \lev 1 ork to Saltto Ilomingo. '-lir Senire 10 "' hid.. 110. Br+ Soon in \I est Indies." .\PIC )or-h. Times, 5.0et. 5 1417. 1: ProQuest Hiatorical Uewspapers The Neu lorh Times (1087-Currrrlt file). 4nothrr 3- -Ill~rrtl\elcr\. P~upomond Rules. 155 airline (Uj~RR4).connrrted New \ rlrli. Rio de Janriro. and Ruenoa Aires. It Idern.. Report of tlw illtrmatio~ialjur!. 7. rilrrped with Pan 4m in 1931. "Killia~n E. Bronn Jr.. Pan Am: Rliami'a Kingdo the ~orld.lSI. 'O .'[I no dr rsosl rams rarm ? extralagante*. prc~durtu11r crrrllro.; que buican John 4. Stuart. The GI-n\. Cloth: Prr111 .~tkeerbrcrti\orel on Glass .4rchitpc- el &to haciendo algo que jamab ie ha!a xi-to. procedimiento que p~lrdedar tuw. (Carnliridge. RIasaachusetts: Tl~r91IT PreJs. 2001). p.21. redtatlo marldo 10 inspira el genio. pert1 qur cae ell lo rirlii~uloruando talta '" Iirnri Lanos "hotre-Dame gars aerirnnr" illubtration for the articlr '.Cr que e>a inspiracinn superior." El Faro a Colhrr. aiio IT. \.]I. Enero-ibril 1951. ,je frrai re qur I'm fera" b? Santos-hnont in Je uis tout. 1405. Paris: p.30. rrproriure~lill C. Canto and 0. Foliu. 771r Histori. of th~Future. (Paris " Ullrrt lirlse!. Report ol thi irlternati~~rialjur). 41 Flamrnariotl, 1993). Chapter 0. l:ipurr 12. 33. '' Ihid.. 118. t~~litetl.iir Terminal. Life. 1010: reproduced in The Ifistor\. uj' the Future. '- 43 hid.. 134. (lhaptrr 1. Figure 7. 44. " Brrnh Gill. Man\ Ilnsks: .l Life of Frank Lloyl U riphr. (Neb lork: Da '8Ri+rrinp sprrifirall~to the "Uitlr a handful of exceptions. arc1iite1.t. L.S: (:alx~ Press. 14'98).32.3. Frarlli Lli1!11 Rirght railed lor Rio dr Janeiro on \\ere [ahout latr 1Wl'sj large11 abrerlt frorn the field of' airport de\rlolrrnrrrt." Srptrnllrrr IY aboard the stramship lrneriran Legion of tile hlunson line. (kza Szuro\:. Thp .,lrne~icnn -lilpovt. 57. .'Frank Llo!~l \\ripllt Sails." Tlre \rtc Idi Tunes. 20 Scpt. 1931. p.31: ProQurst Hist11ri1,al\exspapers. The \I?\\ 1nrk 'Time* (11L57 - Current file). He rrt~rrnedto the I .S. on Ko\en~ber6. 1931 on thr Eratrrn Prinw of the Fumes* line. Shortl! after. he lectured at the heu Srhnol t'or Social Rrsrari,ll in Ye\\ lurk on hi; impressions of modern architrrttlrr iri C;i111tl1-\rrieri~.a. r'Kritim'a Design R in* for Colwnhub CryptA" The \rw Ird Times. 7 Um. 1031. 11.22: ProQ11e.t IIistorird Ne\\qralier* The Ur\\ 111.1, 'l'irlies (185; - Currrnt filr).

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