Acknowledgments

Home , Abha, Abqaiq, Asir Mountains, Dhurma, Harrat Kishb, Harrat Lunayyir

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

Though. only my name appears on the cover of the present thesis, many people have helped and directed me to its completion. I owe my sincere gratitude to all those people who have made this thesis possible, and because of whom my experience has been one that I will cherish forever.

My deepest gratitude is to my research supervisor, Dr. Rakhshanda F. Fazli. I have been amazingly fortunate to have a mentor and guardian who gave me the freedom to explore on my own, and at the same time the guidance to recover when my steps faltered. She taught me how to question thoughts and express ideas. Her patience and support helped me overcome many crisis situations and finish this Ph. D. thesis on time. I hope that one day I would become as good a supervisor to my students as Dr, Fazli has been to me.

I am sincerely grateful to Prof.Fazal Mahmood for his constant encouragement and practical advice on many occasions. He has been a constant source of inspiration and without his help; this work would never have come to completion.

I would also like to express my heartiest thanks to Prof. Mohd. Gulrez (Chairman, Department of West Asian Studies) for providing awesome research environment along with all research facilities. His contributions certainly have great importance in the successful completion of this Ph.D. thesis. I am also thankful to Prof., Nazim Ali, Prof., S Shamir Hasan, Prof., Javed Iqbal, Prof., Mohd. Azhar, and Dr.Ghulam Mursaleem, for their valuable suggestions and kind help from time to time.

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Rashid Aziz Faridi, Dr. Afroz Alam, Dr. Anjum Mehtab, Dr. Javed Alam, Dr. Mohd. Firoz, Dr. Yekaterina Khokhlacheva, and Dr. Manoj Pradhan, for numerous discussions and suggestions on the research topic and off the topic that help me to improve my knowledge horizon significantly.

I am indebted to all my family members including my beloved parents. Without their support and cooperation, I would not have sustained my efforts. I would like to express my gratitude to my elder brother Mohd. Khaliq and my sister Zakia Khanum.

I also duly acknowledge the cooperation of library staff from Maulana Azad AMU, Seminar Library of the Department of West Asian Studies, Central Library JNU and various other organizations including UGC for providing financial help.

However, I am not enough to express my thanks and acknowledgement to each person by name. I would like to thanks to all those who has contributed directly or indirectly to the completion of this Ph.D. thesis.

Last but not the least, I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr, Suhail Sabir, Mr. Rajkumar Gehlot, Mohd Noorain Khan, Tanushree Dangi, Neeru Gehlot, Faisal Rather, and all my friends and dearest one.

(Mohammad Suhail)

CANDIDATES’S DECLARATION

I, Mohammad Suhail Department of West Asian Studies certify that the work embodied in this Ph. D. thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Dr. Rakhshanda F. Fazli at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph. D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree. I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the research workers wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not willfully lifted up some other’s work, Para, text, data, result, etc., reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, theses, etc., or available at web-sites and included them in this Ph. D. thesis and cited as my own work.

Dated: ...... (Mohammad Suhail)

Certificate from the Supervisor

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge.

Dr. Rakhshanda F. Fazli Associate Professor Department of West Asian Studies

Professor Chairman Department of West Asian Studies

COURSE/COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION/PRE- SUBMISSION SEMINAR COMPLETION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Mohammad Suhail Department of West Asian Studies has satisfactorily completed the course work/comprehensive examination and pre-submission seminar requirement, which is part of his Ph. D. programme.

Date: ...... Professor Chairman Department of West Asian Studies

Title of the Thesis: Water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia Candidate’s Name: Mohammad Suhail

The undersigned hereby assign to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the ph. D. degree.

Mohammad Suhail

Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s personal use provide that the source and the University’s copyright notice are indicated.

Dedicated To My Beloved parents and the one, who is saving each drop of water

Contents

Acknowledgements I-II

List of Figures III-V

List of Tables VI-VII

Key Map of Study Area

Introduction 01-19

Chapter 1: Review of Literature 20-66

1.1 Bibliometric Analysis of Literature on WRM

1.1.1 Subjects-wise Contribution (Association Analysis)

1.1.2 Analysis of Research Outputs by Documents Type

1.1.3 Areal Flow of the Research Works on WRM

1.1.4 Global Emerging Themes/Areas in WRM Research

1.2 Review of Selected Research Outcomes on Water Resource Management– I: Worldwide

1.3 Review of Research Outcomes on Water Resource Management– II: The Study Area

Chapter 2: Geographical Description of the Study Area 67-116

2.1 Physiographic Regions of Saudi Arabia

2.1.1 Western Mountains and Highlands

2.1.2 The Central Plateau and Uplands

2.1.3 Plain Regions including Tabuk and Al-Widyan 2.1.4 Coastal Lowlands

2.1.5 Harrat and Volcanic Rocks

2.1.6 Deserts and Sand Seas

2.2 Geology of the Study Area

2.2.1 The Arabian Shield

2.2.3 The Arabian Platform

2.2.4 The Red Sea Coastal Plain

2.2.5 Tertiary and Quaternary Basalt Lava Fields

2.3 Climate of Saudi Arabia

2.4 Major Soil Groups in Saudi Arabia

2.5 Population in Saudi Arabia

2.6 Urbanization in Saudi Arabia

Chapter 3: Water Resources in Saudi Arabia 117-156

3.1 Hydrology and Water Resources

3.1.1 Groundwater

3.1.2 Surface water:

3.1.2.1 Widyan in Saudi Arabia

3.1.2.2 Dams and Reservoirs in Saudi Arabia

3.1.3 Desalinization of water in Saudi Arabia

3.1.4 Reclaimed Wastewater

Chapter 4: Water Demand and Supply in Saudi Arabia 157-180

4.1 Water Demand in Saudi Arabia

4.2 Water Supply in Saudi Arabia

4.3 Gap between Total Water Demand and Supply 4.4 Water Consumption Assessment Based on Five-Year Development Plan

4.5 Projections of Future Water Demand by Sectors

4.6 Regional Growth of Water Consumption

Chapter 5: Water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia: Policies and Strategies 181-218

5.1 Domains of Water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia

5.2 Supply versus Demand Management of Water Resources

5.3 National Development Plan (NDP) and Water Resource Policies in Saudi Arabia

5.4 Institutional and Organizational Development

5.5 Educational Awareness and Water Conservation

Conclusion and Summary 219-228

Bibliography 229-249

Appendix I 250

Appendix II 251-253

Appendix III 254-262

List of Figures

Figure Page Title No. No 1.1 Research Outputs (Year-wise) of Keyword [water* resource* 36 management*] 1.2 Research Outputs (Year-wise) of Keyword [water* resource* 36 management* and (Saudi Arabia*)] 1.3 Association Analysis of Research Outputs for Keyword [water* 38 resource* management*] 1.4 Association Analysis of Research Outputs for Keyword [water* 38 resource* management* and (Saudi Arabia*)] 1.5 Inventory of research (55701) outputs by documents type as updated 40 on 01 June 2015 1.6 Inventory of research (139) outputs by documents type as updated on 40 01 June 2015 1.7 Number of Total Documents by top 10 countries on WRM and 42 WRM-SA respectively 1.8 Emerging fields of areas on WRM Globally 44 1.9 Proposed methodological framework for water resource management 55 (WRM) and capacity building in research 2.1 Map of the Study Area 68 2.2 Physiographic Divisions of Saudi Arabia 71 2.3 Geological Cross-Section of Arabian Formation 83 2.4 Generalised Geological Map of Arabian Peninsula 86 2.5 Average Temperature Distribution from January to June 98 (1950-2000)

III

2.6 Average Temperature Distribution from July to December 99 (1950-2000) 2.7 Average Precipitation Distribution from January to June 100 (1950-2000) 2.8 Average Precipitation Distribution from July to December 101 (1950-2000) 2.9 Average Potential Evaporation Distribution from January to June 102 (1950-2000) 2.10 Average Potential Evaporation Distribution from July to December 103 (1950-2000) 2.11 Average Yearly Distribution of Potential Evaporation (1950-2000) 104 2.12 Spatial Aridity Index in Saudi Arabia (1950-2000) 105 2.13 Major Soil Groups in Saudi Arabia 107 2.14 Percentage Share of the Soil Group from Total 108 2.15 Population Increase Male and Female (1960-2050) 111 2.16 Population Pyramid, Saudi Arabia 1950, 2010, and 2050 112 2.17 Population Density in Saudi Arabia (2014) 117 2.18 Urban Population Growth in Saudi Arabia 115 3.1 Total Available Water Resource in Saudi Arabia (Percentage) 121 3.2 Principal Aquifers in Saudi Arabia 124 3.3 Dams and Storage capacity in Saudi Arabia 139 3.4 Total (Cumulative) Storage Capacity of the Dams by year 139 3.5 Total Desalinated water production by plants 149 4.1 Water Demand by Sector in Saudi Arabia (MCM) 160 4.2 Share of Water Demand by Sector in Saudi Arabia (MCM) 161 4.3 Supply of Water by Source in Saudi Arabia (MCM) 164 4.4 Share of Water Supply by Source in Saudi Arabia (MCM) 165 4.5 The gap between supply and Demand (Supply-Demand Curve) 167 4.6 Water Consumption in Saudi Arabia as per Five Year Development 170 Plans 4.7 Water Supply in Saudi Arabia as per Five Year Development Plans 170 4.8 Predict Scenario for Municipal Water Consumption 172

4.9 Predict Scenario for Industrial Water Consumption 172 4.10 Predict Scenario for Agriculture Water Consumption 173 4.11 Predict Scenario for Total Water Consumption 173 4.12 Water Consumption in Agriculture Sector during VIII and IX 176 Development Plan (2009-2014) 4.13 Water Consumption in Domestic Sector during VIII and IX 177 Development Plan (2009-2014) 4.14 Water Consumption in Industrial Sector during VIII and IX 178 Development Plan (2009-2014)

4.15 Total Water Consumption during VIII and IX Development Plan 179 (2009-2014)

List of Tables

Table Title Page No. No. 1.1 Water Stress Index (WSI) proposed by Falkenmark (1989) 24 2.1 Litho-Stratigraphy Succession of Saudi Arabia 84-85 3.1 Available Water Resources by Source in Saudi Arabia (MCM) 119 3.2 Groundwater reserves in the deep aquifers, estimated annual 123 recharge, and total dissolved solids 3.3 Succession of Groundwater Aquifers in Saudi Arabia 127-28 3.4 Estimated runoff of the main widyan in Kingdom of Saudi 135 Arabia 3.5 Development of Dams and their storage capacity in Saudi 137 Arabia 3.6 Brief details of available statistics on Dams and storage capacity 140 (MCM) by region and use, 2009 3.7 Total Water (Desalinated) Produced by Plants in Saudi Arabia 148 since 1990 (MCM) 3.8 Desalinization plants in 2013, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 150 3.9 Wastewater generation, treatment and use in Saudi Arabia 153 (MCM) 3.10 Some major wastewater treatment plants in Saudi Arabia 154 3.11 Total Length of Pipelines and Water Reservoirs in 2015 155 4.1 Water Balance of Consumption and Supply in Saudi Arabia (as 169 per the Development Plans)

4.2 Projections of Water Consumption in Saudi Arabia 171 4.3 Coefficient Values for Scenario Projections 174 4.4 Water Consumption by Region as per 8th and 9th Development 175 Plan (2009-2014) 5.1 Structure of Water Tariff on Municipal Water Supply 198

VII

Abstract

Arabian Peninsula is one of the most water-scarce regions of the world, being the part of this region; Saudi Arabia is not an exception to it. Natural water supply in Saudi Arabia, regarding precipitation, is low and even sometimes not a single drop of water is received in a whole year. Mainly the country is dependent upon underground water, or fossil aquifer, to meet her household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs. Further, Quality and quantity is also limited due to contaminated toxic chemicals and variability in the distribution, here in Saudi Arabia evaporation is higher than precipitation and makes the country much arid.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia comprises almost 80 percent area of Arabian Peninsula and the world’s 13th largest country. It is situated in arid to hyper-arid climate zone where the temperature, often, reaches up to 540 C in summer. There is the absence of the precipitation except in Asir region, which receives little rainfall during Indian Ocean monsoon season. Moreover, most of the Arabian Peninsular region is associated with tropical high-pressure dry wind systems descending on the poleward sides of Hadley cells and corresponding Westerlies comeing from Ferrell cells descending towards the equator. This air, generally arid in nature due to lack of moisture, intersects between Hadley and Ferrell cells at around 300 latitude in both of hemisphere and impact over whole of Arabian Peninsula and Sahara region. Therefore, evaporation is higher than precipitation and makes this region extremely arid. Moreover, the shift in thermal equator (meteorological equator), due to the thermostatic effect of oceans, also a cause of aridity in this region.

The country has not had rivers and lakes from where the supply of water could be ensured. It is a region of world’s largest continuous sand desert, which includes the Great Rub-Al-Khali, Ad-Dhana and An-Nafud deserts. Since the evapo-transpiration in Saudi Arabia is very high (2500-4500 mm per year) due to the harsh and hot climate that restricts the survival of the flora and fauna, it is estimated that the two- third area of the country has only bushes and scrublands. Nevertheless, the Widyan systems are often evident throughout the territory; those seem to be the only sources of surface water supply and agricultural development in Saudi Arabia. Fertile land is

1 | Page limited in Saudi Arabia and found in alluvium deposits of widyan, oases and basins or near the coastal lands.

Present study “water resources management in Saudi Arabia” is an attempt to explore the situation or status of available water resources in Saudi Arabia; sources of water supply; estimates, analysis and future projections of water demand and supply in three main water-consuming sectors like domestic, agriculture and industry. Moreover, ultimately to reach the methods, strategies, policies, and future estimation for optimum water management in Saudi Arabia.

In this regard, both aspects i.e. the demand and supply side of water resources management have been critically analysed in an integrated manner. Thus, a clear picture of supply aspect regarding the available source of water, their extent on location and other physio-geological properties, and the volume of water that is extractable sustainably for various usages were taken as an independent parameter. Simultaneously, the demand side considered as a dependent parameter, which includes water usages by the stakeholders in agriculture, domestic, residential and recreational purposes. Whereas the supply sources include water from underground, surface, desalination and treated wastewater.

The broad objectives of the present thesis are: Whether the study area is seriously facing daunting of water resources? Is there any relation between population, development, industrialization and availability of water resources? If it is so, then, what are the alternative strategies for managing this precious resource forth security of future prospect of the study area? Finally, the preparation of comparative statement/s on water resources assessment, development, conservation and control with emphasis on government policies and strategies i.e. how much water consumption are needed for sustainability and stability of the country.

The present study is based on both the primary and secondary data sources. The primary data sources include country statistics and reports from various Ministries of Saudi Arabia. Here, it is important to note that the primary data sources, as consider by the researcher, are the first-hand information without modification either collected by the researcher directly or compiled by the Ministries, Departments, Newspapers, Manuscripts, Diaries and the agencies of national repute of Saudi Arabia. Moreover, secondary data sources comprise published research papers in

2 | Page international peer-reviewed journals and reputed newsletters of various organizations, conference proceedings and review papers, books, encyclopedias and others.

With the help of existing literature, a new and simplified approach has been proposed for water resource management. Following is the proposed methodological framework for water resource management (WRM) and capacity building in present research.

• Local • National

Planning and Legal and Analytical Institutional

Economic Projects and Regimes Programs

• Regional • Global

The proposed approach represents two-step processes for Water Resources Management research and planning. First step determined by the scale and objectives of the study, while later on actions recommended as per problem identification under Water Resources Management in a secondary step. The scale of the study varies from local, national, and regional to the global level. While, objectives of Water Resources Management determined by the demand and supply- side, or the combination of both. However, various actions, among others, required

3 | Page dealing with proposed Water Resources Management. Major themes of actions include planning and analytical framework, legal and institutional domain, economic regimes, and project and program under proposed WRM plan.

However, each action further is studied under sub-theme, for example, planning and analytical action includes information gathering from various sources, forecasting, modeling, integrated planning, policy analysis, and so on. Similarly, the legal and institutional framework comprises legal and institutional reforms, reorganization and participation, etc. Moreover, economic regime covers Macro-micro economic measures, incentives, tariff and water pricing and others. Although, proposed scheme need to be validated under the various scenario. In addition, it is evident that policy review on water resource management being ‘technique-driven’ rather than specification and relevance recognition in terms of social, economic, and political contexts. Proposed framework includes specification, credibility and accountability in terms of social, economic, and political allure.

Water Resources Management in Saudi Arabia needs more attention as the demand for water resources increasing by many-fold decade by decade due to the rapid development of all economic sectors including the Agriculture, the biggest water consuming sector, and the increase of population. Here, the ratio between resource availability and population increase supports, to a some extent, the Malthusian approach of imbalance regarding the geometric progression of the population whereas the arithmetic progression of water resources.

Saudi Arabia mainly enjoys four major sources of water supply namely groundwater from deep and shallow aquifers, surface water with renewable water, desalinated water and treated wastewater. The contribution of Groundwater is highest in the total water supply. Groundwater comes both from deep and shallow aquifers that spread over the whole of the territory of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The share of renewable groundwater in shallow aquifers is around 3.70 percent, whereas, non- renewable groundwater in deep aquifers comprise 96.13 percent of the total available water for use. The Share of surface water is subtle and adds only 0.1 Percent (2,230 MCM) of the total available water; that seems the lowest share around the world regarding total area concern. Therefore, groundwater is a major contributor to total available water resources in Saudi Arabia. Another source of

4 | Page potable water is desalinated water that plays a significant role to fulfil domestic demand, but per unit cost makes the water very expensive and subsequently scarce. Ultimately, Saudi Arabia reaches in the category of water scarce countries.

The consumption of water resources involves sector-wise demand from domestic, industry and agriculture in Saudi Arabia. It is coupled with the high standard of living and rapid development in all sectors. The biggest demand for water amounted by the agriculture sector that is followed by domestic and industrial sector respectively. Due to the unfavourable climatic conditions to farming, the practices of cultivation entirely depend on irrigation in the country. The total area under cultivation in 1971 was 419 thousand hectares that increased up to 609 thousand hectares in 1980 and reach at maximum to 1,597 thousand hectares in 1994. After that, the kingdom realized the value of water and took the first step towards water conservation in the agriculture sector, which was followed by reducing in subsidy to wheat cultivation. The cultivated area under wheat witnessed ups and downs from 924 thousand hectares in 1992 to 419 thousand hectares in 2000 and 196 thousand hectares in 2009 (SAMA). Moreover, the total cultivated area also decreased from 1,597 thousand hectares in 1994 to 1,120 and 835 thousand hectares in 2000 and 2009 respectively.

Domestic sector is the second highest water-consuming sector in the study area. The population of Saudi Arabia was 5.8 million in 1970.Whereas, in 2010, the population of Saudi Arabia was increased up to 27 million. The demand of water in domestic sector was 200 MCM in 1970 and reached to 2,063 MCM in 2010. During 1970-80, the decadal change of population was 60.60 percent while the demand for water in the same period increases by 123 percent, which coupled with the high standard of living. The trend of water demand reached at highest level along with the population growth in the next decade (1980-1990). The decadal change (1990- 2000) of population witnessed a decrease and registered a growth of only 35 percent. Therefore, demand for domestic water was also the envisaged decline of 19 percent as compared to 238 percent in a previous decade. In the observed period, the decadal change of population growth was 63 percent whereas the increase in water demand was 238 percent. It was ever highest change in domestic water demand due to the maximum immigration in Saudi Arabia. In the decade of 2000-10, the change of

5 | Page domestic water demand and the population was recorded 14.6 and 32.5 per cent respectively.

The rapid development of industrial sector realized after the Oil Boom of 1973. The development of modern industry accelerated after the establishment of the Saudi Industrial Development Fund (SIDF) by the government of Saudi Arabia. Consequently, the number of operating industrial unit has increased from 198 in 1974 to 6,471 in 2013. The demand of water in the industrial sector increased from 20 MCM in 1970, to 800 MCM in 2010. The contribution of industrial demand to total water demand was 1 percent in the year of 1970 and reached up to 4 per cent in 2010.

Discussing about the supply side water resources management though various steps has been taken by the government but among them some major steps are desalination plants (first plant started in 1929); construction of dams ( started in 1957); waste water management.

To cope up with increasing water demand the government of Saudi Arabia took initiative to built large structure for desalinization of sea water. Despite the fact that desalinization has the higher production cost as compared to other conventional water resource, Saudi Arabia constructed a number of plants since the early seventies. Now, Saudi Arabia stands first in the production of desalinated water in the world. Saline water conversion Corporation (SWCC) has the sole responsibilities of production, operation and management of desalinization plants in Saudi Arabia. These facilities were constructed to bridge the gap between fresh water availability and water demands. Currently, it has 30 desalination plants in operation, out of them, 24 were along the coast of Red Sea and remaining six plants on Persian/Arabian Gulf coast (SAMA, 2014). The production of desaline water has increased from 194.56 MCM in 1970 to 833.75 MCM in 2010.

It is pertinent to note that Riyadh, Mecca, Medina, and Eastern Province collectively consumed almost 90 percent of total desalinated water. Overall, 50 per cent demand of domestic water have supplied, after blended with groundwater, by desalinated water while remaining amount of demand extracted from groundwater directly.

6 | Page The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a large number of dams for various purposes ranging from irrigation, control of rainwater and harvesting, aquifer recharge, flood control, recreation, water supply, and others. In the first appearance, it seems superfluous undertaking to construct a dam in such harsh climate where no or little rain occurs. But the kingdom started, erstwhile, benefitting from seasonal rainfall and runoff through the construction of dam and consequently first dam, Ekremah, was commissioned in 1956 on the upstream of Wadi Almathanah in Taif. Till then, various projects and hydraulic structure of different shape and size have been installed by the ministry of agriculture and water (MAW) now replaced to the ministry of water and electricity (MOWE). The development of dams and storage capacity has significant importance especially for irrigation and controlling of rainwater for urban use. By the end of 2010, the number of constructed dams reached to 351, with 50 per cent growth since 2004, in a different region of the country while storage capacity of these dams exceeded 1.2 BCM. The annual surface water quantity has increased about three folds (almost 300 percent) since 1993 to 2010. It is important to note that the available surface water resources in Saudi Arabia have the greatest significance due to its good quality, but it is so scarcer. Only few dams were under the use of drinking purpose in 2010, including Al-Aqiq (Al-Baha City), Aridah (Taif), Turabah (Taif), Maraba (Asir), Itwas (Asir), Abha (Abha).

The use of reclaimed wastewater has long been recognized as a potential strategy to cope up with water scarcity, although, the lack of policies and strategies is an obstacles reclamation of wastewater. The practice of treated wastewater use quite evident from many countries in the world, despite, with the consideration of pricing, efficient reuse in the absence of inefficient irrigation and water management systems. It is used for irrigation, landscape and scenic modification, roadside afforestation, and industrial purpose. In Saudi Arabia, this issue is imperative as Reclaimed wastewater (RWW) used many purposes including irrigation and industrial needs.

Though, Kingdom heavily relies on groundwater resources but wastewater has good potential to develop as a future option for water supply. It might fulfil half of the domestic water need if properly manage and distilled in an efficient way.

7 | Page Gap between Water Demand and Supply

The results obtained after in-depth analyses indicates that the demand for water is increasing sharply in Saudi Arabia while the sources of water supply are limited. Therefore, the gap between demand and supply has widened significantly. The gap between demand and supply developed in 2000 with the deficit amount of 610 MCM. Further, the gap between demand and supply reached at maximum in 2010 that mark the deficiency of almost 4,231 MCM. This amount is equal to the total domestic supply of 2000 and 2010. Consequently, the government adopted a policy of ‘demand management’ rather than ‘supply management’ to achieve self-reliance and sustenance of the region. To manage the gap between demand and supply, one of the major policies of the government is to reduce subsidies in agriculture sector as it is the major water consuming sector.

Projections of Future Water Demand by Sectors

For setting goals and future planning, the projections of various aspects could be one of the most strategic steps for water resource management. It ensures water security, stability and sustainability of the nations. The figures of projection provide a broad range of actions and needed policy recommendations in the integrated management of the resources. The balance between water supply and consumption ascertain to cope up with the future expectations and challenges in more than one-way.

Therefore, a systematic statistics based assumption with predicted three scenarios has been adopted in the present study. There were three scenarios, i.e. SC-I, SC-II, and SC-III. Both the SC-II and SC-II my scenarios were developed based on the current pattern of change (SC-I) given in ninth development plan of the Saudi government. In this regard, the weight has been assigned to all three sectors according to their previous growth pattern. The highest weight (± 1 %) has given to industrial sector that is growing at a faster rate. The agriculture and domestic sectors have assigned an equal weight of ± 0.5 percent because of the decline in cultivated area and stabilization of population growth rate respectively.

8 | Page By these projections, conclusions could be understood as following:

1. It is expected that highest growth of water consumption has to be in the industrial sector in next 15 year.

2. Hence, the industrial sector needs particular attention regarding water management to meet the expected high demand for water consumption.

3. Whereas municipal sector follow slow growth as, compare to industrial demand for water.

4. The agriculture sector is showing an entirely different trend that will decline sharply and help to maintain a balance between total water supply and demand as holding the largest share of all sectors.

5. The demand-supply curve is positive for the kingdom’s water resources.

On policy and management level, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia had shown great achievement regarding the decline in total water consumption. The government had works on both levels of management, i.e. supply and demand side of water resource management. However, it has phase–wise development pattern as compared to integrated water resources management approach. Hence, both the supply –side management approach and demand –side management approach has to work simultaneously. Therefore, the government adopted variable/object oriented approach to sustaining its water resources for a long time. As per the trend analysis, it had been proved that the future of Saudi Arabia would be sustainable regarding water resource management. Also, the measures, based on priority function, include the phase-wise development of water resources infrastructure, plan-based initiatives, education and awareness, water conservation, and institutional and organizational development in Saudi Arabia.

Hypothesis 1:

H0 = Water resources are available abundantly throughout the territory

HA = Water resources are not available abundantly throughout the territory

9 | Page Sub-Hypotheses:

H0 = There is abundance of conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

HA = There is deficiency of conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

H0 = There is abundance of non-conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

HA = There is deficiency of non-conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

The alternate hypothesis (HA) could be proved here, as the water resources have not abundantly distributed over the territory. The natural source of water, precipitation, is almost negligible as compared to total available water resources in Saudi Arabia. The primary source of water is groundwater, and that is not evenly distributed throughout the country. Thus, the concentration of groundwater sources in specified aquifer/s restricts expansion over the territory. The sub-hypothesis one of the study could be nullified as the groundwater is the conventional source of water supply and satisfying more than 65 percent water demand in Saudi Arabia.

The second sub-hypothesis also nullified because Saudi Arabia contributed huge amount on non-conventional water resources development. Therefore, enough quantity of water supplied to meet the water demand from these sources.

Hypothesis 2:

H0 = The overall water consumption is increasing in all consuming sectors by year

HA = The overall water consumption is not increasing in all consuming sectors by year

Sub-Hypotheses 2:

H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in agriculture sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in agriculture sector by year

H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in domestic sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in domestic sector by year

H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in industrial sector by year

10 | Page HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in industrial sector by year

The hypothesis 2 partially nullified, as the overall consumption in all consuming sectors is not increasing except domestic and industrial water. Moreover, sub- hypotheses are also nullified for domestic and industrial water consumption whereas the consumption in agriculture sector is decreasing significantly due to structural measures adopted by the government concerning the policy of subsidies. Therefore, the alternate hypothesis could be satisfied in this case.

Hypotheses 3:

H0 = There is a gap between water demand and supply

HA = There is no gap between water demand and supply

It is observed that the gap between water demand and supply has been started after 2000, and still in increasing trend. Therefore, the null hypothesis has been proved successfully despite the meeting water consumption in Saudi Arabia.

Hypotheses 4:

H0 = Government has taken appropriate measures to deal with the WRM

HA = Government has not taken appropriate measures to deal with the WRM

It is also proved that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has responded appropriately to water resource management since long ago. The government has developed not only supply-side management but also demand-side management simultaneously as per the prioritization of water resources management. Therefore, the null hypothesis proved successfully.

Although, the Saudi Arabia has improved a lot in water resource management at the level of technical, institutional, organization, governance, and water conservation. However, the gap between water demand and supply is not able to meet properly; therefore, the search for new alternatives could be seen as future water resources management practices. A study conducted on the feasibility of fog water collection in some arid areas has shown good potential in the development of non-conventional water resources. The coastal region of Saudi Arabia has good potential in this regards, as the fog formation is a common phenomenon in many parts of the tropical, temperate and arid region of the world.

11 | Page This thesis has been organized into five chapters apart from introduction and conclusion. Each chapter presents an independent aspect of the research work. The introduction of the present thesis comprises with the general presentation of the subject, as perceived by the various professionals under their writings. Theoretical frameworks and public notions in general and Saudi Arabia are also discussed simultaneously. Concurrently, it includes a problem statement, aims and objectives of the thesis, research questions/hypotheses, methods and methodology, data sources, conceptual framework and relevance of the present work as well as the limitations as faced by the researcher.

Chapter one is devoted to the extensive review of the existing literature on the topic specifically and water resources management in general. It provides insight on various aspects of water resource management including the trends of the researchers and conceptual development globally. It is analytical work, on which current assumptions and theoretical framework have been developed. It includes a review of the literature, bibliometric analysis of the literature on the topic and global by the type of documents, total publications by year, subject association analysis, area-wise flows, emerging themes of global research, and the review of the specific case studies in the study area and the world.

Chapter two is a geographical characterization of the study area under various categorizations that directly or indirectly affects the water resources. It includes both physical and anthropogenic constraints that create hindrance in water availability, supply, and distribution. Moreover, physical constraints comprise with Physiography, geology including litho-stratigraphy, climate, and soils while anthropogenic causes consist of the population and urbanization.

Chapter three is an attempt to assess water resource base and their distribution along with qualitative and quantitative constraints. Water resources in Saudi Arabia comprise the two types of sources i.e. the conventional and non-conventional. The conventional sources include water from the underground and surface runoff while non-conventional sources refer to the desalinated and reclaimed wastewater. The underground water has a maximum share in water supply followed by the surface, desalinated and treated wastewater. The chapter also describes water infrastructure, water pipeline network and their specification.

12 | Page Chapter four establishes water demand-supply relationship along with the projections under the predetermine scenarios until proposed 12th plan (2024-2029). It covers both demand and supply side of the WRM under the agriculture, domestic and industry as water demand sectors while supply meet from groundwater (NR), surface and renewable, desalinated and treated wastewater from 1980 to 2010. Moreover, the water consumption and supply estimate also prepared as per five-year based plan since 1999 to 2014 (entire four plan). In addition, the gap between water demand and supply had also been evaluated along with scenario based prediction approach for the next three plans. The chapter also provides regional comparison at the provincial level regarding water consumption under various sectors.

Chapter five evaluates the policies and strategies for water resource management as adopted so far by the government of Saudi Arabia. The policies and strategies considered as an organ of water resource management that help to implement and controls the equitable, judicious and constant water supply to all. The chapter, theoretical in nature, includes various domains of the WRM, demand versus supply management policies under various usages, the policy of water tariffs, average water share, national water development plans, institutional and organizational development, awareness and educational campaigns, and water conservation and sustainability as well.

The conclusion of the thesis comprises the description of water resource management in Saudi Arabia. It evaluates research questions and hypotheses of the thesis, whether nullified or adopted as alternate solution respectively. Furthermore, the knowledge acquired through data analysis by using the descriptive and inferential as well as interpolation techniques are also incorporated in the findings. Moreover, the theoretical framework is discussed under the policy and legislative constraints along with future research and limitation of the present research. The thesis also provides some recommendations and measures by certain assumptions of the study for water resource management in future.

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Introduction

“The wheel of progress can run on anything from Bullock to nuclear power but life would always run on Water.”

UN WORLD WATER DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2005

Water is the most precious substance among five fundamental elements on the earth surface i.e. the fire, air, space, land, and water. None is more essential to life than water. The origin of water is not clear so far; however, it circulated in our environment in a cyclic pattern that is called “the hydrological cycle”. It is a global mechanism of water transfer from the oceans to the surface, subsurface and underground or vice-versa. The prominent natural components of water cycle include precipitation, runoff, infiltration, evaporation and transpiration. The whole cycle has severely affected by the changes in the land use and land cover (LULC) through the human activities. The change of the LULC has resulted in water demand for various purposes. Such changes include, among others, agriculture pattern, urban land use transformation, industrial development, residential infrastructure extension due to population increase, and so on.

However, ever increasing demand for water, depletion of resources, a higher standard of living and excessive water pollution due to the expansion of industrial activities, extensive agriculture developement and an increase of population have caused acute potable water shortage over the globe. Shiklomanov reported that the water resource is most abundantly distributed over the globe, it consist almost 70.78 percent of total area of the earth in the form of oceans (Shiklomanov I. A., 1998). Such huge volume of water, definitely, is not useful for human purpose directly Introduction

because of the salinity and other chemical effluents. People are depending on fresh water resource for their daily requirements in more than one ways. The quantity of freshwater is very less and accounts only 2.5 per cent of the total available water on the earth surface (Shiklomanov I. A., 1996; Falkenmark & Lundqvist, 1995; Shiklomanov I. A., 1993; Rao, 1971). Fresh water is stored in the form of ice caps, glaciers, underground and surface water bodies.

In addition, excessive uses of water are deteriorating water quality and intensifying water crisis many-fold throughout the world. Moreover, variability in distribution and quality of water is another constraint regarding freshwater supply, which posed serious threat to human existence (UNDP, 2006). One estimates shows that more than 1.2 billion people have lack of access to clean drinking water (UNDP, 2006).

Less Developed nations need more infrastructures in water resource management. Inefficient use of water is a major reason for creating water scarcity. Besides, the rate of water contamination is increasing at an alarming rate. One estimate shows that approximately 15-18 BCM of freshwater resources deteriorated by fossil fuel production per year. According to another estimate 748 million people remain without accesses to improved water resource, whereas half of the world population is unsatisfied by the right to clean water. Additionally, inefficient use of water to meet the demands of the population is creating water scarcity. Despite serious health consideration, the scarcity of water is more or less affecting to every continent on the earth whereas around 2.8 billion people around the world are severely affected at an average rate of at least one month out of every year (WWAP, 2012). Therefore, to manage water resources is the challenge of our times. It is becoming difficult to obtain sources of fresh water. Some studies suggests that it may be caused by climate change, such patterns including droughts or floods, increased pollution, and increased water demand due to population increase, especially after industrial revolution in mid nineties, and overexploitation of water both underground and surface by unscientific way.

The population of the world has been tripled since the beginning of 19th century. From 1973 to 2010, the rate of world energy consumption is increased by 186 percent while the water use rose up to 157 percent for industrial purpose in the same period (UN Water, 2014). Furthermore, agriculture is one of the biggest water-

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Introduction

consuming sectors and it accounts, with irrigation, 70 percent of total water use globally. The remaining 30 percent water is consumed by domestic (10 percent) and industrial (20 percent) sectors. This is an average global water consumption pattern that varies across the countries.

Water resource management (WRM) is a global agenda of research after 20001. Excessive use and misuse of this vital resource by industrial, agriculture and residential activities has threatened the survival of all living organism. It is reported that almost 30 to 40 percent, or sometimes more, of water, remains unaccounted due to water leakage and illegal tapping in several countries. Pollution is another constraint that is added by all these activities day by day. The wastage and pollution of water can be controlled, to a greater extent, by using proper measures of wastewater treatment, leakage prevention, efficiency enhancement, improvement of quality and conservation.

The integrated approach to water resource management coupled with demand and supply has enabled participation of all stockholders, water managers and various other allied domains collectively. Sustainable planning and management strategy is the only solution for water availability. According to UNDP report 2006, Water scarcity is the result of two mechanisms, i.e. absolute (Physical) water scarcity means that inadequate natural water resources to supply a region's demand while economic water scarcity refers to the poor management of the sufficient available water resources (UNDP, 2006). Most of the countries or regions around the world experiencing economic water scarcity despite having enough water resources to meet household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs, because of the insufficient and inadequate institutional framework and mismanagement. Moreover, UNDP assessment of 2006 also states that more than one in every six people in the world is facing the problem of water scarcity. Therefore, with the increase in the total population of the world, water stressed population is also rapidly increasing day by day; furthermore most of them are living in developing countries.

1 It was the United Nations Ministerial Declaration of the Hague that assess the progress of the WRM and provides the framework of study. It was held under the aegis of World Water Forum (WWF) on the theme ‘Water Security in the 21st 1 Century’ in 2000 . (United Nations, 2000).

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Introduction

West Asia is one of the aridest regions of the world due to the presence of vast deserts, particularly Arabian Peninsular countries, where natural water supply, in terms of participation, is little, even sometimes not a single drop of water these countries receive from the atmosphere in a whole year (WWF, 2013). Therefore, countries of Arabian Peninsula are mainly depend upon underground water, or fossil aquifer, to meet their household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs. Moreover, the quality and quantity of water is limited due to contamination from toxic chemicals and uneven distribution (Falkenmark M. , 1997). The water table had also fallen due to over pumping of ground water in the countries of Arabian Peninsula.

Recently released groundwater series of UNESCO provides global estimates of water resources (Zekster and Everett, UNESCO Groundwater Series, 2004; UNEP, 2003). The series point out towards significant variation in the occurrence of groundwater, rate of renewal and the volume stored in aquifers. The geological settings and stratigraphy of the aquifers are also important factors that control groundwater dynamics including movement of water, quality and quantity. For example, shallow aquifer with thin sedimentary layer has limited water resources and vice versa. Similarly, the aquifers situated in volcanic rocks have specific hydraulic properties. The MHYMAP (World-wide Hydrogeological Mapping and Assessment Programme) and IGRAC (International Groundwater Resource Assessment Centre) are the two premier initiatives led by the United Nations with the aim to improve resource inventory in a scientific way. They suggested that the world’s largest groundwater system, most of non-renewable, are located in arid climate region of the North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and Australia. The quality of groundwater is very high and adequate for domestic usage as well as in irrigation and another purpose without treatment. Therefore, a debate has arisen how to use groundwater resources in a sustainable way for sustainable future? Consequently, the judicious and rational exploitation of resources has to be maintained under the dynamic condition of equilibrium that leave reserves undiminished.

The governance is another important aspect of water resource management, which is more or less influenced by the national and government policies. Thus, the governance has comesforth in terms of biggest challenge in water resource

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Introduction

management. It decides how and why certain decision and policy should be framed; what stakeholders are involved and to what extent; what are the roles of institutions; and what rules and regulation either formal or non-formal should come into force. Governance regarding water resources management is a process-oriented domain that linked with politics and preoccupied notions. It determines the interrelationship between various actors due to varying characteristics of water resources.

Furthermore, the changing characteristics of various socio-economic frameworks along with political assumptions caused considerable inequality in governing mechanism across the countries, even within the country. These differences include reform items, implementing strategies, and level and degree of reforms. Sometimes, water reforms and policies have too often determined by the assumptions of water need to increase supplies through investing in the construction of physical infrastructures like dams, reservoirs and so on. The introduction of private sectors/stakeholders in water services sector is a contemporary phenomenon and an essential part of national water policy in several nations including in the developing countries. Furthermore, the decentralization of water policy opens up the doors of empowerment to the people directly. Conversely, the common people those rarely have easy access to useful information about the water rights and measures of quantity and quality of water use would have a share in policy decisions. The policy of decentralization provides them a voice and share in decision making that define their livelihood needs and opportunities. The public awareness programs are the organ of decentralization that enables more sustainable practices for the water resources management.

Further, the need to develop sustainable practices of the water resources management and efficient use of water resources has led the shifts in awareness and public concern. Despite the increase of awareness of stackholaders, the issue of water resources management is still driven by politically charged decisions and economic criteria. These decisions influence water resources management to the local, regional, national or international levels. However, the integrated approch, incorporated with multi-domain and multi-approach of both demand and supply-side of water resources management, has cited in many of the global water conferences over the past decade to achieve sustainable WRM with long-term benefits.

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Introduction

Though, it requires time to implement policies and objectives due to a wider vision of water resources management. However, it seems unfortunate that there is a lack of best available practice and scientific knowledge. On which the desicion making process of water resources management can be addressed adequately and sustainably, meanwhile, the pressure on water resources is increasing day by day. The formulation of policies and implimentation machenism has always been a hard task to deal with the water resources management. The framework of water resources management requires object-oriented approach on priority measures. On the other hand, the pressure on water resources is the driving force that affects water resources management policy and objectives considerably.While, on the other ,these forces vary across the countries and within the country in the world. Some of the main drove away forces around the world includes:

 Demographic changes due to movement/migration of people.  The growth of the population particularly in water-shortage areas.  The expension and development of socio-economic activities.  The increasing demands for food items.  The imbalance between water demand and supply due to comptition among the stackholders.  Unplanned and and unsustainable development activities.  Water contamination from the agriculture, industrial and residential water usage.

Therefore, water resources management requires special attention including the measures of water conservation, judicious water use, safe-yield of the groundwater, water withdrawl and consumption within the limits, waste and leakage prevention, water pollution within carrying capacity, and policy and regulations. In other words, it requires balance approach among physical and socio-cultural realm along with the limitations imposed by the environement.

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Introduction

Problem Statement

The FAO AQUASTATE- 2012 database put forward critical scenario about West Asian and North African region, which is the most scarce region around the globe regarding freshwater availability i.e. the precipitation and internal renewable freshwater resources with an amount of 1.1 percent of the total available freshwater water on the planet. Regarding per capita annual availability, Arabian Peninsula has only 88 cubic meters of water, therefore, considered as a water deficient region around the globe. At the same time, the impact of water scarcity on human health is evident in many desert countries like Sudan (population 12.3 million), Ethiopia (population 2.7 million), Tunisia (population 2.1 million), Los Angeles (population 28 million) and others.

Similarities lie in all newly developed oil based economies of Arabian Peninsula regarding unprecedented population growth and industrial development. As a result, the ever-increasing demand and short supply of water resources in these newly developing world economies is one of the main reasons of water deficiency.

The present research entitled “Water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia” is vital regarding significance and management of water resources to the global community in general and water managers’ particular. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia comprises almost 80 percent area of Arabian Peninsula and the world’s 13th largest country. It is situated in arid to hyper-arid climate zone where the temperature, often, reached to 540 C in summer. There is the absence of the precipitation except in Asir region, which receives little rainfall during Indian Ocean monsoon season.

Moreover, most of the Arabian Peninsular region is associated with tropical high- pressure dry wind systems descending on the poleward sides of Hadley cells and corresponding westerly’s comeing from Ferrell cells descending towards the equator (Petterssen, 1941). This air, generally arid in nature due to lack of moisture, intersects between Hadley and Ferrell cells at around 300 latitude in both of hemisphere and impact over whole of Arabian Peninsula and Sahara region (Beamount, 1954) (Fisher, 1971). Therefore, evaporation is higher than precipitation and makes this region extremely arid. Moreover, the shift in thermal equator

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Introduction

(meteorological equator), due to the thermostatic effect of oceans, also a cause of aridity in this region. (Petterssen, 1941).

Likewise, the country has not had rivers and lakes from where the supply of water could be ensured. It is a region of world’s largest continuous sand desert, which includes the Great Rub-Al-Khali, Ad-Dhana and An-Nafud deserts. Since the evapotranspiration in Saudi Arabia is very high (2500-4500 mm per year) due to the harsh and hot climate that restricts the survival of the flora and fauna, it is estimated that the two-third area of the country has only bushes and scrublands. Nevertheless, the Widyan systems are often evident throughout the territory; those seem to be the only sources of surface water supply and agricultural development in Saudi Arabia.

Fertile land is limited in Saudi Arabia and found in alluvium deposits of widyan, oases and basins or near the coastal lands. The population of the country is reached around to 31 million in mid 2015, which is 10 percent of the total population of West Asia. Saudi Arabia is a largest populated country in the West Asia after Egypt, Iran and Iraq. Since 1973, Saudi Arabia has faced rapid development in all economic sectors, which is coupled with the high standard of living with HDI value 0.836 in 2013, and 34th position in the world regarding Human Resources Development. The operational industrial units’ increased from 198 in 1974 to 6,471 in 2013 and the capital investment increased from SR 12 billion to 883 billion in the same period. The demand for water is increased substantially with agriculture, domestic and industrial growth. The government is the sole authority to manage and distribute water throughout the country.

Although, the recent development regarding decentralization of water rights and participation of stockholders is also open a debate on sustainability versus dependency on private firms. The concept of public-private partnership (PPP) should be tasted so far in near future. The Development of the water resources on business-as-usual bases is another question in the water resources management.

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Introduction

Aim/s and Objectives of the Study

Saudi Arabia is not excluded from the international debate on water resource management. Since, the need for water grows, the gap between demands and supply widening at a rapid rate due to excessive, inefficient and inadequate use. The water resource management is the provision of a proper amount of water of good quality in a particular time and space. In this concern, the present study area is more scare and dry in both physicals as well as economic water resources. The present study on the topic entitled “Water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia” is an attempt to find out a proper strategy for optimum water management.

In this regard, both aspects i.e. the demand and supply side of water resources management have been critically analysed in an integrated manner. Thus, a clear picture of supply aspect regarding the available source of water, their extent on location and other physio-geological properties, and the volume of water that is extractable sustainably for various usages were taken as an independent parameter. Simultaneously, the demand side considered as a dependant parameter, which includes water usages by the stakeholders in agriculture, domestic, residential and recreational purposes. Whereas the supply sources include water from underground, surface, desalination and treated wastewater.

The broad objectives of the present thesis lie in: Whether the study area is seriously facing daunting of water resources? Is there any relation between population, development, industrialization and availability of water resources? If it is so, then, what are the alternates’ strategies for managing this precious resource for the security of future prospect of the study area? Finally, the preparation of comparative statement/s on water resources assessment, development, conservation and control with emphasis on government polices and strategies i.e. how much water consumption are needed for sustainability and stability of the country. Moreover, the specific objectives of the study are as follow:

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Introduction

1. To determine water resource base and distribution in the study area 2. To identify water resource availability from various sources 3. To assess water resource quantity and quality in the study area 4. To identify water consumption sectors in the study area 5. To evaluate supply of water (quantity) under various sector in the study area 6. To assess future demand for water consumption in the study area 7. To establish demand-supply relationship and future prediction under predetermined water use scenario 8. To prepare water resource management (WRM) strategies for the study area 9. To suggest policies development for water resource management in the study area

Research Questions and the Hypotheses

The present research work is begins with definite research curiosity and a certain level of questions, which based on logic and rationale of the researcher’s mindset. It has always been attracted to the researcher that how has the water as a resource been perceived? How and at what level it affects the living organism? In what way, this resource is available in the landscape of West Asia in general and Saudi Arabia in particular. What are the physiographic constraints and factors in the availability of water, its distribution and consumption in Saudi Arabia? What are the sector-wise dividends of water supply? What are the levels of supply and demand of water resources in the Saudi Arabia? Is there any agency to manage the water crisis in the study area? How distribution and production is being managed in the fix geographical entity that is Saudi Arabia? How government and other civic agencies manage in the crisis?

The Hypotheses of present study

With the certain questions as discuss above, the following assumptions has been formed as hypotheses.

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Introduction

1. H0 = Water resources are available abundantly throughout the territory

HA = Water resources are not available abundantly throughout the territory

1.1. H0 = There is abundance of conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

HA = There is deficiency of conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

1.2. H0 = There is abundance of non-conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

HA = There is deficiency of non-conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

2. H0 = The overall water consumption is increasing in all consuming sectors by year

HA = The overall water consumption is not increasing in all consuming sectors by year

2.1. H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in agriculture sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in agriculture sector by year

2.2. H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in domestic sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in domestic sector by year

2.3. H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in industrial sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in industrial sector by year

3. H0 = There is a gap between water demand and supply

HA = There is no gap between water demand and supply

4. H0 = Government has taken appropriate measures to deal with the WRM

HA = Government has not taken appropriate measures to deal with the WRM

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Introduction

Methodology and Methods

The present research work is an attempt to understand the problem of water resource management by using the inductive logic of enquiry, although it has some entailment over deductive logic regarding the degree of conclusion. The inductive approach widely acclaimed and acknowledged by the researchers and philosophers as the means of research formulation and arriving on the general agreement, especially in the social sciences. The logic employs conditional probability to represents the determination from the evidence. Consequently, there is a lack of absolute truth in the arguments of the present research. However, proper circumspect and attention enforced on the degree of strength and support to arrive at the general conclusion of the thesis. The reason for the adaptation of inductive logic lies in the assumptions and conceptual framework of the thesis.

Thus, the evidence and facts support the assumptions of the study that deciphers from the statistics and quantitative measures. In addition, a combination of both qualitative and quantitative approach to research has utilized due to the nature of the datasets and objectives of the research thesis. For example, the distribution and source of water supply are qualitative variables whereas the estimation and projection of water consumption along with demand and supply relationship belong to the quantitative indicators. Therefore, the focus of the present research is more on qualitative aspect rather than the quantification of the problem only. That is why; the hypotheses are not seemed possible to test statistically. However, the analysis of the data has carried out with the help of both descriptive and inferential statistics along with interpolation methods wherever seems suitable. In addition, the modern techniques of cartography and GIS are also used to present the result visually and more efficiently. Simultaneously, the interpretation of notations and formulae are represented on appropriate place in the thesis. The tools of analysis include various software packages along with manual work. The prominent software programs are Arc Info/ArcGIS v.10.1, SPSS v. 21, Microsoft Office v. 14, ENVI IDL v. 5.3 and Erdas Imagine v. 14.

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Introduction

Data Sources

The present study is based on both the primary and secondary data sources to achieve the objectives. The primary data sources include country statistics and reports from various Ministries of Saudi Arabia. Here, it is important to note that the primary data sources, as consider by the researcher, are the first hand information without modification either collected by the researcher directly or compiled by the Ministries, Departments, Newspapers, Manuscripts, Diaries and the agencies of national repute of Saudi Arabia. It includes, among others, the Central Statistical Organization (CSO), the Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE), the Ministry of Planning (MOP), the Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC), Jeddah Regional Climate Centre (JRCC), the Presidency of Meteorology Riyadh (PMR), the Annual Development Plans, SAMA Statistical Year Book, Arab News, Saudi Gazette, Al-Hayat (Arabic), Al-Riyadh, Al-Jazirah, Al-Yaum (Arabic) news. In addition, other ancillary digital/spatial data collected from international organizations like the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Climate Research Unit (CRU), Global Circulation Model (GCM), Intergovernmental Penal on Climate Change (IPCC), United States Geological Survey (USGS), Saudi Geological Survey (SGS), Economic and Social Commission for West Asia (ESCWA), United Nations (UN), and others. Moreover, secondary data sources comprise published research papers in international peer reviewed journals and reputed newsletters of various organizations, conference proceedings and review papers, books, encyclopedias and others.

Conceptual/Research Framework

The physiographic landscape is an outstanding panorama that directly or indirectly influences to the human environment of a region. The various forms of life do exist and sustain on it with the presence of water resources. The survival of all living organism is co-related positively to the availability of water resources, as the thirst for water is natural and essential need. The water is certainly irreplaceable by any other resources on the globe. It is the reason behind to consider water as a uniform, vital and universal resource. The historical accounts, however, provides sufficient

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Introduction

knowledge on the water resources in terms of life-giver or the life-destroyer. It can change the pursuit of the human prosperity and sustainability. The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a unique case in this regard due to the water deficit region, not only the physical but also the economical absence of water resources. Moreover, the Saudi Arabia is confronting by various challenges including the development of more sustainable land, efficient water use, preserving its environment and biological heritage, and sustaining its growing population. However, addressing these challenges will require innovative research in some areas.

For the present study, it is propose that the WRM in Saudi Arabia needs more attention as the demand for water resources increasing by many-fold decade by decade due to the rapid development of all economic sectors including the agriculture, the biggest water consuming sector, and the increase of population. Here, the ratio between resource availability and population increase supports, to a some extent, the Malthusian approach of imbalance regarding the geometric progression of the population whereas the arithmetic progression of water resources. Although, the technological advancement and the development of non-conventional water sector in Saudi Arabia minimize the gap between the supply and demand. To formulate the present approach of the water resources management, certain facts and evidence are analysed as the water supply sources are limited and unevenly distributed. Thus, the supply management approach, as suggested by various workers earlier, will not be a problem-solving tool sufficiently. However, tremendous developments of non-conventional water resources under the supply management are successful attempt but not able to meet water demand continuously in future. It is necessary either to stabilise water demand or to maximise supply sources to fulfil the demand.

Nevertheless, in practical, as a case of Saudi Arabia, it seems impossible to maintain such balance between supply and demand hitherto. The focus to control water demand should be an aspect of the WRM rather than to enhance measures of supply management solely. However, only demand measures cannot sufficient for the proper and equitable WRM, because the demand is exceeding beyond the sustainable level and the rate of development of water resources. The water demand cut-offs are essential, particularly in the agriculture sector. Moreover, combined

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Introduction

approach, sometime refers as integrated water resource management, of demand- supply WRM is impractical to implement due to its wide range of objectives/multi- objective, approach/multi-approach and time constraint. The approach is very complex to enforce and ensure proper decentralization of water rights. The stakeholders are very considerably in characteristic as well as regional disparities concern, for example, the water resources are available in the western part of the country where less or no significant agriculture present while the central part has plenty of agriculture. Similarly, the industrial development concentrated in the eastern province or near the Arabian Gulf region whereas the water supply ensured by the non-conventional sources and very limited.

Therefore, the object/variable oriented approach is the solution to resolve out water crisis in Saudi Arabia, as applied in the present study. In addition, the priority function is one of the important components of this approach, as it will enable to the smoothening of the mechanism at ground level. The present approach also imparts and ensures the share of the government and stakeholders rights accordingly, through which the institutional support and substantial balance can be achieved. The projections of water demand and supply are meant to direct towards the solution, stability and long term supply to the region. The scarcity and water crisis is dependant to each other whereas the proposed framework is an attempt to maintain proper equilibrium among them.

Chapterization Scheme/Thesis Structure The present research thesis comprises of five chapters excluding introduction, conclusion, and recommendations. Each chapter organized on the bases of certain assumption/objectives. The introduction of the present thesis comprises with the general presentation of the subject, as perceived by the various professionals under their writings, theoretical frameworks, and public notions in general and particularly to Saudi Arabia. Concurrently, it includes a problem statement, aims and objectives of the thesis, research questions/hypotheses, methods and methodology, data sources, conceptual framework and relevance of the present work as well as the limitations as faced by the researcher.

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Introduction

Moreover, a whole chapter, the Chapter one is devoted to the extensive review of the existing literature on the topic specifically and water resources management in general. It provides insight on various aspects of water resource management including the trends of the researches and conceptual development globally. It is analytical work, on which current assumptions and theoretical framework have been developed. It includes a review of the literature, bibliometric analysis of the literature on the topic and global by the type of documents, total publications by year, subject association analysis, areal flows, emerging themes of global research, and the review of the specific case studies in the study area and the world.

Chapter four establishes water demand-supply relationship along with the projections under the predetermine scenarios until proposed 12th plan (2024-2029). It covers both demand and supply side of the WRM under the agriculture, domestic and industry as water demand sectors while supply meet from groundwater (NR), surface and renewable, desalinated and treated wastewater from 1980 to 2010. Moreover, the water consumption and supply estimate also prepared as per five-year based plan since 1999 to 2014 (total four plan). In addition, the gap between water demand and supply had also been evaluated along with scenario based prediction

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Introduction

approach for the next three plans. The chapter also provides regional comparison at the provincial level regarding water consumption under various sectors.

Chapter five evaluates the policies and strategies for water resource management as adopted so far by the government of Saudi Arabia. The policies and strategies considered as an organ of water resource management that help to implement and controls the equitable, judicious and constant water supply to all. The chapter, theoretical in nature, includes various domains of the WRM, demand versus supply management polices under various usages, the policy of water tariffs, average water share, national water development plans, institutional and organizational development, awareness and educational campaigns, and water conservation and sustainability as well.

The conclusion of the thesis comprises the description of water resource management in Saudi Arabia. It evaluates research questions and hypotheses of the thesis, whether nullified or adopted as alternate solution respectively. Furthermore, the knowledge acquired through data analysis by using the descriptive and inferential as well as interpolation techniques are also incorporated in the findings. Moreover, the theoretical framework is discussed under the policy and legislative constraints along with future research and limitation of the present research. The thesis also provides some recommendations and measures on the bases of certain assumptions of the study for water resource management in future.

Significance of the Study

In the present study, “Water Resources Management in Saudi Arabia”, an attempt has been made to gather information from the each, and every stackholders involved in the management over the water resources and all relevant information about water resources demand, supply and management in Saudi Arabia. The material used in the present work is written by various authors, government policies and publications, national and international non-governmental organizations on the issues of water as a resource in general and water resources managent in particular. In the light of previous work the prsent endeavor of the researcher hopefully would be valuable and will lead to further studies.

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Moreover, this is also envisaged that the present work would be a noteworthy attempt in a systematic analysis of management over water resources in Saudi Arabia. This study will also be beneficial for students, researchers and policy makers those are involved in the management of water resources in the study area in one way or other. It also endeavors that detailed analysis of various suggested methods for management of water in Saudi Arabia and in-depth study could be an immense contribution to the existing literature available on water as a resource and water resources management.

This research will also serve a future reference for researchers not only on the subject of management of water in Saudi Arabia but also for researchers, policy makers, government and non-government organizations working on the various water resources management issues.

Limitations of the Study

Lack of available and/or reliable data

Research on the issue like water resources management requires reliable data for current management and future predictions. Though data regarding supply and demand of water is mostly authentic in Saudi Arabia, at times Water withdrawal data is not up to the mark. Also, it is found that the method of data collection is not released by the government so that reliability of the data cannot be checked.

Lack of prior research studies on the topic

A detailed review of the literature on the present subject reveals that the very limited literature on the present problems is available. Moreover, very few studies on water resources management in Saudi Arabia are available. Limited availability of studies sometimes limits the scope of the research.

Lack of recent/ latest water resources surveys

The major constraint of the present study is that the recent surveys on the water demand, supply, and water reserves are not conducted since a long time in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, the present research is based on old surveys, carried out in the 80s and 90s. The relevance of old surveys is diminishing with population icrease;

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Introduction

high quality infrastructural, industrial development; increasing standered of living and so on.

Lack of time tested methodology on water resources management

The limitation also lies at the level of methodology in the research of water resources management. Scientist and academicians involve in such researches, are not sure whether study of water resources should be done on supply side management or demand side management or a combination of both. Therefore, policies formed by the government of Saudi Arabia on the management of water are very confusing, subsequently sometimes leading to arbitrary decisions taken by the government for the water management in the country.

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CHAPTER 1

Review of Literature

Water, especially fresh water, is one of the most strategic resources among all basic elements of life1. It is acknowledged widely as the most essential among all natural resources hence all living being are dependent upon water, in one way or other for survival. The origin of water on the earth surface is indefinite so far. However, it is assumed that the primordial earth had no Oceans and perhaps very diminutive atmosphere. It is believed that the volatile constituents bound in the earth’s crust, oozing the surface through volcanoes, rock movement, and hot spring, condensed to form the ocean and the atmosphere. In such way, perhaps the remarkable combination of Oxygen and Hydrogen, called water, came into existence and eventually become an indispensable component of the earth’s environment2. None is more important for life than water. Surprisingly, it is found in the nature of all forms i.e. liquid, gas and solid. It comes from various sources, for example, underneath of the earth as groundwater, on the surface and above the Earth by the cloud and rain process, flow to and from different channels and finally follows a mystical cyclic pattern.

On the earth’s surface, water resource is most abundantly distributed; it consists about 70.78 percent of total area of the globe3. However, the availability of such huge amount, definitely, not having much importance because of salinity and chemical components that are mixed as a pollutant. Most people are concern about fresh water for daily use and drinking purpose. It constitutes less than 3 percent

1Vidyasagar, D. (2007). Global Minute: Water and Health- Walking for water and water wars. Journal of Perinatol, 27(1), 56-58. 2 Singh, S. (1991). Environmental Geography. Allahabad, India: Prayag Pustak Bhavan. 3 Shiklomanov, I. A. (1998). World Water Resources: A New Appraisal and assessment for the 21st Century. UK: UNESCO Cambridge University Press. Chapter 1 Review of Literature

amount of total water on the earth including water in the atmosphere, ice caps, groundwater, rivers, and lakes4. Moreover, variability in distribution and good quality of water is another issue that posed a serious threat to human existence5. Further, insufficient use of water to meet the demands of the population is creating water scarcity. That scarce situation of water is already affecting every continent on the surface of the earth and almost 2.8 billion people globally affected severely at least one month out of every year6. One estimate shows that more than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water7. Several terminology have been used in the existing literature to define water scarcity, i.e., water stress, water crisis, water shortage, and others. Though, the general understanding goes to the situation when annual water supplies drop down at such critical level where sustainability and existence of human become critical. It becomes difficult to obtain sources of fresh water for use during such period.

Water is universal solvent and renewable resource, and that property leads to depletion and deterioration of available water resources8. Some studies suggest that water quality affected by natural and anthropogenic pollutant. Further, it may deter by climate change including local climate, geology, and irrigation pattern and others.

4 Rao, K. L. (1971). India's Water Wealth. New Delhi, India: Orient Longman's Ltd. Shiklomanov, I. A. (1996). Assement of Water Resources and Water Availablity in the World. Background Report to the Comprehansive Freshwater Assessment. (I. A. Shiklomanov, Ed.) St. Petersburg, Russia: State Hydrological Institute. Falkenmark, M., & Lundqvist, J. (1995). Looming Water Crisis: New Approaches are invitable. In L. Ohlsson, Hydropolitics (pp. 288-321*). London, UK: Zed Books Ltd. 5 UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report 2006: Beyond Scarcity - Power, poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Organisation. UK: MacMillan Palgrave. 6 WWAP. (2012). The United Nations World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water Under Uncertainity and Risk. Paris: UNESCO. 7 UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report 2006: Beyond Scarcity - Power, poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Organisation. UK: MacMillan Palgrave. 8 Falkenmark, M., & Lundqvist, J. (1995). Looming Water Crisis: New Approaches are invitable. In L. Ohlsson, Hydropolitics (pp. 288-321*). London, UK: Zed Books Ltd. WWAP. (2009). Water in a Changing World: World Water Development report 3. Paris: UNESCO/Earthscan.

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It also affects from the overexploitation of water both underground and surface by the unscientific way9.

Further, the ultimate result of that available potable, unpolluted water within a region is less than that region's demand. Specifically, the possible cause may be growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources to meet the demand in the region.

According to UNDP report, Water scarcity is a result of two mechanisms, i.e. absolute and economic scarcity of water. Absolute refer as the physical scarcity of water, such scarcity occurs in regions and areas where natural water resources are inadequate to meet the demand of that area. While, economic water scarcity refers to the poor management of the sufficient available water resources10. Subsequently, most of the countries or regions around the world experiencing economic water scarcity as they have enough water to meet their household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs. Lack of sufficient and effective institutional framework and mismanagement leading to them in such scarcity. Moreover, UNDP assessment of 2006 also state that more than one in every six people in the world is under water scarcity. It means that they do not have access to potable water, and such water stressed to nearly 1.1 billion people in the world out of this most of them are living in developing countries11.

Furthermore, most of the absolute water scarce region lies in the Middle East and North Africa and particularly in the countries of Arabian Peninsula. Natural water supply, in terms of precipitation is very low and even some time not a single drop of water received in a whole year12. Mainly countries of Arabian Peninsula are

9 Chenoweth, J. (2009, February 07). Looming Water Crisis Simply a Management Problem. Retrieved February 15, 2009, from environment.newscientist.com: http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg19926700.100-looming-water- crisis-simply-a-management-problem.html 10 UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report 2006: Beyond Scarcity - Power, poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Organisation. UK: MacMillan Palgrave. 11 UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report 2006: Beyond Scarcity - Power, poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Organisation. UK: MacMillan Palgrave. 12 WWF. (2013, August 24). Water Scarcity: Threat. Retrieved October 12, 2013, from World Wild Life: http://worldwildlife.org/threat/water-scarcity.htm

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dependent upon underground water, or fossil aquifer, to meet their household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs. Further, Quality and quantity again limited due to contamination toxic chemical and variability in the distribution13. Another limitation in this region is that most of region is associated with tropical high-pressure systems and with dry air descending from the poleward sides of Hadley cells while corresponding Westerlies comes from Ferrel cells descending towards the equator14.. This air, generally arid in nature due to lack of moisture, intersects between Hadley and Ferrel cells at around 300 latitude in both hemisphere and the impact over whole of Arabian Peninsula and Sahara region15.

Therefore, evaporation is higher than precipitation and makes this region much arid. Moreover, a shift in the thermal equator (meteorological equator), due to the thermostatic effect of oceans, also a cause of aridity in this region16. According to Thornethwaite’s aridity coefficient17, the UNESCO map is derived from the relation between precipitation, potential evaporation and water surplus and deficit, classified this region as hyper-arid18. It means that region had insufficient moisture and precipitation even sometimes 12 successive months is recorded without rain. However, most of water scarcity has recognised in terms of per capita water availability globally. Falkenmark, Swedish hydrologist and pioneer of water stress

13 Falkenmark, M. (1997). Meeting Water Requirement of an Expanding World Population. Philosophical Transection, The Royal Society London., 929-936. 14 Petterssen, S. (1941). Introduction to Meteorology. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Co. Inc. 15Beamount, P. Blake, G.H. & Wagstuff, J.M. (1976). The Middle East: A Geographical Study. London: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Fisher, W. B. (1971). The Middle East: a Physical, Social and Regional Geography (Sixth ed.). London, Great Britain: Methuen and Co. Ltd. 16 Petterssen, S. (1941). Introduction to Meteorology. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Co. Inc. 17 Thornethwaite, C. W. (1948). An Approach towards a Rational Classification of Climate. Geogr. Rev., 38, 55-94. 18 Meige, P. (1953). World Distribution of Arid and Semi-Arid Homoclimates. In UNESCO, Reviews of Research on Arid Zone Hydrology (Vol. Arid Zone Programme 1, pp. 203-210). Paris, France: UNESCO Press.

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index (WSI), classified world water scarcity into three groups that is based on Water Stress Indicator.

As the table 1.1 shows that the First category denotes a country or region as "no stress" if the access to 1700 or more cubic meters per person annually. While countries or region has the annual access to 1700-1000 and below 1000 cubic meters per person classified into “water shortage” and “water scarce” region respectively19. Further, a fourth category added later as “absolute scarcity” with the availability of water below 500 cubic meters per person per year20.

Table 1.1: Water Stress Index (WSI) proposed by Falkenmark (1989)

Index (m3 per capita) Category

More than 1700 No stress

1000-1700 Stress or shortage

Less than 1000 Scarce

Less than 500 Absolute scarce

Source: Falkenmark et al., 1995.

However, Allan has established a threshold of 1200 cubic meters per person per year for water security21. In this context, UNDP report investigates that about 700 million people in 43 countries were living below the level of 1,700 cubic meters per person in 2006. Water stress had also intensified in several regions including China, India,

19 Falkenmark, M., & Lundqvist, J. (1995). Looming Water Crisis: New Approaches are invitable. In L. Ohlsson, Hydropolitics (pp. 288-321*). London, UK: Zed Books Ltd. 20 Falkenmark, M. (1989). The massive water scarcity now threatening Africa: Why isn't it being addressed? Ambio, 18, 112-118. 21 Allan, J. (2010). Prioritizing the processes beyond the water sector that will secure water for society—farmers, fair international trade and food consumption and waste. In M. L. Cortina, A. Garrido, & L. E. Gunn, Re-Thinking Water and Food Security (pp. 93– 106). Leyden, Netherlands: CRC Press.

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and Sub- Saharan Africa22. FAO AQUASTATE- 2012 database put forward very critical scenario about Middle East region as the world scarcest region around the globe. In terms of freshwater availability i.e. precipitation and internal renewable freshwater resource, the region has only an amount of 1.1 percent of the total available freshwater of the planet. In terms of per capita annual availability, Arabian Peninsula, contains only 88 cubic meters of water, is one of the most water scares regions in the world. While, drinking water metrics focused on extensive monitoring and management under the joint monitoring program (JMP) of World Health Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF, provide estimates of access to inadequate water supply under MDGs23.

Gleick (1992) estimates basic water requirement for human activation on a daily basis24. The study states that the total requirement of water for drinking, sanitation, bathing, and food preparation to be 50 L/person/Day25 (Gleick P., 1996). While, Howard and Bartram refine those estimates to ‘no access’ (below 5 L/person/Day), ‘basic access’ (20 L/person/Day), ‘intermediate access’ (50 L/person/Day), and ‘optimal access’ (above 100 L/person/Day)26. The impact of water scarcity on human health and inadequate drinking water can be drawn from many countries like Sudan with 12.3 million populations, Ethiopia with 2.7 million populations, Tunisia with 2.1 million populations and so on27 has not access to the safe and adequate water supply.

22 UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report 2006: Beyond Scarcity - Power, poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Organisation. UK: MacMillan Palgrave. 23 WHO; UNICEF. (2014). Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update. Geneva/New York: WHO Press. 24 Gleick, P. (1996). Basicwater requirements for human activities: meeting basic needs. Water Inetrnatinal, 21, 83-92.

25 Ibid. 26 Howard, G., & Bartram, J. (2003). Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health. Geneva: WHO Press. 27 Chenoweth, J. (2009, February 07). Looming Water Crisis Simply a Management Problem. Retrieved February 15, 2009, from environment.newscientist.com: http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg19926700.100-looming-water- crisis-simply-a-management-problem.html

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One estimate shows that the proportion of the global population with access to improved drinking water increased from 76% in 1990 (4.0 billion total) to 89% (6.3 billion total) in 2012. Moreover, the proportion of the global population with access to improved sanitation increased from 49% (2.6 billion) to 64% (4.5 billion) during the same period28. Excessive extraction of groundwater in Los Angeles, coastal desert and a population about 28 million (2009), leading to the category of water deficit region. The unprecedentedly increase in industrialization and use of powerful diesel and electric pumps are the main reason to fall of the water table below the normal29. The fall of the water table below normal further is the subject of several countries including Northern China, India, US, Pakistan, Iran, and MENA region. This phenomenon eventually leads to water scarcity and deteriorate agriculture yield as well30. Apart from that, the supply of water is directly threatened and polluted by human beings31, and further deterioration caused by anthropogenic climate change32.

Although, the history of water as a resource evolve through the ages. It can be traced out substantially after 1940s post-war diplomacy, which opened the question of

28 WHO; UNICEF. (2014). Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update. Geneva/New York: WHO Press. 29 Schoch, D. (2008, May 02). Water Shortage Worst in Decades. Los Angles Times. LA, LA, USA: Los Angles Times. WWF. (2013, August 24). Water Scarcity: Threat. Retrieved October 12, 2013, from World Wild Life: http://worldwildlife.org/threat/water-scarcity.htm 30 Brown, L. R. (2006). Water Scarcity Crossing National Borders. London, UK: Earth Policy Institute. Chenoweth, J. (2009, February 07). Looming Water Crisis Simply a Management Problem. Retrieved February 15, 2009, from environment.newscientist.com: http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg19926700.100-looming-water- crisis-simply-a-management-problem.html WWAP. (2012). The United Nations World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water Under Uncertainity and Risk. Paris: UNESCO. 31 UNESCO. (2009). Water in a Changing World: World Water Development Report-3. United Nations. 32 Karl, T., Mellilo, J., & Peterson, T. (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. USA: Cambrigde University Press.

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water security due to redraw of national boundaries of former colonies33. The problem of scarcity, further, becomes severe due to population increase in/from the beginning of nineteen century. It intensified criticality level in terms of the distribution of resources to all. Consequently, several challenges have emerged with the industrial development and population increase. Regional disparities are causing a conflict situation around the globe. In the past, water considered as a natural resource due to its infinite distribution and adequate access to the population. The average share of water was much high as compared to demand. Water was distributed spatially as well as temporary over the globe. The numbers of consumers were limited with regards to quantity and quality of fresh water.

Hence, the availability of water was infinite that did not need any protection and conservation at all except few case studies34. The issue of water security become imperative after the advent of the industrial revolution, the growth of population and national interest to serve its water demand for future. Later, the domain of water security shifted somehow to the term ‘water management’35 as the survival of the Nations more or less depends on water availability. It was regime shift from security issue towards governance level in terms of management approach and strategies. It had also proved that the very civilizations of the world were developed along the watercourse and/or where the plenty of water existed36.

However, the tremendous growth of population, the rapid growth of the economy and inappropriate institutional planning had resulted into serious water threat and

33 Gleick, P. (1993). Water and Conflict: Fresh water resource and International security. International Security, 18, 79-112. deLoe, R., Varghese, J., Ferreyra, C., & Kreutzwiser, R. (2007). Water Allocation and Water Security in Canada: Initiating a Policy Dialogue for the 21st Century. Guelph Water Management Group. Guelph ON. 34 Loukas, A., Mylopoulos, N., & Vasiliades, L. (2007). A Modeling system for the evaluation of water resource management strategieis in Thessaly, Greece. Water Resource Management, 21(10), 1673-1702. 35 deLoe, R., Varghese, J., Ferreyra, C., & Kreutzwiser, R. (2007). Water Allocation and Water Security in Canada: Initiating a Policy Dialogue for the 21st Century. Guelph Water Management Group. Guelph ON. 36 Kenoyar, J. M. (1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.

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worsening the ratio of water demand and supply. Further, the supply systems of water are quite different from country to country, and even within the country.

The supply of water is not distributed uniformly throughout the world. For instances, almost 400 cities have access to inadequate fresh water supply and more than 100 cities confronted with severe water shortage out of 660 cities in China alone37. While, more than 80 per cent of the world’s population exposed to high level of threat to water scarcity (Vorosmarty, et al., 2010). Similar predicament existed in all developing countries38. Many developed and developing countries are facing daunting water resource challenges as the need for water in domestic, irrigation and hydroelectricity grows.

It is noteworthy that there are several indications about the high volume of water consumption along with exceed in rate of pollution beyond sustainable level39. Reported accounts of groundwater depletion, rivers running dry and worsening pollution levels form an indication of the growing water stress40. The availability of resources, especially water, becomes a pertinent question among the policymakers and institutions41. Severity level exaggerated in the regions where water already was absent or depleted to the critical level. Several attempts have been forwarded to assess the resource base and availabilities for proper distribution, especially for freshwater42. Estimates of global water resources through different calculation

37 Vorosmarty, C., McIntyre, P., Gessner, M., Dudgeon, D., Prusevich, A., Green, P., . . . Davies, P. (2010). Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity. Nature, 467, 555-561. doi:doi:10.1038/nature09440. 38 Seckler, D., Barker, R., & Amarasinghe, U. (1999). Water Security in Twenty First Century. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 15(1-2), 29-42. doi:10.1080/07900629948916. 39 Moon, B. K. (2008, January 24). Address as prepared for delivery to the Davos World Economic Forum. Davos, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/apps /news/infocus/sg speeches/search_full.asp?statID=177 40 Nace, R. (1967). Are We Running out of Water? Washington DC, USA: United States Geological Survey (USGS). 41 Falkenmark, M., & Widstrand, C. (1992). Population and Water Resources: A Delicate Balance. Population Bulletin, 4-5. 42 Shiklomanov, I. A. (1990). Global Water Resources. Nature and Resources, 26(3), 34- 43.

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methods have produced varied estimates43. Both availability and quality of freshwater vary enormously in time and space44. An international organization, UNESCO, has also made estimates and refinement of statistics on water availability by using same scientists45. After such investigations, the actual problem remains the same i.e. the non-availability and mismanagement of the resources.

Moreover, the practice of water management and conservation are as old as the development of great civilizations of the world. Archeological evidence suggests that various irrigation and water control measures existed during the prehistoric and historic period. Recently, a team of archeologists from the Cambridge University unearthed Britain’s oldest known Roman irrigation system dated back to 70-120 A.D. near Huntingdon46. Indus Valley civilization (3000 BC) also presented evidence of water management through sophisticated irrigation and storage system

Gleick, P. H. (1993). Water in Crisis. London: Oxford University Press. Shiklomanov, I. A. (1993). World Fresh Water Resources. In P. H. Gleick, Water in Crisis (pp. 12-25). London: Oxford University Press. Shiklomanov, I. A. (1997). Assessment of Water Resources and Water Availability in the World. Geneva, Switzerland: SEI and WMO. Gleick, P. H. (1998). The Worlds Water. Washington DC: Island Press. Shiklomanov, I. A. (2000, March). Appraisal and Assessment of World Water Resources. Water International, 25(1), 11-32. UNESCO. (2003). World Water Resources at the Begining of the Twenty First Century. (I. A. Shiklomanov, & J. C. Rodda, Eds.) UK: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam034/2002031201.pdf 43 UNEP. (2008). Vital Water Graphics: An Overview of the State of the World’s Fresh and Marine Waters. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/ dewa/vitalwater/article5.html 44 UNEP-GEMS/WaterProgram. (2008). Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health. Canada: United Nations Environment Programme Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS)/Water Programme. Retrieved from http://www.unwater.org /wwd10/down loads/water_quality _human_health.pdf 45 UNESCO. (2003). World Water Resources at the Begining of the Twenty First Century. (I. A. Shiklomanov, & J. C. Rodda, Eds.) UK: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam034/2002031201.pdf 46 BBC. (2014, March 18). Cambridge University archaeologists find 'oldest' Roman irrigation system. BBC (English). Retrieved June 9, 2015, from http://www.bbc.com/news /uk-england-cambridgeshire-26630365

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in Mohan-Jo-Daro and Lothal47. The Qanat system developed in Persia in about 800 B.C. is another example of water conservation and management in present day48. Several such structures are still in use in many countries, like Dujiangyan irrigation system (DIS) in China49. It was built in 256 B.C. near Chengdu city. Presently it irrigates more than 5300 km2 of land under various crop in the area50.

However, the research on water resources and management issues emerged significantly in the early 20th century51. While, the analysis shows that Water management projects have a broad range of applications with respect to their primary aims. It includes, among others, drinking water, drainage control, urban water, integrated water resource, water quality, flood control, irrigation, desalination, water harvesting, hydraulic and hydroelectric, decision support, legal and institution planning. It is also considered as the core way to resolving and developing water resources in its early stages as well as future planning for water demand52. Water resource monitoring and water treatment techniques are also considered major fields in water resource management53. Although, approaches of

47 Khan, S. (2014). Sanitation and wastewater technologies in Harappa/Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BC). In A. N. Angelakis, & J. B. Rose, Evolution of Sanitation and Wastewater Technologies through the Centuries (p. 558). London, UK: IWA Publishing. 48 English, P. W. (1968). The origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World. 112 (3), pp. 170-181. Procedings of American Philosophical Society. Retrieved from http://www. jstor.org/stable/986162 49Cao, S., Liu, X., & Er, H. (2010). Dujiangyan irrigation system—a world cultural heritage corresponding to concepts of modern hydraulic science. Journal of Hydro- Environmental Research, 4(1), 3-13. doi:doi:10.1016/j.jher.2009.09.003 50 Cao, S., Liu, X., & Er, H. (2010). Dujiangyan irrigation system—a world cultural heritage corresponding to concepts of modern hydraulic science. Journal of Hydro- Environmental Research, 4(1), 3-13. doi:doi:10.1016/j.jher.2009.09.003 51 Wang, M.-H., Li, J., & Ho, Y.-S. (2011). Research articles published in water resources journals: A bibliometric analysis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 28(1-3), 353-365. doi:10.5004/dwt.2011.2412 52 Seckler, D. (1996). The New Era of Water Resource Management: From "Dry" to "Wet" water savings. Colombo: Sri Lanka: International Irrigarion Management Institute (IIMI). 53 Biswas, A. K. (2004). Integrated water resources management: A reassessment. Water International, 29(2), 248-256.

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water management and conservation cannot apply uniformly to govern water system and resolve today’s problems. Indeed, past high-quality research and engineering infrastructures helped people a lot to determine efficient ways for water management and conservation.

Hence, it is discernible from the above discussion that the concept of water management is not new and so on very dynamic in nature as the search for effective measures is still going on. Water resource management covers a large spectrum of research that varies from different point of view, for example engineering, technology, law and governance, agriculture, groundwater, infrastructure, geographical, sociological, economical and several other fields. That is why, there is a complete lack of mutual agreement on the definition of water resource management in the current literature. Various professional and subject experts have propounded several definitions to define the aim and scope of the WRM. The reason of to do so, could be the involvement of professionals from different fields of the study.

Thus, water resource management became a multidisciplinary international debate among researchers and scholars. Professionals and researchers gradually realize that water resource management is not only science but also governance. Issues of water management enhanced due to the growing pressures of unbalance between water supply and demand, degradation in quality, and inefficient supply system54. In order to understand water resource management, some definitions and concepts are adopted in the present study. In general, Water resources management is the process of creating and implementing water resources plans, programs and projects, including the evaluation of current decisions and their impact in the future. It is

Biswas, A. K. (2008). Integrated Water Resources Management: Is it working? International Journal of Water Resource Development, 24(1), 5-22. 54 Keller, A., Keller, J., & Seckler, D. (1996). Integrated Water Resource System: Theory and Policy Implications. Colombo: Sri Lanka: International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI).

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defined as the logical and organized way of thinking about the future demands of water with the following consideration55:

 problem identification,  data collection and analysis,  goals and objectives,  problem diagnosis,  the formulation of alternatives,  analysis of alternatives,  evaluation and recommendation,  implementation,  surveillance and monitoring

With the above consideration, water management is nothing more than planning, development, distribution and management of optimum level. Ideally, water resources management should have to incorporate all the demands and allocation of water on an equitable basis to satisfy all requirements and uses. However, it seems a hypothetical discourse rather than a practical solution possibly. Overall, water resource management should allow the reduction of risk and uncertainty for constant flow to all through better decisions and planning. However, it is also defined as the use of structure and non-structure measures to control natural and man-made freshwater resource systems for beneficial uses56. Here, structural measures include construction of dams, canals, treatment plants, and others. While non-structure measures rely on water pricing, standards and permits, licensing. Both measures ascertain rivers, lakes, artificial reservoirs, groundwater and wetlands for equitable human use under irrigation, domestic and industrial purpose.

Moreover, The Global Water Partnership (GWP) define water resource management as the integrated involvements between politics, economics, organization, legislation

55 Dzurik, A. A., & Theriaque, D. A. (2002). Water Resource Planning (3rd ed.). USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 56 James, W. P., & Wurbs, R. A. (2009). Water Resources Engineering (1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Phi Learning.

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and management, technologies and methods57. The GWP also stated WRM as an advance science, which can “promote the coordinated management and development of water, land and related resources collectively. It is necessary to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems58”. It is understood that WRM is the collective duty of political, economic, cultural, technical, legislative and organizational ingredients in one river basin or a total water cycle. Karamouz et al., describes WRM as a decision support system with the components of water allocation, water supply, and demand management, hydraulic and engineering hydrology59, while referring to Giupponi’s technical parts of WRM60.

However, the significant breakthrough in water research followed by the United Nations Ministerial Declaration of the Hague. It was held under World Water Forum (WWF) on the theme ‘Water Security in the 21st Century’ in 200061. The report provides an assessment of development, the framework of global policy and science agendas on water resource researches over the past 15 years. It also highlights indicators of water security and management decisions. Further, the fourth session of WWF, concluded in Mexico on 22nd March 2006, emphasized on recent developments and policy agendas of water management62. However, the research

57 Loukas, A., Mylopoulos, N., & Vasiliades, L. (2007). A Modeling system for the evaluation of water resource management strategiesi in Thessaly, Greece. Water Resource Management, 21(10), 1673-1702. doi:http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11269- 006-9120-5 58 GWP. (2000). Towards Water Security: a framework for action. Stockholm: Global Water partnership. 59 Karamouz, M. F., Kerachian, R., & Zahraie, B. (2004). Monthly Water Resources and Irrigation planning: case study of conjuctive useof surface and groundwater resources. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 130(5), 391. 60 Giuppaoni, C. (2007). Decision Support Systems for Implimenting the European Water Framework Directive; The Mulino approach. Environmental Modelling Softwares, 22, 248. 61 United Nations. (2000). Ministerial Declaration on The Hague on Water Security in the 21st Century. Hague, The Netherlands: United Nations. 62 WWF. (2006). Local Actions for a Global Challenge. Maxico: World Water Council and the Secretariat of the 4th World Water Forum.

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inventories show that WRM has a plethora of literature. Neither favour nor despite, it is not pertinent here to discuss all of the work in the present study.

To ascertain proper and systemic review of water resource management for the present study, a structural setting has been applied under the following consideration:

 Trend analysis of the research outcomes on water resource management that has been done so far with the help of bibliometric analysis;  Review of selected research outcomes on water resource management– I: Worldwide;  Review of research outcomes on water resource management–II: The study area.

1.1 Bibliometric Analysis of Literature on WRM

The main aim of bibliometric analysis was the investigation of research outputs on water resources management, research trends, emerging concepts and ideas in the field of WRM. Also, distinctions between traditional and current scientific approach, development opportunities, strategies,and planning,etc. The bibliometric analysis considered as a powerful tool to analyze academic literature quantitatively along with content and citation63. Alan Pritchard first proposed it in 1969 to understand the trend of the research through statistical and mathematical methods64.

Moreover, data were collected online from the ‘Scopus65’, a web-based online bibliography database. Keywords “[water* resource* management*]” and “[water*

63 Wang, M.-H., Li, J., & Ho, Y.-S. (2011). Research articles published in water resources journals: A bibliometric analysis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 28(1-3), 353-365. doi:10.5004/dwt.2011.2412 Sinha, B. (2012). Global Biopesticide Research Trends: A Bibliometric Assessment. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 82(2), 95-101. 64 Pritchard, A. (1969). Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics. Journal of Documentation, 25(4), 348-349. 65 Note: It is web-based online bibliography database, which includes abstract and citation of academic Journals article. It has nearly 22000 titles from over 5000 publishers, of which 20000 are peer-reviewed. Database covers almost all subjects and fields of study of Science, Social Science, Arts and Humanities, Technology and Medicine.

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resource* management* and (Saudi Arabia*)]” were determined for wild search on 13th June 2015 respectively. The time span of database starts from 1940 to 01st June 2015 (Last Update). Total results under all ategories were 55701 and 139 publications for keywords “[water* resource* management*]” and second keyword “[water* resource* management* and (Saudi Arabia*)]” respectively. However, the growth of the research productivity has been presented in Figure 1 & 2, which shows academic contributions by year on the subject of water resource research.

However, such predicament has also been studied by Wang et al. using Web of Science66 (WoS) database with respect to first keyword, i.e., Water Resource Management67. They found 96574 publications in the major language under 18 categories of documents during 1993-2008. Out of them, Journal articles accounted almost 64 per cent (62258 publications) of the total publications followed by proceedings 20 per cent (19769 publications), editorial material 5.9 per cent (5743 documents) and review article 1.9 per cent (1806 documents). Remaining was not significant, including news item, letters, discussions, corrections, notes, biographical details, software review and others68.

Further, it was reported the dominance of English language over the publications that contributes almost 90 percent (60793 publications) of the total publication.

66 Note: WoS, similar to Scopus, is manage and maintained by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) under the aegis of Thomson Reuters group. 67 Wang, M.-H., Li, J., & Ho, Y.-S. (2011). Research articles published in water resources journals: A bibliometric analysis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 28(1-3), 353-365. doi:10.5004/dwt.2011.2412 68 Wang, M.-H., Li, J., & Ho, Y.-S. (2011). Research articles published in water resources journals: A bibliometric analysis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 28(1-3), 353-365. doi:10.5004/dwt.2011.2412

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Figure 1.1: Research Outputs (Year-wise) of Keyword [water* resource* management*].

Till June 2015

4000

3000

2000

1000

Nomber Research of outputs Nomber

Source: Scopus, 2015.

Figure 1.2: Research Outputs (Year-wise) of Keyword [water* resource*

management* and (Saudi Arabia*)]

20 17

Till June 2015

15 13 11 11 10

9 10

5 5

5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 Number outputs of research Number 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1

1990 2010 1975 1981 1983 1984 1986 1987 1988 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Source: Scopus, 2015.

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Similarly, Ren et al., conducted another study with a same keyword to analyze trend and pattern of the research on water resource management69. They reported 10863 articles were published in The English language up to 2012 (last Update on 9th Feb 2013) under the various category. However, after realizing both studies, it seems that WoS’s has some ideological bias. Such high-level ambiguity is not merely a methodological error in the count of publications. Klein and Chiang identified several methodological deficiencies in social science citation index (SSCI) of WoS database70. They concluded that WoS database encouraged over-counting of citations and poor accuracy of the articles71.Consequently, Scopus based analysis has been selected for present study. Further, results are presented in succeeding discussion. Although, it is significant to note that results of the search output have decreased very significantly with the addition of word ‘Saudi Arabia’ in the wild search inquiry. The research contribution after addition accounted less than 0.25 percent of the total global research output. It means that present study has greater significance and scientific relevance as negligible or petite has been done so far towards investigation and exploration of water resources in Saudi Arabia.

1.1.1 Subjects-wise Contribution (Association Analysis)

Further, the analysis of the association between WRM and the subjects has been presented in figure 1.3 and 1.4 for both keywords. Highest association of the total research output on WRM recorded with the environment science (58 percent) followed by engineering (23.7 percent), earth and planetary science (22.9 percent), agriculture and biological science (17 percent), and social science (10 percent) respectively. It represents a trend of the research so far done on WRM globally. While, the lowest association showed with Medicine (4.3 percent), energy (4 percent), computer science, chemical engineering and others (Figure 1.3).

69 Ren, J.-L., Lyu, P.-H., Wu, X.-M., Ma, F.-C., Wang, Z.-Z., & Yang, G. (2013). An Informatric Profile of Water Resource Management Literature. Water Resource Management, 27, 4679-4696. 70 Klein, D., & Chiang, E. (2004). The Social Science Citation Index: A Black Box—with an Ideological Bias? Econ Journal Watch, 1(1), 134-165. 71 Klein, D., & Chiang, E. (2004). The Social Science Citation Index: A Black Box—with an Ideological Bias? Econ Journal Watch, 1(1), 134-165.

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Figure 1.3: Association Analysis of Research Outputs for Keyword [water* resource* management*]

Source: Scopus, 2015 [Keyword (WRM)]

Figure 1.4: Association Analysis of Research Outputs for Keyword [water* resource* management* and (Saudi Arabia*)].

Source: Scopus, 2015 [Keyword (WRM-SA)]

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However, the association changed significantly when it compared with the second keyword (Figure 1.4). Environmental science contributes nearly 60 per cent of the total research outputs, but engineering (26 percent) replaced by earth and planetary science (32 percent) in the association analysis. It shows that the trend of research has changed in Saudi Arabia as compared of global agenda on research output. Earth and planetary science also represent a maximum share in research outputs after environmental science globally. While, association with others allied subjects i.e. agriculture science (18 percent), social science (13 percent), energy (6 percent), and Multidisciplinary (3.6 percent) also significant for the scope and area of water resource research in Saudi Arabia. While, less association of research outputs have been noticed with computer science (3 percent), material science (3 percent), bio- chemistry (2 percent), and remaining fields of study contributes 10 percent collectively. It is clear that the major trend of research outputs on WRM has focused on environmental, earth and planetary and engineering sciences.

Nonetheless, the environmental science alone has emerged as an important contributing field in water resources research. This association also represent scope and area of WRM studies with respect to major areas of study.

1.1.2 Analysis of Research Outputs by Documents Type

Inventory of documents also opens pertinent question in the field of inquisitive inquiry of a subject/topic. In the present analysis, an investigation has shown with the input of Scopus database on water resource management. Both keywords, as discuss in the above section, were analyse separately to classify research outputs in terms of the document type. There were more than half of the outputs falls under the category of a research article and original contribution in the field of the area of research for fist keyword (Figure 1.5). Further, it contributes almost 57 percent or 31773 research papers since 1940 while 495 accepted papers (0.9 percent) were in the press for publication as research outputs. After the contribution of research papers, conference /proceeding papers shares major portion by 13020 papers (23 percent) that followed by 3080 (5.5 per cent) review papers and 818 chapters (1.5 percent) in books as a major contribution to research on WRM.

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Figure 1.5: Inventory of research (55701) outputs by documents type as updated on 01 June 2015.

Source: Scopus, 2015 [Keyword (WRM)]

Figure 1.6: Inventory of research (139) outputs by documents type as updated on 01 June 2015.

Source: Scopus, 2015 [Keyword (WRM-SA)]

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Moreover, minor contributions on WRM include conference review (492 or 0.9 percent), books (369 or 0.7 per cent), short survey (267 or 0.5 per cent), editorials (211 or 0.4 percent), and undefined (4824 or 8.7 percent). While, others (352 documents or 0.6 percent) comprises by notes, reports, letters, business articles, abstract reports, and erratum. Research inventory on WRM-SA is very less (0.24 percent of total output) as compared to WRM. Total 139 research outputs were indexed under different category since 1975. Before 1975, the appropriate database was not available. The share of documents under various categories has presented in Figure 1.6.

Under categories, all documents were classified into eight group, i.e., research papers/articles, proceeding/conference papers, Book chapters, conference review, notes, review papers and undefined. Research articles / papers as 89 out of 139 documents or 64 per cent since 1975 dominate the major share. In addition to this, three papers (2.2 percent) are in the press for publication of peer-reviewed journals. Conference/ proceeding papers contributed only 19 percent (27 documents) of the total. While, remaining literature provides only 8.6 percent collectively (11 documents) of the total research outputs. Moreover, the same share is undefined due to some reason as per Scopus analysis. Although, comparative analysis between WRM and WRM-SA outputs has very much interested and significant because of percentage share, of literature published, out of total production in the field of water resource management.

Here, it is significant to note that articles share from the total outputs for the second keyword is high (0.28 percent) when it compared to total production share by 0.24 percent. It shows that some fundamental works have done in significant direction. Moreover, a separate review has also been carried on all 139 documents as per standard review process. It is an approach towards reclassification or extraction significant literature out of 139 documents by the thorough review process. During review, only twelve articles/papers are considered significant to the scope of the present study. A list of all these work has been presented in Annexure I.

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1.1.3 Areal Flow of the Research Works on WRM

Regional contributions to the research of WRM show the potential of country/region to sustain their economy as well as social life without compromising their average water share. The logic behind this argument stands on the shift of ownership and right of water distribution to the multinational companies and proprietary of the national governments. That is why; water supply and distribution companies are dealing with one of the most crucial natural resources of the world. It also fixes accountability and sustainability strategy of the Nation72. It is already proved that the research on water resources in Saudi Arabia has a negligible portion of global research contribution. Hence, there is not only the need for further research and development of water resources but also the demand for training of water resource experts and professionals. Following figure 1.7 has represented research contributions by top 10 countries on WRM and WRM-SA respectively.

Figure 1.7: Number of Total Documents by top 10 countries on WRM and WRM-SA respectively.

United States 14497 Saudi Arabia 95 China 5033 United States 14 Australia 3334 United Kingdom 4 United Kingdom 3204 Turkey 4 Germany 2256 Kuwait 3 Canada 2230 Germany 3 India 2186 Egypt 3 France 1603 Malaysia 2 Spain 1492 Jordan 2 Netherlands 1434 Canada 2 0 5000 10000 15000 0 20 40 60 80 100

Source: Scopus, 2015.

With the statistical outlook of Scopus-based database, it was noticed that United States of America has the largest research output (1,44,497 documents) in the field of WRM. When it compared to WRM-SA, only 14 documents were contributed out of 14,497 documents by the USA. While China stands second after The USA in

72 Arnold, M., & Ossietzky, C. v. (2015). The lack of strategic sustainability orientation in German water companies. Ecological Economics, 117, 39-52.

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WRM research with 5,033 documents. Highest share of Chinese research output was contributed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. However, it seems unfortunate that the two leading research contributor nations of the world produced only 14 article/papers collectively on WRM-SA since 1940. It has also opened some questions about political and economic ties between/within the countries. Future research can be followed in this direction. It is doubtful that how were they so implicit and neutral on the research of water resources in Saudi Arabia.

Moreover, Australia, UK, German, Canada, India, France Spain and Netherland were the other contributing countries on WRM after USA and China. While in Saudi Arabia, most of the contribution to research outputs belonged to the professionals of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (26 documents), King Saud University (23 documents), and King Abdulaziz University (22 documents). While, a significant research organization of Saudi Arabia, SAUDI ARAMCO, followed a similar path as was with leading two countries on WRM research.

1.1.4 Global Emerging Themes/Areas in WRM Research

Following are the emerging themes/areas in WRM research:

 Management, planning and practice  Climate change adaptation  Resource management  Integrated resource management  Water balance  Groundwater assessment and risk  Hydrological modeling and management  River basin management  Environmental management and security  Remote sensing and GIS in water resources  Decision support system  Impact and risk assessment  Agriculture and irrigation planning and management  Urban planning and water resource management  Qualitative and quantitative assessment of water resources

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Figure 1.8 Emerging fields of areas on WRM Globally

Source: Themes/areas under WRM studies (Adopted from Ren, et al., 2013)73.

1.2 Review of Selected Research Outcomes on Water Resource Management– I: Worldwide

Water shortages have been a driving force behind the human innovations, and motivating, propelling, and prodding societies to devise, perpetuate and accept solutions to water scarcity in all respect. However, relief mechanisms have so far always entailed, in the long run, greater demands for water than what is available at prevailing withdrawal. The reasons behind this paradox lie in the fact of the historical solutions to water scarcity involved:

 increasing water consumption per person  increasing population size  continuous depletion of utilized water resources  Moreover, deterioration in the quality of water.

73 Ren, J.-L., Lyu, P.-H., Wu, X.-M., Ma, F.-C., Wang, Z.-Z., & Yang, G. (2013). An Informatric Profile of Water Resource Management Literature. Water Resource Management, 27, 4679-4696.

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The dynamic nature of WRM restricts a common agenda on that the stakeholders can be benefitted. It requires to accommodate new planning, visions, and ideas. Given water resource management, Ringland (1998) suggested that it requires planning to accommodate new visions and idea under strategic interest and planning rather than constitute a rigid process74. Further, he stated scenario-based approach, which determined by the complex interactions of technology, economy, politics, environment and society. Subsequently, recommendations and management of the water resources should incorporate a participatory approach. It should involve not only the various governmental agencies but also the users and other stakeholders, in an effective and decisive manner. The approach should incorporate distinct aspects of planning, design, development and management of the water resources schemes75.

However, anticipation and risk-based policy approach has also been suggested to cope up with the uncertainty in WRM research76. Grey and Sadoff analyze the relationship between the global economy and water security due to hydro-climatic variability and inappropriate institutional support77. Further, the study suggested that the investment in infrastructure and institutions is needed to manage future challenges, particularly in rain-fed dominated agriculture economies. Moreover, California water code incorporate plan based management approach in WRM78. It

74 Ringland, G. (1998). Scenario Planning: Managing for the future. England: John Wiley & Sons. 75 Agarwal, P. K., & Singh, V. P. (2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of India. New Delhi: Springer Science and Bussiness Media. 76 Vlachos, E., & Mylopoulos, Y. (2000). The Status of Transboundary Water Resources in the Balkans: Establishing a Context for Hydrodiplomacy. In J. Ganoulis, I. Murphy, & M. Brilly, Transboundary Water Resources in the Balkans: initiating a sustainable co- operative network (Vols. NATO Science Series II Environmental Security, v.74). The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Press. 77 Grey, D., & Sadoff, C. (2007). Sink or Swim? Water Security for Growth and Development. Water Policy, 9, 545-571. 78State of California. (2010). California Urban Water Management Planning Act: Part 2.6. State of California: USA. Retrieved from https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t& rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CDIQFjACahUKEwjcm YKg54nHAhUMCo4KHbN9AGI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.water.ca.gov%2Furbanw

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stated that the strategy and the time schedule for the implementation of the plan should be included in as part of water management plan. While, assessments of the reliability of distribution to its customers during normal, dry and multiple dry water years should be incorporated along with demand management.

Approach should provide comparative assessment between the total water supply sources available to the water supplier with the total projected water use over the next 20 years, in five-year increments, for a normal water year, a single dry water year, and multiple dry water years79. While, Azavedo et al. proposed strategic planning under WRM with the consideration of quality and quantity of water resources80. The study also highlights the importance of strategic planning and the necessity for innovative and holistic approaches along with the adaptive approach of WRM. It considers executive planning and policy orientation to understand the limits, facts, complexities, and changing dynamics of the environment. Rosa (2008) also allowing similar predicament and stated that it means learning through experience to integrate "values and perceptions of communities" under WRM planning81.

The integrated water resource management (IWRM) also considered a tool of WRM by various water managers and professionals in this regard. It is relatively recent practice being adopted by the workers. Grigg explained IWRM as an opportunity to the necessity of planning and management of water systems in a way whereby all

atermanagement%2Fdocs%2Fwater_code-10610-10656.pdf&ei=cr29VdyYL4yUuASz- 4GQBg&usg=AFQjCN 79 State of California. (2010). California Urban Water Management Planning Act: Part 2.6. State of California: USA. Retrieved from https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct= j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CDIQFjACahUKEwjcmYKg 54nHAhUMCo4KHbN9AGI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.water.ca.gov%2Furbanwaterm anagement%2Fdocs%2Fwater_code-10610-10656.pdf&ei=cr29VdyYL4yUuASz- 4GQBg&usg=AFQjCN 80 Azevedo, G., Gates, T., Fontane, D., Labadie, J., & Porto, R. (2000). Integration of Water Quantity and Quality in Strategic River Basin Planning. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Managament, 126(2), 85-97. 81 Rosa, M. (2008). Towards and Adaptive Approach in Planning and Management Process. In P. Meire, M. Coenen, C. Lombardo, M. Robba, & S. R, Integrated Water Management (Vol. Earth and Environmental Science Vol. 80). The Netherlands: Springer.

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relevant objectives and multiple interests are harmonized82. The term IWRM appeared in the literature in the early 1930s83. It was considered as paradigm shift towards the proper theoretical approach. According to IWRM, it reinforces the importance of considering the world's complexities, including new approaches for planning and organizational structures that represent the interaction between environment, society, and technology (Biswas, 2008).

Grigg (2008) traced out the U.S. Flood Control Act, 1917 as one antecedent of the IWRM concepts and added it is meant to describe the complexity of water decisions and establish a balance between stockholders84. However, Dzurik (2003) considered IWRM as the predecessor of Rational Planning Model (1940), Water Resources Planning Act (1965), National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA-1969), Principles and Standards of Water Resources Council (WRC-1973), Principles and Guidelines (1983), and the Dublin principles (1992)85. While, Meire et al. (2008) argue that the IWRM concept originated in 1972 during the first United Nations (UN) summit on the ‘human environment’ held in Stockholm86. Further, the Dublin Principles and the 1992 UN Summit at Rio de Janeiro reinforced IWRM concept through the Agenda 21's principles. It states, "IWRM is based upon the perception of water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource of social and economic good,

82 Grigg, N. (2005). Water Manager's Handbook: A guide to the water industry. Fort Collins, UK: Aquamedia Publishing. 83 Vlachos, E. (1996). Hydrodiplomacy and Dispute Resolution in Private Water Resources Conflicts. In J. Ganoulis, L. Duckstein, P. Literathy, & I. Bogardi, Transboundary Water Resources Management: Institutional and Engineering Approaches (Vols. NATO ASI Series, v.7). Germany: Springer. 84 Grigg, N. (2008). Integrated Water Resources Management: balancing views and improving practice. Water International, 33(3), 279-292. 85 Dzurik, A. A., & Theriaque, D. A. (2002). Water Resource Planning (3rd ed.). USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 86 Meire, P., Coenen, M., Lombordo, C., Robba, M., & Sacile, R. (2008). Towards Integrated Water Management. In P. Meire, M. Coenen, C. Lombordo, M. Robba, & R. Sacile, Integrated Water Management (Vols. NATO Science Series. IV. Earth and Environmental Sciences, v.80). The Netherlands: Springer.

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whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its utilization"87. Hajkowicz and Collins (2007) proposed multiple objectives based scenario for water resources management under IWRM principle when describing in the sustainability context88. Moreover, Mitchell (1990) suggested three aspects for water resource management that should be considered under IWRM89.

 The dimensions of the water that includes surface and groundwater, as well as quantity and quality  The interactions of the water with land and the environment  The development of socioeconomic aspects

Certainly, the concept extended beyond the well-established framework of target based water resource planning to the multi-attribute approach90. However, the problems of water resources decisions have never been formulated in such broad scale. It extends across all dimensions of water (supply, demand, sanitation, irrigation, flood control and so on) including impact assessments under various scenario (for example, economic, social, environmental), and indirect consequences and spill-overs up to a global scale (foreign direct investment, trade in virtual water, migration)91. IWRM seeks to balance the multiple and sometimes conflicting aspects of an aquatic system92, but IWRM has been criticized for inadequate operational interpretation93. Investigation of WRM involves explicitly identifying the full set of

87 United Nations. (1992). Agenda 21, Chapter 18. Rio de Janeiro: United Nations Publication Division. Retrieved from UN Documents Cooperation Circles: Gathering a Body of Global Agreements: http://www.un-documents.net/a21-18.htm 88 Hajkowicz, S., & Collins, K. (2007). A Review of Multiple Criteria Analysis for Water Resource Planning and Management. Water Resources Management, 21, 1553-1566. 89 Mitchell, B. (1990). Integrated Water Management. In B. Mitchell, Integrated Water Management: International Experiences and Perspectives. London: Bel-haven Press. 90 Keeney, R., & Wood, E. (1977). Illustrative example of use of multiattribute utility theory for water resource planning. Water Resources Research, 13, 705-712. 91 Biswas, A. K. (2004). Integrated water resources management: A reassessment. Water International, 29(2), 248-256. 92 GWP. (2000). Towards Water Security: a framework for action. Stockholm: Global Water partnership. 93 Biswas, A. K. (2004). Integrated water resources management: A reassessment. Water International, 29(2), 248-256.

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water-related risks and hazards to all actors in a river basin, or other appropriate domain, for whom the problem is potentially intolerable. However, most of work studied under IWRM suggests natural identity, i.e. river basin or watershed, based scale of water management94. The concept of ‘Watershed’ in terms of IWRM, later criticize by Allan as ‘Problemsheds’95.

On the other hand, it also proposed variation in scale domain, i.e. natural, regional and local96. Moreover, Bonell (2008) refers that GWP recently released a manual on IWRM principles and practice, which includes a set of good practices for water resource management at global, regional, national, and local scale97. The study stated that IWRM is defined as the integrated effort of the trilogy of policy, administration, and management and planning activities. At the first or policy stage, WRM controls resource sectors including, among other, agricultural, energy, transportation, urban supply, sanitation, environmental and industries. While, the second stage incorporate the integration among different administrative levels, from the very local organization to the central government, whereas third stage refers to the mechanisms of promotion an effective transition from planning to management

94 Muller, M. (2010). Fit for purpose: taking integrated water resource management back to basics. Irrigation Drainage System, 24, 161–175. 95 Allan, J. (2005). The Global Food & Product Chain - Dynamics, Innovations, Conflicts, Strategies: is the watershed the problemshed? Deutscher Tropentag, Germany: Hohenheim. Allan, J. (2005). Water in the Environment/Socio-Economic Development Discourse: Sustainability, Changing Management Paradigms and Policy Responses in a Global System. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Allan, J. A. (2007). Beyond the Watershed: Avoiding the dangers of hydro-centricity and informing water policy. In H. Shuval, & H. Dweik, Water Resource in the Middle East (pp. 33-39). London: Springer. 96 Biswas, A. K. (2008). Integrated Water Resources Management: Is it working? International Journal of Water Resource Development, 24(1), 5-22. 97 Bonell, M. (2008). The role of the HELP Programme. In P. Meire, M. Coenen, C. Lombardo, M. Robba, & R. Sacile, Integrated Water Management (Vols. NATO Science Series. IV.Earth and Environmental Sciences, v.80). The Netherlands: Springer.

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and vice-versa98. IWRM also considered as systems analysis, as refer by Mostert (2006), in terms of system analysis and ecological approach99. In addition, study hindered by the limitation of system approach in terms of defining system boundaries on the basis of morphology, ecology, and functional relationship. Subsequently, Grigg (2008) obstructed by the institution difficulty to implement IWRM at ground level100.

According to Vlachos et al. (2000) and Loukas et al. (2007), IWRM fragmented institutional jurisdiction over water resources at different levels of government and sectors101. While, Dzurik (2003) refers an additional barrier to IWRM that it takes time and money along with compromised solutions and trade-offs102. Dynamics of IWRM restricts operational as well as the implementation of the water resource management plan. Consequently, there is a lack of mutual agreement to adopt IWRM as an only tool for applied WRM planning and research. Moreover, the agenda 21 of Earth summit proposed river basin based approach due to coherent entities in a hydrological context, which as the study scale under IWRM. Falkenmark (2004) argued that single-component based analysis should be

98 Bonell, M. (2008). The role of the HELP Programme. In P. Meire, M. Coenen, C. Lombardo, M. Robba, & R. Sacile, Integrated Water Management (Vols. NATO Science Series. IV.Earth and Environmental Sciences, v.80). The Netherlands: Springer. 99 Mostert, E. (2006). Integrated Water Resources Management in The Netherlands: howconcepts function. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education, 135, 19- 27. 100 Grigg, N. (2008). Integrated Water Resources Management: balancing views and improving practice. Water International, 33(3), 279-292. 101 Vlachos, E., & Mylopoulos, Y. (2000). The Status of Transboundary Water Resources in the Balkans: Establishing a Context for Hydrodiplomacy. In J. Ganoulis, I. Murphy, & M. Brilly, Transboundary Water Resources in the Balkans: initiating a sustainable co- operative network (Vols. NATO Science Series II Environmental Security, v.74). The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Press. Loukas, A., Mylopoulos, N., & Vasiliades, L. (2007). A Modeling system for the evaluation of water resource management strategiesi in Thessaly, Greece. Water Resource Management, 21(10), 1673-1702. doi:http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11269- 006-9120-5 102 Dzurik, A. A., & Theriaque, D. A. (2002). Water Resource Planning (3rd ed.). USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

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preferable in WRM research and planning103. Therefore, IWRM approach has forbidden in the present study. Mylopoulos et al. (2003) argued the current situation and the perspectives of WRM in Greece and proposed a new demand-oriented urban water management policy for the sustainability of the region. They stated that present WRM practices have proven insufficient to integrate both socio-economic development and ecosystem collectively. The study concluded with the regime shift from IWRM to demand management policy implementation along with water supply management. Also, the engagement of public participation, application of tariff and water pricing, and dual networks based approach has been recommended104. Moreover, water management issue has shifted from the supply side to demand management due to a limited source of water supply and increasing demand for various use105.

In addition, a water management plan shall describe and evaluate sources of supply, rational and practical efficient uses of water and shall carry out reclamation and demand management activities under scenario approach. Subsequently, factors of plan adjusted according to an individual community or area’s characteristics. The capabilities and efficient use of water should focus on conservation, and abridged the gap between demand and supply. It should incorporate measures for residential, commercial and industrial water demand management as per sectoral approach106. Apart from that the technical aspects in terms of operation and management shall

103 Falkenmark, M. (2004). Towards Integrated Catchment Management: Opening the paradigm locks between hydrology, ecology and policy-making. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 20(3), 275-282. 104 Mylopoulos, Y., Kolokytha, E., Mentes, A., & Vagiona, D. (2003). Urban Water Demand Management - The city of Thessaloniki-Greece case study. In F. A. David Butler (Ed.), Advances in Water Supply Management: Proceedings of the International Conference on Computing and Control for the Water Industry, 15-17 September, 2003 (pp. 721-726). London, UK: Taylor & Francis. 105 Marsalek, J., Cisneros, B. J., Karamouz, M., Malmquist, P.-A., Goldenfum, J. A., & Chocat, B. (2008). Urban Water Cycle Processes and Interactions: Urban Water Series- UNESCO-IHP. The Netherlands: UNESCO and Francis Taylor. 106 Mylopoulos, Y., Kolokytha, E., & Tolikas, D. (2003). Urban Water Management in Greece. Water International, 28(2), 43-51.

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also be considered as an organ of WRM107. The successive procedure with the involvement of stakeholders in the planning, construction, operation, and maintenance is to be made to provide equity. Jinno (1995) examines the feasibility using risk analysis for the planning and operation of a water supply system where limited water resources have to be shared when drought occurs108. Moreover, Cai and Rosegrant (2002) proposed a modeling approach for WRM (Cai & Rosegrant, 2002). They projected global demand and supply of water for domestic, industrial, livestock and irrigation use at the basin scale. Proposed model have been stress out on the relationships and information in water resources, agronomy and economics collectively.

Forecasting of the water demand has become an indispensable component in effective water resources planning and management. It, together with an evaluation of existing supplies, provide a valuable indication in determining when, or if, new sources of water must be developed109. Ennui focused, in his doctoral thesis, on the need for forecasting of water demand. The conflicts over water resources are continuously increasing along with population. The need for instream flow assessment and accurate measurement of quality and quantity could be additional steps towards WRM. So that the balance of water between sustainable uses and the requirement could be established110.

Moreover, Asano (1999) recommended the usage of non-traditional water under the scarce scenario. The study asserts on the role of wastewater reclamation and reuse in the context of efficient water use in urban areas111. Over the past few centuries, it is

107 Mylopoulos, N., Mylopoulos, Y., Tolikas, D., & Veranis, N. (2007). Groundwater modeling and management in a complex lake-aquifer system. Water Resources Management, 21(2), 469-494. 108 Jinno, K. (1995). Risk Assessment of a Water Supply System during Drought. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 11(2), 185-204. 109 Ennui, K. E. (2003). Water Demand Forecasting in the Pudget Sound Region: Short and Long-Term Models. Master of Science Thesis, 1-97. USA: University of Washington. 110 Ennui, K. E. (2003). Water Demand Forecasting in the Pudget Sound Region: Short and Long-Term Models. Master of Science Thesis, 1-97. USA: University of Washington. 111 Asano, T. (1999). Wastewater Reuse For Non-Potable Applications: An Introduction. Proceedings of International Symposium on Efficient Water Use in Urban Areas -

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evident that the use of water increased rapidly and significantly. Frequent droughts, increasing water development costs, institutional and environmental concerns and a growing conservation philosophy are the key factors accounting for the current surge of interest in wastewater reclamation and reuse throughout the world. According to MOUD, reducing water demand through optimal utilization of water supplies and use in essential or desirable needs are the components of water demand management (WDM). It also recommended the practice of wastewater reuse and recycle under water deficit region or drought year as one of the measures of WDM112. WDM exhibit several alternatives to WRM in an efficient and sustainable way, like desalinization, storm-water recharge, treated wastewater, fog water collection, and others.

Reclaimed water or treated wastewater, after all, is a water resource existing in an urban environment where water resources are needed most and priced the highest. In addition to this, it provides a reliable source of water even during drought years because of a constant generation of water as an effluent. Increasing demand for water in urban communities due to diaspora shift, commercial and industrial development and improvement in living standards is putting enormous pressure on easily, and economically exploitable natural water resources. It is unfortunate that not only the quantity of extractable fresh water resources is being depleted but also the quality is deteriorating. It has, therefore, become essential to initiate and improve the measures for effective and structured approach to water resource management and conservation. It might be possible through the optimal use of available water resources, effective demand management, and prevention & control of wastage of water. The actions required to increase the water availability, through the augmented approach of WRM, by rainwater harvesting on the surface and below the ground. Surface storage is usually contemplated in either natural ponds, reservoirs, and lakes or artificially created depressions, ponds, impounding reservoirs or tanks.

Innovative Ways of Finding Water for Cities, 8-10 June, 1999 (p. 530). Kobe, Japan.: UNEP, International Environmental Technology Centre. 112 Ministry of Urban Development (MOUD). (1999). Manual on Water Supply and Treatment (Third Edition). New Delhi: Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation.

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Innovation of new ideas as water footprint, gray, and black water and so on in water research are also providing opportunities to the professionals and experts. However, black and green water based integrated systems have enough potential to be installed in densely populated urban areas. The future of such promising resources depend on the technology of advanced membrane113.

Moreover, Boler (2004) argued that the stormwater management in the urban area creating an attractive green environment. Such water might be used for landscaping purpose in the surrounding of the urban structure. Xuejian and He analyzes reclaimed water issues for WRM in China114. They noticed fall of the water table by 1.5 meters per year over the last five year in North China Plain. The study suggested the various use of reclaimed water like irrigation, aquifer recharge, daily washing activities, toilet and urinal flushing, street-sweeping operation, power generation, decorative use, firefighting and others. However, the study incorporated legislative updates along with the formulation of new laws, pricing and quality measures for reclaimed water. Irshad et al. explored consensus of water from arid and semi-arid areas of the world. They emphasize on the lack of water management or poor management practices existing in Africa, Asia, and Near East region.

The study suggested that agriculture, constitute almost 70-80 per cent of water consumption, needs more efficient water use along with adequate management of soil. Management in irrigation water demand should be revised to ensure maximum water productivity instead of land productivity in arid areas and dry farming systems. In conclusion, suggestions are made to improvement in productivity and reliability in rainfed agriculture, optimal on farm soil, water and crop management, and conservation of soil moisture and water use efficiency. Rainwater harvesting

113 Otterpohl, R., Braun, U., & Oldenburg, M. (2003). Innovative Technologies for Decentralized Wastewater Management in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas. Proceedings of the Internet Conference on Eco-city Development, (pp. 27-36). Retrieved from https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact =8&ved=0CCIQFjAAahUKEwiJ8LWx74zHAhXRHY4KHRH7Agw&url=http%3A%2F %2Fwww.ivm.vu.nl%2Fen%2FImages%2FEvents%25202003_tcm53- 188195.pdf&ei=oVi_VcmbO9G7uASR9otg&usg=AFQjCNHF8JPWLMMNmxXOz 114 Xuejian, X., & He, X. (2009). Use of Reclaimed Water in China: management issues and strategies. Management Science and Engineering, 3(1), 8-25. Retrieved from http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/mse/article/viewFile/873/892

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and precision irrigation were two measures they have analyzed under arid scenario115.

With the help of existing literature, a new and simplified approach has been proposed for water resource management after thorough review process in the present study (Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9: Proposed methodological framework for water resource management (WRM) and capacity building in research.

• Local • National

Planning and Legal and Analytical Institutional

Economic Projects and Regimes Programs

• Regional • Global

115 Irshad, M., Inoue, M., Ashraf, M., & Al-Busaidi, A. (2007). The Management Options of Water for the Development of Agriculture in Arid Areas. Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(11), 1551-1557.

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The proposed approach represents two-step processes for WRM research and planning. First step determined by the scale and objectives of the study, while later on actions recommended as per problem identification under WRM in a secondary step. The scale of the study varies from local, national, and regional to the global level. While, objectives of WRM determined by the demand and supply-side, or the combination of both. However, various actions, among others, required dealing with proposed WRM. Major themes of actions include planning and analytical framework, legal and institutional domain, economic regimes, and project and program under proposed WRM plan.

However, each action further could be studied under sub-theme, for example, planning and analytical action includes information gathering from various sources, forecasting, modeling, integrated planning, policy analysis, and so on. Similarly, the legal and institutional framework comprises legal and institutional reforms, reorganization and participation, etc. Moreover, economic regime covers Macro- micro economic measures, incentives, tariff and water pricing and others. Although, proposed scheme need to be validated under the various scenario. In addition, it is evident that policy review on water resource management being ‘technique-driven’ rather than specification and relevance recognition in terms of social, economic, and political contexts. Proposed framework includes specification, credibility and accountability in terms of social, economic, and political allure.

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1.3 Review of Research Outcomes on Water Resource Management–II: The Study Area

The preliminary work on possibilities of water resources was an initiative done by the late King Abdul-Aziz116, the founding father of modern Saudi Arabia. The King was very much intuitive about Saudi’s future after the first discovery of commercial Oil in May 1936117 from Dammam 2 in eastern Saudi Arabia118. The King had realized that water will become a most challenging factor for comprehensive development and foundation of social progress in future because of rapid growth in population and urbanization. Moreover, stability of public life and the establishment of law and governance were another major concern in the country. The population was already depending on limited water resources, and such resources can counts on fingers as a few springs and traditional well systems. Local experts also were not much efficient due to lacking knowledge of modern agricultural and hydrological sciences. To cope out from insufficient water resource and management, King Abdul-Aziz invited distinguished specialists from abroad to conduct several investigation and studies about the possibilities of water. Those studies are as follows:

In the very beginning, King Abdul-Aziz invited Mr. Charles Richards Crane, an American businessman, to visit him in Jeddah and express his desire to have a study of the water situation in the Kingdom119. The prime focus was on investigating the

116 Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman Al Sa‘ud, also known as Ibn-Saud or King Abdul- Aziz. 117 Lippman, T. (2004, May/June). The Pioneers. Saudi Aramco World, 55(3), pp. 14-21. Note: Pact of survey was signed between Lloyd Hamilton as negotiation chief of Standard Oil Company of California (SOCAL) and Abdullah Suleiman as Finance minister of Kingdom on 23 May 1933. Moreover, Dammam 7 was the first great discovery in term of commercial quantity of Oil for export purpose; later in 1939 this leads to first shipment export of crude Oil. 118 Saudi Gazette. (2015, August 08). Kingdom: The Story of Oil in Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from saudigazette.com: http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home. regcon&contentID=200805186773 119 Lippman, T. (2004, May/June). The Pioneers. Saudi Aramco World, 55(3), pp. 14-21. Note: Crane’s first meeting with ‘Abd al-‘Aziz took place in February 1931, arranged by

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possibility of finding groundwater in the western and central parts of the country as they are the areas that have the greatest water shortages. After that first study conducted by Karl Twitchell (an American Geologist) in late 1349 AH, corresponding to 1931, to explore the sources of water especially along the Hajj (annual pilgrimage) routes. Unfortunately, Mr. Twitchell investigation was not poured significant result in the region. Although, submitted report is indicating the very little chance of finding groundwater in the areas he surveyed. While returning to Jeddah, Twitchell and an Arab colleague repaired and expanded an aging network of pipes and water tunnels. He also constructed a windmill that raised 150 liters (40 gals) water in a minute from a well outside the city. Twitchel himself refer it as, “making an appreciable addition to the water supply”120.

Further, King Abdul-Aziz issued a Royal Decree No. 24/7/2 in 27 Dul-Hijja 1354 AH, corresponding to 21 March 1934, which granting a license to a French company to explore water possibilities for Jeddah city121. The study concluded that there were no sources of water in the area except for Wadi Fatima (Fatima Valley) and recommended expansion of water desalination projects. After that investigation,

St. John Philby and Shaykh Fawzan al-Sabik, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz’s representative in Cairo. Nominally, the subject was horses: Crane admired Arabian horses and had heard of Shaykh Fawzan’s renowned stables. When the shaykh made him a gift of two prize steeds, an astonished Crane offered on the spot to send a geologist to Arabia to help the new country prospect for minerals. Shaykh Fawzan communicated this offer to the king, who promptly accepted and invited Crane to visit him. So high was Crane’s reputation that the king himself travelled to Jeddah from the capital to receive him. Their conversations extended over four days. Crane formally restated his impromptu offer to provide the services of a geologist who would explore the hinterlands for water and minerals. This was not so simple a proposition as it sounds: In those days, foreigners were generally restricted to Jeddah, and it would be a sharp break with tradition to have outsiders roaming the country’s interior. But the king was pragmatic. He accepted Crane’s offer for the same reason he had accepted the medical services of the doctors from Bahrain—he knew he needed help. The engineer dispatched by Crane was one whom Crane had employed on bridge-building projects in Yemen. His name was Karl S. Twitchell (Lippman, 2004). 120 Lippman, T. (2004, May/June). The Pioneers. Saudi Aramco World, 55(3), pp. 14-21. 121 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.world watercouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candid ates_2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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another invitation request sent by the Kingdom in 1362 AH (1942 AD) to the United States Government to study water and soil condition for agriculture development122. It was technical agricultural mission consisting of experts such as Karl Twitchell, A. L. Wane and J. Hamilton. This mission studied most of the Kingdom's territory and identified the climatic, soil, and water conditions in the various regions. In 1366 AH (1946 AD) again, United States recruited a team of three engineers to study water resources in the Kingdom. The study concluded with the recommendation of construction of small dams and repairing and renovating of some old structures. This report also suggests deepening of some shallow wells123.

However, consolidation of all projects and studies was the major concern against King Abdul-Aziz. In 1367 AH (1947 AD), he took the initiative and released a royal decree for the establishment of a Directorate of Agriculture. Also in the same year, a tripartite cooperation, Saudi British and Egyptian, under the expert geologists of Gelately Hankey Co. Ltd explored possibilities in Jeddah and built a pipeline network from Wadi Fatima to Jeddah city124. The supply of water reached to Jeddah on Tuesday, 05 Moharram 1367 AH, corresponding to 20 November, 1947 AD125. Gelately Hankey also built first salt water condensation plant in Saudi Arabia and

122 Lippman, T. (2004, May/June). The Pioneers. Saudi Aramco World, 55(3), pp. 14-21. Note: Twitchell spent another two decades in Saudi Arabia. In 1942, he led a team that travelled more than 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) through the kingdom to assess prospects for agriculture, identifying several regions where soil conditions made farming feasible despite the limited water supply. The resulting agriculture is today increasingly important in the Saudi economy. 123 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf 124 Munn, L. B. (2013). Foreign Affairs oral History Project. REMINISCING AN “ANCIENT” WORLD: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia - 1947-49 (Memoir, 14 May 1948 Jerusalam, Palestine, Later Israel). The Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training. Retrieved August 10, 2015, from http://adst.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Munn- Lewright.pdf 125 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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still in use126. In 1948, Glenn Prawell, geologist of United States Geological Survey, conducted geographical and geological survey with the help of aerial photography for water resources in several parts of the Kingdom. This mission recommended construction of dams at several locations in Riyadh and Al-Kharj127.

Later in the next year, Mitchell Cotts, an American firm, installed a number of pumps in the vicinity of Riyadh, Al-Aflaj, Al-Hasa and Al-Kharj for water lifting from wells. The process of pump installation continue over the two year from 1950- 1951 (1370-1371 AH)128. However, several such missions invited by the Great King for various purpose in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It includes mission from Pakistan (1954) to study agriculture and water supply, Egypt, Syria, Turkey and Iraq for various intentions. The first systematic and significant study conducted by the Saudi Geological Survey (SGS) with the aim to investigate hydraulic characteristics of each aquifers that includes quality, quantity, storage capacity, and suitability for use under various purposes. At the later stage, researchers from Saudi universities, research institutes and others became active in water resource research and produced good quality of work. For instances, Mohorjy (1988) studied water reuse potential including technological constrain in Saudi Arabia. The study strongly recommended water reclamation to meet the growing water demand in industrial, domestic and agriculture sector129.

126 Munn, L. B. (2013). Foreign Affairs oral History Project. REMINISCING AN “ANCIENT” WORLD: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia - 1947-49 (Memoir, 14 May 1948 Jerusalam, Palestine, Later Israel). The Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training. Retrieved August 10, 2015, from http://adst.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Munn- Lewright.pdf 127 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf Note: the reference of Glenn Prawell was not found anywhere except aforementioned reference. So the evidence of the study is poor. 128 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf 129 Mohorjy, A. M. (1988). Water Resources Management in Saudi Arabia and Water Reuse. Water International, 13(3), 161-171.

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DeJong et al. (1989) attempted to review, at roughly estimates, of available water potentials, demand and supply with the help of multi-objective goal programming algorithm. They concluded through mathematical modelling approach that national water sector cost and the rate hinder the development of Saudi Arabia in future130.

Abu-Rizaiza et al (1989) observed fivefold increase in demand side of water resource from 1750 MCM to 9600 MCM in ten years (1975-85), whereas supply also contributed through recycling and desalinization 18 MCM to 605 MCM in the same period. However, the gap between supply and demand widening at rapid rate, and it will hindered development and increase scarcity if present rate of growth continue to expand. The crisis of water scarcity might be reduced or averted by adopting needed step in management side131.

Al-Ibrahim (1990) established and analysed the need and urgency of water conservation and demand management programs to achieve water balance between supply and demand. The study reveals that Saudi Arabia must shift rivet to the demand management scenario rather than supply management. Therefore, growing imbalance has to be met sufficiently. The paper also suggested policy measures in terms of water conservation, efficient water use, scientific agriculture practice, and sustainable and wise use of non-renewable (groundwater) water resource132.

Another study conducted by Al-Ibrahim (1991) shows significant deterioration in quality and quantity of the aquifers. He also noticed decline in water table due to excessive pumping for agriculture. The study suggested modification at policy level for quality standards, law and regulation, water pricing, efficiency improvement and wastewater use. Moreover, the negative impact of excessive pumping also observed in terms of water logging, increase in soil salinity, land subsidence and degradation

130 deJong, R. L., Al-Layla, R. I., & Selen, W. J. (1989). Alternative water management scenarios for Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 5(1), 56-62. 131 Abu-Rizaiza, O. S., & Allam, M. N. (1989). Water Requirements versus Water Availability in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 115(1), 64-74. 132 Al-Ibrahim, A. A. (1990). Water Use in Saudi Arabia: Problems and Policy Implications. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 116(3), 375-388.

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of water quality and land133. This study was possibly the first systematic and comprehensive study on water resource management in Saudi Arabia.

Dabbag et al (1992) investigated technology and water transfer initiatives led by King Fahd University of petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM) in Al-Hasa agriculture region with the consideration of economic and yield-evapotranspiration relationship. The aim of the study was to minimise water loss and improve the efficiency of operation and control through the comprehensive water management plan. The study demonstrates flow control strategy under unsteady flow through the multi-branch open canal irrigation network134.

The study of Mohorjy and Grigg (1995) defined lack of institutional support, poor policy implementation, unorganized organizational structure, water law, and planning and management aspects in Saudi Arabia. The problem of statement includes imbalance between demand and supply, over exploitation of non-renewable resource, problems due to saltwater intrusion, poor quality and contamination of water. They suggested development and modification in policy levels and management strategies through the law enforcement, groundwater regulation and conservation practice135.

Dabbagh et al (1997) analysed various irrigation scenarios for conservation of groundwater management in Saudi Arabia. They observed increase in irrigated areas from 0.5 million ha in 1975 to 1.61 million ha in 1992, more than 150 per cent in 15 years. Saudi Arabia achieved self-sufficiency in food production (wheat, date palm, eggs, poultry and dairy goods) and security due to large-scale farming and advance irrigation method and techniques. They analyse demand of irrigation as 22.933 BCM in 1992 while 29.82 BCM consume by agriculture only that is almost 94 per cent of total water consumption of Saudi Arabia. The study suggested measures for

133 Al-Ibrahim, A. A. (1991). Excessive Use of Groundwater Resources in Saudi Arabia: Impacts and Policy Options. Ambio, 20(1), 34-37. 134 Dabbagh, A. E., & Abderrahman, W. A. (1992). Technology Transfer and Development for the Management of Water Resources in Saudi Arabia: a Case Study. Water International, 17(4), 193-200. 135 Mohorjy, A. M., & Grigg, N. S. (1995). Water-Resources Management System for Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 121(2), 205-215.

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water management through the adaptation of advance irrigation techniques, demand management, reliance in water productivity and quality of the aquifers. They also supported decision of the government in reduction of subsides in wheat price as management tool. This approach ensures diversification of crops and targeted decline in water consumption for agriculture sector. It was estimated that the decline of water consumption in agriculture sector contributes about 7.42 BCM or 25 percent of the total, if the present approach enforced successfully in near future136. Moreover, the role of policy enforcement and implementation is more important in water resource management. Saudi Arabia as an Islamic state, therefore, the law and order govern by Shari’a law.

Abderrahman (2000) analysed the WRM in respect of Islamic principles and rationales. Water considered as common commodity for all people as per Shari’a law. Therefore, state has all power, for the protection of community interest, to control, manage, develop and ensure equitable water supply to all. The paper has described royal decrees and legislation along with technical and improvement of efficiency measures. The study suggests wise use of water, reduction the gap of demand and supply, and increase in reclaimed water to ascertain sustainability of the region137.

Abdurrazzak et al analysed potential and opportunities of desalinization in West Asia. The role of desalinization is very crucial in whole West Asia as it is only potential source for domestic water supply. It is providing feasible and alternative option to coup up with water scarcity. The study also analysed production trends, capacity, costs and process of the desalinization. In addition to this, measures at policy, conservation and technical levels also suggested in the study138.

136 Dabbagh, A., & Abderrahman, W. (1997). Management Of Groundwater Resources Under Various Irrigation Use Scenarios in Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 22(1C), 47-64. 137 Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 16(4), 465-473. 138 Abdulrazzak, M. J., Jurdi, M., & Basma, S. (2002). The Role of Desalination in Meeting Water Supply Demands in Western Asia. Water International, 27(3), 395-406.

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Abderrahman (2005) examined groundwater management issues for sustainable development in Saudi Arabia whereas most of the recharge system is poor due to low and sporadic rainfall in whole of the peninsula. The major supply of water meets by the non-renewable, groundwater, sources stored in deep aquifers system. Socio-economic development of rural as well as urban areas has pronounced by water shortage due to rapid industrial and economic development. The study suggested measures of demand management, change in policies of subsidy of agriculture goods, reduction of cultivated area, and institutional changes. The findings also suggested formulation of a separate and special ministry of water resources in Saudi Arabia139.

An international organization, FAO, is also reviewed groundwater availability, demand and supply under various uses in Saudi Arabia. Unfortunately, the study failed out in policy options140.

Hussin et al (2010) reviewed current status of WRM, quality of irrigation water, and guidelines in Saudi Arabia. The study suggested use of saline water as a supplement source of water supply to the agriculture sector. The review also provides good insight of various aspect of saline water use in agriculture as well as landscaping141.

Zaharani et al (2011) stated that ever-increasing imbalance between demand and supply does not met by the concept of water demand management only rather it needs improvement in supply side too. It becomes pertinent to explore new sources of water and evaluation of conservation measures. The study find outs efficiency of

139 Abderrahman, W. A. (2005). Groundwater Management for Sustainable Development of Urban and Rural Areas in Extremely Arid Regions: A case Study. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 21(3), 403-412. 140 FAO. (2009). Groundwater Management in Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.groundwater governance.org/fileadmin/user_upload/groundwatergovernance/docs/Country_studies/Sau di_Arabia_Synthesis_Report_Final_Morocco_Synthesis_Report_Final_Groundwater_Ma nagement.pdf 141 Hussain, G., Alquwaizany, A., & Al-Zarah, A. (2010). Guidelines for Irrigation Water Quality and Water Resource Management in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: An Overview. journal of Applied Sciences, 10(2), 79-96.

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water use through capacity building and educational programs142.

Another study by the same author suggested that 95 per cent of water supply meet by aquifers systems while remaining comes from desalinization (4 per cent) and wastewater (1 percent) in 2011. The study strongly stressed out on the policy of demand management of water resources. However, they also focused on conservation measures, law and regulations, water pricing, and efficiency improvement. Water supplied by the network of several pipelines for domestic purpose. The issue of water leakage is another imperative to control and increase utilization sustainably143.

Moreover, Multsch et al (2011) adopted different approach to study water management in Saudi Arabia. They devised recently develop approach of water footprint network, first introduced by Hoekstra in 2002144, to assess internal water footprint. The study significatly poured good result in terms of management options. They concluded that the increase in irrigation efficiency upto 85 per cent, through drip irrigation and desalinization of soil, can contribute to decrease half of agricuture water demand upto 13.5 BMC per year145.

Missimer et al (2012) studied recharge options of wadi aquifers through reclaimed wastewater. They demostrate aquifers recharge and recovery systems in Wadi Qidayd, Wadi Hanifa, Wadi Al-Laith and Wadi Wajj. The wastewater could

142 Zaharani, K. H., Al-Shayaa, M. S., & Baig, M. B. (2011). Water Conservation in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for Better Environment: Implications for Extension and Education. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 17(3), 389-395. 143 Zaharani, K. H., & Baig, M. B. (2011). Water in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Sustainable Management Options. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 21(3), 601- 604. 144 Hoekstra, A. Y. (2003). Virtual Water Trade: Proceedings of the Internatinal Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 12. Delft, The Netherlands: UNESCO-IHE. 145 Multsch, S., Alrumaikhani, Y. A., Alharbi, O. A., Frede, H. G., & Breur, L. (2011). Internal water footprint assessment of Saudi Arabia using the Water footprint Assessment Framework (WAF). 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation (MODSIM 2011), (pp. 829-835). Perth, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.mssanz.org .au/modsim2011/B1/multsch.pdf

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contribute as a strategic resource for recharge and recovery of aquifers146.

Similarly, Kajenthira et al (2012) had also adopted the same approach, but they focused more on environmental issues and reuse options. The study suggests that there might be decrease up to 29 per cent of total industrial water consumption in Oil and natural Gas sector only, if policy of conservation and reuse implemented efficiently. Moreover, six high altitude cities could save $225 million (at price of 2009) and conserve up to 2 per cent electricity of the total energy supply. Such amount could be used for several projects like improvement in efficiency, effective reclamation, sewage and water distribution, and leakage control147.

Ouda (2014) studied the gap of water demand and supply in to three assumed scenarios, i.e. optimistic, moderate and pessimistic. The study estimated imbalance between demand and supply for all three scenarios for the year 2010, 2020 and 2030. In 2030, He figures out the gap of 2359 and 9411 MCM per year for Optimistic and Pessimistic scenario respectively. It shows the adaptation of demand management approach in all water sectors. The study further suggested that the decline in water demand is due to government policy of subsidy reduction in wheat cultivation148.

146 Missimer, T. M., Drewes, J. E., Amy, G., Maliva, R. G., & Keller, S. (2012). Restoration of Wadi Aquifers by Artificial Recharge with Treated Waste Water. Groundwater, 50(4), 514-527. 147 Kajenthira, A., Siddiqi, A., & Anadona, L. D. (2012). A new case for promoting wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia: Bringing energy into the water equation. Journal of Environmental Management, 102, 184-192. 148 Ouda, O. K. (2014). Water demand versus supply in Saudi Arabia: Current and future challanges. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 30(2), 335-344.

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CHAPTER 2

Geographical Description of the Study Area

Saudi Arabia sometimes refers as Al-Mamlakah Al-Arabiyah As-Saudiyah1, Arabia2 or Arabistan3 is officially known as Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It is the largest country of the Arabian Peninsula and second largest in the Arab world after Algeria4, with a total area about 20, 04,965 square kilometers5. It is privileged with certain distinctive characteristics amongst other countries of the West Asia region. Geographically, it is well placed in arid environment; physically quite sound with some exception of plate tectonic or volcanic activities in the Rift region; historically greatly glorified; culturally profoundly rich; socially very significant; economically extremely potential and developed; politically utmost virile (Strength and energy)

1 EUROPA. Europa Regional Survey of the World: Middle East and North Africa. 57. Edited by Christopher Mattews. UK: Routledge, 2011. 2 The usage of Arabia is not agreed upon unanimously. For example, the United States Geological Survey’s Arabia maps include all the countries north of Saudi Arabia up to the Turkish border while ancient Greek and Latin sources depicted Syria, Jordan and Iraq’s desert region until the lower Euphrates under it. See. Ref. Vincent, Peter. Saudi Arabia: An Environmental Overview. London, UK: Taylor & francis Group, 2008. P. 18 3 Terms comes from Persian text, literary means Land of Arab. See. Ref. (Merriam- Webster 2001), Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Merriam-Webster Press, 2001. P. 61. 4 EUROPA. Europa Regional Survey of the World: Middle East and North Africa. 57. Edited by Christopher Mattews. UK: Routledge, 2011. 5 United-Nation. World Statistics Pocketbook. 2014, Series No. 5 Vol. 38. New York, USA: United Nations Publication Division:, 2014. Note: Its precise area is difficult to specify because several of its borders are incompletely demarcated specially UAE and Oman border. According to Britannica Encyclopedia, Country has occupied an area of 2149690 Sq. Km. while CIA World Fact-book 2013 mentioned about 2250000 Sq. Km., another source estimated it about 1,960,582 Sq. Km. or 756,985 Sq. miles.

Chapter 2 Geographical Description of the Study Area

and most significantly ‘Heartland of the energy’, and the cradle of Islam. Saudi Arabia is situated at the furthermost part of the southwestern Asia, and it occupies about three-quarters of the Arabian Peninsula, of which more than half land desert.

Figure 2.1: Map of the Study Area

Source: Prepared by Researcher

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It is astride the Tropic of Cancer and spread over latitudes of 160 and 330 N, and longitude 340 and 560 E. The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is surrounded by three water bodies and seven countries. It is bounded on the west by the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea; on the east by the Arabian Gulf, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates; on the south by Yemen and Oman; and on the north by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait (Figure 1).

The total land boundary is about 4,415 km, which is bordered by 814 km with the Iraq, 728 Km. with the Jordan, 222 Km. with the Kuwait, 676 Km. with the Oman, 60 km with the Qatar, 457 Km. with the UAE and 1458 Km by the Yemen6. The coastline is about 2,640 km, of which 1,800 Km surrounded by the Gulf of Aqaba and Red Sea while approximately 840 km by the Arabian Gulf. Saudi Arabia also has islands in both the directions, i.e. East in the Gulf and West in the Red Sea apart from its mainland. In the Red Sea only, it is having about 176 low coral islands, the largest of which Farasan al-Kabir7 (perimeter of 216 Km) with an area of about 395 Sq. Km. Riyadh city is the capital of Saudi Arabia, and it is situated in the east-central part of the country8.

However, Saudi Arabia has been divided into 13 provinces (Manatiq-Idāriyya) for the ease of administrative management namely, Al-Bahah or Baha (Al-Bahah city), Al-Jauf (Sakaka City), Al-Madinah (Medina), Al-Qasim (Buraidah), Ar-Riyadh (Riyadh city), Asir (Abha), Eastern Province (Dammam), Ha’il (Ha’il City), Jizan (Jizan city), Makkah (Mecca), Najran (Najran city), Northern Border (Arar) and Tabuk (Tabuk city)9. These provinces are further divided into 118 governorates, which have a different status as municipalities (Amanah) headed by mayors (Amin).

6 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). World Fact-book 2013-14. United States: Directorate of Intelligence, 2013. 7 Thomas, Jacob. "Farasan Islands." Plant Diversity in Saudi Arabia: An Introduction. Jan 20, 2012. http://plantdiversityofsaudiarabia.info/Biodiversity-Saudi-Arabia/Vegetation/ Farasanpercent20Islands.htm (accessed Sep 29, 2014). 8 Europa World Year Book. The Middle East and North Africa. New York: Routledge, 2008. 9 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Ministry of foreign affairs, retrieved online at 26 September 2014. http://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/ServicesAndInformation/about KingDom/Saudi Government/Pages/AdministrativeDivision46464.aspx Note: Capital cities of the provinces are in the parenthesis.

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Moreover, governorates have been further subdivided into many sub-governorates, which are known as Marakiz or Markaz.

2.1 Physiographic Regions of Saudi Arabia

The geography of Saudi Arabia is varied from the coastal region to mountains, plateau, plain, and desert. The cumulative influence of topography and geology has given rise to a number of distinct physiographic regions. It span over the western coastal region (Tihamah plain) to the mountain range (Jabal Al-Hejaz) where the land rises from sea level to a peninsula-long mountain range, beyond which in the centre the plateau of Nejd lies. Apart from that, the Asir region has mountainous tracts in the southwestern. It reaches as high as 3,000 meters and known for having pristine and verdant climate in the whole of the area of the country. While, the eastern region is primarily rocky or sandy lowland, which continuing towards the shores of the Arabian Gulf.

However, ‘The Rub-al-Khali’ or "Empty Quarter" desert is geographically hostile because of almost no life and stretching along the country's imprecisely defined southern borders. The demarcations of Physiographic regions in Saudi Arabia are the subject of conformity because there is a lack of agreement for both the names and precise definition. Saudi Geological Survey adopted Brawn et al. (1989) classification10 and divided it into five broad categories then again into subcategories. Apart from that, this classification seems a little bit paradoxical because of its practical applicability and precise demarcation of the region. In present study, some modifications have been undertaken into this categorization because of an inclusive approach to generalization and henceforth, it might be understood as (Figure: 2):

 Western Mountains and Highlands  The Central Plateau and Uplands  Plain Regions including Tabuk and Al-Widyan  Coastal Lowlands  Harrat or Volcanic Rocks  Deserts and Sand Seas

10 Brown, GF, DW Schmidt, and AC Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula. Shield Area of Western Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-A, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1989.

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Figure 2.2: Physiographic Divisions of Saudi Arabia

Source: Prepared by Researcher

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2.1.1 Western Mountains and Highlands

This physiographic is divided into three sections, i.e., Hijaz-Asir highlands, the Red Sea escarpment and Tuwaiq-Al Aramah Escarpment. Hijaz-Asir11 highlands are formed by crystalline rocks-material and a wedge-shaped plateau to the east of the Red Sea escarpment. It is stretching over from north of Abha and expanding towards the Taif-Makkah-Madinah region, where it is finally disposed of into the lavas of Harrat Rahat between Madinah and Makkah. While, weathered, pediment, buried river channel and inselberg topography found in Harrat Khaybar near the inland region of North West of Madinah. However, Hijaz rises in elevation from south of Al Bahah towards the Yemen border and reaches more than 2,500 meters above mean the sea level, several peaks out of them having an elevation of more than 2500 meters12.

The Hijaz Escarpment connected to Asir near Abha and further the extension of Asir started towards the Yemen. The topography of Asir is rugged in nature, and this extravagant terrain continues towards the Yemen where the mountains rise to 3,760 meters above mean the sea level. It contains the country’s highest peaks, which rise to almost 3000 meters at Jewel Sawdah near Abha13. Some small permanent rivers incepted from the higher mountains due to the high amount of rainfall received, but none of them flows for more than 50 km or so before disappearing into the wadi floor. An archeological investigation led by Boston University under the supervision of Dr. Farouk El-Baz indicates that the river system, now prospectively known as the Kuwait River, was sometimes active and the region of a potential water source now dried out, which used to flow about 600 miles (970 km) northeast of the Persian Gulf via the Wadi Al-Batin system.14

11 The term ‘Al-Hijaz’ means the barrier in Arabic while ‘Asir’ refers to difficult. See ref. Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Merriam-Webster Press, 2001. 12 Fisher, F B. The Middle East: A Physical, Social and Regional Geography. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd, 1971. 13 Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 14 Sullivan, Walter. "Signs of Ancient River." SCIENCE WATCH. New York: The New York Times, March 30, 1993.

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Moreover, the extension of Red Sea escarpment runs parallel to the Hijaz towards the red sea coastal lowlands. It is developed as southwest facing Mountain with an average width of 40 to 140 Km. and mainly constitute of faults and fractures since the mid-tertiary uplift movement. The faults structure associated with the uplift movement is known as As-Sarawat15. Faults progression running more or less parallel with the Tihamah coastal lowlands demarcate the western foothills of this range, which rise steadily towards an escarpment face and yield erosion topography. The highest point of this series in Saudi Arabia is at Jabal As-Sudah (also spelled out as Sawadah or Souda) or the Black Mountain.16 From now on, the escarpment generally declines in altitude northwards, is about 1,000 meters in the Madinah area, and continue runs parallel to Hijaz until to reach its lowest point.

The Red Sea escarpment is well developed and characterized by very steep widyan draining systems towards the Red Sea. Slopes of widyan are bare and total absent of soil cover. These are highly dissected and small in size with fully loaded gravel fans17. Headward erosion process in some widyan is very active that leads to the development of Tertiary drainage system. Such drainage systems are envisaged in several widyan, for example the canyon of Wadi Lajab, 18 approximately 40 km north-east of Baysh and 120 Km north of Jazan city, is one of the most spectacular landforms in Saudi Arabia.

In addition to this, Physiography of Tuwaiq Al-Aramah escarpment prominently is cuestas (dip slope plus escarpment) type, which runs through the plateau of Nejd in central Arabia. It is formed an arc shape of about 1600 Km, which stretch from A Nafud in the north to the Rub’ al Khali near Wadi Ad-Dawasir in the south. Jabal Tuwaiq is the largest limestone escarpments with an elevation of 240 meters and

15 Brown, GF, DL Schmidt, and AC Jr Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula western shield area. Open File Report, 84, Washington: Unites States Geological Survey, 1984, 203-217. 16 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). World Fact-book 2013-14. United States: Directorate of Intelligence, 2013. 17 Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 18 Humaidan, Muhammad. "Wadi Lajab is a wonder of nature." Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Arab News, November 26, 2011

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800 Km. long.19 The elevation varies from 200 meters to more than 1000 meter above mean sea level. Its southern section, fringing Ar Rub al Khali, has an average altitude of 800–1,000 meters. The eastern side slopes downwards gradually while the western side ends in an abruptly or dip-slope mechanism of these cuestas are very gentle and rarely. Several narrow widyan run along its sides, such as Wadi Ad Dawasir and Wadi Birk, which drain from the Shield towards the Gulf. Northeast of Riyadh is the 250 km long Al Aramah escarpment.

Al Aramah escarpment has an elevation of about 540 meters but is less prominent as it only stands about 120 meters above the plain to the west20. Wadi Hanifa is another important wadi of this escarpment, which nourish many settlements including Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia.

2.1.2 The Central Plateau and Uplands

The central region of Saudi Arabia is a plateau and known as Najd or Nejd.21 It consists of the regions of Riyadh, Al-Qassim, and Ha'il and comprising an area of about 554,000 square kilometers. Historically, it is a most famous region of the Peninsula roughly bounded on the west by the western mountain ranges and lava beds. The eastern boundaries of Najd has ended with slope eastwards at the narrow strip of red sand dunes known as the Ad-Dahna Desert.22 The southern border of Najd has always been set in the large sea of sand dunes known today as Rub' al Khali (the Empty Quarter), while the southwestern boundaries are marked by the valleys of Wadi Ranyah, Wadi Bisha, and Wadi Tathlith23. Elevation range varied from 762 to 1,525 m (2,500 to 5,003 ft) in height and sloping downwards from west to east.

19 Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 20 Ibid. 21 The term Nejd refers from Arabic and literary means Upland. Sometimes, it was applied to a variety of regions within Arabia. See ref. Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Third ed.). New York: Merriam-Webster Press, 2001. 22 Fisher, F B. The Middle East: A Physical, Social and Regional Geography. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd, 1971. 23 Europa World Year Book. The Middle East and North Africa. New York: Routledge, 2008.

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However, eastern sections, historically known as Al-Yamama, are dominated by oasis settlements with lots of farming and trading activities. The topography includes upland of Aja and Salma24 in the north near Ha'il, Tuwaiq Mountain range running through its center from north to south and the high land of Jabal Shammar. Various dry river-beds (widyan) such as Wadi Na'am in the south, Wadi Al-Rumah in the Al-Qassim Province in the north, and Wadi Ad-Dawasir at the southernmost tip of Najd on the border with Najran are also important. These dry river beds nourish many settlements along these widyan.

Other uplands include Hisma and As-Summan plateau, where Hisma consists of sandstone topography of mesas and buttes in the east of Tabuk to northwest of Saudi Arabia while A- Summan made of limestone lying to the east of Ad-Dahna dunes to the northeast of Riyadh. Hisma plateau is about 100 Km wide with an elevation of 4000 feet25. It is gently sloping towards northeast which overlain by the lava materials while As-Summan represents barren and extensively eroded the topography of arcuate shape. It has an elevation of 400 meters in the west and then slopes decrease gently towards the east reached 250 meters. It is a karst region due to dilution of limestone rock strata that assembled and formed many caves. Karst zone are considered as the important zone of shallow groundwater recharge and replenish many Oases around it. Oases are evident in this plateau including famous one at Hufuf.

2.1.3 Plain Regions including Tabuk and Al-Widyan

Saudi Arabia has three plain areas, namely Al-Hasa in the east while Tabuk-Sirhan- Turayf and Al-Widyan in the north. The Al Hasa, basically oasis topography, is the largest plain of Saudi Arabia. It runs parallel to the Great Ad-Dahna Desert stretches in the west while in the east it bordering on Arabian Gulf from Basra to the outskirts of Oman. Moreover, northern borders extended from Abqaiq Governorate to the

24 Browne, Edward G. "Some Account of the Arabic Work Entitled "Nihayatu'l-irab fi akhbari'l-Furswa'l-Arab" Particularly of That Part Which Treats of the Persian Kings." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Cambridge University Press), May, 1990: 195-259. 25 Vincent, Peter. Saudi Arabia: An Environmental Overview. London, UK: Taylor & francis Group, 2008.

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Empty Quarter in the south. Elevation ranges from 300 meters in the north to reach its minimum near the Gulf coast.26 However, Tabuk-Sirhan-Turayf is the shallowly developed basin of sandstone that surrounded on three sides by mountains. Sandstone strata provide groundwater as a source of irrigation27.

Hence, it is major cereal growing region in the north of Al-Widyan plain. However, the average elevation is 800 meters as compared to Al-Widyan plain at 500 meters above mean sea level. Al-Widyan plain, pediment rangelands, dips gently north- eastwards from An Nafud towards south-central Iraq, which covered with desert pavements of gravels. Topography represents a typical feature of Dhofar28 widyan category of Oman, which are deeply cut, with sides more than 300 meters in elevation from the water course. They are dissected, shallow and thousands of in numbers, some of them are perennial.

2.1.4 Coastal Lowlands

These are extended to both the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coasts, and developed as coastal lowlands. Salt encrusted flat saline topography, locally known as Sabkha29, commonly evident here. Lowlands end at a series of rocky cliffs and nourish several dry riverbeds that periodically filled with water for the farming purpose on both the coasts. For centuries, farming communities thrived in southern Arabia. People built deep wells, dams and systems to irrigate the land. They conserve rainwater in canals and reservoirs.

Western lowland situated among the mountains of western Saudi Arabia and the Red Sea with an average width about 15 Km to 65 Km30. It runs parallel more or less the whole length of the Red Sea but north of Yanbu it is narrow and irregular. It

26 Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 27 Humaidan, Muhammad. "Wadi Lajab is a wonder of nature." Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Arab News, November 26, 2011. 28 Brown, GF, DL Schmidt, and AC Jr Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula western shield area. Open File Report, 84, Washington: Unites States Geological Survey, 1984, 203-217. 29 Al-Farraj, A. "An evolutionary model for sabkha development on the north coast of the UAE." Journal of Arid Environments 63 (2005): 740. 30 Edwards, A L, and S M Head. Red Sea. London: Oxford: Pergamon, 1987.

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commences from the Gulf of Aqaba and runs towards the south, reached Umm Lajj where the coast is a cliff, and high energy gravel fans disappear into beaches.31 Coralline reefs form it generally elevated up to 30 meters above mean the sea level but some part of this lowland still tectonically active and rise to 300 meters. From Yanbu north to Jeddah, however, it is a stretch over approximately 15 Km inland but continuous in silhouette while it gradually widens to a maximum of about 40 km towards Jeddah to Jizan.

This part of the lowland is commonly known as Tihamah, which formed as a result of pediment formation at the foot slopes of the Precambrian Scarp Mountains.32 It is narrowed at Al- Birk due to effecting by lava flows of Harraat after runs for several hundred kilometers from the South of Jeddah. The lowland between Jeddah to Al- Birk known as Tihamat-ash-Sham while remaining section refers as Tihamat-Asir from Al-Birk to Jizan. Most of the lowland is arid, dry and infertile except the Baysh-Jizan region where thick loess alluvial silts accumulated in lower Wadi Baysh and Wadi Sabya.33 These widyan coupled with abundant groundwater, have given rise to significant agricultural development in the region. Sibkha topography has been developed in Jeddah area due to highly saline water tables and the Seawater intrusion.

However, an eastern coastal lowland is entirely different in nature as compared to the West because of rock strata. It is formed by the limestone and calcium-rich duricrust except few low raised beaches and resistant reef patches forming hills with an average elevation of 50 meters or so. It expanded southward from the Kuwait border to the United Arab Emirates and connected Arabian Gulf with a fringe.34 The process of dissolution is common due to the richness of limestone with the

31 Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 32 Behairy, A K A, M Kh El-Sayed, and N V N Rao Durgaprashada. "Eolian Dust in the Coastal area north of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia." Journal of Arid Environment 8 (1985): 89- 98. 33 Bogli, A. Karst Hydrology and Physical Speleology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1980. 34 Pint, J. "Saudi Arabia’s desert caves." Aramco World 41 (2000): 26–39.

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interaction of shallow groundwater table.35 Henceforth, an abundance of Sibkha topography is a general phenomenon and increase barely towards the eastern edge of the As-Summan plateau.

2.1.5 Harrat and Volcanic Rocks

Harrat is a basaltic lava flow with black surfaces whose low albedo induced almost high air temperature due to absorption of insolation over the whole plateau.36 It covers a large part of Arabian Shield which is topographically weathered and angular shape boulder material.37 That is why poorly vegetated, stony and almost infertile soil formed there. Apart from that, Wadi floors that dissect the edges of harrat presented healthy environment and cultivated land for agriculture and farming activity. Indeed, there are many springs on the harraat with a considerable amount of water that might be distinguished as a good source of water supply.38

Prominent harrat of Arabian Shield39 are Al Harrah (31.08°N 38.42°E), Harrat-a- Birk (18.37°N 41.63°E), Harrat-ar-Rahah (27.80°N 36.17°E), Harrat Ithnayn (26.58°N 40.20°E), Harrat Khaybar (25.00°N 39.92°E), Harrat Kishb (22.80°N 41.38°E), Harrat Lunayyir (25.17°N 37.75°E), Harrat Rahat (23.5°N 39.47°E), Harrat Uwayrid (27.08°N 37.25°E), Jabal Yar (17.05°N 42.83°E) and other less significant including Harrat Hutaymah, Al-Hutaymah, Harrat-ad-Dakhana, Harrat- ad-Dehama, Harrat-al-Didadib, Jabal-al-Misharikah, Jabal Awared, Jabal Dilham, Jabal Duwayrah, Jabal Halat Utaynah, Jabal Salma, Samra as Safra, Shurmah

35 Brown, GF, DL Schmidt, and AC Jr Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula western shield area. Open File Report, 84, Washington: Unites States Geological Survey, 1984, 203-217. 36 Vincent, P. "Jeddah’s environmental problems." Geographical Review 93 (2004): 394– 413. 37 Camp, VE, PR Hooper, MJ Roobol, and White DL. "The Madinah eruption, Saudi Arabia: magma mixing and simultaneous extrusion of the three basaltic chemical types." Volcanic Bulletin , no. 49 (1987): 489-508. 38 Peters, W D, J J Pint, and N Kremla. "Karst landforms in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia." The NSS Bulletin 52 (1990): 21–32. 39 Neumann-van-Padang, M. "Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields: Arabia and the Indian Ocean." IAVCEI, no. 16 (1963): 1-64.

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cone, Tabah, et cetera have the potential for landscape development.40 However, the largest lava field Harrat Rahat of about 20,000 SQ km extends for 300 km south of the holy city of Medina, which has an average width of 60 km.41 Lava flows extend as far as 100 km west of the axis of the field. Second important lava field, Harrat Khaybar covers an area of more than 14,000 square kilometers north of Medina city while Harrat Lunayyir volcanic field in the east of the Red Sea port of Umm Lajj is one of the smallest lava fields.42

2.1.6 Deserts and Sand Seas

There is three vast deserts in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia namely, Rab-Al-Khali (Empty Quarter), An-Nafud and Ad-Dahna. Rub-al-Khali is the largest and uninterrupted sand stretch in the world which covers almost an area of 640000 Sq. Km. (250,000 square miles), extended from gravel plains of Rayda in the west to the Abu Baḥr, which separate the Rub-al-Khali from the southern end of Ad-Dahna.43 It is 1,000 kilometers long and 500 kilometers wide. In addition, the elevation varies from 800 meters in southwest to around sea level in northeast.

Desert terrain is covered with reddish-orange color sand and gravel-gypsum particles that made in the presence of feldspar.44 Dunes and barchans are frequent and regular in most of the part but the largest dunes of the Rub-al-Khali found in the Far East, and it reaches an elevation of more than 800 feet from mean sea level.45

40 Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 41 Camp, V E, and M J Roobol. "The Arabian continental alkali basalt province: Part I. Evolution of Harrat Rahat, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia." Bulletin of Geological Society of America, no. 101 (1989): 71-95. 42 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 . 43 Middleton, N J. "Dust storms in the Middle East." Journal of Arid Environments 10 (1986): 83-96. 44 Watson, A. "The control of wind blown sand and moving dunes: a review of the methodsof sand control in deserts, with observations from Saudi Arabia." Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology 18 (1985): 237–252 45 Holm, D.A. "Desert geomorphology of the Arabian Peninsula." Science 132 (1960): 1369–1379.

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Sometimes sand moves hundreds of kilometer in a day and deposits tons of sand into another region.46 Vegetation is very sparse over the porous sandy surface while it is almost nonexistent on the occasional rock and salt surfaces. However, after precipitation the shrub and bush provides surprisingly good grazing for camel and goats. However, some areas of the desert still have been severally droughts prone, and it may not receive precipitation of more than ten years duration. Oil companies have intensively explored the eastern part of the desert bordering with UAE since 1950.

Also, the second largest sand desert in the Arabian Peninsula, Al-Nafud, marks the northern limit of Najd in north-central Saudi Arabia. It occupies an area of about 57000 Sq. Km. with an average elevation of 900 meters, which is lying just beyond the shield area.47 However, it is a part of a vast plain area, which was nearly 375,000 Sq. Km. in the area and extended in the late Jurassic-Triassic era. Its sands almost reach the oasis of Tayma (sometimes refer as Taima) in the West, Al-Jawf and Sakakah in the north, and Hail in the south.48 The sands are gradually moving toward the southeast, where they accumulate in either the Minjhur sandstone formation or the arch of Al-Dahna. Surprisingly, there is an absolute absence of widyan or oases in the desert but the presence of wells, particularly in the west indicates a shallow ground water table fed by percolation and fossil water accumulation.49 For example, the village of Jubbah situates nearly about 80 km north of Hail city and is almost entirely surrounded by dunes provided serene and unflustered life to the dwellers.

Further, desert extended toward the south in the arcuate shape and joined with Empty Quarter where it is named as Dahna belt. This long arcuate belt is poured by reddish sand dunes, which stained with iron oxide like those of An Nafud runs some

46 Glennie, K W. Desert Sedimentary Environment. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1970. 47 Fryberger, S G. "Dune forms and wind regimes." In A Study of Global Sand Seas, by E D McKee, 137-169. Tunbridge Wells: Castle House Publications, 1980. 48 Barth, H J. The Sabkhat of Saudi Arabia: An Introduction. Vol. 1 , in The Arabian Peninsula and Adjacent Countries: Sabkha Ecosystem, by H J Barth and B Boer, 37-51. London: Springer-Verlag, 2002. 49 Emary, K O. "Sediments and Water of Persian Gulf." Bulletin of American Association of Petroleum Geologist 40, no. 10 (1956): 2354-2383.

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80 km wide and 1,300 km length from north to south.50 Moving of dunes and barchans are so common while it also provides pasture for grazing and feeding to the camel and goats in winter and spring season. Extension and height of dunes varied from 30 meters to 100 meters due to southerly wind interaction with the sand.51

The third desert, Al-Jafurah, is regarded by the Arabs as an independent desert. It lies northwest of Dammam and southwest of the Gulf of Bahrain. It extends south to Al Jawf where it merges with the Ad-Dahna Belt, an extension of NW Empty Quarter. Al Jafurah sand sea covers an area approximately of 40,000 Sq. Km. and unlike the other deserts of Arabia does not include prominent linear dunes.52 It widens from 30 km in the north to 200 km in the south with the sea level. Sabkha and brackish salt flats topography are quite observable in some areas because active dunes rest on lower sand layers which permeated by capillary water from the underlying saline surface, for example Umm-al-Samim area on the eastern edge of the desert jumble with the southeast part of Qatar near to the Matti salt marsh53.

Most dunes of Al Jafurah are mobile and crescentic barchans which blown southwards under the influence of Shamal winds. The sands are tan colored as compared to the red sand of Empty Quarter and Ad-Dahna. However, on the coastal edge of the primary dune belt there are zones of low, horseshoe-shaped, parabolic dune near Al-Jubail, Al-Uqayr, Qatif, Jabal Murayqib, et cetera that are managed by vegetation zone54.

50 Brown, GF, DW Schmidt, and AC Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula. Shield Area of Western Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-A, Washington: United states Geological Survey, 1989. 51 Behairy, A K A, M Kh El-Sayed, and N V N Rao Durgaprashada. "Eolian Dust in the Coastal area north of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia." Journal of Arid Environment 8 (1985): 89- 98. 52 Anton, D, and Peter Vincent. "Parabolic dunes of the Jafurah Desert, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia." Journal of Arid Environments 11 (1986): 187-198. 53 Barth, H J. The Sabkhat of Saudi Arabia: An Introduction. Vol. 1 , in The Arabian Peninsula and Adjacent Countries: Sabkha Ecosystem, by H J Barth and B Boer, 37-51. London: Springer-Verlag, 2002. 54 Holm, D.A. "Desert geomorphology of the Arabian Peninsula." Science 132 (1960): 1369–1379.

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2.2 Geology of the Study Area

Although, Geology refer as the scientific study of the Earth, including the materials that it is made of, the physical and chemical processes that occur on its surface and in its interior, and the history of the planet and its life forms55. However, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia is very rich in geological sequences. It varies from pre- Cambrian rock strata of igneous and metamorphic rocks in the Arabian Shield to the recent Quaternary sediment deposits of sand, silt and clay in the Arabian shelf. Sequentially, the oldest rocks identified as old as 1.2 billion years of pre-Cambrian strata while recent carbonate and saline sediments date as young as Holocene outcrop in the coastal and lagoon deposits of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea56.

The structure pattern of Saudi Arabia was set in Precambrian time with sédentaire (irregular and inactive) of the Arabian Shield. These ancient rocks, now knotted, reveal a complex and dynamic history. They had been amalgamated into a rigid land mass during Paleozoic Era, and their surface had been eroded to form nearly a pedi- plain basin. Consecutively, the process of formation and restraint had been continued through the late Tertiary period when the Zagros-Taurus chain of mountains had formed57. It was also the period that the great rift valley systems of Africa and the Red Sea area began to take on their present form58.

55 Kearey, Philip. The Penguin Dictionary of Geology (English). 2nd Edition. London: Penguin Books Ltd, August, 2003. 56 Brown, GF, DL Schmidt, and AC Jr Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula western shield area. Open File Report, 84, Washington: Unites States Geological Survey, 1984, 203-217. 57 Edgill, H S. "Basement tectonics of Saudi Arabia as related to oil field structures." In Basement Tectonics Series 9, by M J et al. Rickard, 169-193. Dordrecht, Germany: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. 58 Brown, GF, DW Schmidt, and AC Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula. Shield Area of Western Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-A, Washington: United states Geological Survey, 1989

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Figure 2.3 Geological Cross-Section of Arabian Formation

Source: (Powers 1968)59

59 Powers, R W. "Saudi Arabia (excluding the Arabian Shield)." Lexique Stratigraphique

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In addition, the Arabian Plate has moved away from Egypt and Sudan towards northeast and north away from Somalia while has rotated counter-clockwise near about of the Gulf of Suez since its creation60. However, the movement has been accompanied by compression and strike-slip faulting along the Bitlis and Zagros zones in the Eurasian Plate, where the Arabian Plate collides and subducts beneath, and Dead Sea transform respectively. It has also been affected by the history of Gondwana graben formation due to strike-slip faulting and rifting. The northern part of the Arabian Plate is still moving towards the northwest at a rate of about 20 mm per year with respect to the Eurasian Plate61. That is why, subduction and plate margin of Saudi Arabia are zones of earthquakes62.

Table 2.1 Litho-Stratigraphy Succession of Saudi Arabia

Period/ Thickness Era Stage Formation Generalized lithology Epoch of Section Quaternary Surficial Gravel, Sand, and Silt

Kharj Limestone, Lacustrine, Gypsum, and Gravel 28 m

Pliocene Sandstone, marl-limestone, subordinate calcareous Hofuf 95 m sandstone, Gravel in the lower part Marl and Shale, minor sandstone. Chalky Dam 91 m sandstone and coquina Miocene

Sandstone. Calcareous silt, sandy limestone local Miocene Pliocene and

Cenozoic Hadrukh 84 m cherty Lutetian Damman Limestone, dolomite, marl-shale 33 m Eocene Marl, chalky limestone, gypsum, common chert Ypresian Rus 56 m geodes hydrite

International III, no. Asie (1968). [Première édition papier (1968) par CNRS ÉDITIONS ; nouvelle édition électronique (2010) préparée par A. BOUZEGHAIA, B. FERRÉ & B. GRANIER sous couvert du Comité Français de Stratigraphie à l'occasion de STRATI2010. Remerciements au Groupe Français du Crétacé, à sa Présidente, D. GROSHENY, et aux Carnets de Géologie pour leur support à ce projet] 60 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 . 61 Vincent, Peter. Saudi Arabia: An Environmental Overview. London, UK: Taylor & francis Group, 2008. 62 Camp, VE, PR Hooper, MJ Roobol, and White DL. "The Madinah eruption, Saudi Arabia: magma mixing and simultaneous extrusion of the three basaltic chemical types." Volcanic Bulletin , no. 49 (1987): 489-508.

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Thanetian Umm er Paleocene Limestone, dolomite 243 m Mountain (?) Radhuma Maastrichitian- Aruma Limestone, dolomite, shale, sand 142 m Campanian Cenomanian- Wasia sandstone, shale, dolomite lenses 42 m Albian (Sakaka) Aptian Shuiba Limestone, calcarenite, dolomite 100 m

Barrenian Riyadh Sandstone, Shale 425 m Cretaceous Hauterivian Buwaib Calcerenite limestone, fine sand, marl 18 m Valanginian Yamama Calcarenite and aphanitic limestone, calcarenite 45 m Berriasian Sulaiy Limestone, Chalky aphantic, calcarenite limestone 170 m

Hith Anhydrite 90 m Tithonian Arab Calcarenite, dolomite, anhydrite 124 m

Mesozoic Jubaila Limestone, aphantic, calcarenite, sand 118 m Kimmeridgian

Hanifa Limestone, aphantic, calcarenite 113 m Oxfordian Tuwaiq Limestone, aphanites, calcarenite, coral 203 m Jurassic Callovian Bathonian Dhruma Limestone, aphanites, shale, sandstone 375 m Bajocian Toarcian Marrat shale, limestone, sand 103 m

Upper Minjur Sandstone, shale 315 m Middle Jilh Sandstone, Limestone, shale 326 m

Triassic Lower Sudair Shale, brick red and green 116 m Upper Khuff Limestone, dolomite, shale 171 m Permian Lower Unayzah Sandstone, fluvio-glacial 33 m

Carboniferous Lower Berwath Sandstone, shale 696 m

Devonian Lower Jauf Limestone, shale, sand 299 m Siluro- Tabuk Sandstone, shale 1072 m Paleozoic Ordovician Saq Sandstone, reddish, quartz 600 m Upper Hormuz Halite interbedded with dolomite and shale 0-2500 m Proterozoic Series Precambrian Crystalline Basement Unconformity

Source: (Brown, Schmidt and Huffman 1984)63, (Brown, Schmidt and Huffman 1989)64 and (Edgill 1992)65

63 Brown, GF, DL Schmidt, and AC Jr Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula western shield area. Open File Report, 84, Washington: Unites States Geological Survey, 1984, 203-217. 64 Brown, GF, DW Schmidt, and AC Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula. Shield Area of Western Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-A, Washington: United states Geological Survey, 1989.

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Moreover, geology has played a significant role in the environment and economic development of any region, apart from its influence on groundwater, lithology and soil formation.

Figure 2.4: Generalised Geological Map of Arabian Peninsula

Source: (R. Powers 1968)66

It is pertinent here to discuss geological structure since it has a major impact on water bearing the potential of the rocks. However, this discussion will have some limitation in the present study because it needs, further, a separate comprehensive study in respect of geological history. A preliminary discussion will focus on the regional geology instead of the stratigraphy of the Saudi Arabia. However, a

65 Edgill, H S. "Basement tectonics of Saudi Arabia as related to oil field structures." In Basement Tectonics Series 9, by M J et al. Rickard, 169-193. Dordrecht, Germany: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. 66 Powers, R.W. (1968). Saudi Arabia (excluding the Arabian Shield).- Lexique Stratigraphique International, Paris, vol. III, Asie.

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simplified stratigraphic and lithologic succession has been given in the table 2.1 and Figure 2.3 for explicit depiction and understanding of the geology of the study area.

Over the last twentieth century or so there has been a significant revision and lack of unanimous demarcation among the geologist regarding the geological divisions of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Nevertheless,the geology of Saudi Arabia could be studied under five broad, distinct divisions to provide a general review and consequential representation.

The divisions of geological succession are as follows (Figure: 2.4):

 The Arabian Shield  The Arabian Shelf o Interior Homocline . The Arch and Basins . Regions of Trough and Graben  The Arabian Platform  The Red Sea Coastal Plain  Tertiary and Quaternary Basalt Lava Fields

2.2.1 The Arabian Shield

The rocks of the Arabian shield, comparatively stable since Precambrian time, consist at about 777000 Sq. Km. area of Arabian Peninsula in the western part of Saudi Arabia67. It comprises most of Najd and all of Hijaz-Asir area of metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks which intruded by younger granites and gneisses. However, shield exposes by the blanket of Phanerozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks because of Mesozoic and Cenozoic uplift and subsidence68. Consequently, the formation of domes, basins, arches, and troughs has been taken

67 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 . 68 Vincent, Peter. Saudi Arabia: An Environmental Overview. London, UK: Taylor & francis Group, 2008.

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place. These effects of such deformation are considered the primary force of shield formation due to plate movements.

In this respect, significant research works have been done by geologists working for the United States Geological Survey (Power et al., 1966; Brown et al., 1989) divided the Shield rocks into Groups69. However, the real paradigm shift came through the research of geologists such as Peter Johnson at the Saudi Geological Survey and Douglas Stoeser at the United States Geological Survey, who have recently describe the whole shield story in terms of island arc-subduction-accretion events (terrane)70. Moreover, the Najd Fault system runs as a belt trending wrench faults of about 400 km wide in the northwest of Saudi Arabia and make a transverse section between the central and north-eastern parts of Arabian Shield. Schmidt et al. (1981) interpret the Najd Fault system as a Late Precambrian oblique shear zone associated with the collision of East and West Gondwanaland. It is potentially rich in water bearing strata because of crystalline rocks that are depressed beneath the Lower Palaeozoic and Upper Cretaceous-Palaeogene sedimentary rocks71.

2.2.2 The Arabian Shelf

The Arabian Shelf lies to the east of the Arabian Shield and rests on the buried Arabian Plate (Figure). It formed after solidification and mature penne planation of the Arabian shield that was later tilted slightly northeast towards the ancestral Tethys trough. As subsidence continued, shallow seas advances across the beveled surface of crystalline rocks and buried it beneath thin sheets of almost flat-lying sediments and form zones of Cuesta topography with scarp more or less following

69 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 Brown, GF, DW Schmidt, and AC Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula. Shield Area of Western Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-A, Washington: United states Geological Survey, 1989. 70 Vincent, P. "Jeddah’s environmental problems." Geographical Review 93 (2004): 394– 413. 71 Schmidt, D L, D G Hadley, and G F Brown. Middle Teritory continental drift and evolution of Red Sea in southeastern Saudi Arabia. Open File Report No.83-641, Washington DC: United States Geological Survey, 1981, 1-56.

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the curvature of eastern edge of the Shield72. These sediments of the shelf are characteristically of shallow water origin while limestone and clastic-textured found in the rock stratum. Sandstone and shale are also present in considerable amount.

However, gentle subsidence throughout the Phanerozoic has allowed some 5,500 m of continental and marine sediments to accumulate into the shelf. It is believed that the central Arabia has been a stable, subsiding, passive margin that was flanking Gondwana73. It was deposited during the Early Palaeozoic by shallow-marine, littoral, and fluvial sandstone, siltstone, and shale. Geological history of Late Ordovician-Early Silurian had been proven that the Shield and Shelf region were covered by snow and ice-caps, Arabia at this time was within 30° of the South Pole, therefore, it may bear out an excellent source of storage of fossil water into the sedimentary rocks74. Later during the Hercynian orogenic activity, the passive margin of Arabia became active and early setup signature of central Arabia Arch due to uplift and tilting process. The second episode of glaciations during Permo- Carboniferous has also been provided the evidence of storage of fossil water in the southwestern Rub al Khali75. However, Shelf is divisible into several sub-provinces due to unparallel geological history, and the effect of such epeirogenic movements clearly recorded in the interior by unconformities, disconformities, and marine- non- marine rocks76.

The Interior Homocline

The Interior Homocline is a sedimentary belt bordering the Shield in the West with an average width of about 400 km. It is a persistent dip ranging from slightly more than 1°30' maximum in the Permian and Triassic (older rocks) to less than 0°30' in

72 Edgill, H S. "Basement tectonics of Saudi Arabia as related to oil field structures." In Basement Tectonics Series 9, by M J et al. Rickard, 169-193. Dordrecht, Germany: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. 73 Camp, VE, PR Hooper, MJ Roobol, and White DL. "The Madinah eruption, Saudi Arabia: magma mixing and simultaneous extrusion of the three basaltic chemical types." Volcanic Bulletin , no. 49 (1987): 489-508. 74 Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 75 Bogli, A. Karst Hydrology and Physical Speleology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1980. 76 Glennie, K W. Desert Sedimentary Environment. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1970.

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Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds (younger rocks)77. However, some arches and graben structures due to unusual tectonic stability have affected its strata. Change in the strike of the Homocline tends to break the belt into several poorly sorted segments. A preliminary and a brief discussion of arches and graben structures related to water bearing rock strata and sedimentary formation are as follows:

The Arch and Basins

The Central Arabian Arch is a significant structural feature of sedimentary rocks dated back from the Carboniferous through to the Tertiary formed after some marine regressions and transgressions. It stretches from the easternmost point of the Shield in an east-northeasterly direction between southern and northern Tuwayq escarpment, the area of changing strike and passes uniformly under the Rub-Al- Khali towards the Qatar. Rock strata belong to Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic structure, in which Jurassic is thickest sedimentary deposits. Detailed investigation shows that pre- Wasia (Middle Cretaceous), indicate the origin of central Arabian Arch, truncation having good potential of stored fossil water in sedimentary beds78.

However, this section of the central arch is distinctly condensed in the far north region only as compared with an equivalent sequence of centre of the Arch, which is directly corresponding to the change from deeper water to shallow water aquifers. The extension of central Arch continued until the shift in strike of the interior Homocline around Hail at the latitude 27032’ N and longitude 41043’ E. After the shift in strike, Hail-Rutbah Arch, which extends from northern Saudi Arabia and penetrate into north of Iraq, is a part of the longest Arch in the West Asia79.

77 Thomson, A. Origins of Arabia. London: Stacey International, 2000. 78 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 . 79 Greenwood, W R. "The Ha'il Arch- A key to demormation of the Arabian Shield during the evolution of the Red Sea rift." Mineral Resource Bulletin (Directorate General of Mineral Resources Jeddah) 7 (1973). Greenwood, W R, R E Anderson, RJ Fleck, and R J Roberts. "Precambrian geologic history and plate tectonic evolution of Arabian Shield." Mineral Resource Bulletin (Directorate General of Mineral Resources Jeddah) 24 (1980).

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Roughly, it passes west of Hail through the Al-Jauf-Sakakah area, west of Al- Jalamid and east of Unazah on the Saudi-Iraq border where northeast flank dips gradually towards Iraq and southeast flank passes gently into the Sirhan-Turayf basin. It is believed that Arch consists at least one or possibly two areas of subsidence including Wadi Nisah and Wadi as Sahba synclinal depression. Hail- Rutbah Arch is significant because of fossil water conformities during Late Cretaceous and Eocene sinking of the the Persian Gulf and Sirhan-Turayf basins due to tensional faulting in between.

Consequent upon this, the interior Homocline split into two segments, i.e. Tabuk segment in the West composed of mainly Paleozoic (older) Saq sandstone rocks while Widyan basin towards the east made up solely of Cretaceous and younger sedimentary strata. Widyan basin is a northwest extension of the interior Homocline and merges southward into Tuwaiq escarpment80.

Regions of Trough and Graben

Central Graben and trough are a significant feature of interior Homocline, forming a broad arc concave to the northeast and extending west from Harad through Ad- Dahna, Al-Kharj, and Durma. It runs parallel to the Tuwaiq escarpment towards Al- Majamaah. It consists of six major graben (Nisah, Awsat, Durma, Qaradan, Barrah, and Majmaah), two large (Sahba and Mughrah) trough and several small structural systems. Nisah graben extended linearly to about 90 Km with a width of 2 to 3.7 Km and Biyadh-Wasia, Yamama, and Hanifa formation are quite evident. Aswat graben extended almost 90 Km northwest of Nisah and filled by alluvium that is preserved as isolated outliers of Dhruma and Marrat rocks81.

While, Durma graben runs parallel to the Awsat graben towards the north with a width of 1 to 2 km and more than 50 Km of length82. Another graben, Qaradan,

80 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966. 81 Edgell, H S. "Aquifers of Saudi Arabia and their geological framework." The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 22, no. IC (1997): 3-31. 82 Brown, GF, DL Schmidt, and AC Jr Huffman. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula western shield area. Open File Report, 84, Washington: Unites States Geological Survey, 1984, 203-217.

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adjacent to Durma lies a few kilometers north of Khashm Mijharah and extends about 18 Km. The flank of the graben is composed of a series of overlapping alluvial fans that cover limestone ridges83.

However, Barrah graben is structurally resistant against limestone and situated about 25 Km North West of Khashm Qaradan. It is almost 16 Km long with an average of more than 2 Km in width. It is also covered by coalescing alluvial fans and belongs to Dhruma formation84. Moreover, lastly, Majmaah graben is a system of overlapping faults in the northernmost of the Interior Homocline85. Dhruma and Hanifa formation of water-bearing rocks are quite common in limestone strata. Moreover, Sahba and Mughrah trough are situated parallel to each other while Sahba is a direct eastward extension of Wadi Nisahand the Nisah Graben. However, an interesting aspect of Mughrah trough is the presence of fresh-water bedrock, which is successfully dated back as post-Eocene and pre- Miocene86. Channel of gravels and their course was determined by the through and have since been dissected by more recent drainage.

2.2.3 The Arabian Platform

The nearly flat structural platform bordering the Interior Homocline is sharply set off by abrupt break in slope (Figure 2.4) to the east while Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, and Persian Gulf from the north to south respectively. However, the width of the platform varies between 100 km along the southern and western flank of the Rub al Khali Basin to 400 km or more across the Qatar Peninsula87. It is dominated by

83 Glennie, K W. Desert Sedimentary Environment. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1970. 84 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966. 85 Schmidt, D L, D G Hadley, and G F Brown. Middle Teritory continental drift and evolution of Red Sea in southeastern Saudi Arabia. Open File Report No.83-641, Washington DC: United States Geological Survey, 1981, 1-56. 86 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 87 Anton, D. "Modern Eolian deposits of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia ." In Eolian Sediments and Processes, by M E Brookefield, Ah and T S brandt, 365-378. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1983.

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several major north-south inclined anticlines, which rose above the general level of the platform. Such anticlinal structures are economic most important because of oil reserves. One of notable, EN-Nala88, anticline situated in the southern part of which includes the world largest oil field of Ghawar. The deep structure of sedimentary rocks of the platform regarded as a salt-intrusive zone because of complex crustal faulting, strong negative gravity anomaly and resisted deformation.

However, a couple of depression or basin has formed on the Arabian Shelf and is mainly recognized through the sub-surface survey89. The basins probably represent deep-seated basement faults, but few details are available. Prominently, Rub-Al- Khali, Dibdibah and Sirhan-Turayf basin areas formed the whole of the aerial platform extent. The largest basin is the Rub al Khali Basin and is an elongate trench plunging gently towards the Arabian Gulf and extending almost as far as the Iranian coast. The width of the basin is relatively uniform throughout its length, averaging about 300 Km. It is primarily a Tertiary feature with sediments of Paleocene, Lower and Middle Eocene and Late Tertiary age thickening towards the center90.

However, a significant aspect of the basin is that the Mesozoic rocks show a trend towards shallow water sedimentation from the centre of the basin northwest, west and southwest towards the platform. A similar pattern appears to the south and southeast, although much of pertinent evidence for this structure has been eliminated by several Mesozoic unconformities. In addition, deposition of fossil water appears to have taken place much deeper in the northwest as compared to the centre of the Rub-Al-Khali basin. Consequently, Mesozoic sedimentation emerged as a possible source of water bearing strata which is much larger than the present depression91.

88 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 89 Alsharhan, A S, and C G St C Kendall. "Holocene coastal carbonates and evaporites of the southern Persian Gulf and their ancient analogues." Earth Science Reviews 61 (2003): 191-243. 90 Greenwood, W R, R E Anderson, RJ Fleck, and R J Roberts. "Precambrian geologic history and plate tectonic evolution of Arabian Shield." Mineral Resource Bulletin (Directorate General of Mineral Resources Jeddah) 24 (1980). 91 Edgell, H S. "Aquifers of Saudi Arabia and their geological framework." The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 22, no. IC (1997): 3-31.

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However, less significant basin concerning sediment of water-related deposit included Sirhan-Turayf and Dibdiba basin, of which Dibdiba mainly indicates the major thickness of Cretaceous rocks. While, Sirhan-Turayf basin points out towards Eocene sediments along with Upper Cretaceous volcanic rocks92.

2.2.4 The Red Sea Coastal Plain

Red Sea Coastal Plain comprises the narrow belt which, formed as the rift escarpment of the Red Sea graben, was uplifted and eroded. Geologically, the rocks composed of Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks93raised coral reefs and small patches of dune sand and sabkhah94. It inscribes the eastern edge of a large north-south graben bounded by Hijaz-Asir escarpments and comprises thick sequences of Oligocene and recent sedimentary rocks.

2.2.5 Tertiary and Quaternary Basalt Lava Fields

The Tertiary and Quaternary or Cenozoic basaltic lava fields or harraat are extended (about 180,000 km2) in a more or less north-south belt on the central Arabian Shield95. Their study has revealed a volcanism associated activities with mantle plume hot spots under the Shield. It is determined that lava fields related to the fracturing and faulting associated with the opening of the Red Sea which began at the end of the Oligocene (about 25 Ma)96. As the African and Arabian plates were dragged apart, tensional stresses caused considerable subsidence and the development of linear vent fissures that became conduits for alkali-olivine basaltic lavas. The stress regime during the volcanism was clearly extensional but is poorly

92 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966 93 Edwards, A L, and S M Head. Red Sea. London: Oxford: Pergamon, 1987. 94 Ambraseys, N N, C P Melville, and R D Adams. The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 95 Alsharhan, A S, and C G St C Kendall. "Holocene coastal carbonates and evaporites of the southern Persian Gulf and their ancient analogues." Earth Science Reviews 61 (2003): 191-243. 96 Ambraseys, N N, C P Melville, and R D Adams. The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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understood and does not generally run parallel to Red Sea standard faults97. The plateaus are bleak, inhospitable places and their dark surfaces covered with coarse, angular, blocks. In addition to lava flows, the harraat are scattered with a variety of volcano types. However, volcanic activities have still somewhat active in western Arabia, and eruptions of lava continued from the Oligocene to the present. According to Camp et al. (1987) within-plate volcanism has resulted in at least 21 eruptions in the past 1,500 years, the latest being at Dhamar in the Yemen in 193498.

One of the most important eruptions in Saudi Arabia was that near the holy city of Madinah in 1256 AD when an eruption on the northern part of the Harrat Rahat resulted in a lava flow 23 km long that approached to within 8 km of the city. Camp et al. and Ambraseys et al. (1994) provide interesting historical detail of the flow based on eyewitness accounts of the 52-day eruption99. Camp and Roobol (1992) discuss in some detail the evolution of the West Arabian harraat and note that they differ from the contemporaneous lava fields in East Africa100.

The continental magmatic rocks of Saudi Arabia can be divided into older and younger groups that differ in their overall composition and structural setting. Olivine poor, alkaline, tholeiitic lavas along north-west Precambrian trends reactivated during the Oligo- Miocene (about 30 to 15 Ma) during first phase while mildly alkaline olivine basalts along north-south trends during a major period of crustal uplift dated back from about 12 Ma to historical eruptions.

97 Greenwood, W R, R E Anderson, RJ Fleck, and R J Roberts. "Precambrian geologic history and plate tectonic evolution of Arabian Shield." Mineral Resource Bulletin (Directorate General of Mineral Resources Jeddah) 24 (1980). 98 Camp, VE, PR Hooper, MJ Roobol, and White DL. "The Madinah eruption, Saudi Arabia: magma mixing and simultaneous extrusion of the three basaltic chemical types." Volcanic Bulletin , no. 49 (1987): 489-508. 99 Ambraseys, N N, C P Melville, and R D Adams. The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 100 Camp, VE, PR Hooper, MJ Roobol, and White DL. "The Madinah eruption, Saudi Arabia: magma mixing and simultaneous extrusion of the three basaltic chemical types." Volcanic Bulletin , no. 49 (1987): 489-508.

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2.3 Climate of Saudi Arabia

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia placed under the tropical and subtropical desert region, and its half of the mainland are situated in the ridge region of the high-pressure system of ‘Horse Latitude’ that receives very little or no precipitation. Both Koppen and Thornthwaite climate classification systems have been classified Saudi Arabia as Arid hot desert101. Koppen symbolizes Saudi Arabia by the English alphabet BWh102 on the basis of precipitation and temperature index103 while and Thornthwaite refer it as A’ on the basis of precipitation, temperature and evapotranspirational (aridity index)104. However, continentality and altitude give rise to considerable variations in climate over the whole of Arabian Peninsula. Synoptic climatology and weather pattern can be deduced from the confrontation of major air masses of Polar Continental air that develops as an intense anticyclone over central Asia during winter105.

They produced high-pressure conditions over the peninsula that gives rise to dry, stable air, and clear skies. It invades the Kingdom from the Mediterranean, which often crosses over the desert plains of northern Saudi Arabia and yield much-needed rainfall during the winter season106. Moreover, high temperatures during summer over the Peninsula lead to the development of Tropical Continental air that forms a part of the Monsoon low circulation centered over northwest India107. It causes

101 Thomson, A. Origins of Arabia. London: Stacey International, 2000. 102 James, Preston E. "Köppen's classification of climates: A review (Eng. Trans)." Monthly Weather Review 50 (1922): 69-72. 103 Koppen, Wladimir P. "Klassifikation der Klimate nach Temperature, Niederschlag und Jahresverlauf [Classification of climate according to temperature, precipitation and their annual course (trend)]." Petermann's Geographische Mitteilungen 64 (1918): 193-203. 104 Thornthwaite, C W. "An Approach toward a Rational Classification of Climate." Geographical Review 38 (1948): 55-94. Mather, John R, and Sanderson Marie. The Genius of C. Warren Thornthwaite. London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996. 105 Köppen, Wladimir P. "Typische und Übergangsklimate [Typical and transitional climates]." Meteorologische Zeitschrift 46 (1929): 121-126. 106 Fisher, F B. The Middle East: A Physical, Social and Regional Geography. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd, 1971. 107 Vincent, Peter. Saudi Arabia: An Environmental Overview. London, UK: Taylor & francis Group, 2008.

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intense heat due to convection over the Saudi Arabia and pull out Monsoon air, unstable and Tropical Maritime, from the Arabian Sea. Further, the two tropical air masses merge at the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which again split into northerly and southerly. While, northerly extent, varies year to year, of the ITCZ, usually penetrates the Red Sea as far north as Jizan Province, and sometimes give off intense downpours and flash floods108. Although, it also penetrates further east into Empty Quarter and occasionally yield heavy shower. Apart from great extremes of temperature, there are also wide variations between the seasons and regions109.

Nonetheless, summer season characterized by high diurnal temperatures and hazy skies with stability ranges from June to August. Dusty winds, locally known as Shamal, affect the lower atmosphere and severely reduce the visibility due to vast quantities of dust transport from the north110. While, the autumn season (September to November) characterized by cool nights and warm, sunny days due to temperature decrease and ITCZ southward shift. Mild and cool winter season persist during December to February with good visibility, cold nights and bright, sunny days111. Temperature falls below zero degrees on the arrival of cold Polar Continental air from the Mediterranean in many cities including capital Riyadh. Sleet and sometimes snow are commonly evident along the Asir and Hijaz escarpment112.

108 Almazroui, Mansour, Ramzah Dambul, M Nazrul Islam, and P D Jones. "Principal components-based regionalizationof the Saudi Arabian climate." INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY, 2014: 4139-4158. 109 Beaumont, Peter, Gerald H Blake, and J Nalcolon Wagstaff. The Middle East: A Geographical Study. 2nd (Reprint 1978). New York: John Willey & Sons Ltd., 1976. 110 Fryberger, S G. "Dune forms and wind regimes." In A Study of Global Sand Seas, by E D McKee, 137-169. Tunbridge Wells: Castle House Publications, 1980. 111 Almazroui, Mansour. "Calibration of TRMM rainfall climatology over Saudi Arabia during 1998–2009." Atmospheric Research Online (Elsevier), 2010: 1-15. 112 UNFCCC. Second National Communication: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. National Assessment, Peris: Unites Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2011.

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Figure 2.5: Average Temperature Distribution from January to June (1950- 2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Figure 2.6: Average Temperature Distribution from July to December (1950- 2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Figure 2.7: Average Precipitation Distribution from January to June (1950- 2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Figure 2.8: Average Precipitation Distribution from July to December (1950- 2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Figure 2.9: Average Potential Evaporation Distribution from January to June (1950-2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Figure 2.10: Average Potential Evaporation Distribution from July to December (1950-2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Figure 2.11: Average Yearly Distribution of Potential Evaporation (1950- 2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Figure 2.12: Spatial Aridity Index in Saudi Arabia (1950-2000)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on WorldClim database

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Spring season begins from March with a decrease in air pressure over the surface and finishes in May. This is a very comfortable time of the year where cool nights and sunny, warm days quite common. It seems apparent to skip discussion over temperature, precipitation and humidity because it has not been undertaken as the objective of the present study. Despite the synoptic classification of Saudi climate, several attempts have been made to describe micro-climate region and agro-climate zones. Significant Studies are includes (Meiga 1952), (MAW, Climatic Atlas of Saudi Arabia 1988), (Al-Jerash 1985), (Nasrallah and Balling 1993), (Sirocko, et al. 1993), (Al-Ghobari 2000) (Wang, et al. 2005), (Almazroui 2010), (Almazroui, Abid, et al. 2012) and (Almazroui, Dambul, et al. 2014) and many others.

2.4 Major Soil Groups in Saudi Arabia

It is evident that soil plays an important role in water cycle where rainfall infiltrates deep into soil capillary and recharge the storage beneath the ground as groundwater. It is also influence distribution of precious water resources. Saudi Arabia is very significant in this case as the wind erosion and deposition of the soil is a very prominent feature due to the scorching heat of the desert land. Subsequently, sparse vegetation cover and a limited amount of rainfall restricts, further, development of the soil horizon.

However, the majority of soil groups in Saudi Arabia are young with little pedogenic development. Several attempts have been made to classify soil into different groups. In the 1960s, the very beginning survey was carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW) to assess the potential of soil at small scale for agriculture development. Since then a country level survey was undertaken in 1966 by the Ministry to study soil horizon and major groups. Consequently, first schematic soil survey map was completed in 1981 at the spatial scale of 1: 2 million113. However, there were several limitations with this new map due to scale and sample variability.

113 Vincent, Peter. Saudi Arabia: An Environmental Overview. London, UK: Taylor & francis Group, 2008.

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Figure 2.13: Major Soil Groups in Saudi Arabia

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on FAO, 2007

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Hence, Ministry of agriculture and water (MAW) first time conducted a low density soil survey for whole of the kingdom in the early 1980 and published General Soil Map of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia114 in the year of 1985.

Latest soil map published by FAO115 for entire globe provides a systematic and reasonable approach to incorporating in any type of modeling and generation of base map. It is best and possibly only online available data for the entire globe. The total extent of Saudi Arabia has been classified into six major groups including two other non-soil categories as salt flats and dunes. Six major groups include Arenosols, Fluvisols, Lithosols, Regosols, Solonchaks and Yermosols as soil categories (Figure 2.13).

Figure 2.14: Percentage Share of the Soil Group from Total

40 33.69

30 23.02

14.40

10.25

9.83

10 6.05

2.24 0.52 0

Source: Calculated by Researcher from Figure 2.13

114 MAW. General Soil Map of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Maps Catelogue, Riyadh: MInistry of Agriculture and Water, Land Management Department, 1985, 66. 115 FAO. "Digital Soil Map of the World." Harmonised Soil Information. Version 3.6. Prod. Food and Agriculture Organisation. Rome, 02 28, 2007. http://www.fao.org/geonetwork/srv/en/metadata.show?id=14116

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Arenosols: It covers almost 6 percent of the total geographical area of Saudi Arabia. It consisted of unconsolidated sand deposits and weathered coarse texture particles. It has very low water typically holding capacity due to excessive permeability. Arenosols has very low humus that prevented, further, nutrient production. Bereft of distinct soil horizons prohibit any type of agriculture use. It is also known as Psamment in USDA soil taxonomy.

Fluvisols: It is young and alluvial deposits of soil that allow dry land agriculture in the Kingdom. However, it covers only a small part about 2.24 percent of the total land area but has a significant contribution to agriculture productivity. It has good stratification of soil horizon which facilitates wheat cultivation in Saudi Arabia. Lithosols: Lithosols occupied almost 10.25 percent of the total area. It is not suitable for farming and agriculture as the soil horizon almost absent or truncated. The reason for poor or no development of soil is the ancient shield of metamorphic rocks and slope steepness. Moreover, Shield area offered ironstone type of topography while slope forced to rapid removal of erodible material.

Regosols: It is very poorly sorted and less developed mineral soil. Calcium carbonate and Gypsum dominated soil spread over approximately 9.83 percent of the total land area. Unconsolidated parent materials forbid any type of agriculture activities, but ideal for grazing and animal husbandry. Water holding capacity is very meager as compared to Fluvisols.

Solonchaks: It is pale or gray color soil with the high soluble property. Gypsum, Sodium and Calcium Carbonate are the dominant materials that possibly accumulate by the solvent property of the soil. Solonchaks is very high in salinity and owing to the accumulation of salts. It consists more or less 14.40 percent of the total land area. It could use for agriculture purpose if proper management and irrigation practice involved.

Yermosols: Yermosols soil association is the largest group in Saudi Arabia which accounts approximately (33.69 percent) one-third of the total land area. Four subgroups namely Haptic (4.26 percent), Calcic (11.29 percent), Luvic (17.87) and Gypsic (0.36) have been classified. Yermosols group has been replaced to Gypsisols in updated nomenclature. It contents very low amount of organic material that is

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characterized by the lack of clay and dominance of calcium sulfate (gypsum). These soils are inherently very deficient in fertility and water holding capacity. However, Calcic group that is dominated by calcium rich horizon ranges from clay origin to fine texture parent material. The organic matter contents vary region to region, but they are never saline and neither do them greying. It might be fertile under maneuvering and fertilizer applications. However, inadequate water holding capacity restricts nutrient development in such arid environment.

Other non-soil class includes Dunes (shifting sands) and salt flats that occupied more or less 23.02 percent and 0.52 percent of total land area respectively. It is of no use in any condition due to its critical nature. It has high permeability and infiltration ratio, but the high rate of evaporation restricts water infiltration into the water table.

2.5 Population in Saudi Arabia

Population, on the one hand plays a significant role in the development of any country, on the other, it may hinder the sustainability of a nation due to structural changes. Therefore, an appropriate balance between dependent and economically active population and in other demographic variables is essential. It is estimated that by the end of 2015 the population of Saudi Arabia will be 31 million116. The population of the country was 4.07 million in 1960 and 5.80 million in 1970. A sharp increase in the population is marked after and during the oil boom of 1973 that reached to 9.31 million in 1980. In a time span of ten years from 1980-1990 population of Saudi Arabia touched the figure of 15.18 million (nearly 40 percent increase).

Further in 2000 population of the country rose to 20.47 million and became 27.13 million in 2010117. It is projected that the population of Saudi Arabia will be around 32 million in 2020. However, it is estimated that the population growth rate will decrease mainly due to the change in fertility rate and in Government policies to

116 UN. "World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision." Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. United Nations Organization. 2012. http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_indicators.htm (accessed Dec 25, 2014). 117 SAMA. Saudi Arabia Monatry Agency. Contry Report, Riyadh: Department of Statistics, 2014.

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reduce labour induce immigration. Therefore, with slow growth rate population will be around 35.63 million and 40.38 million by 2030 and 2050 respectively (Figure 2.15).

Population increase has several implications on the sustainable development of the country. Most important among them is the balance between number of persons and availability of resources i.e. food and water. It seems that the theory of Malthus is the best explanation of such situation as the geometric growth of the population and arithmetic increase of resources. Thus, the pressure increases exponentially as the growth of population and resource consumption accelerated to a critical level. In a country like Saudi Arabia, the deficiency of water resources caters insecurity as the per capita water availability declines at the level of dangerous mark. However, the scientific and technological development significantly affects growth of the population.

Figure 2.15 Population Increase Male and Female (1960-2050)

Source: SAMA, 2014 and UN Population Projection: The 12th Revision available online at http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_indicators.htm

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Source: United Nations, (2010) World Population Prospects: the 12th Revision

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Figure 2.17 Population Density in Saudi Arabia (1990-2015)

Source: Prepared by Researcher Based on CIESIN, CIAT and SEDAC

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Moreover, population structure (age –sex distribution) has also altered since 1970. It is evident from given figure that a typical wide base pyramid structure found in 1950 which was characterized by younger population group118. Further, pyramid shows unbalance age-sex structure in 2010 and 2050 (projected) due to augmented immigration rates to Saudi Arabia.

Figure 2.17 indicates the spatial distribution of the population in Saudi Arabia from 1990 to 2015. All six maps show that large area of Saudi Arabia is least densely populated, in spite of rapid rates of population increase. The chief expansion is mainly in available water regions of Asir Mountains and the nearby eastern coast of the Red Sea.

Therefore, it is clearly evident that major population expansion is in large tracts of sami arid lands and in the areas of high altitude, where water availability is much better than the extreme desert areas of most of the Saudi Arabia. All six maps show that population of Saudi arabia is not evenly distributed rather, it is found in the shape of big patch mainly on the south western side of the country. Though Riyadh is the capital of the country but cities on the west side of Saudi Arabia like Jeddah, Makkah, Madinah,etc. are more populated since the begining.

In 1990 despite being the capital of the Saudi Arabia, the population density of Riyadh was less than 15 persons per Sq. Km. Only a subtle patch in Jeddah and nearby areas can be seen, where population density was more than 45 persons per sq. km in the same period. It is decernible from the figure 2.15 that in a time span of 25 years from 1990-2015, both distribution and density of population has increased leaps and bounds.

Some glaring facts can be cited (see figure 2.17) regarding the density of population in Saudi arabia:

118 Pyramid source: United Nations, World Population Prospects: the 12th Revision; projection (Medium Variant), available online at http://www.un.org/esa/population /publications/wcu2010/Main.html

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 Overall the density of population is much lower than many regions and countries of the world.  With time increase in overall population has been marked, density is also increased like wise.  Due to increase in the population as well as in density the desert between Riyadh region and westen side of Saudi Arabia had disappeared in 2010.  Much expansion has been marked from 2010 to 2015 both in distribution and density of population in saudi Arabia.  Notwithstanding sizeable increase in population much of the desert area of Saudi Arabia is still uninhabited.

2.6 Urbanization in Saudi Arabia

Domestic water consumption in urban areas is usually considerably higher than the rural areas because of the increased need of usually affluent populations of cities. Urbanization is , therefore, a significant factor in increasing water demand and subsequently exerting pressure on the available water supply sources. Increasing urbanization, that pressure eventually may extend to the peripheral zones of major towns and cities, and lead to potential conflict between urban-rural populations competing for the same water sources.

Figure 2. 18 Urban Population Growth in Saudi Arabia

Source: SAMA Various Annual Reports

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The urban population of Saudi Arabia has increased from 3.74 million or 50 percent of the total population in 1970 to about 6.4 (60 percent); 10.5 (76.6percent); and 15.6 (79.8 percent) million in 1980, 1990 and 2000 respectively (Figure 4). The urban population is expected to reach around 30.7 million in 2030 or 80 percent of the total population of the country.

Consequently, it is observed that the domestic water ratio has increased from about 6.0percent of the total national water use in 1990 to about 10 percent in 2000, and it is expected to rise to about 30percent in 2030.

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CHAPTER 3

Water Resources in Saudi Arabia

Water is the most splendid substance on the earth. It governs the climate, life, food cycle and many others. In many instances the way of development and the quality of life of people in different countries determined by available water resources. Water profile of any country shows the strategic significance and plays an extensive role in the development of human society. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has comprised a vast area of Arabian Peninsula and almost of semi-arid and arid type. The terrain of the country has a slight variation in the topography, but, on the whole, it is an unbroken expanse of gravel plains, salt flats, and sand dunes with few lakes or ephemeral streams.

The Empty Quarter1, one of the largest continuous sand deserts in the world, extended in the south of the country while another large sandy desert, the Nafud, located in the northern part. The South-West area of the country contains a mountainous region with a few peaks rising to over 9,000 feet2. Whereas, the vast extent of the desert, covers almost 80 Percent of the Arabian Peninsula, confine with the occasional rain that entails their no substantial permanent lakes and streams. However, few lakes did exist but located far in the southwest of the country that are subtle and impermanent. The ephemeral streams have not had significant flow. However, these pop up in the desert after rains from time to time. This arid condition marked by scarce and infrequent rainfall and long summer with high temperature. The available surface water and groundwater resources are limited, precipitation rates are low, and evaporation is high. The long-term average annual

1 Also known as Rub al Khali (in Arabic). 2 Fisher, W. B. (1971). The Middle East: a Physical, Social and Regional Geography (Sixth ed.). London, Great Britain: Methuen and Co. Ltd. Chapter 3 Water resources in Saudi Arabia

precipitation has been estimated at 114 mm per year3 (FAO, 2008), which is equal to 245.5 km3/year over the whole country. This average of rainfall, however, significantly varies from region to region in the study area. In the north, it is between 100-200 mm and drop below 100 mm in the south except near the coast4.

The elevated region of the west and south do, however, experience appreciable rainfall and 500 mm/year is not uncommon in some areas5. Apart from that, oases and widyan systems are quite visible in the whole of the desert region and provide elixir to the sustainability and life. According to Falkenmark’s scarcity index6, Saudi Arabia faces extreme water shortage. The average water share from renewable sources was about 281 and 248.7 cubic meters per person in the year 2005 and 2009 respectively. In terms of daily per capita water consumption, Saudi Arabia ranks the third biggest consumer of water in the world after United States of America and Canada7.

It is, further, expected that the demand for potable water will increase about 10 MCM per day during the next twenty years, if the daily per capita consumption rates continue at its current level, and creating a large gap between the available water supply and demand8 (SAMA, 2011 47th report).

3 Estimates shows large variation in the volume of rainfall as it depends on the area covered by rain during the rain event within the watershed. FAO estimated, for 114 mm average annual rainfall, 245.5 km3/year (FAO, 2008) while ASCAD calculated 158.47 km3/year over the whole country (ASCAD, 1997). See ref: FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/sau/SAU-CP_eng .pdf 4 Critchfield, HJ. 2002. General Climatology, Prentice-Hall of India. New Delhi. 5 Al-Ghobari, H. M. (2000). Estimation of reference evapotranspiration for southern region of Saudi Arabia. Irrigation Science, 19(2), 81-86. 6 Note: it is a measure of per capita of water resource describe by Falkenmark et al., 1989. Falkenmark M, Lundqvist J, Widstrand C. 1989. Macro-Scale Water Scarcity Requires Micro- Scale Approaches - Aspects of Vulnerability in Semi-Arid Development. Natural Resources Forum, 13, 258-267. 7 SAMA. 2015. Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency, (50th Annual Report) 1435 H (2014 G). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 8SAMA. 2011. Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency, (47th Annual report). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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3.1 Hydrology and Water Resources

Estimates of water resources through different calculation methods have produced varied results. Both availability and quality of water vary enormously in time and space. Several accounts have been registered to assess the resource base and availabilities for proper distribution. It was estimated that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia had total 2277333.3 MCM water including renewable, non-renewable, desalinated, and treated wastewater while 2272880 MCM water was registered for potable use (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1: Available Water Resources by Source in Saudi Arabia (MCM)

Estimated Available % of Total Sources of Water Water for Use Available Surface Water 6500 2230 0.10 Groundwater (Non-renewable in 2185000 2185000 96.13 deep aquifer) Groundwater (Renewable in 84000 84000 3.70 shallow aquifer) Desalination Water 1103.3 1103.3 0.05 Wastewater 730 547.5 0.02 Total 2277333.3 2272881 100.00 Estimated Non-Renewable 2762 … 0.12 Recharge Renewable 1196 … 0.05 Source: Various Publications9: Various Sources

9 Authman, M. N., 1983, Water and Development Processes in Saudi Arabia, Tihama Press, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 1984, Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia. Department of Water Resource Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. King Fahad University of Petrolium and Minerals, Research Institute (KFUPM/RI), 1988, “Groundwater Resources Condition in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia,” Research report, KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. p.61. Alawi, J and Abdulrazzak, M., 1993, Water in Arabian Peninsula: Problems and Prospective. In P.Rogers, and P. Lydon (eds), Water in the Arab World Prospective and Prognoses, Division of Applied Sciences, Harvard Univ. 171-202. Abdulrazzak, M., 1994, Review and assessment of water resources in Gulf Coopration Council Countries, Water Resource Development. 10, 23-37. Abdullah E. Dabbagh and Walid. A. Abderrehman, 1996, “Management of groundwater resources in Saudi Arabia under various irrigation water use scenarios in Saudi Arabia,” In Arabian Journal of Science and Engineering 22(special theme issue on water resources in Arabian Peninsula), KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. 47-64.

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Though, the estimates of surface water are not clear so far because of not availability of data and method of estimation, but it ranges 5000 to 8000 MCM. In the present study, the average value has been utilized for the precise demarcation of the situation of surface water. Groundwater found 2269000 MCM; this amount includes deep and shallow aquifer storage while desalinated and treated wastewater constituted the amount of 1103.3 MCM and 547 MCM respectively.

It is clearly evident from the Figure 3.1 that renewable groundwater in the shallow aquifer has the second largest share of 3.70 Percent after non-renewable groundwater in deep aquifer (96.13 percent) of total available water for use. The Share of surface water is subtle and adds only 0.1 Percent (2230 MCM) of the total available water that seems the lowest share around the world regarding total area

Sagga, A.M., 1998, Physical Geography of Saudi Arabia, Sagga, Dar Kunoz Press, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad F. Al-Rashed and Mohsen M.Sherif, 2000, Water Resources in the GCC Countries: An Overview, Water Resources Management, 14, 59-75. Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 2002, Agricultural statistics yearbook. Department of Economic Studies and Statistics, 14th Issue, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Abdulrazzak, M., 1994, “Water supply versus demand in countries of Arabian Peninsula” Water Resource Planning and Management, 121, 227-234. FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure: profile of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. Saline Water Conversion Corporation, (SWCC), 2002. Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saline Water Conversion Corporation, (SWCC), 2003. Annual report, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. UNESCWA, 2006, Country fact sheet, Water Resource Issue in the ESCWA region, United Nation Economic and Social Commission for West Asia, Beirut, Lebanon. UNSCWA, 2009, Country fact sheets, Water Resource Issue in the ESCWA region, United Nation Economic and Social Commission for West Asia, E/ESCWA/SDPD/Technical paper-2, Dec. 2009. Beirut, Lebanon. Abderrahman, Walid A. 2001, “Water demand management in Saudi Arabia”, In Naser I. Faruqui, Asit K. Biswas, and Murad J. Bino; (et al), Water Management In Islam. The United Nation University Press. Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia, Special presentation at Water Conservation Workshop, Khober, Saudi Arabia. Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Assessment of Climate Change on Water Resources in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.

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concern. Therefore, groundwater has the biggest share of total available water resources but its non-extractable nature profound, the great difficulty for use in the easiest way.

Desalinated water plays a significant role to meet domestic demand, but its per unit cost makes the water very expensive and subsequently scarce. Ultimately, Saudi Arabia reaches in the category of water scarce countries. However, when the non- renewable groundwater is taking into account, the situation of the available water becomes different. In addition, the estimated recharge of renewable and non- renewable water marks 1196 and 2762 MCM respectively. This is only 1.7 Percent of total water, that of 177.48 folds of surface water. However, during the last twenty years, the Kingdom has experienced comprehensive development in all sectors coupled with high growth rates in population and living standards10. Therefore, the question of availability of water resources has become more significant.

Figure 3.1: Total Available Water Resource in Saudi Arabia (Percentage)

Percentage of Total Water Available

3.87 Groundwater (Non-renewable) 0.05 Others 0.02 0.1 Groundwater (Renewable)

Surface Water 96.13 3.7 Desalinated Water

Treated Wastewater

Source: Based on Table 3.1

10 SAMA. 2010. Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (46th Annual report). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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Detailed assessment of water resources in Saudi Arabia can be carried out under following sectors:

 Groundwater  Surface Water  Desalinated water  Treated Wastewater  Water Pipelines and Distribution Network

3.1.1 Groundwater

A Large amount of water is stored under the surface of the earth, under continents and oceans, sometimes at greater depth. Apart from wells, human beings had extensively used the water that saturated into the soil layers since the ancient times. Underground water is stored in permeable rock or unconsolidated material (gravel, sand, and silt) at a greater thickness of sedimentary, granite and basaltic zones of the earth’s crust. Such formations of water are known as aquifer and play a significant role in artesian, Piedmont and arid region of the world. Groundwater resources are finite and limited, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Underground water, like surface water, also flows along water-bearing layers from higher to lower places, but the speed of the movement is slow. In many instances where deep water percolate on the surface had made torrent springs and fountains. Such foundation of water plays an important role in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Groundwater resource had been categorised into renewable and non-renewable water resources, renewable water is stored in shallow or alluvial aquifers and depends upon rainfall-runoff for recharge, whereas, non-renewable water resources are found in sandstone strata under deep formation, also known as fossil aquifers where water was accumulated nearly 10 to 32 thousand years ago11. These, fossil aquifers have been classified as either primary or secondary, based on their volume; quality; development potential; and areal extent (Figure 3.2 Aquifer map).

11 Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 1984, Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia. Department of Water Resource Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

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Table 3.2: Groundwater reserves in the deep aquifers, estimated annual recharge, and total dissolved solids.

Aquifers Name Total %of Annual %of Total TDS Reserve, Total Recharge Total mg/l MCM Principal Aquifer Saq 277000 +Main11.89 Aquifers 310 11.52 300-1500 Tabuk 205000 8.80 455 16.90 200-3500 Wajid 255000 10.94 104 3.86 500-1200 Minjur-Dhruma 182000 7.81 80 2.97 1100-20000 Wasia-Biyadh 740000 31.76 480 17.83 900-10000 Um Er Radhuma 188000 8.07 406 15.08 2500-15000 Damman 25000 1.07 200 7.43 2600-60000 Neogene 130000 5.58 290 10.77 3700-4000 Secondary Aquifers Khuff and Tuwail 30000 1.29 132 4.90 3800-6000 Aruma 85000 3.65 80 2.97 1600-2000 Jauf and Sakaka 100000 4.29 95 3.53 400-5000 Jilh 113000 4.85 60 2.23 3800-5000 Total 2330000 100 2692 100 Source: Various Publications12

12 Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 1984, Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia. Department of Water Resource Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Khouri, J., Agha, W., & AlDeroubi, A. (1986). Water resources in the Arab World and future perspectives. Proc. Symposium on Water Resources and Uses in the Arab World. Kuwait: Gulf Studies Center. deJong, R. L., Al-Layla, R. I., & Selen, W. J. (1989). Alternative water management scenarios for Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Water Resources Development , 5 (1), 56-62. Lloyd, J., & Rim, R. (1990). The hydrogeology of groundwater resources development of the CambioOrdovician sandstone aquifers in Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Journal of Hydrology , 121, 1-20. Danish, S., Khater, A., & AlAnsari, M. (1992). Options in water reuse in Bahrain,. 1st Gulf Water Conference. Dubai. Abdulrazzak, M., 1994, Review and assessment of water resources in Gulf Coopration Council Countries, Water Resource Development. 10, 23-37. Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development , 16 (4), 465-473. Muhammad F. Al-Rashed and Mohsen M.Sherif, 2000, Water Resources in the GCC Countries: An Overview, Water Resources Management, 14, 59-75.

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Figure 3.2: Principal Aquifers in Saudi Arabia

Source: Droogers, et al. 200913

Abderrahman, Walid A. 2001, “Water demand management in Saudi Arabia”, In Naser I. Faruqui, Asit K. Biswas, and Murad J. Bino; (et al), Water Management In Islam. The United Nation University Press. Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia, Special presentation at Water Conservation Workshop, Khober, Saudi Arabia. Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Assessment of Climate Change on Water Resources in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure: profile of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. FAO, AQUASTAT, 2009, Saudi Arabia, FAO Water report, 34, Rome. Chowdhury, S., & Al-Zahrani, M. (2013). Characterizing water resources and trends of sector wise water consumption in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences , In Press. 13 Droogers, P., Immerzeel, W., & Perry, C. (2009). Application of Remote Sensing in National Water Plans: Demonstration cases for Egypt, Saudi-Arabia and Tunisia. The Netherlands: Future Water.

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Primary aquifers found in Saudi Arabia are Saq, Tabuk, Wajid, Minjur, Dhruma, Wasia, Biyadh, Umm Er Radhuma, Dammam, and Neogene while secondary aquifers constitute Khuff, Tuwail, Aruma, Jauf, Sakaka, Jilh, the upper Jurassic. The lower Cretaceous, Basalts, and Wadi Sediments are the places where Jilh, the upper Jurassic aquifers are renewable in nature. Details of aquifers are summarized in Table 3.2 together with the amount of their total reserve, recharge, and total dissolved solids.

The estimates of groundwater, stored in the aquifers, are controversial in Saudi Arabia. According to both Dr. Bushnak and Al-Hussayen, minister of water of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ‘there has been no proper survey done of the kingdom’s water reserves for 20 years’14. Previous studies have been reported various estimates of the availability of groundwater reserves in Saudi Arabia. FAO report (2008) shows that the amount of groundwater stored in fossil aquifer (non-renewable) found 253.2 BCM as proven reserve. While 405 BCM and 705 BCM were probable and possible reserves respectively15. While, the Ministry of Planning (MOP) confirmed that the reserves of groundwater were approximately 338 BCM with the potable amount, and it further may reach 500 BCM as quoted by FAO16. Another inventory made by Scientific Research Institute’s water resource division at Dhahran City shows that the total groundwater reserves constitute almost 36000 BCM17, which is more than seventy times as MOP estimates. In addition, the report also suggested 870 BCM amount of water as economically extractable. Furthermore, the Suadi Arabia Engineering Consult, an engineering firm, provides an estimate of about 2175 BCM18.

14 Harryson, Roger, 2004, A Problem With Liquidity: The Challenges of Water in Saudi Arabia, Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, (WRMEA) July/Aug., 2004. p. 44-45. 15 FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure: profile of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. 16 FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure: profile of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. 17 FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure: profile of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. 18 Al-Mogrin, S. (2001). Treatment and reuse of wastewater in Saudi Arabia. Expert Consultation for Launching the Regional Network on Wastewater in the Near East. London.

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However, the amounts of renewable water, primarily accumulated in the shallow aquifer, were 85 BCM. While, it stored into the recent alluvium, Neogene, Dammam, Kharj, Hufuf, Dam, Sakaka, and of the type of quaternary deposits. It is relatively of low potential because of dependency on rainfall and surface runoff. Simultaneously, total reported non-renewable groundwater reserves of the Arabian Peninsula were estimated about 2330 BCM (2008), (Table 3.2) with the average recharge rate of 2.7 BCM per annum. Though the figures of the Arabian Peninsula includes some part of Yemen and Oman, however, the figures for Saudi Arabia are estimated about 2185 BCM at a depth of 300 meters from the surface (Table 3.1 above). This estimate is also verified by the other hydrological studies (BAAC, 1980; MAW, 1984; KFUMP/RI, 1988; Abderrehman, 2000 and 2006)19. Ongoing research on Water reserves assessment are expected to provide a proper assessment of the volume of water left in each aquifer, and estimates of the portion of that volume which can be extracted on a sustainable basis.

It is apparent from the Table 3.2 that over 32 percent (740 BCM) of groundwater reserves comprises by Wasia-Biyadh aquifer while Saq and Wajid aquifer collectively contributed almost 23 percent of the total non-renewable reserves. These three aquifers comprise nearly 55 percent of the total peninsular water reserves (non-renewable) while other aquifers contribute remaining 45 percent, ranges from 1 to 9 percent of the total (see: Table 3.2). In addition, the available information on water reserves in shallow and deep aquifers shows that there are more than twenty layered principle and secondary aquifers (Table 3.3) of different geological ages20 (Powers, et al., 1966; MAW, 1984; Abdulrazzak, M. 1994 and MAW, 2002). These aquifers encompass from Precambrian shield, which is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks and covers most of Western part of the

19 British Arabian Advisory Company, (BAAC), 1980, “Water Resources of Saudi Arabia”, Vol. 1, Prepared for Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. KFUMP/RI, 1988, “Groundwater Resources Condition in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia”, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Research Institute, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. 20 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D, Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966.

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country, to another stable shield, Cretaceous to Pliocene and Aeolian sand21, comprises of sedimentary formations and covers almost eastern Saudi Arabia. In addition, Rub-al-Khali and part of An-Nafud are formed of Paleozoic sandstone material22. A general overview of the formation of aquifers along with their respective sequences, which varies in various geological ages, has been presented in Table 3.3. The total thickness of the aquifer systems varies from few hundred to more than 900 meters (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Succession of Groundwater Aquifers in Saudi Arabia

Hydrogeologic Thickness Age Formation Member Lithology Unit (Meter) Aquifers with Quaternary Surficial Deposits Gravel. Sand and Silt Variable Small and Recent Productivity Kharj Limestone, gypsum, and Gravels Aquifer 28 Miocene and Hufuf Sandy Marl and Sandy Limestone Aquifer 95 Pliocene Dam Marl and Shale Aquitard 90.8 Hadrukh Silty Limestone Aquifer 84 Limestone Aquifer 9 Alat Marl Aquitard 6 Khobar Limestone Aquifer 9.3 Dammam Eocene Alveolina Limestone Limestone 1 Sheila Shale Shale 4.2 Aquitard Midra Shale Shale 3 Rus Marl, Chalky limestone, Gypsum 56 Paleocene Umm Er Radhuma Limestone, Dolomite limestone Aquifer 243.1 Aruma Shale, Limestone Aquifer (Poor) 141.5 Wasia Sakaka (in Sandstone Aquifer ± 42 Northwest) Cretaceous Biyadh Sandstone Aquifer 425 Buwaib Biogenic- calcarenite limestone 23 Aquitard Yamama Biogenic- pellet calcarenite 45.5 Sulaiy Chalky aphanitic limestone Aquifer (Local) 170.2 Hith Anhydrite 90.3 Aquitard to poor Arab Calcerenite, Aphanitic limestone 124 Aquifer (Local) Jubaila Aphanitic limestone, calcarenite 118.3 Jurassic Hanifa Aphanitic limestone, calcarenite Aquifer (Local) 113 Tuwaiq Aphanitic limestone Aquitard 203 Dhurma Aphanitic Limestone, Sandstone Aquifer 375

21 Missimer, T. M., Drewes, J. E., Amy, G., Maliva, R. G., & Keller, S. (2012). Restoration of Wadi Aquifers by Artificial Recharge with Treated Waste Water. Groundwater , 50 (4), 514-527. USGS. (2015, August 07). The World's Water: "Water, Water, Everywhere....". Retrieved from The USGS Water Science School: http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html 22 Powers, R. W. (1968). Saudi Arabia (excluding the Arabian Shield). Lexique Stratigraphique International , III (Asie). Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. Al-Tokhais, Ali Saad, 1992, “Grounwater management strategies for Saudi Arabia”, P.h.D. Thesis (pub.), Earth Resource Department, Colorado State University, Colorado, U.S.A.

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Marrat Shale, Aphanitic limestone Aquitard 103 Minjur Sandstone Aquifer 315 Triassic Jilh Sandstone, Aphanitic limestone Aquifer (Poor) ± 326 Sudair Shale (Red and Green) Aquitard 116 Khuff calcarenite, Aphanitic Limestone Aquifer 99.3 Permian Unyzah (FAW) Limestone, Dolomite Aquifer (Poor) 33.7 Lower Berwath Dolomite, Shale Aquitard 38.4 Permian or Carboniferous Wajid Argillaceous Sandstone Aquifer 950 + Upper Limestone Aquifer 133.4 Devonian Jauf (299.2) Shubbat Shale and limestone Aquitard 165.8 Tawil Sandstone Aquifer 463.4 Silurian Qusayba Shale Aquitard 290.5 Middle Tabuk Sandstone Aquifer 104.9 Tabuk (1072) Ra’an Shale Aquitard 70.7 Lower Tabuk Sandstone Aquifer 129.8 Ordovician Hanadir Shale Aquitard 12.2 Saq Sandstone Aquifer + 600 Cambrian Pre-Cambrian Basement Complex Source: Hydrogeologic Units and Lithostratigraphic succession of groundwater aquifer in Saudi Arabia (modified after Powers et al., 1966; Burdan, D J, 1973 table 5, p.4; MAW, 1984 and Edgell, 1997; Makkawi, M ).

A comprehensive analysis of the Table 3.2 shows that Wajid and Saq aquifers are the thickest deposit of Saudi Arabia with an average depth of 1000 meters, and make sandstone and carbonate type lithology. On the contrary, Quaternary alluvium and Neogene aquifer stand to newest deposit with different and small thickness. In brief, central and northern parts of Saudi Arabia are dominated by sandstone type lithology while carbonate prevails in the eastern part of the study area. Further, the age and lithology of the aquifers are shown in Table 3.3 with the depth of deposits.

However, the quality and quantity of water depend on several features such as the nature and thickness of sediments, permeability, porosity, the frequency and intensity of rainfall and others. The quality, quantity and depth of ground water varies considerably from one aquifer to another, especially in the western and central part of Saudi Arabia. The Saq and Wajid aquifers consist the best water quality of total dissolved solid (TDS) less than 1500 ppm as compared to other aquifers. In contrast, the carbonate aquifers are poor in quality where the TDS may reach 15000 particle per million (ppm) in Um Er Radhuma to 60000 ppm in Dammam in the eastern part of the Arabian Gulf.

Extensive details of water quality and quantity have been presented in Table 3.2. The study of Abderrehman stated that the high rate of groundwater extraction

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contributing to increasing sharply in TDS23. In addition, Dhahran area had 2750 mg per liter TDS in 1980, and it reached 4000 TDS in 2000 with a growth rate of 22 percent. Concurrently, Hofuf and Abqaiq TDS were as good as1000 to 2000 mg per litre whereas eastern and northwestern part of the eastern province have a poor quality of water with 4000 to 7000 mg per litre TDS amount24.

Furthermore, the TDS value of Alat and Neogene aquifers ranges from 2000 to 9000 and 1500 to 2000 mg per liter, respectively. One of the main reasons for the increase in TDS is the decline in the water table that creates a barrier for the abstraction of water. For example, the water table in Minjur aquifer fell by 170m from 45m from 1956 to 198025 and a similar reduction is also reported in Wasia aquifer. The Eastern part of Arabia has experienced more exploitation of water as compared to western region due to social and physical conditions. Eastern part of Saudi Arabia is densely populated and agriculturally productive in comparison to the western side of the Peninsula and, therefore, more susceptible to water availability. Further, growing units of industries and mega-projects have also been created a hurdle to the availability of fresh water resources at a rapid rate.

Finally, groundwater is the only source for extensive uses in various activities, therefore, heavily pumped from clustered wells. During 1987-2000 in more than 200 km2 area of Al-Hasa only, the rate of decline in (the Neogene aquifer) water table was more than 10 cm per year due to extensive pumping of water from wells. Moreover, the Alat aquifer extending from Qatif to the North of Ras Tanaurah of eastern province faces greater cone of depression and decline of more than 14 meters of the water table from 1987 to 2000.

23 Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development , 16 (4), 465-473. 24 Abdullah E. Dabbagh and Walid. A. Abderrehman, 1996, “Management of groundwater resources in Saudi Arabia under various irrigation water use scenarios in Saudi Arabia,” In Arabian Journal of Science and Engineering 22(special theme issue on water resources in Arabian Peninsula), KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. 47-64. 25 Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 1984, Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia. Department of Water Resource Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

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The maximum decline of about 40 meter has been expected at Abqaiq in the Khobar aquifer due to low transitivity values and the small thickness (in 2000). Along the coastal belt around the Qatif, decline level was expected to be about 5 meters by the year 2000. Umm Er radhuma aquifer extending in Dharan and Al-Khobar areas experienced a 6-meter decline of the water table and developed a cone of depression due to the contribution of groundwater from UER aquifer to the overlying Khobar and Alat aquifers by vertical flows26.

However, groundwater extraction is mainly dependent upon shallow wells comprised in alluvial aquifers except few deep wells located in deep aquifers. The irrigated agriculture relies primarily on groundwater, the number of private wells used for agriculture increased to 52,327 in 1990 as compared to 26,000 in 1982. In 1988, there were 4,667 multi-purpose government wells and 44,080 private wells. It is interesting to note that more than 1,500 wells are pumping about 2,300 MCM per year of groundwater with a salinity level of fewer than 400 TDS since 1986.

One estimate showed that about 48 BCM of groundwater had been pumped after 1984; it is equivalent to 305 times the local production of the desalinated water since the early seventies27. The total annual recharge in all aquifers has estimated to be about 3,958 MCM, of which 2,762 and 1,196 MCM to deep and shallow aquifers respectively. (see: Table 3.1). Moreover, the total annual estimated recharge in principle and secondary aquifers is less than 1 percent of the total reserves (2,692 MCM). The highest rechargeable aquifer is Wasia-Biyadh with18 percent of the total recharge amount while the Jilh is the lowest recharge Aquifer.

The Um Er Radhuma contributed 15 percent of the total recharge while Tabuk comes second after Wasia-Biyadh with 17 per cent amount of the total recharge in 2000. Minor annual rechargeable aquifers are Jilh, Jauf and Sakaka, Aruma, Khuff and Tuwail, Minjur-Dhruma and Wajid where the recharge rate varies from two to

26 Abdullah E. Dabbagh and Walid. A. Abderrehman, 1996, “Management of groundwater resources in Saudi Arabia under various irrigation water use scenarios in Saudi Arabia,” In Arabian Journal of Science and Engineering 22(special theme issue on water resources in Arabian Peninsula), KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. 47-64. 27 Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006. Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia, Special presentation at Water Conservation Workshop, Khober, Saudi Arabia.

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five percent to the total. Moreover, Saq, Tuwail and Neogene aquifers annual estimated recharge were 290, 52 and 391 MCM per year respectively.

3.1.2 Surface water:

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a vast region characterized by its aridity, deficiency of fresh water resources and intensifying demand on fresh water supplies. It is believed that it is the amplest surface area (about 2.25 million Km2) on the earth not ascertained by a perennial river system. However, numerous ephemeral streams or widyan intersected the land except those areas adjoined by moving sands-dunes. Vast areas in the region may not receive any rainfall for several successive years and leads to the development of dry ravines and watercourse. However, rainfall produces substantial volumes of surface water in a relatively short span, which may cause severe damage to life and properties in the form of a flash flood28 for example on 5th January 1998 and 7th january 1999, the rain event in Qasim area had delivered about 1274 MCM and 252 MCM water within 6 hours and impacts to the infrastruce and human lives loss greatly29.

Water resources are scarce to absent, except in the mountainous region of the southwestern part of Saudi Arabia. The prominent source of surface water is the volume of runoff, which produced by torrential rainfall or precipitation. It is affected by paradoxical climate system as characterized by cyclonic activities in the north during winter while southwest region experience Monsoon with convectional thunderstorms during the summer season30. Furthermore, both have considerable variation in the duration and relative strength within two successive periods. It is interesting to note that about 70-80 percent amount of summer rainfall (during

28 Sorman, A., & Abdulrazzak, M. (1993). Infiltration- recharge through wadi beds in arid regions. Hydrological Science Journal , 38, 173-186. 29 El-Bastawesy, M., & Al-Ghamdi, K. (2013). Assessment and Management of the Flash Floods in Al Qaseem Area, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Water Resources and Arid Environments , 2 (3), 146-157. 30 Al-Jerash, M. A. (1985). Climatic Subdivisions in Saudi Arabia: An application of Principle Component Analysis. Journal of CLimatology , 5 (3), 307-323. Almazroui, M., Abid, M. A., Athar, H., Islam, M. N., & Ehsan, M. A. (2012). Interannual variability of rainfall over the Arabian Peninsula using the IPCC AR4 Global Climate Models. International Journal of Climatology , 33 (10), 2328-2340.

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Monsoon period), is received by highlands and mountainous region of west and southwest and remaining 20-30 percent occur in the coastal plains of Arabian Peninsula. Moreover, the rainfall from frontal cyclone during winter season decreased towards the east while the amount received by coastal and highlands in the vice-versa pattern. The average precipitation is around 114 mm per year31,the variation of rainfall is as high as 100-200 mm in the north and decreased below to the level of 100 mm in the south except near the coastline32.

Variation of evaporation rate is as high as 17 mm during July-August to 2.5 mm in December-January33. The annual evaporation varies between 2,500 mm per year in the coastal areas to about 4,500 mm in the central parts towards the desert in Saudi Arabia. Low amount of rainfall in most of the Kingdom resulted in limited surface runoff. Southwestern part, extended between Red Sea coast and adjacent Sarawat mountain covers 10 percent of total surface area, alone receive almost 60 percent (1,450 MCM) of the total runoff. The remaining 40 percent of the total runoff occurs in the far south of the western coast near Tihama plain that covers only 2 percent area of the country34. The flat terrain of most of the land creates a barrier to direct use of rainfall and water harvesting. Therefore, A limited amount of rain, less than 20 percent, percolates into the aquifer as recharge and used for irrigation purpose while the rest of water goes out as an outflow or evaporated.

31 FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. 32 Almazroui, M., Abid, M. A., Athar, H., Islam, M. N., & Ehsan, M. A. (2012). Interannual variability of rainfall over the Arabian Peninsula using the IPCC AR4 Global Climate Models. International Journal of Climatology , 33 (10), 2328-2340. 33 Al-Rashed, Muhammad F., Sherif, Mohsen M. 2000, Water Resources in the GCC Countries: An Overview, Water Resources Management, 14, 59-75. 34 Nasrallah, H. A., & Balling, R. C. (1993). Spatial and temporal analysis of Middle Eastern temperature changes. Climate Change , 25 (2), 153-161. Wang, P., Clemens, S., Beaufort, L., Braconnot, P., Ganssen, G., Jian, Z., et al. (2005). Evolution and variability of the Asian monsoon system: State of the art and outstanding issues. Quaternary Science Reviews , 24 (1), 595-629. Nouh, M. (2006). Wadi flow in Arabian Gulf states. Hydrological Processes , 20 (1), 2393-2413. FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.

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It is pertinent to note that surface water constitute, with such vast areal extent of the country, only 0.1 percent (2,230 MCM or 2.2 BCM) water available for use as of total amount (varies from 5-8 BCM) existed in Saudi Arabia (Table 3.1). The average annual volume of rainwater in Saudi Arabia is estimated at 158.47 BCM35. Total surface runoff generated from rainfall is estimated 3.21 BCM per year36. Surface water budget can be understood as37:

Total estimated surface water = Runoff + Recharge Eqn…1

6.5 BCM (Total water From Table) = 3.21 BCM (Runoff) + 2.76 BCM (groundwater recharge to deep aquifer) + 1.19 BCM (groundwater recharge to shallow aquifer)38 Eqn…2.

Out of total available water (6.5 BCM), only a fraction (2,230 MCM) is available for direct use, this amount has been confirmed by various studies including the hydrological studies39 performed by MAW, Abderrehman, Ali Saad. The studies

35 (ASCAD, 1997 as quoted by Al-Rashed and Sherif, 2000) ACSAD. (1997). Water resources in the Arab World and their utilization (Arabic). 2nd Arab Workshop on Water Resources in the Arab World (8-10 March, 1997). Kuwait: The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands. 36 Khouri, J., Agha, W., & AlDeroubi, A. (1986). Water resources in the Arab World and future perspectives. Proc. Symposium on Water Resources and Uses in the Arab World. Kuwait: Gulf Studies Center. Al-Zubari, W. (1997). Towards the establishment of a total water cycle management and reuse program in the GCC countries. 3rd Gulf Water Conference. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. 37 It is mere a representation. It does not claim as standard equation of water balance model. The estimated volume of rainfall is 158.47 BCM which includes loss of water due to evapo-transpiration, water stored in soil capillary as soil moisture, groundwater recharge, and surface runoff. 38 Total amount of available surface water varies to 5 – 8 BCM as presented in Table 4.1 whereas equation 2 estimated total amount of surface water as 7.16 BCM, which is near to above figures. 39 Al-Tokhais, Ali Saad, 1992, “Groundwater management strategies for Saudi Arabia”, P.h.D. Thesis (pub.), Earth Resource Department, Colorado State University, Colorado, U.S.A. Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development , 16 (4), 465-473.

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also show that about 30 percent (669 MCM) water diverted for agriculture while 45 percent (1,003.5 MCM) thrived to recharge of alluvial aquifers, and about 25 percent (5,57.5 MCM) lost by evaporation. However, researchers on the reliable estimates of total surface water still going on, that will provide consistent figures in near future. Other important aspects include widyan system and construction of dams for proper water management in Saudi Arabia.

3.1.2.1 Widyan40 in Saudi Arabia

Wadi is an ephemeral stream of some specific characteristic. It has an irregular shape and dry watercourse that filled by alluvium and pebbles materials. In spite of fertility of water-borne deposits and availability of water, agriculture and human settlement often inhabited in the Widyan. It is well-known fact that Wadi flow should be viewed as a precious surface water resource for an arid region like Saudi Arabia. Efficient use of Wadi flow requires certain management practices, if efficiently managed, and can fulfill domestic water requirement of a year.

The major widyan of Saudi Arabia are Wadi Bisha, Wadi Ad-Dawasir, Wadi Najran, Tathlieth, Turabah, Al-Laith, Baysh, Hanifa, Nisah, Usfan, Fatima, Khulays, Qudaid, Thamarah, Rabigh, Mastorah, Marij, Safra Fara’a and others. Spatial extent varies from Wadi Fatima (East of Jeddah), Wadi Khulais (North of Jeddah), Rumah in the central near Buraydah, Wadi Al-Sirhan41 in the north stretching from Sakaka up to Jordan, Wadi Najran situated in southernmost of the country. However, acknowledgment of accurate details, runoff and numbers of the widyan

Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 2002, Agricultural Statistics Yearbook. Department of Economic Studies and Statistics, 14th Issue, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Abderrehman, Walid A. 2006, Assessment of Climate Change on Water Resources in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. 40 Widyan (Wadies in English) is an Arabic word used for plural of Wadi. 41 It is a depression rather than a true wadi situated in northern Arabia, and runs nearly 200 miles long and 1,000 feet below the neighboring plateau. Whole basin encircled by Al-Nafūd escarpments in north, Anizah Wadis towards the Euphrates valley. Most important tributaries of As-Sirhan include Wadi ʿArʿar and Wadi Al-Khurr. NASA, 2012, http://earth shots.usgs.gov/earthshots/node/51#ad-image-10 ; (Encyc. Britannica (Online), 2015 written by Basheer K Nijim http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic /31551/Arabia/45281/Najd #ref484864)

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system are not clear so far. Although, the largest number of widyan flow in Asir mountain range, Tihama plain, and Red Sea coastal belt region. The density of these widyan is very high as compared to other region of the country. In the Tihama plain alone, there are 90 Widyan of which 36 have significant importance while runoff flows towards the interior drainage system and east of Asir Mountain are less as compared to west of the mountain.

The average surface flow into the Red Sea zone is 39.8 cubic meters per second. About 70 percent of this (27 cubic meters per second) occurs south of Jeddah, 21 percent (8.2 cubic meters per second) north of Jeddah and remaining 9 percent (4.60 cubic meters per second) around Jeddah city itself42. Recently, a scientific investigation has been carried out by Noah with the help of stochastic model to assess ‘wadi flow in the Arabian Gulf states’ shows some reliable estimates of wadi’s runoff43. Details of runoff occur in the main widyan along with their respected areas extent is given in Table 3.4. It is noteworthy that total widyan runoff alone constitutes more than 2.0 BCM water that is equal to water withdrawal (2.1 BCM) for domestic purpose in the year of 2006.

Table 3.4: Estimated runoff of the main widyan in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Surface Area Runoff (MCM Region Main Widyan (1000 Km2) / Year) The Red Sea coastal Jizan, Damage, Baysh, Hali, Yiba, Qanonah, 241.6 1265 belt Al-Laith Wadi Dawasir 180 Turabah, Ranya, Bishah, Tathlieth, Dawasir 330 Wadi Najran 38.4 Najran 135 Wadi Birk Nisah 162.3 Nawtah, Nisah, Hanifa 100 North Tuwayq 152.8 Sudair, Meshgar, Namil 95 Taif, FadatAl-Misbah 43.2 Jadwal 55 Ar-Rimah Al-Batin 174.4 Wajj, Liyyah, Aqiq, Awali 25 An Nafud 161 20 Al-Jawf 192 As-Sirhan, Rabigh 35 Total 1345.7 2060 Source: ASCAD/AFESD/KFAED, 1986 as quoted by Nouh (2006).

42 Ali, M. Subyani. (2009). Hydrologic behavior and flood probability for selected arid basins in Makkah area, Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 4(5-6), 817-824. 43 Nouh, M. (2006). Wadi flow in Arabian Gulf states. Hydrological Processes , 20 (1), 2393-2413.

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3.1.2.2 Dams and Reservoirs in Saudi Arabia

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a large number of dams for various purposes ranging from irrigation, control of rainwater and harvesting, aquifer recharge, flood control, recreational, water supply, and others. In the first appearance, it seems superfluous undertaking to construct a dam in such harsh climate where no or little rain occurs. But the kingdom started, erstwhile, benefitting from seasonal rainfall and runoff through the construction of the dam and consequently first dam, Ekremah, was commissioned in 1956 (1376H) on the upstream of Wadi Almathanah in Taif44. Till then, various projects and hydraulic structure of different shape and size have been installed by the ministry of agriculture and water (MAW) now replaced with the ministry of water and electricity (MOWE).

The development of dams and storage capacity has significant importance especially for irrigation and controlling of rainwater for urban use. The growth of dams and storage capacity has been discussed in Table 3.5 that represents rapid growth since 1996 with storage capacity 774 MCM. There were 185 dams with a collective storage capacity of 475 MCM, and 45 dams had been under construction in 1993. Moreover, a large dam on Wadi Baysh with capacity 325 MCM was constructed in the year 1997. In the year of 2000, a total of 187 dams were recorded with various capacities. Structurally, out of them, 65 were earth fill, 37 rock fill, and 85 concrete fill with the storage capacity of 775 MCM along with several recharge schemes. In 2002, the storage capacity of 215 constructed dams was 832 MCM. The development of dams and storage capacity in the next four-year had increased significantly. Between 2000-04, almost 20 per cent and 7 per cent growth have been recorded in some dam improvement and storage capacity respectively.

In 2008 and 2009, there were 258 and 302 dams respectively while no significant increase registered in storage capacity as 907.8 MCM in both years. Moreover, 147 dams were under construction in 2008. By the end of 2010, the number of constructed dams reached to 351, with 50 per cent growth since 2004, in a different region of the country while storage capacity of these dams exceeded 1.2 BCM. The annual surface water quantity has increased about three times (almost 300 percent)

44 Yusif, A. (1974). A Dam In Saudi. Saudi Aramco World , 25 (2), 4-9.

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since 1993 to 2010. It is important to note that the available surface water resources in Saudi Arabia have the greatest significance due to its good quality, but it is so scarcer. Only few dams were under the use of drinking purpose in 2010 including Al-Aqiq (Al-Baha City), Aridah (Taif), Turabah (Taif), Maraba (Asir), Itwas (Asir), Abha (Abha).

Table 3.5: Development of Dams and their storage capacity in Saudi Arabia

Commissioned Dams Under Construction Dams Year No of Dams Storage Capacity (MCM) No of Dams Estimated (MCM) 1957 1 0.50 1966 6 61.77 1970 14 77.90 1976 26 189.70 1980 41 346.82 1984 140 428.19 1988 179 435.93 1993 183 473.55 45 325 1996 184 768.30 1999 195 822.85 2002 209 828.74 2005 225 836.27 27 1064 2007 230 850.33 2008 237 863.46 2009 258 907.80 147 1.86 2010 302 908.00 147 1.35 2011 351 1157.86 103 1.64 Source: Various Publications45

45 Panikkar, A. K. (2008, February 25). Water profile of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved March 13, 2015, from The Encyclopedia of Earth: http://www.eoearth.org/view/article /51cbef317896b b431f69cfff/ Al-Motairi, H. (2002). Water quality regulations and wastewater treatment and reuse in Saudi Arabia. Report on the joint WHO/UNEP first regional conference on Water Demand Management, Conservation and Pollution Control (7-10 October, 2001) (pp. 44- 47). Amman, Jordan: World Health Organization. Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development , 16 (4), 465-473. Sen, Z., & Al-Suba'i, K. (2002). Hydrological considerations for dam siting in arid regions: a Saudi Arabian study. Hydrological Sciences-Joumal-des Sciences Hydrologiques , 42 (2), 173-186. FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.

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The tremendous increase in some dams and storage capacity is the result of water conservation policy of Saudi Arabia. Kingdom constructs not only single purpose dam but also large and multipurpose dams. A brief description has been presented in Table 3.6 along with region and use of dams.

It is discernible from the Table 3.6 that maximum numbers of dams are constructed in Asir Province. In 2009, total 77 dams were in Asir with a storage capacity of 411.39 MCM; out of this, more than 20 percent dams were used for drinking water supply. Asir has highest water harvesting potential as compared to another part of the country. Due to substantial runoff, Largest and multipurpose dams have been installed in Asir province that includes King Fahad dam, Wadi Baysh, Jazan and others. While, Riyadh coupled with small-scale water projects as evident from the table that it has 67 Dams of various capacities and size, but collective storage capacity contributes only 91.99 MCM.

Second largest water holding capacity in Dams was in Mecca province. It contributes almost 336.15 MCM capacity of water storage with 36 Dams including 2 Dam for drinking purpose. Similarly, Baha, Hail, Medina, Tabouk, Qassim, and Najran provinces contribute a good amount of water storage with 31, 25, 20, 8, 9 and 12 Dams respectively.

SAMA. (2009). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 45th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, p193. SAMA. (2010). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 45th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, p177. SAMA. (2011). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 46th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, p163. SAMA. (2012). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 47th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. SAMA. (2013). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 48th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 49th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. SAMA. (2015). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 50th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

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Figure 3.3: Dams and Storage capacity in Saudi Arabia

351 No. of Dams 302 258 237 225 230 209 195 179 183 184 140

41 26 14 1 6

Source: Based on Table 3.5

Figure 3.4: Total (Cumulative) Storage Capacity of the Dams by year

Total Storage Capacity (MCM)

1157.86

908.00

907.80

863.46

850.33

836.27

828.74

822.84

768.30

473.55

435.92

428.19

346.82

0.50

61.77 77.90 189.70

Source: Based on Table 3.5

However, a high percentage of dams constructed by concrete material while earthy and rock fill type of dam collectively constitute almost 70 percent of the total dams. Nevertheless, in terms of storage capacity, the situation is vice versa as concrete dams have a high potential of water holding as compared to rock fill. Until 2009,

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there were more than 210 Dams were constructed, with a storage capacity of 567 MCM, for recharge of the groundwater aquifer. Furthermore, flood control and prevention of the cities managed by 65 large and small hydraulic structures.

Currently, more than 25 Dams are providing drinking water in which potable water obtained by rainfall and retained on the ground at the surface. Total storage capacity of dams used for drinking water and irrigation purpose is more than 303 MCM and 52 MCM respectively.

Table 3.6: Brief details of available statistics on Dams and storage capacity (MCM) by region and use, 2009

Region/ Storage Control Drinking Irrigation Total Purpose No of Storage No of No of No of No of Capacity dams dams dams dams dams Riyadh 48 72.87 19 19.12 67 91.99 Asir 43 358.81 17 16.59 17 35.99 77 411.39 Mecca 27 58.60 7 234.75 2 42.80 36 336.15 Baha 25 9.62 3 0.14 2 30.50 1 0.50 31 40.76 Hail 22 11.05 3 1.76 25 12.81 Medina 14 20.70 6 64.45 20 85.15 Tabuk 8 6.63 8 6.63 Qassim 8 5.16 1 1.30 9 6.46 Najran 8 2.98 4 87.08 12 90.06 Northern 6 20.65 6 20.65 Borders Jazan 1 0.25 1 0.15 4 194.17 1 51.0 7 245.57 Jouf 4 4 Total 210 567.32 65 425.34 25 303.46 2 51.50 302 1347.62 Source46: (MOWE, 2009, 2011; Aquastat, 2011; Chowdhury et al., 2013)

Apart from storage, Jazan dam only provides irrigation facility to more than 60 thousand hectares. Presently, constructions of multipurpose dams are a new

46 MOWE. (2009). Annual Report 2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and Electricity. MOWE. (2011, March 12). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Dams. Retrieved December 24, 2014, from Ministry of Water and Electricity: http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/ Aquastat. (2011). Geo-referanced database of Dams in the Middle East. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Chowdhury, S., & Al-Zahrani, M. (2013). Characterizing water resources and trends of sector wise water consumption in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences , In Press.

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phenomenon in Saudi Arabia as most of construction activities following a particular type of pattern. For example, Abha dam was constructed for storage, recharge of aquifers, irrigation, flood control and recreational purpose. In the same way, King Fahd large dam was built for storage and recharge of aquifer, but later on, it started to give a supply of potable water through 40 km pipeline to Bishah City47.

It also includes a water treatment plant with a capacity of 40 000 cubic meters per day for potable water production. Further, the development agenda for dams multipurpose used in terms of entertainment and tourist attraction sites benefiting the purpose in more than one way. The International Commission on Large Dams, responsible for maintaining statistics on large dams, states that the Dams corresponding height of 15 m or more or less than 15 m but 1 MCM storage or rate of the flow 2000 CM per second or more will come under the category of large dams48. According to this definition, there are more than 58 000 Dams in the world, while half of the numbers contributed by China (23,842) alone.

In Saudi Arabia, more than 100 Dams arises under the category of large dams. A concise description of major dams has been presented in Annexure-II along with height and storage capacity. Construction of large numbers of hydraulic structures reflects pioneer achievements of Saudi Arabia in the direction of water resource management of conservation. It has also proved the dependence on the renewable water as an important source of supply in near future. Brief discussions on significant hydraulic structure are as follows:

47 Saudi Embassy. (1998, October 05). Crown Prince Abdullah visits Bisha, opens dam. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive/ 1998/news/page309.aspx 48 ICOLD. (2006). General Synthesis: Circular no. 1443. Retrieved Jan 24, 2015, from The International Commission on Large Dams: http://www.icold-cigb.org/GB/World _register /general_synthesis.asp

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(A) King Fahd Dam

King Fahd Dam, one of the most important hydraulic structure and multipurpose project, was constructed in 1997. A royal order was issued on 21st Rajab 1407 H49, corresponding to 21 March 1987 CE, for the construction of the dam. The projects finished by 1418 H (1997 CE) and official opening ceremony followed on 13th Muharram, 1419 H, corresponding to 10 May 1998. The total cost of construction was 246 million Saudi Riyals. It has highest storage capacity until now among all the projects in Saudi Arabia and second in height after Jazan (Wadi Baysh) Dam. Its’ reservoir capacity represents about 25 percent of the total storage capacity until 2010. It could be considered a milestone in the history of Saudi Arabia of large dams, often, constructed on rivers rather than widyan.

The dam was constructed on Wadi Bishah about 40 km south of Bishah in Asir province of southwestern Saudi Arabia. Wadi is one of the biggest valleys in Arabian Peninsula as its length extended more than 250 km from a height of Asir to Foothill basin. The whole valley flourished by more than hundred tributaries. It receives water flow from those tributaries that stored into underground reservoir, and provides elixir during summer season. Khamis Mushayt, Wadi Abha, Wadi Hurgab, Tabalah, Dawasir and others are important tributaries that maintain constant water flow into dam reservoir. Wadi Bishah extended towards the north from the dam and ran almost 200 km where it meets with Tathlith and formed a large Wadi known as Wadi-Ad-Dawasir. Wadi Ad-Dawasir extends again as far as 200 km towards Rab-Al-Khali before disappearing in Rumeila. The catchment of the dam is about 7,600 km2 that extended from Ubaidah plateau in the north of the dam. Precipitation rate in upper reaches of the Wadi is about 600 mm while it decreases toward the lower end of Wadi Bishah at the rate of 100 mm.

It is a concrete gravity dam with a base width of 80 m while the top width of the dam is 8 m along with a 5 m wide road. The height of the dam is about 103 m from the foundation and 68 m from the Wadi bed while the length of the dam is 507 m at the top, which divided into 34 blocks of 15 m each.

49 Saudi Embassy. (1998, October 05). Crown Prince Abdullah visits Bisha, opens dam. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive /1998 /news/page309.aspx

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The capacity of the storage is about 325 MCM with Reservoir Lake of 18 km while the dam is also supporting flood control and prevention from damage to the city through the spillway. Spillway designed to ascertain the flow rate of 5,338 cubic meters per second by a 60.5 m, above wadi bed, a crest that has a length of 225 m. Other technical systems are also supporting to the dam for proper monitoring, maintenance and operation that includes six galleries with a total length 3,280 m for water diversion, eight pendulums for monitoring of horizontal and vertical pressure and temperature, and six piezometers for measuring uplift water pressure. Dam is beneficial more than one ways as it has many purposes from recharge of aquifers, flood control, irrigation, to the municipal water supply through 40 km long pipeline towards Bisha city, and a water treatment plant with a capacity of 40 000 cubic meters per day.

(B) Baysh Dam

Baysh dam is another important multipurpose project in Saudi Arabia. It is tallest dam in the kingdom with a height of 106 m from the foundation. The main purpose of the dam was the protection from flood and supply of water for irrigation while others purpose adjoined later on. The Contract of construction was signed between Yuksel Insaat A. S. and MOWE on 14 April 2003 that ends on 14 May 2009 after successful completion of the project50. It is located about 0.5 km far from the confluence of Wadi Yakhrup and Wadi Baysh in the southeast of Baysh Town at a distance of 33 km in Jazan province.

The catchment of Wadi Byash is about 5,000 km2 that starts from the west of Asir Mountains to the northwest of Dhran Aljenub and then turns toward the southwest and finally flows into the Red Sea. Upstream of Wadi Baysh converts rainfall into a runoff in a very short time due to highly undulated terrain and the absence of vegetation cover. The downstream area of Wadi Byash is a fertile plain, which has plenty of agriculture. Baysh receives runoff from several small tributaries that include Wadi Yakhrup, Wadi Raha, wadi Qaha, wadi Atf and Wadi Al-Awar.

50 Yuksel Insaat AS. (2011). Baysh Dam. Retrieved June 14, 2015, from Yuksel: http://www.yuksel.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=568%3Abaysh- baraji&catid=78%3Abarajlar-ve-hes&Itemid=348&lang=en

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Annual precipitation rate varies from 250 mm near Dam up to 600 m in the highlands with an average of 391 mm for the whole of the catchment area. It is concrete gravity dam with 79.50 m base width at the foundation. The height of the dam is 160 m from the foundation and 74 m from wadi bed. It is designed to control a large volume of flood water of about 118 MCM with flow rate up to 8,186 cubic meters per second by reservoir storage. The maximum capacity of the dam is around 192.75 MCM. Spillway of the dam is about 112 m that is almost 62 m long above the wadi bed with lake reservoir area of 8.09 km2. Other technical configurations include eight opening gates separated through 1 m column, four outlets to maintain flow diversion, and a numbers of galleries.

Hali Dam is a multipurpose and significant project in Saudi Arabia. The dam is constructed to protect from flash floods; the supply of water for irrigation; domestic sector; and recharge of aquifers. The dam was constructed by Al-Dakheel contracting company, a Riyadh-based company, in Safar 1424 H, corresponding to April 2003, and completed in 200951. It has second largest reservoir capacity after King Fahd in Saudi Arabia. The Dam is located on Wadi Hali, East of Red Sea and Kiat town by the distance of 35 km and 18 km respectively. It is situated southwest in Makkah province of Saudi Arabia.

The total catchment area of Wadi Hali is 5,600 Km2 and, out of which, 4,843 km2 area occupied by Dam catchment. It runs from Asir Mountain north of Rejalalma toward the south of Mahail city and continues parallel to the west of Wadi Tih near Kiat town before flows into the Red Sea. Wadi Hali also is one of the largest watershed after Bishah, where the King Fahd Dam was built, with the length of 155 Km. Major tributaries of Wadi Hali includes Wadi Qad, Wadi Dufah, and Wadi Baqarah those contributing into Wadi total runoff significantly. While the annual rainfall of Wadi Hali varies from 500 mm on the high slope to 150 mm near the dam with an average value of 375 mm as a whole basin.

51 Fosroc. 2015. Hali Dam, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 13 March, 2015 from http://www.fosroc.com/case-studies/hali-dam-qunfuda-saudi-arabia/

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Structurally, Wadi Hali dam is a concrete gravity. Its height from the foundation is 95 m and 57 m from Wadi bed. Furthermore, the width of the dam is 71 m at the foundation and 8 m on the top from which a road has been constructed with a width of 4.5 m. Moreover, the length of the Dam is about 384 meter that divided into 25 blocks. The whole structure is capable to store nearly 249.86 MCM water, out of that, 153 MCM flood control reservoir that can hold 9000 cubic meter flow per second through four outlets52. Lake area of the dam is 15 Sq Km while the crest of the spillway is divided into 12 openings with a combined length of 179 m. Operation and management of dam assisted by six galleries on a different level for multipurpose use.

(D) Rabigh Dam

It is the third largest dam, in terms of storage capacity, and one of the paramount hydraulic projects in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Total storage capacity of the dam is 220 MCM. Apart from domestic supply, it serves flood control and groundwater recharge. Contract of construction was signed by the ministry of water and electricity on behalf of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Safar, 1424 H corresponding to April-May, 2003. In 2008, Construction of Dam completed on the confluence of Wadi Haya, Wadi Tiyama and upstream of Wadi Marr along with Wadi Rabigh catchment itself. The dam is situated 35 km east of Rabigh Town on the eastern coast of Red Sea and in Makkah province of Saudi Arabia.

Nevertheless, the total catchment of Wadi Rabigh is near about 4,800 Km2 out of which 3,456 Km2 covers by dam catchment. Wadi also obtains little flows from Wadi Mwebah and Wadi Khams in the north. The source of the flow is rainfall that varies from 40 mm per year at the dam to 120 mm on the upper part of the wadi with the average of 98 mm for the whole basin. Dam is a concrete gravity type with 60 m and 5 m width at the foundation and on the top respectively while a road has also been built on the upper part with a width of 4.5 m out of 5 meters. The dam has a height of 80.5 m from the foundation and 59.5 m from the wadi bed.

52 MOWE. (2011, March 12). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Dams. Retrieved December 24, 2014, from Ministry of Water and Electricity: http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/

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Moreover, it has a length of 381 m at the top with spillway length of 179 m from wadi bed and 50.5 m on the top. Spillway supported by 12 openings that separated through 1 m piers. Apart from the spillway, it has four outlets and Lake area of 13.58 Km2. Being a recharge dam, it supported flood control and damage protection of Rabigh town and ensured domestic water supply. A water treatment plant has also been installed along with irrigation facility to nearby agricultural fields. It has a total 220.35 MCM reservoir capacity that includes flood control reservoir of 140 MCM along with the safety from flow intensity of 7,856 cubic meters per second53. Management and operation work supported by six galleries on different levels.

Apart from the large hydraulic structures, Saudi Arabia has several small and multipurpose projects to conserve water and maintain its distribution to the people as much as possible. A collection of field photographs of some important Dams has been presented in Annexure III. It was collected through primary field survey by the ministry of water and electricity, Saudi Arabia54.

3.1.3 Desalinization of water in Saudi Arabia

Scarcity and shortage of commodities compel to the people to consume non- conventional or polluted stuff either it is water or anything else. To cope up with such crisis, the ministry of water and electricity, Saudi Arabia take the initiative to built large structure for desalinization of sea water. Despite the fact that desalinization has the higher production cost as compared to other conventional water resource, Saudi Arabia constructed a number of plants since the early seventies. Now, Saudi Arabia stands first in the production of desalinated water in the world. Saline water conversion Corporation (SWCC) has the sole responsibilities of production, operation and management of desalinization plants in Saudi Arabia.

These facilities were constructed to bridge the gap between freshwater availability and water demands. These desalination plants consume an enormous amount of fossil energy, mostly natural gas and release huge quantities of carbon dioxide.

53 MOWE. (2011, March 12). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Dams. Retrieved December 24, 2014, from Ministry of Water and Electricity: http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/ 54 MOWE. (2011, March 12). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Dams. Retrieved December 24, 2014, from Ministry of Water and Electricity: http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/

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However, the release of carbon dioxide has some adverse effect on the environment. Some studies predict that the amount of excessive release of Carbon dioxide could increase average temperature and decrease participation amount significantly55. Nonetheless, Saudi Arabia had produced 1,055.16 MCM desalinated water in 2013; that is equal to half of its domestic water supply, 67 percent of industrial water supply, and 60 percent of the GCC countries.

In 1980, Saudi Arabia had produced almost 90 percent of total desalinated water of the world with the amount of 7.65 MCM56. Currently, it has 30 desalination plants in operation, out of them, 24 were along the coast of Red Sea and remaining six plants on Persian/Arabian Gulf coast57. Development of desalination facilities and production of water has also been presented in Table 3.7 along with plants actual production since 1990.

55 Andersson, L., Samuelsson, P., & Kjellstrom. (2011). Assessment of climate change impact on water resources in the Pungwe river basin. Tellus A: International Meteorological Institute (Stockholm) , 63 (A), 138-157. ESCWA. (2011). Assessing the impact of climate change on water resources and socio- economic vulnerability in the Arab Region: A Methodological framework for pursuing an integrated assessment. New York: Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA): The United Nations. Brekke, L. D., Kiang, J. E., Rolf, O. J., Pulwarty, R. S., Raff, D. A., Turnipseed, D. P., et al. (2009). Climate Change and Water Resources Management: A Federal Perspective. Virginia: US Department of Interior, United States Geological Survey. SMHI. (2014, April 23). Hydrology: Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Luni River Basin, Rajasthan, India, using CORDEX results. Retrieved July 12, 2015, from Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI): http://www.smhi.se/en/research/research-departments/hydrology/assessment-of-climate- change-impacts-on-water-resources-in-the-luni-river-basin-1.34211 56 SWCC. (2011). General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 57 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 49th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. SAMA. (2015). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 50th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

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Table 3.7: Total Water (Desalinated) Produced by Plants in Saudi Arabia since 1990 (MCM) AL- AL- Al- Al- Al- Other Greg Hijri Jeddah Yenbu Total Shoqiq Shuaiba Khafji Khobar Jubail * 1990 1410 15.56 51.96 4.81 133.06 33.84 88.23 301.50 6.23 635.18 1991 1411 16.54 62.45 3.64 131.01 34.12 77.47 321.75 6.32 653.29 1992 1412 19.20 69.01 4.55 134.86 34.15 73.35 331.27 6.71 673.10 1993 1413 21.43 71.49 5.34 134.82 35.12 73.43 342.22 7.33 691.17 1994 1414 23.85 71.12 5.92 143.47 34.70 73.77 353.11 8.27 714.22 1995 1415 28.75 70.51 5.80 154.34 34.43 72.98 340.61 8.19 715.61 1996 1416 31.07 72.42 5.64 152.55 33.38 71.00 343.14 8.23 717.42 1997 1417 30.79 76.82 5.94 153.03 35.01 72.81 353.19 7.88 735.49 1998 1418 30.60 75.00 5.84 154.27 35.30 69.04 355.44 8.29 733.78 1999 1419 29.86 77.46 6.18 150.10 69.11 66.90 349.65 8.30 757.64 2000 1420 33.02 90.38 5.77 157.70 9.60 89.24 346.09 8.68 740.48 2001 1421 31.81 92.20 5.40 151.78 94.91 93.66 335.57 8.47 813.80 2002 1422 34.30 132.40 5.49 147.29 107.79 108.82 340.94 8.70 885.73 2003 1423 35.61 211.36 6.59 141.97 125.26 131.32 362.85 8.86 1023.82 2004 1424 36.85 222.58 6.81 139.73 107.10 132.45 385.85 8.98 1040.34 2005 1425 36.85 219.99 6.93 141.74 111.51 140.48 383.00 9.28 1049.77 2006 1426 36.83 228.44 6.96 132.98 113.84 143.85 364.85 9.18 1036.93 2007 1427 36.69 223.59 7.26 136.12 111.28 146.48 361.25 9.03 1031.69 2008 1428 36.40 232.07 7.63 151.23 119.49 146.88 398.95 9.46 1102.12 2009 1429 41.91 148.78 7.17 135.38 119.12 148.69 404.72 16.45 1022.21 2010 1430 15.00 100.18 7.82 132.73 118.41 152.14 334.43 23.05 883.75 2011 1431 2.21 131.74 7.75 136.24 113.24 141.86 375.85 23.81 932.72 2012 1432 15.13 170.27 8.02 132.23 122.77 144.51 380.99 23.31 997.23 2013 1433 28.58 176.70 8.03 163.64 136.19 129.70 388.03 24.30 1055.16 CAGR -0.75 5.89 2.54 0.00 8.09 4.00 0.76 5.27 2.38 Source: SSYB58, Since 1990 to 2014; Note: Other plants include Hakel, Deba, Al-Wajh, Umlujj, Rabeigh, Al-Birk, Farasan and Al-Aziziyah

It is evident from Table 3.7 that Saudi Arabia had produced 635.18, 715.61, 740.48, 1049.47 and 833.75 MCM desalinated water in 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010 respectively. While before 1990, production of desalination had been 194.56, 488.66, 515.73 and 1224.43 MCM in 1970, 1975, 1980 and posted 1980

58 SSYB. (2014). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information. (Various issues from 1990 to 2014)

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respectively59. Data in Table 3.7 also represent significant fluctuation throughout the year in the production of desalinated water. It is coupled with maintenance and rehabilitation of desalination plants that required proper shut down of some operational units for a time being.

Figure 3.5: Total Desalinated water production by plants

450 400 AL-Shoqiq 350 AL-Shuaibah 300 Al-Khafji 250 Jeddah 200 Yanbu 150 Al-Khobar 100 Al-Jubail

Desalinated (MCM)Water Desalinated 50 Other* 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2013 Source: From Table 3.7

Moreover, individual desalinization production of plants ranges 1000 cubic meter to 815 thousand cubic meters per day. After proper desalinization produced water mixed with small amount of groundwater to achieve the required level of total dissolved solids (TDS).

In terms of production, average annual growth rate varies from 2 to 6 percent except Jeddah with more or less constant production throughout the years while a decrease in Al-Shoqiq plant, both installed on the east coast of Red Sea. Plants specific properties along with desalinization approach, production, service, and operation years has been presented in Table 3.7. In the year 2013, statistics of table 3.7 and 3.8 has a slight variation in terms of plant wise production due to two reason, that is the source of data origin and year of conversion from Hijri to Gregorian while total production figure has no variation.

59 Saudi Arabia Central Planning Organization (1975), and Beaumont, P; Water and Development in Saudi Arabia, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 143, No. 1 (Mar., 1977), pp. 42-60.

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Table 3.8: Desalinization plants in 2013, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Sr. Year Water (MCM/Year) Electricity Plant Stage No (MW) Start End Supply Production 1 Jubail 1 1982 *2007 43.23 1st 238 2 Jubail 2 1983 *2008 369.31 297.54 2nd 762 3 Jubail RO 2000 2025 28.54 RO 4 Khobar 2 1983 *2008 70 2nd 500 157.89 5 Khobar 3 2000 2025 87.89 3rd 311 6 Khafji 1986 *2011 7.18 7.18 2nd 7 Jeddah 3 1979 *2004 27.74 3rd 200 8 Jeddah 4 1982 *2007 69.55 4th 500 132.95 9 Jeddah RO1 1989 2014 17.83

10 Jeddah RO2 1994 2019 17.83

11 Shoaiba 1 1989 2014 70 1st 157 212.68 12 Shoaiba 2 2001 2026 142.68 2nd 340 13 Yanbu 1981 *2006 34.54 1st 250 14 Yanbu 1 1998 2023 117.4 43.84 2nd 35 15 Yanbu RO 1998 2023 39.02 RO 16 Shoqaqia 1989 2014 30.45 30.45 1st 62 17 Haql RO 1990 2015 1.38 1.38 2nd 18 Duba RO 1989 2014 1.38 1.38 3rd 19 Al-Wajh 2009 *2034 3.29 3.29 3rd, MED 20 Umlajj RO 1986 *2011 1.38 1.38 RO 21 Umlajj 3 2009 2034 3.29 3.29 3rd, MED 22 Rabigh 1 1982 *2007 0.44 0.44 1st 23 Rabigh Extn1 1979 *2004 0.28 0.28 Redeployed 1 24 Rabigh 2 2009 2034 6.57 6.57 2nd, MED 25 Alaziziza 1987 2012 1.41 1.41 1st 26 Albirk RO 1983 *2008 0.71 0.71 1st, RO 27 Farasan 1 1979 *2004 0.16 0.16 1st 28 Farasan Extn1 1978 *2003 0.39 0.39 Redeployed 1 29 Al-Laith 2009 2034 3.29 3.29 1st, MED 30 Al-Qunfudah 2008 2033 3.29 3.29 1st, MED 31 Total 2013 1055.12 1055.12 3355

Source: SWCC, 2014; Note: * Plants have more than 25 years life span; RO: Reverse Osmosis; MED: Multi-Effect Distillation.

In Addition, the plants installed on the East coast along Arabian Gulf has higher production as compared to plant installed towards the west of the country along Red Sea coast. Total six plants in the East have produced 534.38 MCM desalinated water while on the western total 24 plants contributes 520.74 MCM water collectively in the year of 2013. Former plants supplied desalinated water as far as 400 Km inland to Riyadh city, and Khobar and Dammam city while western plants provide water to Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Taif, Yenbu and many small towns.

In Table 3.8, the life span of 13 plants out of 30 has more than 25 years, e.g. Jubail 2 along the Arabian Gulf produced almost 28 percent (297.54 MCM per year) of total

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production and largest among all the plants installed in Saudi Arabia. Consequently, hindrance or reduction in production capacity due to life span is not implausible from these plants. However, SWCC executed construction of few new plants near Rabigh, Jeddah, and Ras Al-Zour to compete with future domestic water demands (MOEP, 2010; SWCC, 2011). Apart from that SWCC also constructed several pipelines under the ground for proper and constant distribution of water. Such pipes facilitate from water loss through evaporation and other leakages and also reduces maintenance cost. It is pertinent to note that Riyadh, Mecca, Medina, and Eastern Province collectively consumed almost 90 percent of total desalinated water.

Overall, 50 per cent demand of domestic water have supplied, after blended with groundwater, by desalinated water as refer above while remaining amount of demand extracted through groundwater directly60. Unlike many regions of the world and Arab region particularly, Saudi Arabia successfully installed several projects, and water distribution networks to fulfill its domestic water needs through desalinated water.

3.1.4 Reclaimed Wastewater

The use of reclaimed wastewater has long been recognized as a potential strategy to cope up with water scarcity, although, the lack of policies and strategies obstacles reclamation of wastewater. The practice of treated wastewater uses quite evident from many countries in the world, despite, with the consideration of pricing, efficient reuse in the absent of inefficient irrigation and water management systems. It is used for irrigation, landscape and scenic modification, roadside afforestation, and industrial purpose.

In Saudi Arabia, this issue is imperative as Reclaimed wastewater (RWW) used many purposes including irrigation and industrial needs. Although, the use of such water was forbidden for domestic and potable purpose in Saudi Arabia being an Islamic country. However, a royal decree, fatwa, came into existence, after lengthy and deep investigations and discussions with leading Islamic scholars and scientists, on wastewater reclamation. It was issued under judgment no 64 on 25 Shawwal,

60 MOWE. (2009). Annual Report 2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and Electricity.

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1398 H, corresponding to 28 September1978, concerning the conversion of impure water (wastewater) into pure water.

It stated that “impure wastewater can be considered as pure water and similar to the original pure water, if its treatment using advanced technical procedures is capable of removing its impurities concerning taste, color, and smell, as witnessed by honest specialized and experts. Then this cleaned water can be used to remove body impurities and for purifying and drinking. If there are adverse impacts on human health from its direct use, then it is better to avoid its use, not because it is impure but to avoid harming human beings. The CLIS61 prefers to avoid using it for drinking (as far as possible) to protect the health and not to contradict human habits62”.

It was the accomplishment in the use of wastewater either in irrigation or domestic need. One estimate shows that about 9000 ha near Riyadh was cultivated in 2002 with date palm and forage crops using about 146 MCM of wastewater effluent63. It is reported that there is absolute absent of data availability on treated wastewater in the public domain. Present estimates have been taken from various research papers and reports though it has uncertainties and variations. In 2003, total 70 sewage treatment plants reported by FAO64 while the same figure listed out in 2013

61 CLIS: Council of Leading Islamic Scholars 62 CLIS. 1978. Judgment Regarding Purifying Wastewater, Judgment No. 64 on 25 Shawwal, 1398 H., Thirteen Meeting of the Council of Leading Islamic Scholars (CLIS) during the Second Half of the Arabic Month of Shawwal, 1398 H (1978 CE), Taif, Journal of Islamic Research, 17, pp. 40-41. 63 Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development , 16 (4), 465-473. Abdulrazzak, M. J., Jurdi, M., & Basma, S. (2002). The Role of Desalination in Meeting Water Supply Demands in Western Asia. Water International , 27 (3), 395-406. Abu-Rizaiza, O. S., & Allam, M. N. (1989). Water Requirements versus Water Availability in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management , 115 (1), 64-74. 64 FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.

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Chowdhury65 et al., 2013. Despite the increase in number and capacity of treatment plants, few reports presented declining figures in this respect. However, a brief, reliable, estimates has been presented in Table 3.9 and 3.10 along with total wastewater generated, treatment/not treated, water reuse/unuse, plants properties, and disposals.

Table 3.9: Wastewater generation, treatment and use in Saudi Arabia (MCM)

Year Production (MCM/year) Treated Untreated Reuse Treated Unused 2008 730 547.5 182.5 166 564 2009 840 670 170 120 720 2010 6.67 MCM/Day 33% 16% 51% 2010 1546 1063 483 1003 533 Source: Aquastat (FAO) 2008 (for 2008), Kajenthira et al., 2012 ((for 2009), Drewes et al., 2012 (for 2010), and FAO, 201066.

As per data available, the annual wastewater treatment capacity of the main plants was 601.8 MCM/year (Table 3.10), but the actually treated water was only 567.1 MCM/year. Two plants situated in Riyadh (North and South) had treated largest amount with the amount of 146 MCM/year. Moreover, a significant amount of treated wastewater remained unused and discharged into the Widyan, the Arabian Gulf, and the Red Sea. Both, Reuse and treatment of wastewater have uncertainties in terms of quantity and treatment process and removal of impurities.

65 Chowdhury, S., & Al-Zahrani, M. (2013). Characterizing water resources and trends of sector wise water consumption in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences , In Press. 66 FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. Kajenthira, A., Siddiqi, A., & Anadona, L. D. (2012). A new case for promoting wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia: Bringing energy into the water equation. Journal of Environmental Management , 102, 184-192. Missimer, T. M., Drewes, J. E., Amy, G., Maliva, R. G., & Keller, S. (2012). Restoration of Wadi Aquifers by Artificial Recharge with Treated Waste Water. Groundwater , 50 (4), 514-527. FAO, AQUASTAT, 2010, Saudi Arabia, FAO Water report, 34, Rome. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html

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Table 3.10: Some major wastewater treatment plants in Saudi Arabia

Sr. Treatment (m3 per Day) City Plant Name Disposal N. Actual Design 1 Buraidah Buraidah 13000 11000 Sand Dunes 2 Unaizah Unaizah 9900 7080 Wadi 3 Al-Kharj Al-Kharj 21600 21000 Wadi 4 Qatif Sanabis 22195 8340 Gulf 5 Qatif Gesh 15930 8990 Gulf 6 Qatif Awamia 13430 9260 Gulf 7 Qatif Qatif 35000 21000 Gulf + L I 8 Al-Hassa Oyoon 17100 6310 Lagoon 9 Al-Hassa Emran 22100 13320 Lagoon 10 Al-Hassa Hufuf-Mubarraz 136780 29500 Lagoon 11 Khafji Khafji 5190 25000 Gulf 12 Jeddah Al-Khorma 66000 36000 Red Sea 13 Jeddah Plant C 63000 40000 L I + Lagoon 14 Jeddah Plant A 55000 32000 Red Sea + L I 15 Jeddah Bani Malik 6500 8000 L I 16 Jeddah Al-Jamia 7000 8000 The Red Sea + L I 17 Jeddah Al-Khorma III 20000 30000 Red Sea + L I 18 Jeddah Al-Iskan 3500 3000 19 Makkah Old 65000 24000 Wadi + A I 20 Makkah New 50000 21 Riyadh Al-Hayer Old 200000 200000 Wadi + A I +Refinery 22 Riyadh Al-Hayer New 200000 200000 Wadi + A I +Refinery 23 Riyadh Refinery 13500 20000 24 KSU KSU 8000 8000 L I + Cooling 25 Riyadh Diplomatic Quarter 9500 9300 L I 26 Dammam Dammam 140000 208000 Gulf + L I 27 Al-Khobar Al-Khobar 100000 133000 Gulf 28 Madinah New 100000 120000 Wadi + L I + A I 29 Safwa Safwa 8600 7570 Gulf 30 Khamis-Mushait Al-Dhoba 10000 7500 Wadi + L I + A I 31 Abha Abha 11500 9000 Wadi 32 Taif Taif 34000 67000 L I + A I 33 Jubail Jubail Industrial 38630 12500 A I 34 Saihat Saihat 15717 35 Aramco* Aramco 66000 66000 A I + Sea Total 1459670 1553672 Note:* Aramco operates total nine plants at different locations, L I: Landscape Irrigation, A I: Agriculture Irrigation. The table was generated using data from Chowdhury et al., 2013.

However, treatment criteria are another issue in this respect. For instances, Abderrehman estimated that treated wastewater accounts were 110 MCM in 1990, 185 MCM in 1992 and 185 MCM in 199767.

67 Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development , 16 (4), 465-473.

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Pipelines for Water Transport

Table 3.11: Total Length of Pipelines and Water Reservoirs in 2015

Reservoirs Project Name Length of Pipeline (km) Numbers Capacity (TCM) Jubail-Riyadh 932.0 18 3300.0 Jubail-Riyadh III 375.0 6 300.0 Riyadh Feeding 132.5 Riyadh-Qassim 884.8 17 520.0 Shuaiba-Taif 388.4 12 860.0 Shuaiba-Jeddah 353.3 7 900.0 Yenbu-Medina I 226.0 2 40.0 Yenbu-Medina II 371.6 22 1256.0 Brotherly I 215.0 4 178.0 Khobar-Ras Tanura 101.9 60 0.6 Khobar-Safwa 125.3 10 2000.0 News Station-Hufuf 135.0 2 45.0 Jubail-Royal Commission 87.6 9 0.4 Khafji 10.0 2 0.1 Qunfudah 64.0 4 4.0 Rabigh 130.0 6 18.0 Laith 6.0 2 9.0 Knights 2.0 1 9.0 Buraidah feeding 14.5 Total 4554.9 184 9440.1 Pipelines Under Construction Brotherly II 829.0 58 565.0 Ras-AlKhair-Riyadh 914.1 13 2000.0 Ras-AlKhair-Hafar-AlBatin 354.3 11 126.0 Taif-Baha 227.4 8 316.5 News Station* 43.0 Ballit 97.7 6 8.0 Yenbu-Medina 604.7 16 1145.5 Total 3070.2 112 4161.0 Source: SWCC, 201568; Note: * represent the supply of gas through the pipeline for desalination process.

In 2004, Elhadj accounted approximately 475 MCM wastewater treatments at secondary and tertiary level69 while FAO estimates support 547.5 MCM wastewater

68 SWCC. (2015). General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.swcc.gov.sa/print .asp?pid=155 and http://www.swcc.gov.sa/print.asp?pid=69 69 Elhadj, E. (2004). Camels Don’t Fly, Deserts Don’t Bloom: an Assessment of Saudi Arabia’s Experiment in Desert Agriculture. Occasional Paper No. 48, Water Issues Study Group, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)/King’s College London , 1-38.

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treatments in 200270. Again, in the year of 2010, FAO shows one BCM treated wastewater71; it is just doubled and much higher as compared to its previous estimates. While Ministry of Economy and Planning72 are estimated, 730 MCM treated wastewater in 2010. However, the Kingdom heavily relies on groundwater resources but wastewater has good potential to develop as a future option for water supply. It might fulfil half of the domestic water need if properly manage and distilled in an efficient way. In addition, there are almost 45 hundred km pipelines constructed for water distribution while 30 hundred km pipeline were under construction (Table 3.11).

70FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. 71 FAO, AQUASTAT, 2010, Saudi Arabia, FAO Water report, 34, Rome. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html 72 MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Water Demand and Supply in Saudi Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has experienced rapid development in economic and social sectors since 1973. Mainly the development of the country was the result of the oil embargo of 1973 during Arab –Israel war that resulted in a thirteen-fold increase in Crude oil revenues. The total oil revenue rose up to SAR 94.19 billion in 1974, corresponding to SAR 7.12 billion in 19731 (Ouda, 2014) (Elhadj, 2004). It was a hefty increase in government revenues, which led to the development activities in all economic sectors. Aspirations of self-sufficiency and reliance, achieving better livelihood, prosperity goals of rural society, counter with political instability in West Asia were major challenges that motivated Saudi government to initiate major infrastructural development in the country. Consequently, country’s development plan and various schemes had launched by the Saudi government to boost up self-sufficiency and reliance on various resources including water and agriculture. Substantial improvement has also been noticed into the standard of living, especially in urban areas. Moreover, the demand for water increases many folds in all sectors, viz., domestic, agriculture and industrial.

The present chapter addresses the past, current and future projections of water consumption along with water balance in terms of demand and supply in various sectors by sources. Nevertheless, the survey on water resources has great uncertainties, specifically discussed in the previous chapter, because of the precise

1 Elhadj, E. (2004). Camels Don’t Fly, Deserts Don’t Bloom: an Assessment of Saudi Arabia’s Experiment in Desert Agriculture. Occasional Paper No. 48, Water Issues Study Group, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)/King’s College London, 1-38. Retrieved from https://www.soas.ac.uk/water/publications/papers/file38391.pdf Ouda, O. K. (2014). Water demand versus supply in Saudi Arabia: Current and future challanges. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 30(2), 335-344. Chapter 4 Water Demand and Supply in Saudi Arabia

and nonconventional methodology of the estimates2. The past survey on water resources in Saudi Arabia had been conducted more than 30 years ago in the lack of appropriate institutional and technological provisions3.

Though a new and comprehensive survey has been projected to execution under the objectives of Eight Development Plan (2005-2009), still published reports are not in the public domain. The Ninth Development Plan (2010-2014) also has some lacks of precise estimates of water resources. The Saudi Statistical Year Book (SSYB) has also published the annual database on water resources along with economic and social development, trade and commerce and others4. Likewise, the Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE), is the sole authority to execute and implement water resource projects, exercises the collection of statistics on water resources5. There is a serious lack of insight into the collection of statistical estimates on water resources due to engagement of several such agencies.

The present discussions on water demand and supply may suffer from the variations of estimates. However, a proper and conscious effort has been adopted to reduce these uncertainties in the present study.

4.1 Water Demand in Saudi Arabia

The consumption of water resources involves sectoral demand from domestic, industry and agriculture in Saudi Arabia. It is coupled with the high standard of living and rapid development in all sectors. The biggest demand for water amounted by the agriculture sector that is followed by domestic and industrial sector respectively. Due to the unfavourable climatic condition to farming, the practices of cultivation entirely depend on irrigation in Saudi Arabia. The total area under cultivation in 1971 was 419 thousand hectares that increased up to 609 thousand

2 MOP. (2005). Eight Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 3 MOP. (2000). Seventh Development Plan 2000-2004. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 4 SSYB. (2014). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information 5 MOWE. (2009). Annual Report 2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and Electricity.

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hectares in 1980 and reach at maximum to 1,597 thousand hectares in 19946. After that, the kingdom realized the value of water and took the first step towards water conservation in the agriculture sector, which was followed by reducing in subsidy to wheat cultivation7. The cultivated area under wheat witnessed ups and downs from 924 thousand hectares in 1992 to 419 thousand hectares in 2000 and 196 thousand hectares in 20098. Moreover, the total cultivated area also decreased from 1,597 thousand hectares in 1994 to 1,120 and 835 thousand hectares in 2000 and 2009 respectively9. The share of the area under wheat cultivation to the total cultivated area has increased from 10 percent in 1971 to 82 percent in 1992 but decreased down to the level of 60 percent in 200910. The demand for water in agriculture rose from 6,108 MCM in 1970 to 19,271 MCM in 2010 (Figure 4.1). It rapidly increased by tripled fold from 1970 to 1990. After the change in government policy of subsidy, the demand became almost constant for the period of 1990-2010.

The share of water demand for agriculture was 95 percent of total demand for water in 1980, which decreased approximately by a decadal rate of 3 percent and reach to 87 percent in 2010 (Figure 4.1). The decline in water demand for agriculture is the combined effect of policy change along with the increase of the share of water demand from other sectors, i.e. domestic and industry.

Domestic sector is the second highest water required sector. The population of Saudi Arabia was 5.8 million in 197011, which rose at the annual growth rate of 3.8 percent and reached to 15.2 million in 199012. After that, the annual growth of population

6 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 7 MOP. (1995). Sixth Development Plan 1995-99. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 8 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 9 SAMA. (2011). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (46th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 10 SAMA. (2010). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (45th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 11 SSYB. (1996). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information. 12 SSYB. (2014). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information.

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decreases to 2.5 percent for the period of 1990-201013. In 2010, the population of Saudi Arabia was 27 million, of which 19.8 percent were the Nationals while 7.4 percent were the expatriate14. The demand of water in domestic sector was 200 MCM in 1970 and reached to 2,063 MCM in 2010 (Figure 4.1). The water demand increased sharply after 1980 from 446 MCM to 1,508 MCM in 1990. Therefore, triple fold increase in a period of 10 years (1980-1990) was marked by the demand of water in the domestic sector. In 2000, the demand reached to 1,800 MCM with an additional increase of 300 MCM from the preceding period ( 1990), further an increase of 263 MCM ( total 2,063 MCM demand ) was also registered in 2010 (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Water Demand by Sector in Saudi Arabia (MCM)

25000

20000

15000

10000 Million Cubic Meter Cubic Million

5000

0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Agriculture 6108 9470 18776 19721 19271 Domestic 200 446 1508 1800 2063 Industrial 20 56 190 450 800

Source: Abderrahman, 2006; MOWE, 2012

13 SSYB. (2014). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information. 14 SSYB. (2014). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information.

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Figure 4.2: Share of Water Demand by Sector in Saudi Arabia (MCM)

1980 1990

95% 92%

4% 7%

1% 1%

2000 2010

90% 87%

8% 9%

2% 4%

Source15: Abderrahman, 2006; MOWE, 2012

During 1970-80, the decadal change of population was 60.60 percent while the demand for water in the same period increases by 123 percent, which coupled with

15 Abderrahman, Walid A. (2006). Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia, Special presentation at Water Conservation Workshop, Khober, Saudi Arabia. Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwatercouncil.org /fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_2011/16.Mi nistry_SA.pdf

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the high standard of living. The trend of water demand reached at highest level along with the population growth in the next decade (1980-1990). In the observed period, the decadal change of population growth was 63 percent whereas the increase in water demand was 238 percent. It was ever highest change in domestic water demand due to the maximum rate of immigration in Saudi Arabia16. The decadal change (1990-2000) of population witnessed a decrease and registered a growth of only 35 percent. Therefore, demand for domestic water was also the envisaged decline of 19 percent as compared to 238 percent in a previous decade.

In the decade of 2000-10, the change of domestic water demand and the population was recorded 14.6 and 32.5 per cent respectively. Moreover, the share of domestic water to the total water demand was 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9 per cent in the year of 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively (Figure 4.2).

The rapid development of industrial sector realized after the Oil Boom of 1973, before that the national economy depends on revenue from non-oil sectors. The development of modern industrial sector accelerated after the establishment of the Saudi Industrial Development Fund (SIDF) by the government of Saudi Arabia. Consequently, the number of operating industrial unit has increased from 198 in 1974 to 6,471 in 201317. Moreover, the capital investment also increases from SR 12 billion in 1974 to SR 883 billion in 201318 (Saudi Industrial Development Fund (SIDF), 2015). The demand of water in the industrial sector had increased from 20 MCM in 1970 to 800 MCM in 2010. It was 56, 190 and 450 in 1980, 1990 and 2000 respectively (Figure 4.1). The contribution of industrial demand to total water demand was 1 percent in year1970 and reached up to 4 per cent in 2010 (Figure 4.2).

16 Saudi Gazette. (2013, November 05). Over 2.8m Indians now in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Gazette (Eng. Daily). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.saudigazette.com. sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=20131106185891 17Saudi Industrial Development Fund (SIDF). (2015, Jan 26). Industrial Development in Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from Saudi Industrial Development Fund: www.sidf.gov.sa /En/INDUSTRYINSAUDIARABIA/Pages/IndustrialDevelopemtinSaudiArabia.aspx 18 SSYB. (2014). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information.

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4.2 Water Supply in Saudi Arabia

There are four primary sources of water supply in Saudi Arabia, i.e. groundwater from deep aquifers, surface water with renewable water, desalinated water and treated wastewater. The contribution of Groundwater is highest in the total water supply. Groundwater comes from deep aquifers that spread over the whole of the territory of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Eight principle aquifers have almost 86 per cent of non-renewable water, and remaining water stored in secondary aquifers19. Most of them spread in the Northeast and central part of Arabia.

According to Abdurrahman 2006 and MOWE 201220, the supply of water from non- renewable groundwater (GW-NR) was 3662 MCM in 1980 that increased by tripled fold to 10421 MCM in 2010. The supply of water increase rapidly after 1980 and quadrupled in 1990 (13824 MCM), and after that the supply is almost constant till 1990 (Figure 4.3). Due to the reduction of water use in the agriculture sector, the supply start to decline after 2000 and reached from 14071 MCM in 2000 to 10421 MCM in 2010. The average share of total water supply from GW-NR was 37, 67, 66 and 58 percent in 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively (Figure 4.4).

There is the absolute absence of river and natural lake systems in Saudi Arabia. The precipitation is the primary source of surface water. Some part of precipitation directly collected into dams and reservoirs while remaining flows as runoff. The practice of water storage through dams and reservoir concentrated along the both side of Asir and Hijaz mountains in the western part of Saudi Arabia. Moreover, most of the recharge dams built into central and eastern part of the country. According to MOWE, 2009, 2011; Aquastat, 2011; and Chowdhury et al., 201321,

19 Mohorjy, A. M., & Grigg, N. S. (1995). Water-Resources Management System for Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 121(2), 205-215. 20 Abderrahman, Walid A. (2006). Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia, Special presentation at Water Conservation Workshop, Khober, Saudi Arabia. Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwatercouncil.org /fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_2011/16.Mi nistry_SA.pdf 21 MOWE. (2009). Annual Report 2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and Electricity. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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there were 302 dams in 2009 for various purpose, that includes 210 storage dams, 65 for flood control, 25 dams for drinking and two dams for irrigation purposes. Surface and renewable water collectively contribute almost 6000 MCM water for supply use. It includes recharge and runoff of widyan flows.

Figure 4.3: Supply of Water by Source in Saudi Arabia (MCM)

16000

14000

12000

10000

8000

6000 Million Cubic Meter Cubic Million 4000

2000

0 1980 1990 2000 2010 GW (NR) 3662 13824 14071 10421 SW+R 6000 6000 6000 6000 Desal. 200 540 1050 1082 TW Water 110 110 240 400

Source: Abderrahman, 2006; MOWE, 2012; Note: GW (NR) = Groundwater Non- Renewable, SW+R = Surface Water and recharge, Desal. = Desalinated water, TW Water= Treated Wastewater.

The share of surface and renewable water from the total supply was 60, 29, 28 and 34 percent in 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively (Figure 4.4). It is important to

MOWE. (2011). Annual Report 2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and Electricity. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Chowdhury, S., & Al-Zahrani, M. (2013). Characterizing water resources and trends of sector wise water consumption in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences, In Press.

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note that the quantity of water supply remain constant from 1980 to 2010 while the average share decreases due to increasing in other water supply sources. Other important sources of water supply are desalinated water and treated wastewater. Desalinisation plays a significant role in domestic water supply in Saudi Arabia.

Figure 4.4: Share of Water Supply by Source in Saudi Arabia (MCM)

1980 1990

2% 3% 37% 29%

60% 67%

1% 1%

2000 2010

5% 6% 28% 34% 58% 66%

1% 2%

Source: Abderrahman, 2006; MOWE, 2012

There were total 30 plants, twenty-four along the western coast with the collective production capacity of 520 MCM and six in the east with cumulative production capacity 534 MCM in 2010, commissioned for water desalinization in Saudi

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Arabia22. The supply of desalinated water was 200 MCM in 1980 that reach to 1082 MCM in 2010 (Figure 4.3). The average share of desalinated water was 2, 3, 5 and 6 percent of the total supply in 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively (Figure 4.4).

However, the process of desalinization is economically costly but the contribution to the supply, as a prime source of domestic consumption, makes the great importance of this source. Moreover, the practice of water treatment starts late as compare to other countries. Chowdhury et al., 201323 reported that there were 35 major water treatment plants situated in various locations in Saudi Arabia. The capacity of water treatment from these plants was 1.55 MCM/ day and the actually treated amount reported as 1.45 MCM/ day24. The kingdom has to realize the importance of treated water very late due to religious constraint and customs. Therefore, the average share of treated water remained 1 percent of total water supply from 1980 to 2000. It becomes almost double in 2010 (Figure 4.3).

4.3 Gap between Total Water Demand and Supply

The estimate shows that the demand for water increasing sharply and the sources of water supply are limited. Therefore, the gap between water demand and supply has widened significantly. It is evident from figure 4.1 and 4.3 that the demand was entirely fulfilled in the period of 1980 to 1990. However, the gap between water demand and supply has created in 2000 with the deficit amount of 610 MCM (Figure 4.5).

It shows that the available water resources were not sufficient to satisfy water demand in 2000 and onwards. Therefore, it is evident that the sources of water supply are limited in Saudi Arabia.

22 SWCC. (2011). Annual Report 2010: General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. SAMA. (2015). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (50th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 23 Chowdhury, S., & Al-Zahrani, M. (2013). Characterizing water resources and trends of sector wise water consumption in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences, In Press. 24 SAMA. (2015). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (50th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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Figure 4.5: The gap between supply and Demand (Supply-Demand Curve)

0 Thousands Million CubicMillionMeter Thousands 1980 1990 2000 2010

Total Water Supply Total water Demand Source: Based on Figure 4.1 and 4.3

Consequently, the government adopted a policy of ‘demand management’ rather than ‘supply management’ strategy to achieve self-reliance and sustenance of the region. Further, the gap between demand and supply reach at maximum in 2010 that mark the deficiency of almost 4,231 MCM (Figure 4.5). This amount is equal to the total domestic supply of 2000 and 2010. The total demand of water under various uses was 6,328, 9,972, 20,474, 21,971 and 22,134 MCM in 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively (Figure 4.1). Simultaneously, the supply including all sources was 9,972, 20,474, 21,361 and 17,903 MCM in 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively (Figure 4.3). Therefore, the gap between supply and demand was not in such situation that could not be managed significantly.

The government is reducing subsidies in the agriculture sector to manage the gap between water demand and supply, as it is the major water-consuming sector. The total decline in the agriculture sector was 450 MCM from the preceding period (2000-2010) while an increase of 163 MCM has recorded in total water demand during the same period (Figure 4.3).

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4.4 Water Consumption Assessment Based on Five-Year Development Plan

Initiation of five years based development plan in Saudi Arabia was the first step towards the comprehensive development of all economic sectors. The first agency for the planning was established on the recommendation of International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 195825. The responsibility of the planning was assign to the Central Planning Organisation (CSO) in 1965, later remained as Ministry of Planning in 197526. It drafted first complete five-year (1970-75) in the late 1960s that become effected on September 2, 197027. This plan also proposed measures for water supply and demand including consumption policy.

Planning was made up for all required sectors, i.e. municipal, industrial and agriculture. According to 6th five-year plan (1994-1999), the estimated consumption for municipal, industrial and agriculture sector was 1750, 450 and 18540 MCM per annum respectively (Table 4.1). While, the supply was satisfied by the non- renewable (56.75 %), renewable (38.29 %) desalinated water (3.81 %) and the treated water (1.16 %) in the same plan (Table 4.1).

In the 7th development plan (1999-2004), the consumption in domestic and industrial water sector increased while it slightly decline in the agriculture sector. The total consumption was 20270 MCM, out of that 2100 MCM consume by municipal, 640 MCM by industrial and remaining 17530 MCM by the agriculture sector (Table 4.1). The supply was met 66.75, 26.95, 5.28 and 1.48 MCM by nonrenewable, renewable, desalinated and treated water respectively (Table 4.1). The consumption pattern almost similar to the previous plan in 8th development plan (2004-2009). Moreover, the domestic consumption increases by two percentage point from the previous plan outlay and reduces in agriculture by almost three percentage point in

25 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf 26 MOP. (1985). Fourth Development Plan 1985. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 27 MOP. (1970). First Development Plan 1970. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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the same plan. The non-renewable source of water was the highest contributor (62.4 %) of total water supply followed by renewable (29.94 %), desalinated (5.66 %) and treated water (1.98 %) (See: Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Water Balance of Consumption and Supply in Saudi Arabia (as per the Development Plans)

6th Plan 7th Plan 8th Plan 9th Plan Sector/Year % % % % 1999 Share 2004 Share 2009 Share 2014 Share Municipal 1750 8.44 2100 10.36 2330 12.59 2583 15.84 Industrial 450 2.17 640 3.16 713 3.85 930 5.70 Agricultural 18540 89.39 17530 86.48 15464 83.56 12794 78.46 Total 20740 100.00 20270 100.00 18507 100.00 16307 100.00 Non- Renewable 11769 56.75 13490 66.55 11551 62.41 8976 55.04 Renewable 7941 38.29 5410 26.69 5541 29.94 4644 28.48 Desalinated 790 3.81 1070 5.28 1048 5.66 2070 12.69 Treated 240 1.16 300 1.48 367 1.98 617 3.78 Total 20740 100.00 20270 100.00 18507 100.00 16307 100.00 Source28: Five Year Development Plans (6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th). Ministry of Planning, KSA.

Due to accumulated effect of the efforts and measures taken in last plan, water consumption in the 9th development plan (2009-2014) has declined significantly. The total water demand is a decline at an average annual rate of 2.5 percent, from 18.5 BCM in 2009 to 16.3 BCM in 2014 (Table 4.1). It is due to the demand

28 MOP. (1985). Fourth Development Plan 1985. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. MOP. (1990). Fifth Development Plan 1990-94. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. MOP. (1995). Sixth Development Plan 1995-99. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. MOP. (2000). Seventh Development Plan 2000-2004. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. MOP. (2005). Eight Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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rationalization in agricultural purposes at an average annual rate of 3.7 percent, reduced from 15.5 BCM to 12.8 BCM.

Figure 4.6: Water Consumption in Saudi Arabia as per Five Year Development Plans

200 6th Plan 7th Plan 8th Plan 9th Plan

150 128

100

26 Hundreds MCM Hundreds 9 0 Agricultural Municipal Industrial

Source: Based on Table 4.1

Figure 4.7: Water Supply in Saudi Arabia as per Five Year Development Plans.

150 6th Plan 7th Plan 8th Plan 9th Plan

100 90

50 46

Hundreds MCM Hundreds 21 6 0 Non-renewable Renewable Desalinated Treated

Source: Based on Table 4.1

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In contrast, water demand for industrial usage increases at an average annual rate of 5.5 percent, from 713 MCM to 930 MCM (Table 4.1), due to a rise in the number of factories, and operations of the new industrial cities, in addition to economic cities.

However, municipal use rises at an average annual rate of 2.1 percent, from 2.3 BCM to 2.6 BCM. It is interesting to note that the rate of consumption in municipal purpose closely matched with expected population growth in the next decade. Moreover, the supply from non-renewable decline significantly. On the other hand, the share of water supply from the desalinated and treated water sources increase almost two-fold from last plan.

4.5 Projections of Future Water Demand by Sectors

To setting goals and future planning, the projections of various aspects could be one of the most strategic steps for water resource management. It ensures water security, stability and sustainability of the nations. The figures of projection provide a wide range of actions and needed policy recommendations in the integrated management of the resources. The balance between water supply and consumption ascertain to cope up with the future expectations and challenges in more than one way.

Table 4.2: Projections of Water Consumption in Saudi Arabia

10th Plan 11th Plan 12th Plan Sector Scenarios (2015-19) (2019-24) (2024-29) SC-I 2866 3180 3528 Municipal SC-II 2796 3027 3277 SC-III 2937 3339 3796 SC-I 1215 1589 2076 Industrial SC-II 1159 1444 1800 SC-III 1274 1746 2392 SC-I 10596 8775 7268 Agriculture SC-II 10324 8330 6722 SC-III 10874 9242 7855 SC-I 14368 12660 11154 Total SC-II 14003 12025 10326 SC-III 14740 13324 12044 Source: Researcher Estimates

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Therefore, a systematic statistics based assumption with predicted two scenarios has been adopted in the present study. There were three scenarios, i.e. SC-I, SC-II, and SC-III.

Figure 4.8: Predict Scenario for Municipal Water Consumption

39 SC-I 37 SC-II

35 SC-III

Hundreds MCM Hundreds 27

25 10th Plan (2015-19) 11th Plan (2019-24) 12th Plan (2024-29)

Source: Based on Table 4.2 Figure 4.9: Predict Scenario for Industrial Water Consumption

24 SC-I SC-II 22

SC-III 20

Hundreds MCM Hundreds 14

10 10th Plan (2015-19) 11th Plan (2019-24) 12th Plan (2024-29)

Source: Based on Table 4.2

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Figure 4.10: Predict Scenario for Agriculture Water Consumption

120 SC-I 110 SC-II

100 SC-III

Hundreds MCM Hundreds 70

60 10th Plan (2015-19) 11th Plan (2019-24) 12th Plan (2024-29)

Source: Based on Table 4.2

Figure 4.11: Predict Scenario for Total Water Consumption

150 145 SC-I 140 SC-II

135 SC-III 130 125 120

Hundreds MCM Hundreds 115 110 105 100 10th Plan (2015-19) 11th Plan (2019-24) 12th Plan (2024-29)

Source: Based on Table 4.2

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Both the SC-II and SC-II my scenarios was developed based on the current pattern of change (SC-I) given in 9th development plan of the Saudi government. In this regard, the weight has been assigned to all three sectors according to their previous growth pattern. The highest weight (± 1 %) has given to industrial sector that is growing at a faster rate. The agriculture and domestic sectors have assigned an equal weight of ± 0.5 percent because of the decline in cultivated area and stabilization of population growth rate respectively (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Coefficient Values for Scenario Projections

Rate of change as per scenario analysis Sectors/ Scenarios Actual (SC-I) SC-II SC-III Deviation Municipal 2.1 1.6 2.6 0.5 Industrial 5.5 4.5 6.5 1 Agricultural -3.7 -4.2 -3.2 0.5 Total -2.5 -3 -2 0.5 Source: Researcher Estimates

Based on these projections (Table 4.2, Figures 4.8, 4.9, 4.10 and 4.11), the general conclusions could be understood as following:

1. It is expected that highest growth of water consumption has to be in the industrial sector in next 15 year. 2. Hence, the industrial sector needs particular attention in terms of water management to meet the expected high demand for water consumption. 3. Whereas municipal sector will follow slow growth as compare to industrial demand for water. 4. The agriculture sector is showing an entirely different trend that will decline sharply and help to maintain a balance between total water supply and demand as holding the largest share of all sector. 5. It is anticipated that the total water demand, including all, will go down and open opportunities to ensure sustainability of the kingdom. 6. The demand-supply curve is positive for the kingdom’s water resources.

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4.6 Regional Growth of Water Consumption

The overall growth of total water consumption is declining at a rate of 2.5 per cent per annum in Saudi Arabia. The highest decline has been observed in Jauf and Tabouk provinces at an annual rate of 4.3 and 4.1 percent respectively (Table 4.4). Another significant region including Qassim (-3.6), Hail (-3.6), Jazan (-3.0) and Medina (-2.8) have above growth rate from the national level of decline (Table 4.4). Najran, Riyadh, Eastern Region, and Baha are the below of the national growth rate of decline whereas Makkah and Asir have no change in total water consumption. Only Northern border province has experienced growth in total water consumption.

Table 4.4: Water Consumption by Region as per 8th and 9th Development Plan (2009-2014)

2009 2014 Average Annual Growth Rate

Province

Total Total Total

Industrial Industrial Industrial

Municipal Municipal Municipal

Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture

Riyadh 673 4089 236 4998 752 3467 280 4499 2.2 -3.2 3.5 -2.1 Makkah 608 861 144 1613 667 737 193 1597 1.9 -3.1 6.0 -0.2 Madinah 158 968 52 1178 178 775 69 1022 2.4 -4.3 5.8 -2.8 Qassim 86 2274 21 2381 96 1866 24 1986 2.2 -3.9 2.7 -3.6 East Reg 353 911 198 1462 387 734 249 1370 1.9 -4.2 4.7 -1.3 Asir 124 350 16 490 137 330 24 491 2.0 -1.2 8.4 0.0 Tabouk 67 733 8 808 75 565 15 655 2.3 -5.1 13.4 -4.1 Hail 45 1352 7 1404 50 1099 18 1167 2.1 -4.1 20.8 -3.6 North Bord 24 4 3 31 27 6 3 36 2.4 8.4 0.0 3.0 Jazan 86 2040 8 2134 97 1712 20 1829 2.4 -3.4 20.1 -3.0 Najran 37 252 5 294 42 207 12 261 2.6 -3.9 19.1 -2.4 Baha 30 120 5 155 32 100 11 143 1.3 -3.6 17.1 -1.6 Jawf 39 1510 10 1559 43 1196 12 1251 2.0 -4.6 3.7 -4.3

Total 2330 15464 713 18507 2583 12794 930 16307 2.1 -3.7 5.5 -2.5 Source29: 9th Development Plan, KSA (2014)

29 MOP. (2005). Eight Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Figure 4.12: Water Consumption in Agriculture Sector during VIII and IX Development Plan (2009-2014)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.4

MOP. (2015). Tenth Development Plan 2015-2019. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Figure 4.13: Water Consumption in Domestic Sector during VIII and IX Development Plan (2009-2014)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.4

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Figure 4.14: Water Consumption in Industrial Sector during VIII and IX Development Plan (2009-2014)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.4

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Figure 4.15: Total Water Consumption during VIII and IX Development Plan (2009-2014)

Source: Prepared by Researcher based on Table 4.4

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The scenario of decline has changed when considering sector-wise growth rate. It is increasing fast in the industrial sector, at an annual rate of 5.5 percent, and municipal sector, at an annual rate of 2.1 percent (Table 4.4). In contrast, agriculture water consumption declining at a rate of 3.7 per cent per annum (Table 4.4). The highest growth rate has recorded in Hail (20.8 %) and Jazan (20.1 %) province in terms of industrial water consumption. Total six regions namely Najran, Baha, Tabouk, Asir, Madinah, and Makkah, are above the average annual growth rate of the country in terms of industrial water consumption. While four provinces, namely Eastern Province, Jawf, Riyadh and Qassim are below the average annual growth rate of Saudi Arabia whereas Northern Province has no change (Table 4.4).

Moreover, only Najran experiencing high annual growth rate (2.6 %) in municipal water consumption that followed by Northern Border, Jazan and Riyadh (2.4 percent each). The total seven provinces are above the national average growth rate in the municipal sector while remaining six provinces are below this average. The lowest annual growth rate of municipal water consumption has observed in Baha province (1.3 %) (Table 4.4)

On the other hand, the annual growth rate of agriculture water consumption is negative for each province except the Northern Border. It has a positive growth rate of an annual increase of 8 percent in water consumption. The highest decline in agriculture water use found in Tabouk (-5.1 %) province followed by Jaws (-4.6) and Madinah (-4.3 %) provinces (Table 4.4). There are a total seven provinces including Tabouk, Jawf, Madinah is above the national average of decline (3.7 %) while only five provinces are below this average.

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Water Resource Management (WRM) in

Saudi Arabia: Policies and Strategies

The term ‘water resources management’ has a wide range of spectrum for the study purpose. It varies from quantitative to qualitative aspects, while technology, administration, organization, law, and regulation, etc. are the others prospects on which WRM studied globally1. On the other hand, the involvement of versatile professionals and from various field of study structured it into the multidisciplinary international debate. It seems that there is a lack of mutual agreement on the subject area, aims and objective of WRM. The early connotation of water resource management refers to the conservation measures and efficient use. With the advent of technological and industrial development, the idea of WRM enriched and nourished into multi-domain and multi-action approach either it is demand-side or supply-side and a combination of both regarding integrated design.

Moreover, supply-side actions include management of water sources regarding resource preparation, distribution, transportation, alternative source identification and development. While, demand side action refers to the water management under various sectors, institutional and legal setups, organizational development, environmental impact assessment, conservation measures, water pricing and so on. The country like Saudi Arabia, WRM has vivid imperative as it constitute almost 80 percent of the Arabian Peninsula along with extreme arid climate and rapid

1 Rosa, M. (2008). Towards and Adaptive Approach in Planning and Management Process. In P. Meire, M. Coenen, C. Lombardo, M. Robba, & S. R, Integrated Water Management (Vol. Earth and Environmental Science Vol. 80). The Netherlands: Springer. James, W. P., & Wurbs, R. A. (2009). Water Resources Engineering (1st ed.). New Delhi, India: Phi Learning. Chapter 5 Water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia: Policies and Strategies

development in all economic aspects. The population increase from 5.8 million in 1975 to 30 million in 20142. Simultaneously, the number of operating industrial unit has risen from 198 in 1974 to 6,471 in 20133. The capital investment also increases from SR 12 billion in 1974 to SR 883 billion in 2013. Moreover, the gross domestic product (GDP) was $ 5.38 billion in 1970 that increased to $ 746.25 billion in 2014 at current US dollar4.

On the other hand, agriculture development presents a case to ensure self-sufficiency in food production and reliance on security from conflict. The cultivated land increases from 419 thousand hectares in 1971 to 835 thousand hectares in 2009 that had reached at maximum to 1597 thousand hectares in 19925. Saudi Arabia stands third regarding per capita water consumption globally6. The standard of living is also high in Saudi Arabia. The government has changed their policies towards decentralization of economy, administration, and public works. The emergence of modern Saudi Arabia, after the foundation in 1932, brings prosperity and happiness to Saudi society. The discovery of oil has also played a crucial role, hitherto, in the making of present Saudi Arabia7.

The kingdom has improved and developed not only the health and education sector but also water and agriculture too. The step to de-saline ocean water into fresh water resources to meet their domestic need was the significant and strategic decision that

2 Saudi Gazette. (2013, November 05). Over 2.8m Indians now in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Gazette (Eng. Daily). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.saudigazette.com.sa /index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=20131106185891 3Saudi Industrial Development Fund (SIDF). (2015, Jan 26). Industrial Development in Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from Saudi Industrial Development Fund: www.sidf.gov.sa /En/INDUSTRYINSAUDIARABIA/Pages/IndustrialDevelopemtinSaudiArabia.aspx 4 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 5 SAMA. (2015). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (50th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 6 SAMA. (2013). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (48th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 7 Saudi Gazette. (2015, August 08). Kingdom: The Story of Oil in Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from saudigazette.com: http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home .regcon&contentID=200805186773

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was taken by the government so early8. Now, Saudi Arabia is the largest desalinated water producer in the world9. Reclamation of wastewater and treat it instead of pure water was another measure adopted to enhance sustainability and fulfill their water demand. The Supreme Council of Leading Islamic Scholar (CLIS) issued a decree in this regard. It states that “impure wastewater can be considered as pure water and similar to the original pure water if its treatment using advanced technical procedures is capable of removing its impurities concerning taste, color, and smell, as witnessed by honest specialized and experts. Then this cleaned water can be used to remove body impurities and for purifying and drinking. If there are negative impacts on human health from its direct use, then it is better to avoid its use, not because it is impure but to avoid harming people. The CLIS10 prefers to avoid using it for drinking (as far as possible) to protect the health and not to contradict human habits11”.

The government of Saudi Arabia has asserted over the public-private partnership (PPP) model under its decentralization policy. It took the foundation of first national water company (NWC) and saline water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) under the umbrella of PPP model12. Also a large number of companies established for water desalination and power generation projects over the territory. Moreover, the 8th Five Year Development Plan covering a period of 2004 to 2009 was the first juncture for the development of the water sector. During that period, a comprehensive strategy was formulated for water resources development and sustainability, besides

8 MOP. (2005). Eight Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 9 Library of Congress. (2006). Country Profile: Saudi Arabia, September 2006. London: Federal Research Division. SWCC. (2014). Desalinization: General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 10 CLIS: Council of Leading Islamic Scholars 11 CLIS (Council of Leading Islamic Scholars). (1978). Judgment Regarding Purifying Wastewater, Judgment No. 64 on 25 Shawwal, 1398 H., Thirteen Meeting of the Council of Leading Islamic Scholars (CLIS) during the Second Half of the Arabic Month of Shawwal, 1398 H (1978 CE), Taif, Journal of Islamic Research, 17, pp. 40-41. 12 MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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significant progress made towards providing integrated management of water resources. In this period, however, tangible achievements were made, in addition to the development of renewable water resources by enhancing dam storage capacity throughout the country. Significant improvement has also noticed in sanitation and water distribution network regarding both scope and efficiency.

However, these are the few steps that have been taken so far to ensure water availability and management in Saudi Arabia. The proper and systematic discussion of policy and strategy lies in the aim of the present chapter under various aspects. The discussion has followed under management domains, the shift of regime from supply-side to demand-side, administrative and institutional setup, organizational development and conservation measures including pricing and tariff policy.

5.1 Domains of Water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia

The era of water management in Saudi Arabia could be studied over two periods, i.e. before the establishment of Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE) and after the MOWE. The formation of the Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE) has announced on 16 July 2001 with the objectives of comprehensive water resource management plan along with the rights to deal with all issues and responsibilities of water resources in the Kindom of Saudi Arabia13. The Ministry becomes effective after the first appointment of the Minister of Water in September 200214. Before the formation of Ministry, there were several challenges and problems existed against the government.

However, water resource management has had another aspect before MOWE era, i.e. formation of Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW) in 195315. Water resources were not much studied and analyzed regarding water resource

13 MOWE. (2006). Annual Report 2006. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and Electricity. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 14 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf 15 SAMA. (2004). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (39th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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management before MAW formation. The prime focus was to supply only for domestic use and small-scale irrigation facilities along the widyan course. Later, the imperative situation occurs due to the enhancement of large-scale irrigation farming and rapid industrial development and high rate of migration to meet water demand, which construct a large gap between water demand and supply. However, significant issues were include increasing water demand due to the rapid growth of population, excessive use in the agriculture sector, high uncertainties in water volume calculations, lack of estimates in many volumes, costly desalinization, a decline of renewable sources, etc. Moreover, the pertinent issues on WRM can be classified as:

 The wide gap between water demand and supply due to population increase and excessive use in irrigation  High cost of desalinization along with technological constraint  Lack of monitoring for surface and groundwater system  Lack of proper estimates for water accounts  Lack of optimum water allocation among sectors without regards to socio- economic and environment consideration  Significant variations in per capita water consumption among cities  Centralization of water policy that hindered local water rights and distribution  Lack of skilled human resource and trained professions  Inappropriate institutional support to deal with desalinization and treated water development, distribution, and transportation in inland cities mainly  Absolute absence of national water policy and legal acts  Incompatible network for wastewater collection, treatment and reuse  Nonavailability of financial investment and research development infrastructure  Neglected regulatory and monitoring services  Lack of awareness, education and technology transfer to deal with water resource management

These were the preliminary challenges against the government to deal with in respect of water resource management before the formation of Ministry of Water

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and Electricity. However, all the issues were a deal to some extent but inappropriate planning, centralization of policies and lack of future vision hindered the development of water resource, or one can say WRM was focused on supply side domain regarding the alternative search of resources, conservation measure and efficiency improvement. These resulted in serious water problems. Groundwater table had declined very fast in many regions due to intensive use of non-renewable water resources. While the quality of the aquifer reached to its critical levels, land subsidence and the collapse of the ground along with the destruction of buildings was common phenomenon occurred throughout the territory.

However, the legislative and institutional achievement was significant during this period. The government put forward several agencies to deal with water supply, operation, and maintenance. In the post world war II period, the Water and Wastewater Authority (WWA) was an independent and important agency under the aegis of Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs (MOMRA)16. It was dealing with drinking water distribution along with collection and treatment of wastewater in municipal areas. Later, some responsibilities shifted to MAW followed by the establishment in 1953. Further, the development of Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) as a subsidiary agency of MAW in 1965, later become independent in 1974, was the another achievement at the institutional level on water resource management17.

The SWCC handled construction, maintenance and operation of desalinization plants for drinking purpose. In 1992, the ample productivity of wheat cultivation realized the value of water in more than one way18. Therefore, the kingdom compels to take strong decision for water conservation and efficient use to ensure

16 Dabbagh, A., & Abderrahman, W. (1997). Management Of Groundwater Resources Under Various Irrigation Use Scenarios in Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 22(1C), 47-64. 17 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf 18 SSYB. (2010). Saudi Statistical Year Book 2010. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information.

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sustainability of the country. By Islamic law, Sharia law, kingdom modified the previous approach of increasing ‘supply-side management’ to meet water demand. The several measure has been taken to protect the population from water thirst. It includes regulation for sustainable use of groundwater, recovery of aquifer systems, augmentation of available water resource and reduction of national water demand19.

The excessive exploitation of non-renewable water resource, mostly for the agriculture sector, leads to the decline of water table beyond the sustainable yield. There were two factors behind overexploitation and unconditional water withdrawal from groundwater. Firstly, unreasonable agriculture support includes subsidies of energy and loans, which induced a rapid increase in cultivated area and deter water savings. While unrestricted and free access to groundwater is the second reason that makes farmers utilize groundwater beyond sustainable yield and treat it as a free goods. The behavioral changes of the water stakeholder somehow encouraged by the lack of government control and unsatisfied regulation of irrigation services.

After the formation of MOWE, the specific objectives as stated in the Royal Decree no. 125 acknowledged by the Supreme Council on 25th Rabu-al-Akhar 1422, corresponding to 16th July 2001 provides visions and strategy to ensure WRM in Saudi Arabia20. The new ministry has the right to deal with all water and wastewater departments and bodies that were once the part of MOMRA and the former MAW. The area of effect of new ministry includes water sectors and its facilities, execution of various studies, and development of water policies. The mechanism of ministry has been designed in such a way where the consolidation of all agencies and their responsibilities could ensure maximum effectiveness and to minimize/eliminate duplication of management in water affairs.

19 Missimer, T. M., Drewes, J. E., Amy, G., Maliva, R. G., & Keller, S. (2012). Restoration of Wadi Aquifers by Artificial Recharge with Treated Waste Water. Groundwater, 50(4), 514-527. 20 MOP. (2005). Objectives of eighth Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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However, it was domain shift from the supply side to demand side management. It ascertained water conservation measures along with efficient use and water pricing policies. The objectives of WRM are as follows21:

 Supervision of national water sector and its facilities  Management, monitoring and organization review of all sectors  Accomplishment of water-related studies to assess storage, quality and quantity of water resources  Preparation of a comprehensive national water development plans for the country  Water resource protection and conservation along with development of alternatives in various sectors  Expansion of drinking and wastewater network in all cities, beside equitable distribution of water resources for different purposes  Development of water policies and required organizational amelioration for water resources  Ensure water tariffs and appropriate water outcomes from all sectors.  Development of a mechanism to maximize water efficiency and water collection from all directorates and centres  Accomplishment of capacity building framework for private sector regarding PPP model for water resource projects execution, operation, and maintenance throughout the Kingdom  Minimisation of financial burden through decentralization and sharing of responsibilities between stockholders, NGOs, and public-private sector

However, the Kingdom had devised and adopted several rule and regulations to determine regular and equitable water supply under various sectors. It includes protection of groundwater resources, a permit system for well drilling regarding depth, design, site and aquifers, supervision of drilling sites, control on the purpose of

21 MOP. (2005). Objectives of eighth Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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usage, preparation of national spatial database management system, special provision for over pumped regions or aquifers, and quality of water resources22.

The measures also incorporated into the regional water scenarios, besides growing regional population and economic development. The MOWE has also authorized to claim the zones of special uses anywhere in the territory, for example, the domestic purposes.

5.2 Supply versus Demand Management of Water Resources

It is evident from the previous chapter that the demand for water resources has increased rapidly after 1980 and reached at maximum in 1992. Since then, demand declining significantly due to the cutting of water consumption in agriculture sector particularly and adaptation of management policy and efficient use in general. However, several measures had been devised to control and reduce water gap between demand and supply to ensure sustainable development of the region. It includes the provision of equitable water supply to all sectors and supply of desalinated water for the domestic purpose.

Moreover, the domain of supply management relies on four sources of water supply in Saudi Arabia. It includes measures of conservation on all i.e. non-renewable water from deep aquifers, renewable from shallow aquifers or rechargeable water table. Moreover, it also includes surface water from precipitation, desalinated water from de-saline plants and reclaimed or treated wastewater. In the same way, demand side management inculcates the measures and control policies of the entire water consumption sectors existing within a political boundary or natural barriers. In the case of Saudi Arabia, demand management sectors include three areas, i.e. agriculture, the largest water consuming, domestic and industrial.

The measures of water management of demand side consider water pricing and tariff policies, distribution and leakage control, recycling of water and other institutional determination.

22 MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Regarding supply side management, the government of Saudi Arabia has constructed 352 (2010) dams of various capacities and sizes to ensure proper and continuous water supply23. The types of dams vary from gravel, concrete, earthen and underground of diversified use. The storage capacity of dams increased from 0.77 BMC in 2000 to 1.35 BCM in 2014, almost double in one decade, to strengthening Saudi water profile24. Besides utility and construction mechanism of dams, several studies have carried out to assess feasibility and optimization of water use. Some significant and successful projects include25:

 Bisha valley project: It produces 15000 CM water per day from a well field, a water treatment plant and an underground dam collectively. The transportation of water has supported by a 40-kilometer long pipeline from Bisha to the city.  Turba project: It is one of oldest projects of Saudi Arabia with the continuous potable water supply of 17000 CM water per day since three decades. It has supplying water to Taif and Alhada regions from the underground dam.  Alaqiq project: It supplied 15000 CM potable water per day to Al-Baha city.

Moreover, groundwater projects have determined by their potential and efficient yield for a time as the formation of strata varies from Palaeocene to Cainozoic. Also, the hydraulic parameters, thickness, aquifers extent and its remaining volume have also studied with the help of modern techniques to improve past estimates. The suitability and feasibility analysis of well fields along with the type of water in each layer have also identified26.

23 MOWE. (2011, March 12). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Dams. Retrieved December 24, 2014, from Ministry of Water and Electricity: http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/ 24 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 25 SAMA. (2012). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (47th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 26 MOP. (2005). Eight Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Based on improved estimates and assessment, a hierarchical approach has been adopted to implement several projects throughout the Kingdom by the Saudi government. Some of significant groundwater projects under policy measures are as follows:

 Comprehensive groundwater project for regions  Macro level groundwater project for main cities  Medium and small size groundwater projects for smaller cities  Micro level groundwater projects for small villages and settlement

Under the comprehensive development of groundwater facility for the regions, a large number of services including drilling of borewells, supply network through pipelines, construction of small tanks, the establishment of pumping stations, and others have been implemented with the cooperation of leading agencies of the world. For example, an Italian firm, Italconsult, has engaged actively in water treatment and the collection of wastewater.

On policy view, this approach was conceiving a pioneer experience regarding groundwater projects implementation and monitoring at the minimum financial expenditure. The approach proved significance in Saudi Arabia as the consolidation of some small projects and purification facilities become efficient and water saving. It also helps to improve coverage and built-in facility of water structures in many regions including scattered settlements. The Italconsult conducted an engineering study in 213 cities, counties and towns for the use of treated wastewater27.

However, the study also included the collection of data on water resources, supply system, and wastewater production throughout the Kingdom. The Sudair water project is another example of regional water development plan. It provides water supply to 26 towns and villages while the estimated expenditure of the project

27 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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amounted SR462 Million28. Moreover, the Dawadimi and Afif water project provide water supply to almost 75 towns and villages in the central region of Saudi Arabia. The total estimated cost of Dawadimi and Afif was SR500 million29. Another significant water project is Alwasham. It supplied water to many settlements in Riyadh Province. It includes water supply to Shaqra, Qusoor Murat, Tharmada, Murat, Algraen, Othytha, Qusoor Shaqra, Oshaigir, and Al Farrah. The project accompanied by a well field of 16 wells that is located in the west of Shaqra town. The estimated total water supply was 34000 cubic meters per day with the project cost SR 260 Million30.

Moreover, macro level planning has implemented in the main cities of the Kingdom. In Riyadh, several groundwater fields serve water demands. The city is the biggest consumer of water in the Kingdom31. The supply of water comes from three main aquifers system, i.e. Um-er-Radhuma. Wasia, and Minjur. These three aquifers provide 350,000 CM, 200,000 CM and 280,000 CM water per day respectively32. Another significant groundwater project has been accomplished in Hail, Al-Kharj, Buraidah, Alrass, Unaiyzah cities, etc. Water has taped from several wells and treated, before distribution, to eliminate salts and other impurities to meet international standards33.

However, medium and small sizes groundwater projects have been constructed in sparsely populated or small cities like Abha, extension of Al-kharj, Buraidah, and Hail, etc. These projects comprise integrated and multi-domain approach. In small

28 SAMA. (2010). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (45th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 29 SAMA. (2010). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (45th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 30 MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 31 Kalthem, M. S. (1978). Evaluation of Riyadh City Water Supply and Demand (Thesis). USA: The University of Arizona. 32 Mohorjy, A. M., & Grigg, N. S. (1995). Water-Resources Management System for Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 121(2), 205-215. 33 SAMA. (2011). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (46th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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cities, the water resource systems need object based management approach. The measures in these projects include the provision of well drilling and their mechanism, underground and elevated water reservoir, and water distribution networks34.

Also, micro level groundwater projects designed in such way that a well connected to an elevated tank, which supply water through a spout to fill up container and vessels. Sometimes, it may connect by a water transportation pipeline and a large spout to fill water tankers. The government provides potable water supply through such structure to the residents of villages and hamlets. There are limitations with micro level projects, as it needs the presence of potable and good quality groundwater in the nearby area. It constructed where suitable and good quality water available abundantly. It was estimated that there are approximately 1380 micro- projects currently in practice in many locations35.

The government has the special provision of water supply in the areas where the absence of good quality potable water or no aquifers present to meet water demand. The provision of water to the residents of such extant locations ensures by Sugia providers. Moreover, water desalinization has another great story of success in Saudi Arabia regarding policy and planning concerning WRM. The very development of desalinization has established in Jeddah when the late King Abdul Aziz realizes the severity of suffering of the residents, especially during the Hajj pilgrims season.

Therefore, the late King issued a royal order to import two condensers36 for desalinization of seawater, which were installed and start to operate in Jeddah on 6th Moharram 1345 H, corresponding to 16th July 1926 on Friday37. The production capacity to desalinate water for each condenser was 135 tons per day. In the same year, a condenser already installed in Yenbu was repaired. Following the success of

34 MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 35 MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 36 Locally known as Kindasah. 37 MOP. (1970). Plan Documents: First Fiveyear Development Plan 1970. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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desalinization in two cities, another condenser was installed in Jazan in 1363 AH (1944 CE). After increasing number of desalinization facility throughout the Kingdom, a directorate of desalinization has established by the resolution of the Supreme (Shoura) Council on 24 Moharram 1359 AH, corresponding to 4th March 194038. It was the first policy measure towards effective management and distribution of desalinated water.

However, proper functioning of the Directorate was started in 28 Rabi-Al-Akhar 1359AH, corresponding to 5th June 1940, by the endorsement of then Vice-Roy of Hijaz, Prince Faisal Ibn Abdul Aziz, later becomes King Faisal39. In addition to regulation and operation, the objectives of the new directorate were to supply distilled water, sell it, collect payments, installed special monitoring devices to measure the quantity of supplied water, and development of storage tanks40. It has been proved through preliminary experiments that the desalinization has great importance in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, the approach materialized into success as several plants installed in not only the western coastal cities but also the eastern part of the country. It includes Abha, AlKhobar, Dammam, Jubail, Jeddah, Makkah, Medina, Riyadh and Taif41.

The Royal Decree no. 360 issued on 4th Rajab 1385 AH, corresponding to 29th October 1965, was the first step to establishing desalination plants in the eastern region42. It delegates powers to the Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW) to formulate policy and construction work regarding the desalinization plants in

38 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf 39 SWCC. (2010). Home page: Desallinization: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 40 SSYB. (2012). Saudi Statistical Year Book 2012. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information. 41 SAMA. (1994). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (29th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 42 SAMA. (1994). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (29th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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Eastern Province and Jeddah. Simultaneously, the Royal Decree no. 210 approves a mutual agreement between Saudi Arabia and the United States of America on desalinization and transfer of technical assistance43.

Moreover, the first institutional development of desalinization affairs was the formulation of the office of the MAW in 1386 AH (1966 CE), which later upgraded into Directorate of Saline Water Conversion on 9th Shaban 1388 AH, corresponding to 31 October 196844. It is further upgraded to the level of Deputy Minister on 26th Shaban 1391 AH, corresponding to 16 October 197145. The very focus of the ministry was to the use of advanced technology for the treatment of saline water into pure water.

Later on, the situation has changed, and forced to the government for the establishment of co-generation plant of water and electricity due to high cost of desalinization. The first such type of plant, i.e. co-generation of de-saline water and electricity, was installed in Jeddah in 1390 AH (1970 AD) with a total water production capacity of 5 gallons per day along with 50 megawatts electricity generation46. In 1973 (1393 AH), the first plant towards Arab Gulf-side started in Al Khobar city with a water production capacity of 10 million gallons per day. It was the end of the first phase of desalinization success in the desert land in 1970s.

The successful operation of desalinization plants led to the expansion of the construction, maintenance and operation of advanced desalinization plants throughout the country as a strategic option. Later, the desalinated water, as an

43 SAMA. (1994). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (29th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 44 SWCC. (2010). Annual report 2010. General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 45 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf 46 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwater council.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_ 2011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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alternate source of pure and fresh water, enforced the Kingdom to introduce new policy and planning regarding desalinization. The demand for water was increasing rapidly due to immigration and establishment of new industrial cities.

Therefore, the Kingdom constituted an independent public body known as The Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) under the special provision as describe in the Royal Decree no R/49 issued on 20 Shaban 1394, corresponding to 7 September 197447. The decree permits a position to a governor and the Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW) as one of the chairs of its Board of Directors48. The corporation framed its charter with the objectives to construct more desalinization plants along with maintenance, distribution and collection of charges. It also inculcates establishment of cogeneration plants (electric and water production simultaneously). In twenty years (1970-1990) the production of desalinated water rose up to more than 100 fold while electricity generation added almost 80 fold growth. It was an enormous increase in the production of desalinated water. The Kingdom secured the first position in desalinated water production around the world.

Such achievement has enabled the Corporation to continue developing industry to ensure growth and reduce production cost. To stride with the scientific development and research in desalination industry, the SWCC has established a research center in Jubail in the year 1417 AH (1997 CE)49. It aimed to conduct fundamental research on membrane technology and improve the performance of de-saline plants along with increase lifetime of the plants. Recently, the corporation obtained an international patent on membrane technology, which is based on nano materials50. The cooperation has planned to re-plan desalinization structure for the country along

47 MOP. (1985). Plan Document: Fourth Development Plan 1985. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 48 MOP. (1985). Plan Document: Fourth Development Plan 1985. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 49 SWCC. (2010). Annual report 2010. General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 50 SWCC. (2010). Annual report 2010. General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation.

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with the privatization of entire organizational structure. Moreover, the Kingdom has also realized the potential of wastewater. Saudi Arabia has particularly paid attention to the reclamation and treatment of wastewater as treated water is equivalent to pure water. In this regard, the Royal Decree no. 64 issued on 25 Shawwal, 1398 (28 September 1978) already explained in above section. Therefore, several plants have been constructed and upgraded to treat water at multi-stages in the country.

On the contrary, the demand side management refers to control and manage water demand in the consumption sectors i.e. agriculture, domestic and industry in the case of Saudi Arabia, while the agriculture is the largest consumer of water resources. However, it is marked that water consumption in the agriculture sector has decreased from 90 percent in 1999 to almost 79 percent in 2014 of the total water consumption. Despite the considerable decline, still the agriculture sector is consuming a hefty amount of water. After agriculture, domestic sector is the second biggest water consuming sector that followed by industrial usage. The issue of WRM in demand side management has been emphasized by a systematic approach towards agriculture, domestic, and industry sectors. It is evident from the chapter 4 that the supply of desalinated water to domestic consumption has increased from 45 percent in 1999 to more than 80 percent in 201451.

The reason behind to such high increase indeed lies in the policy measures towards water resource management. It is also supported by the Islamic notion of water conservation as witnessed from the saying of the Prophet, which is recorded in Ibn Majah as Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) happened to pass by a Companion, Sa’d, as he was performing ablution (wudhu) next to a river. At this, the Prophet said, "Sa’d what is this squandering?" Sa’d replied: "Can there be an idea of squandering (israf) in ablution?" The Prophet said: "Yes, even if you are by the side of a flowing river52”. Such was the importance given to the optimum use of water by none other than Prophet PBUH himself. Therefore, Saudi Arabia

51 MOP. (2010). Plan Documents: Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 52 The Eco Muslim. (2014, December 23). 10 Green Ahadith, Ecological Advice From Prophet Muhammad. Retrieved from The Eco Muslim: http://www.theecomuslim.com /2012/05/10-green-hadith-muhammad.html

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introduces several measures to reduce and control domestic water demand. Some necessary steps are as follows53:

 Leakage control via sensor-based monitoring during water distribution process  Use of underground pipeline network to reduce water loss through evaporation  Installation of digital meters to measure actual amount of water use  Implementation of wastewater recycling projects for domestic use; for example, ablution water is treated for toilet use at the two Holy Mosques, i.e. Al-Medina Al-Monawwarah and Makkah.  Use of Wadi Malakan’s highly saline water rather than desalinated water for toilet flushing in Makkah  The introduction of water tariffs (continue since 1994) for domestic use.

The tariffs policy on domestic water use is a strategic step towards water resource management in Saudi Arabia. It succeeds potentially and makes control over excessive water use. The water tax for municipal purposes, as per Council of Ministers Resolution No. 96 issued on 26/12/199454, has presented in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Structure of Water Tariff on Municipal Water Supply

Segments Volume (m3/Month) Tariff (Riyal/m3) 1st Segment 0-50 0.10 2nd Segment 51-100 0.15 3rd Segment 101-200 2.00 4th Segment 201-300 4.00 5th Segment Above 301 6.00

Source: Ninth Development Plan (2004-09), KSA

53 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 54 MOP. (2010). Plan Documents: Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Table 5.1 shows that the per cubic meter potable water has the tariff value of SR 0.10 for first 50 CM per month while additional 50 CM tariff cost is SR 0.15. Furthermore, after 100 CM, another 100 CM per month water has tariff cost of SR 2.0. Likewise, the tariff increases with the additional water use. There are six water segments, on which the tax cost collected. There is no restriction on agriculture and industrial water consumption regarding tariff and water pricing.

There are the areas of future advancement regarding WRM. The cost of water production, from desalinization, groundwater, and dams, is very high when compared to revenue generated from water consumption for domestic purpose. It was estimated that the average water consumption for a family having six members is about 41 CM per month (VIII Plan). Therefore, the tariff collected from most of the household, consumed water for domestic purpose, incur under the first segment of water tax i.e. SR 0.10 per month. The amount of revenue generated from domestic water is much lowest as compared to the production cost of water resources. Thus, the incentives provision is not sufficiently rationalizing water sector in Saudi Arabia.

On the other hand, agriculture is the biggest consumer of water resources in Saudi Arabia as already discussed in above section. Saudi Arabia has good stances on agriculture development since the formation of MAW. The kingdom has achieved substantial progress in agriculture expansion as well as the production of the commodities. The total cultivated area increases significantly, already explained in Chapter 4, along with excessive water consumption.

The policies of government to provide financial support for purchasing of advanced equipment, wells drilling and efficient irrigation systems have boosted up agricultural development in Saudi Arabia at an incredible rate and leads towards the excessive production of crops and other agricultural commodities. Consequently, Saudi Arabia became a food (wheat) exporter country in 1984; the trend was continued until 199255. However, improved and efficient irrigation facilities

55 MOP. (1985). Plan Documents: Fourth Development Plan 1985. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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contributed towards agriculture development in Saudi Arabia. However, information and extension services were another dimension of proper water demand management.

Consequently, the total number of wells drilled was rose up, from 26,000 in 1982 to 52,500 in 1990, almost double in eight years56. Thus, the negative impact of over- extraction of water from thick and deep aquifer systems has resulted in severe consequences like the collapse of ground and buildings; a decline of the water table, and deterioration of water quality, etc. The government has taken steps including the development of new regulations and laws, protection and conservation measures, and issuance of the Royal decrees to ensure long-term productivity and continuous availability of water resources. For example, a Royal Decree was issued in 1980 to regulate authorization of well drilling under pre-established norms that include norms of new drilling, deepening of existing wells, design, structure, supervision by the ministry personnel, and the provision of penalties on both the owner as well as the drilling company in case of violation of provisions57.

Moreover, the policy of subsidy on agriculture goods also affects water consumption patterns. Excessive production of wheat (4.25 million tons) in 1992, much over the predicted national demand (1.22 million tons) forced the government to reduce subsidy on wheat cultivation (MOP, 1992). Simultaneously, the limitations in the diversification of agriculture produce along with the high volume of water consumption were other provoking variables to formulate national water development plans in Saudi Arabia. As a result, the area under cultivation reduced

MOP. (1990). Plan Documents: Fifth Development Plan 1990-94. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. SSYB. (2006). Saudi Statistical Year Book 2006. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department of Statistics and Information. 56 Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 16(4), 465-473. 57 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwaterc ouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_2 011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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significantly due to a decrease in wheat support and diversification of crops policy of the government. Improvement and efficiency in the agriculture sector were added through less water-consuming crops and other sophisticated irrigation facilities in demand-side water management58.

As per the recent estimates issued by the SAMA, the total amount disbursed on food import subsidies were SR 4.0 billion during the fiscal year 1434/1435H (2013G). Moreover in the same year, the subsidy on the import of barley, fodder, and rice stood at SR 1859.1, 1739.1 and 2.2 million respectively (55th Annual Report, SAMA, 2014). The approach to reducing support to wheat crop particularly and others in general positively affected groundwater level and quality of aquifers. The observations made in Eastern Province helps to understand the recovery of water levels along with the large irrigation schemes. Similarly, the maximization of wastewater use in agriculture activities (related Royal Decree No. 64, 1978 already discussed in above section), landscaping, and another domestic purpose has enough potential to deal with the water crisis in Saudi Arabia. The MAW introduced water meters for farm-based irrigation monitoring that help in minimizing of over-pumping and water losses59.

However, on the technical ground, several studies have also been conducted for the assessment of crops feasibility and adaptability in water deficit regions. Adopted measures include the possibility of shifting some cereal and fodder crops from high irrigation water requirement to less water consuming zones. The Kingdom has also taken the initiative to popularize and increase the awareness towards the national agenda of water conservation and management through education, media campaign and public body engagement60.

The industrial water management is also the well efficient and planned aspect of water management in Saudi Arabia. The industry sector follows the approach of the

58 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 59 SAMA. (2009). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (44th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 60 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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closed water cycle in all spheres that includes recycling of water, minimization of wastewater disposal, reduction of groundwater pumping, and the protection measures of the environment. Every industrial unit either small or large abide by the strict policy of water utilization, conservation and treatment by the government in the Kingdom.

5.3 National Development Plan (NDP) and Water Resource Policies in Saudi Arabia

The initiation of five years development plans in Saudi Arabia was the primary step towards economic development along with the agriculture, food, and water resource development. The first five-year development plan of Saudi Arabia was started in 1970. The goals of NDP vary from Plan to Plan despite some common minimum agendas. The common agendas include improvement of living standards, the stability of the economy, assurance of the national security, and progress of social life as well as the country as a whole.

Moreover, particular goals of the NDP for each plan have vivid imperatives such as diversification of production sectors, human resource management, stabilization policies for national economy and increase in gross domestic products (GDP) of the country, etc. After 1974, the oil revenues boosted the national economy by several folds that are continued until now. The rise in oil revenues has contributed significantly in amplifying the magnitude and objectives of the NDP. The country has experienced rapid and comprehensive development in all economic activities including social, educational, health, transportation, construction, agriculture, industrial, etc. The Kingdom has transformed into one of the modern and advanced country of West Asia.

Consequently, Saudi Arabia could change its previous image of third world nation to the well-advanced and modern nation with efficient facilities in the terms of infrastructure development. The ambit of facilities includes transpiration improvements regarding roads and highways networks and airports; educational and health development; amelioration of water and wastewater networks, modernization of irrigated farms, and the establishment of large-scale industrial cities. The

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development of the Kingdom has coupled with the high standard of living and rapid economic growth. Therefore, the demand for water in various sectors accelerated rapidly, particularly demand for domestic water has commendably increased since 2005. Hence, the pressure to fulfil the increasing water demand with quality standards was the major challenge against the government.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has completed overall nine plans until now; the last plan ended in 2014. The goals of first development plan (1970-75) were to strengthening and diversifying national economy61. While, the focus of Ninth Development Plan (2009-2014) was on the comprehensive development of all sectors by adopting an approach that includes strategic and medium-term planning with both indicative and directive components at regional scale particularly and the country as a whole62.

Moreover, the strategic aims of the NDP are concerned with the long-term development perspectives that determine potential, priorities, challenges and possible future growth models. The directive components rely on the operational programs and projects funded by the government at both macro and micro economic levels. Also, the indicative component attempts to enhance the development activities by the participation of private sector that enables private investments and incentives towards social and economic development.

Such planning approach was adopted during the Eight Development Plan, which continued in Nine Development Plan period too. However, Ninth Development Plan put emphasis on regional development through balance spatial and social development approaches to ensure optimum utilization of resources and stability of the country. The plan also has the monitoring provisions of various heads as specified under the plan document by the Council of Ministers Resolution no. 1368 of 197663.

61 MOP. (1970). Plan Documents: First Development Plan 1970. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 62 MOP. (2009). Plan Documents: Nineth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. 63 MOP. (2009). Plan Documents: Nineth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Regarding water resource management, the Eight Development Plan (2005-2009) was the turning point for the development of water sector in Saudi Arabia. During the plan, substantial progress has been achieved, and the initial but fundamental step to frame national water policy was the major contribution of the Plan. The government approved the participation of the private stack-holders through PPP (Public-Private Partnership) model that was working for the management, operation and maintenance of water resources throughout the Kingdom.

The policy of granting a license to the private firms elucidated their participation in national water strategy. Several companies issued a license to private firms to engage in desalinization and power generation projects that include full privatization of SWCC and establishment of National Water Company. Moreover, the Ninth Development Plan (2009-2014) aimed at demand-side water management along with supporting and developing water saving technologies to enhance the efficiency of water policies. The plan ensures the completion of National Water Strategy that involves spatial database compilation, water usages statistics, and mechanism and procedures for implementation64.

Furthermore, the plan also provides the provision of an extension of water and wastewater services and usages; increase the rate of water reclamation, in addition to expanding non-conventional water resource development. Moreover, the plan incorporated administrative and institutional capacities enhancement strategy along with restructuring, develops new set up for profitable operation, and maximizes private sector participation on a commercial basis. The development strategy of Saudi Arabia relies on the water conservation that ensures the protection of sources and sustainability through the conservation of non-renewable water resources, rationalization of water consumption in all uses, development of renewable water resources, and comprehensive coverage of water and sanitation services.

Moreover, the import and usages of low-water-efficiency crops, and raising treatment capacity along with the utilization of treated water also contributing to the development strategy of water resources in Saudi Arabia. However, the salient

64 MOP. (2009). Plan Documents: Nineth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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features of Ninth Development Plan towards the policy of water resources are presented below65:

 Developing conventional and non-conventional water resources  Intensifying methods of rationalization of water uses for all purposes  Achieving balance between water development and water consumption  Expanding the application of advanced methods and technologies to both production and consumption  Expediting issuance of the National Water Plan  Developing appropriate mechanisms for determining the shares of various uses of water  Promoting integrated management of water resources and water demand  Upgrading the scientific, technical and development capacities of human resources operating in the sector  Intensifying efforts to provide water and sanitation services at reliable and highly efficient level  Working towards issuing new water taxes for rational use of water and its conservation  Encouraging private firms to invest in water sector by providing incentives and simplifying procedures  Encouraging the trend towards reliance on renewable energy sources by water sector, particularly solar energy

Moreover, the plan also contains target-based approach to deal with water resource distribution and consumption. As per the Plan documents, following were the major targets:

 Increasing the storage capacity of dams by 85 percent from about 1.35 billion cubic meters in 2009 to about 2.5 billion cubic meters by the end of the Ninth Development Plan in 2014

65 MOP. (2009). Plan Documents: Nineth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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 Doubling the capacity of desalination plants from 1,048 to 2,070 million cubic meters over the period of the Plan  Increasing the proportion of treated wastewater to about 50 percent of consumption for municipal purposes  Increasing the rate of reuse of treated wastewater to about 50 percent  Providing a 20 percent strategic emergency stockpile of water annually in major cities  Reducing demand for water for agricultural purpose at an annual rate of about 3.7 percent  Increasing consumption of water for municipal and industrial uses by 2.1 percent and 5.5 percent, respectively  Adding 600 thousand new household water connections and 15 thousand kilometers of networks, bringing service coverage to 88 percent by the end of the Ninth Development Plan  Adding 700 thousand new wastewater connections and 12 thousand kilometers of wastewater networks, bringing service coverage to 60 percent by the end of the Ninth Development Plan  Expanding cooperation and coordination in application of methods and techniques used in water and sanitation and water desalination nationally and internationally  Issuing the National Water Plan during the period of the Ninth Plan  Developing a comprehensive national water-management system  Enhancing training and scholarships programs and qualification of human resources for dealing with post-privatisation developments

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has tried to execute all necessary procedures to ensure proper WRM along with equitable distribution of resources to all. During the Ninth Development Plan (2009-2014), a total amount of SR 162.92 billion was allocated to the water sector only. It includes, among others, expenditure of maintenance, operation and construction of water structures66. The Ministry of Water and

66 MOP. (2009). Plan Documents: Nineth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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Electricity (Water Affairs), Saline Water Conversion Corporation, and Irrigation and Drainage Authority at Al-Hasa utilized the allocated amount. The period of the plan has end-up in 2014 with tangible achievements, which will be followed by the Tenth Development Plan (2015-2019). The proposed objectives of water resource management of Tenth Development Plan are as follows67:

 The second objective of the plan refers to the economic development through vertical horizontal and spatial diversification of the economy, which aimed at under horizontal diversification to develop low-water consuming agricultural products as well as fishing activities in respect of WRM.  The sixth objective of the plan focuses on the raising of value added a natural resource in the national economy, diversifying their sources and ensuring sustainability along with the protection of the environment. It aimed at: o Developing the use of renewable energy sources for production of electricity, water desalination along with accelerating approval of necessary regulations and mechanisms o Accelerating the approval of the National Water Strategy and implementation of its comprehensive plan o Increasing the use of reclaimed water for agricultural purposes o Enhancing the mechanisms of rationalizing water consumption, reducing the losses in production, transportation, and distribution of water; and enforcing the criteria about efficiency of water use in all activities o Protecting non-renewable water resources and ensure their availability to meet basic water needs o Enhancing renewable water resources through study of potentials and developing additional surface and groundwater storage capacities o Developing an integrated desalination industry, this uses renewable energy sources and supporting it by advanced research centers o Conducting a feasibility study for use of solid waste in generation of

67 MOP. (2014). Objectves: Tenth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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thermal energy and electricity and water desalination o Protecting the natural environment and wildlife, developing and expanding the protected zones, enhancing mechanisms of protecting land against desertification and overgrazing, and the coastal and territorial water against pollution, as well as conserving biodiversity  The twenty-first objective of the plan determines improvement in efficiency of public services and facilities provided to people, and increasing their availability in all region, through: o Implementing the strategy of "storm-water" drainage and prevention of the dangers of flash flooding by the priorities stated in the strategy o Increasing the coverage of water and sanitation services and improving their quality and efficiency

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has adopted serious approaches for water resource management. The regime of WRM firstly shifted from supply-side to demand management and later to an integrated approach of supply and demand to ensure equitable water to the residents of the Kingdom. The technological advancement has played a significant role regarding non-conventional water resources development in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the future of water resources and water demand has to be determined by the proposed policy and objectives of the plan.

5.4 Institutional and Organizational Development

In Saudi Arabia, the development of the institutional and organizational structure of water resources has a long history. It starts with the formation of Ministry of Munciplity and Rural Affaiirs (MOMRA) before 1950 and underwent several changes like the formation of Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW) in 1953, Directorate of Saline Water Conversion (DSWC) 1968, Saline Water Converstion Corporation (SWCC) 1974, Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE) 2002, National Water Company (NWC) 2008 and others.

However, significant developments at institutional and organizational level have been exercised during Eight and Ninth Development Plan. The government adopted the policy of decentralization and division of power to the thirteen administrative regions independently. Thus, the province-level administrative setup enables them to

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expand, monitor, and maintain water and wastewater services in their respected territory. Subsequently, a set of policy measures has had to deal with the performance of water and sanitation sectors, the executive regulation for treatment and reuse of wastewater along with the standardization and specifications of the treatment plants. Privatization of water services is another agenda of the government that emerged in near past. However, the salient features of institutional and organizational setup are as follows68:

 Formulation of the methodology along with implementation mechanism for the privatization of water and sanitation facilities  Development of administrative, regulatory and legal frameworks that required for the effective enforcement at institutional level  The government framed regulations of PPP on water and sanitation sector. The Supreme Economic Council issued a Resolution no. 2/27 of 2006 in this regard  Formation of National Water Company (NWC) by Council of Ministers Resolution no. 5 of 2008 that approves the establishment and charter of the NWC. The resolution also stipulated NWC to get all its entitlements for all services provided to all subscribers  Privatization of Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) by the Supreme Economic Council Resolution 2/29 of 2008 that approving the executive program for the privatization of the SWCC, through converting it into a holding company wholly owned by the state, The operational plan of action to privatize and restructure the Corporation was launched at the beginning of 2009.  Issuance of Council of Ministers Resolution No. 180 of 2005 licensing establishment of the Shuaiba Water and Electricity Company  Issuance of the Council of Ministers Resolution No. 44 of 2007 approving establishment of the Shuqaiq Water and Electricity Company

68 MOP. (2004). Plan Documents: Eight Development Plan 2005-2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning. MOP. (2009). Plan Documents: Nineth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning.

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 Issuance of the Council of Ministers Resolution No.298 of 2007 licensing establishment of the Ras Al Zour Water and Electricity Company as a joint- stock company.

The National Water Company

The company established by the Royal Decree No. M/1 on 3rd Muharram 1429H, corresponding to 12 January 2008, and the Council of Ministers Resolution No. 5 issued on dated 12/01/1429H, corresponding to 21 January 2008, with the worth of SR 22.0 Billion69. The resolution states, based on phase development approach, that the company has to perform and provide all the services related to groundwater; distribution of potable water; and collection and treatment of wastewater (that was under the purview of MOWE) on a commercial level. The company has all rights to collect water taxes, service charges, and other fees from all the subscribers.

While, the properties and other relevant rights about above mentioned services were transferred from Ministry of Water and Electricity (MOWE) to National Water Company (NWC) under the phase wise protocol. The resolution also includes all the financial and contractual commitments, liabilities, and debt of the state or the MOWE, but only about above mentioned services. The MOWE has the right to supervise the company’s performance, practices, and rendering services as per the charter of the company and related laws and regulation.

The company is performing well to achieve its objectives through the increasing operational efficiency to the international levels, providing quality services to the consumers, reducing water losses during the distribution process, and minimizing demand-supply gap along with infrastructure changes. The pertinent responsibilities of the company could be summarized as follows70:

69 MOP. (2009). Plan Documents: Nineth Development Plan 2009-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Planning 70 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwaterc ouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_2 011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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 Control over groundwater production, purification, treatment, and distribution  Prepare national structure for the collection and treatment of wastewater. It includes construction, management and operation, and building of water and sewage networks and treatment plants  Provide adequate water supply to the subscribers; collect taxes as well as ensure proper distribution and sale of the resources  Conduct feasibility tests to develop water and sewage services in the country and prepare plans accordingly  Ensure water purchase from other sources, if deem suitable  Increase revenue through the investment in real estate and movable assets that include acquisition and rental services  Employ commercial mindset and ascertain its representation for businesses related to resource utilization and profit making  Enhance quality of labor force by training and increase the participation of Saudi workforce  Conduct research and development along with the commercialization of the products  Raise water and environmental concern through the media and public campaign  Adaptation and innovation of new technology by the local environment, and ensure its proper transfer on the priority basis  Communicate and collaborate with all the functions and responsibilities under the purview of the General Directorates for Water in the respective cities

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Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC)

The SWCC emerge as an independent private venture by a resolution of the Supreme Council in 200871. It handles seawater desalinization along with distribution and maintenace of the supply network for potable water to the coastal and inland cities. It is also second largest electricity producer company in Saudi Arabia. The company owned 30 major desalination plants, several reservoirs and thousands of kilometer water distribution pipelines. After full privatization of the enterprise, the company has the right to sell water and collect revenue from the consumers directly.

Water and Electricity Company (WEC)

The WEC works as a subsidiary of SWCC with the aimed at improving service levels, oversee company duties, building of co-generation plants, and supply water to SWCC while electricity to Saudi Electricity Company (SEC) under the Power and Water Purchase Agreement (PWPA). The company framed by the Resolution no 5/23 of Supreme Economic Council as a limited liability company (LLC) in 200372. The standard of LLC associations was formed by an article of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MoCI). The preliminary invested share of the company was SR 30 million that divided into 6 million public offerings of SR 50 each.

Both SWCC and SEC owned 50-50 percent shareholding of WEC. The purpose of the formation of the company was to strengthen sale and purchase of water and electricity beside other ancillary activities. The Shuaibah, Shuqaiq, and Ras-AlZour are the three significant independent water and power projects (IWPP) under WEC. All projects have been completed and providing services with exceptional performance and efficiency. The Shuaibah was the first IWPP in Saudi Arabia, which established by Royal Decree No. M/43 dated 11 Rajab 1428H, corresponding to 25 July 200773 (SWEC, 2011). The project ensures the maintenance, operation, and

71 SWCC. (2011). Annual Report 2010: General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 72 SAMA. (2004). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (39th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 73 SWEC. (2011, August 02). SWEC (Arabic). Retrieved from Shuaibah IWPP: The First IWPP in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: http://www.shuaibahiwpp.com/uploads /1/5/8/4/15840408/____.pdf and http://www.shuaibahiwpp.com/

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production of 0.88 MCM per day desalinated water and 900-megawatt (MW) power supply.

With the expansion of Shuibah Expansion Project Company (SEPCO), the production capacity of desalinated water has reached to 0.15 MCM per day by using Reverse Osmosis (RO) to meet water demand in Makkah, Jeddah, Taif and Al-Baha Province. It SWEC is the largest desalinated water plant of the world with the collective capacity, along with SEPCO, of 1.03 MCM per day. It also serves critical role during the Hajj period and Ramadhan month in Makkah Province. Rabigh Arabian Water and Electricity Company (RAWEC) is another important IWPP in Saudi Arabia that started operation on 01st June 2008. The production capacity of the plant is 0.134 MCM per day by using RO that supplied water to the Rabigh City74.

Moreover, International Barges Company for Water Desalination (Bowarege) starts its commercial production in the second quarter of 2008 with the production capacity 25,000 m3/day. It supplied water to the Yanbu and Madinah75. Similarly, Shuqaiq and Jubail IWPP supplied water to Asir and Jazan, and Jubail Industrial city and Eastern province respectively. The construction of both the project began in 2007 and achieved commercial operation in 2010. The Shuqaiq has the production capacity of 0.212 MCM water per day and 850 MW power supply while Jubail produce 0.8 MCM water along with 2743 MW electricity76. The Ras Al-Zour IWPP executed on

74 RAWEC. (2015, September 25). Rabigh Arabian Water and Electricity Company. Retrieved from ACWA Power: http://www.acwapower.com/project/2/rabigh-arabian- water-and-electricity-company.html 75 Barge IWP. (2015, September 25). International Barges Company for Water Desalination. Retrieved from ACWA Power: http://www.acwapower.com/project/6/ international-barges-company-for-water-desalination.html 76 JWEC. (2015, September 25). Jubail Water and Electricity Company. Retrieved from ACWA Power: http://www.acwapower.com/project/3/jubail-water-and-electricity- company.html SWEC. (2011, August 02). SWEC (Arabic). Retrieved from Shuaibah IWPP: The First IWPP in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: http://www.shuaibahiwpp.com/uploads /1/5/8/4/15840408/____.pdf and http://www.shuaibahiwpp.com/

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2nd July 201177 while the production capacity of desalinated water estimated 1,000 thousand cubic meter per day and 1050 MW power supply78. Under the conjugation of WEC, all the companies yields optimized capital cost of the plants, and improve efficiency in order to procure water and electricity.

Electricity and Co-Generation Regulatory Authority (ECRA)

The Electricity and Co-Generation Regulatory Authority (ECRA) is a regulating authority for water desalinization industry in Saudi Arabia. The charter of ECRA provides mission, strategy and objectives of the organization. It mandated the regulation of the electricity and water desalinization industry to ensure the services at the lowest cost with adequate and reliable supply. Prominent goals of the authority are as follows:

 Protection of consumer rights and public interest  Promotion of consumer-oriented policies to protect choice among the service of electricity, water desalination, and cogeneration facilities at minimum cost  Encouragement of private sector to invest and participate in the development of water and electricity industry  Ensures fair economic returns, and protecting the interest of the investors  Establish fair, transparent and stable mechanism for the desalinization water industry  Inculcate favourable environment for legitimate and fair competition among the service providers and suppliers.

77 EPC. (2015, September 25). Ras Al Zour Power and Desalination Plant. Retrieved from EPCengineer: http://www.epcengineer.com/projects/details/11/ras-al-zour-power-and- desalination-plant 78 RAZ IWPP. (2015, September 20). Ras Al Zour IWPP. Retrieved from ConstructionWeekOnline.Com: http://www.constructionweekonline.com/projects-715- ras-al-zour-iwpp/

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5.5 Educational Awareness and Water Conservation

Under the auspices of King Abdullah Ibn Abdul Aziz, the government mounted a national campaign for residential water conservation. The campaign involved distribution free of charge of conservation tools to houses, schools, mosques, hospitals, government buildings, and commercial buildings; these tools were also installed free of charge. The program had a noticeable effect on conservation where actual measurements indicated achievement of savings of as much as 35 percent of water.

Objectives of the National Water Conservation Campaign79

The national water conservation campaign was undertaken to achieve the following objectives:

 Estimating the current and future water situation and emphasizing the importance of conservation for sustainability  Taking practical measures, adopting a clear and direct approach to inform and educate the public about conservation, and addressing all components of society.  Highlighting the Kingdom’s high per capita water consumption along with the low tariff paid by consumers for water compared to other nations  Inculcating the public awareness and encouragement to use conservation tools and ensure water sustainability

79 Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwaterc ouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_2 011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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Programs of the National Water Conservation Campaign80

Media Campaign: The Government has started a widespread media campaign to advise the public about the importance of water conservation. Both state and private organizations contributed in this campaign. Conservation competitions were held in which more than 43,000 male and female participants took part. Many awards were given, and about 5, 30,000 conservation gift bags were distributed in shopping malls, showrooms, festivals and public events. These activities played a positive role in strengthening links with local communities. Some specialized seminars and lectures were also held on the subject of water conservation.

Water Conservation Exhibition for Women: The exhibition was opened on 20/10/1426 AH under the patronage of her Royal Highness Princess Adlah Bint Abdullah Ibn Abdul-Aziz. The aim of the exhibition is to convey the message of water conservation to women community in the Kingdom. The exhibition receives female student visitors from schools, and universities as well as homemakers. The exhibition also aims to inculcate the concept of water conservation in the minds of visitors. Documentary films on water conservation are shown, and practical demonstrations of the conservation tools are held.

Further arising from a strong belief in the important role that women can play in support of water conservation, the exhibition also organizes a program of informative visits for women in schools, colleges, and the community as a whole. During these visits, conservation gifts are distributed and conservation tools shown. Exhibits were held in various women’s activities such as the Janadiryah Festival, the Back to School Festival held at Prince Salman Social Center, and the March of a Nation Festival held at Al-Hukair Land.

A women’s symposium on water conservation was organized under the patronage of Her Royal Highness Princess Adlah Bint Abdullah Ibn Abdul-Aziz on 27/5/1426AH.

80 SAMA. (2014). Saudi Arabian Monatry Agency (49th annual Report). Riyadh: Department of Statistics. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Ministry of Water and Electricity. (2012). Supporting documents for King Hassan II great water prize. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.worldwaterc ouncil.org/fileadmin/world_water_council/documents_old/Prizes/Hassan_II/Candidates_2 011/16.Ministry_SA.pdf

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The symposium received considerable media cover age and a good deal of public recognition.

Outlets for Sale of Conservation Tools: Showerheads were targeted to highlight the advantages of conservation as shower water consumption represents 15 percent of home water consumption. Regular showerheads consume 5 to 7 gallons of water per minute while those suitably adapted to save water consume 1.5 to 2.5 gallons per minute. The Ministry of Water & Electricity opened the first outlet to sell the water saving showerheads to the public in its headquarters building in Riyadh (as a first stage) at a nominal price to encourage consumers to use the conserving design. The Ministry is planning to expand the opening of these outlets throughout the Riyadh and other regions of the Kingdom.

The Program of Free Distribution of Water Conservation Tools to Residents (First stage of the campaign): His Excellency the Minister of Water & Electricity inaugurated the initial phase of the campaign, and the first conservation tools bag was handed out on18/8/1425AH. After that, the Ministry started distributing the conservation tools to housing units with the aim of strengthening the concept of optimum use of water and avoiding wastage. More than 34 million conservation tools were distributed to 18 million people (citizens and residents) in the Kingdom. The average saving was about 30percent of home consumption. This program achieved remarkable results as the percentage of houses that installed the tools has reached 80percent. This campaign is considered to be the largest water conservation campaign of its kind in the world regarding quantity and quality. The expected water saving due to the installation of the conservation tools in the houses is estimated to be 5, 24,000 cubic meters per day, equivalent to the output of desalination plants Jeddah 4, Yanbu 2 and Asir combined. The expected annual financial saving resulting from installation of these tools is estimated at SR900 million.

Program for Distribution of Conservation Tools to the Government/Public Sectors (Second stage of the campaign): His Excellency inaugurated this stage on 5/2/1426AH that is aimed at public sector facilities such as government buildings, schools, mosques, parks, and airports. About 2.1 million conservation tools have been distributed and installed.

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Program for Distribution to the Private Sector (Third stage of the campaign): His Excellency inaugurated this stage on 17/8/1426AH that is aimed at private sector facilities such as hotels, furnished flats, and residential compounds. More than 2.5 million conservation tools have been distributed and installed.

Program for Distribution of Water Saving Showerheads at Nominal Prices (fourth stage of the campaign): In this fourth phase, the Ministry targeted private sector facilities such as hotels, furnished flats, and residential compounds. Some sale points were opened for distributing the water saving showerheads to the people at a nominal price for encouragement of water conservation and optimum use. The heads were available in different sizes and colours, can easily be installed, and attractively designed. More than 592,000 water saving showerheads have been distributed and installed. The water saving achieved ranges from 25 percent to 45 percent.

The government has implemented a national program to reduce leakage of water from the public water networks and renewal of old networks to reduce the loss to less than 5 percent. The tables below show the percentage saving of water due to the program.

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Present section inculcates a summary of findings and the conclusions of the thesis entitled “water Resource Management in Saudi Arabia”, based on certain pre- established aims and objectives. The research has described inferences of water resource management, not previously reported, including international debates. The development of appropriate tool/method for water resource management is a difficult task among the professionals hitherto. Therefore, a novel approach along with its implementation strategy has produced, which could be adopted in future research work either in the similar study region or equally in others too. The study also incorporates implication and suggestion for future water management in Saudi Arabia under predicted scenarios. At the end of this section, however, a brief discussion has also guided towards new research work and knowledge enhancement in future.

Limited research work has been done so far on water resource management in Saudi Arabia as analysed via Scopus database. The analysis shows that out of 55,701 publication, only 139 (0.24 percent) were related to the topic of study, i.e. water resource management in Saudi Arabia. After thorough revision as per standard review process of all 139 outputs, only 12 publications found suitable since 1975 for the present research work as the path provider (or significant). It contributes, however, significantly in the knowledge on water resource management in general and Saudi Arabia particularly. Although, the reason behind the limited publication could be lies into language barrier as most of the work analysed via Scopus database relies on English language publication only. The Scopus database does not include the work published in regional language, i.e. Arabic. Therefore, the present research is also an attempt to minimise the gap of knowledge on water resource management in Saudi Arabia. Conclusion and Summary

Naturally, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia is very arid whereas the two-third of the total area is under the sand and limestone related topography. The flora and fauna are completely absence or very negligible in this two-third region due to surface water unavailability. Only alluvial plains and few widyan are flourished and able to sustain the life whereas both collectively contribute less than 2 percent to the total area of territory. There is the absolute absence of lakes and permanent streams, except few widyan and ephemeral streams, regarding water supply in Saudi Arabia. However, the study region is geologically very rich and contains a good amount of underground water resources. The rock structure supports infiltration of water through seepage from precipitation, whenever the event occurs.

Climatically, the country lies in the tropical and sub-tropical region, which is characterized by the zone of the high-pressure system along dry winds. That is why, precipitation is absent, and temperature remains high whole of the year. The average precipitation, as discussed in chapter 2, is approximately 111 mm or 245 km2 per year except high mountain region of Hijaz and Asir where it reaches sometimes to 500 mm. Moreover, the temperature varies according to seasonality and spatial patterns in the region. In summer, it may scorch as much as 58 degrees while winter season could be mild and cold as -1 degree in some places. The potential evaporation is as high as 2200 mm per year while the central plateau and Empty Quarter is the most vulnerable region of the country. Therefore, there is great imbalance between water availability from the precipitation and evaporation rate.

Regarding soil resources, the Kingdom has six major groups as per standard classification of FAO. The major soil group is Yermosols, which is not productive and contribute almost 34 percent into total soil area, followed by the dunes (23 percent), and Solonchacks (14.5 percent). These three groups collectively occupied almost 72 percent of total study area regarding the areal expansion. The productive soil, Fluvisols, is expanded only 2.24 percent of the total area. Therefore, the general conclusion could be drawn as the region is not sustainable regarding the agriculture and forestry except Fluvisols above region, if sustainability possible it could increase pressure on precious water resources.

On the other hand, the population is growing at a rapid rate, as it was 4 million in 1960 and increase with 675 percent growth to 31 million in 2015. The population

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increase has several implications for the sustainable development in Saudi Arabia; as the water resources are very limited while the population is increasing day by day and beyond the sustainable level. The study also concludes that the labour induces migration, one of the causes of population growth, could be controlled at sustainable level whereas the pressure and vulnerability on resources could be minimised. The development and planning of water resources should be focused on high densely populated region rather than the inclusive development of the whole region. Moreover, urbanization leads to high water consumption due to the standard of living. Therefore, the policy of water resource management should incorporate it efficiently.

It is found that Saudi Arabia has a good amount of groundwater, which is the biggest source of water supply as a whole apart from the surface, desalinization and treated wastewater. Groundwater contributes almost 96 percent of total available water whereas surface, desalinated and reclaimed water shares only 3.70, 0.05 and 0.02 percent of the total 2, 272 BCM available water respectively. Moreover, the recharge rate is negligible and contributes only 0.17 percent (3958 MCM) of total available water in Saudi Arabia.

Therefore, the sustainable yield of groundwater should be maintained in policy matter with practice implementation at ground level. Moreover, separate research could be conducted on sustainable yield as none of the publication/research has been reported so far except few case studies focused on specific region or aquifers based. There were nine principal and seven secondary aquifers found in Saudi Arabia that are non-renewable and renewable respectively. The non-renewable water resources/aquifers have sandstone strata under deep geological formation where water was accumulated 10 to 32 thousand years ago as per radioactive dating. This water has high potential to develop and usage without treatment for domestic, agriculture and industrial purposes.

The highest water reserves found in Wasia-Biyadh aquifer (32 percent) followed by Saq (12 percent) and Wajid (11 percent) of the total groundwater. Moreover, the contamination regarding total dissolved solid varies significantly from 1,500 particles per million (ppm) in Wajid, best quality among aquifers, to 60, 000 ppm in Um Er Radhuma in Dammam region situated in the eastern province of Saudi

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Arabia. In general, sandstone layered aquifers has a good quality of water resources as compared to carbonate structure. Despite being the very low quality of water in the eastern province, the agriculture development is still at its zenith. Therefore, the extraction of low-quality water, specifically in the eastern province, should be stopped immediately as further extraction could lead to serious predicaments along with health implication to the residence. The alternate strategy, however, could be adopted regarding agriculture expansion/shift to other water surplus/good quality region.

Recently, the government has realized this issue and taken steps in this regards. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has invested in buying agri-farm in several countries in Africa, Asia and Europe that includes Sudan, Egypt, Pakistan, Malaysia, Ukraine, and Turkey. Subsequently, the surface water is also very scarce, and vast area of the country may not receive any rainfall for several successive years. Sometimes, the rainfall produces substantial volume as runoff in relatively short span, which may cause severe damage to life and properties due to flash flood. Therefore, a proper strategy should be incorporated to control the flow of runoff and maximise the recharge along with prevention from life and property loss.

Also, the runoff in a mountainous region, i.e. Hijaz and Asir, should be handled with proper care as the precipitation has a regular pattern in some region. Moreover, widyan flow also has significant regarding water runoff after a rainfall event. It was estimated that the widyan flow (2,060 MCM) could contribute almost equal to one- year domestic water consumption if manage efficiently. The highest densely widyan region includes Asir Mountain, Tihama plain, and the Red Sea coastal belt where the topography supports the continuous flow of water throughout the years as compared to another region of the country. Consequently, the government has the initiative to develop infrastructure facility to control the flow of these widyan through dams and water reservoirs. It seems superfluous undertaking to construct a dam in such climate condition where no or little precipitation occurs.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has done the great achievement in this regard, as supply side management of water resources. Currently, there are 449 dams commissioned throughout the country of different size, specification, and capacity along with total collective storage capacity of 2.02 BCM in 2013.

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Saudi Arabia is a pioneer in the development of non-conventional water resource, i.e. desalinated water and reclamation of wastewater. However, the cost of desalinization is high but it contributes significantly to water supply. In the year of 2013, desalinization enhanced almost equal to half of the domestic water supply or more than 65 percent of the industrial water supply. Henceforth, the desalinization is one of the main sources of water supply in Saudi Arabia. It is found that there were total 30 major desalinization plants operated, out of them 24 were along the coast of Red Sea and remaining six plants near to Persian/Arabian Gulf in Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Regarding the production of water, the largest plant was Al-Jubail (388 MCM per year) in Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia followed by Al-Shuaiba (177 MCM), Jeddah (164 MCM), Yenbu (136 MCM) and Al-Khobar (130 MCM) in 2013. These desalinization plants are supplying water to many inland cities including Riyadh (400 km from the plant), Khobar, Dammam, Jeddah, Makkah, Medina, Taif, Yenbu and many small towns.

Moreover, the reclamation of wastewater has also been recognized as potential water source in many countries including Saudi Arabia. There are no reliable figures available on treated wastewater consumption and production. Although, the general usage of treated wastewater includes irrigation, landscape and scenic modification, roadside aforestation, injection for groundwater recharge, and industrial purposes in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, reclamation of wastewater could be a management domain in future water policy in Saudi Arabia.

On the other hand, the Kingdom had rapid development in all sector since 1973, after the oil embargo and Arab-Israel war. The increase of revenue was very high as lifted to SR 94.19 billion in 1974 from SR 7.12 billion in 1973, duration of one year only. Such a high increase of revenue has resulted to aspiration of self-sufficiency and reliance, achieving better livelihood, and counter with political instability.

Therefore, the demand for water increases many-fold due to rapid industrial development, population increase, and cultivation of food-grains to achieve self- sufficiency. Consequently, the total cultivated area increases from 419 thousand hectares in 1971 to 1,597 thousand hectares in 1994, approximate 300 percent change. Wheat cultivation was the main crop shown during that period. That is why; the demand of water was high during that period and reach to almost 19000 MCM

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(1990) in agriculture alone. The agriculture demand increased from 6,108 MCM in 1970 to 19, 721 MCM in 2000. While the domestic demand increases from 200 MCM in 1970 to 2,063 MCM in 2010. The demand increases sharply from 446 MCM in 1980 to 1,508 MCM in 1990, therefore, a triple-fold increase in a decade. Further, the demand for water reached to 1,800 MCM in 2000 and 2,063 MCM in 2010 with the addition of 300 MCM and 263 MCM in a decade respectively.

During 1970-80, the decadal change of population was 60.60 percent while the demand for water in the same period increases by 123 percent. The highest increase of water demand (238 percent), however, reported during 1980-1990 because of high immigration in Saudi Arabia. Also, the industrial operational unit had increased from 198 in 1974 to 6, 471 in 2013 while the capital investment rose from SR 12 to SR 883 billion in the same period. Consequently, water demand in the industrial sector also increases from 20 MCM in 1970 to 800 MCM in 2010.

It is found that the demand of agriculture sector was 95 percent in 1980 followed by 92, 90, and 87 percent in 1990, 2000, and 2010 respectively. Therefore, a decreasing trend has been noticed that could be a positive aspect of water resources management in Saudi Arabia. The shares of domestic and industrial water were 4 and 1 percent in 1970, which rose up to 7, 8, 9 and 1, 2, 4 percent in 19990, 2000 and 2010 respectively.

Henceforth, the increasing trend had been noticed in these two sectors. Moreover, the total water demand increase from 6,328 MCM in 1970 to 9972, 20,474, 21,971, and 22,134 MCM in 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010 respectively. The demand is also increasing for the development and other expansion activities in Saudi Arabia. However, the supply of this demand ensured by the four major sources, i.e. non- renewable groundwater, renewable surface water, desalinated water, and treated wastewater.

Groundwater is the major source of water supply in Saudi Arabia as the demand meet by groundwater was 60, 67, 66, and 58 percent of total water supply in 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively. While the surface water contributes 17, 29, 28, and 34 percent of total water supply in the same period. Both, the desalinization and treated wastewater, had contributed remaining shares. However, there was no gap

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between water demand and supply in 1980 and 1990 whereas the gap had been created in 2000 with 610 MCM and 4231 MCM in 2010. Therefore, it observed that the sources of water supply are limited to satisfy water demand in Saudi Arabia.

When we compare this scenario with water consumption estimates, the situation has changed significantly regarding the water balance. The total water consumption has decreasing trend due to a large decline in agriculture, biggest water consuming sector, water usage. The total consumption was 20,740 MCM in the sixth plan (1995-1999) that decline by 20,270 MCM in the seventh plan (2000-2004) while it was 18,507 and 16,307 MCM in the eighth plan (2005-2009) and ninth plan (2010- 2014) respectively. The sector-wise consumption was still highest in agriculture sector followed by domestic and industrial.

The projections of water consumption have also been made for the next consecutive three plans, i.e. tenth plan (2015-2019), eleventh plan (2020-2024), and twelfth plan (2025-2029). The analysis shows that the water consumption may decline significantly in future too, if the present rate of decline continued. There are three predicted scenarios for water consumption based on certain assumption. The analysis of scenario I, if the present rate of decline assumed, provides the decline with an amount of 14.36, 12.66, and 11.15 BCM for the plan 10th, 11th, and 12th, respectively. While the decline in the agriculture sector in the same scenario would be 10.59, 87.75 and 72.68 MCM in the same period accordingly.

Moreover, the domestic and industrial sector will be more water consuming sector in future. In the same way, the scenario II and III represent water decline in total water consumption along with agriculture water usage while domestic and industrial water usage would be the increasing one. Regarding provincial water consumption, Riyadh (4.49 BCM) is the biggest water consumer followed by Qassim (1.98 BCM), Jazan (1.82 BCM), Makkah (1.59 BCM), and Jawf (1.25 BCM) region in ninth plan (2009-2014) while less water consuming region includes Northern border (0.03 BCM), Baha (0.14 BCM), Najran (0.26 BCM), and Asir (0.49 BCM) in the same period.

On policy and management level, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia had been shown great achievement regarding the decline in total water consumption. The

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government had works on both levels of management, i.e. supply and demand side of water resource management. However, it has phase–wise development pattern as compared to integrated water resources management approach where both the approach has to work simultaneously. Therefore, the government adopted variable/object oriented approach to sustaining its water resources for a long time. As per the trend analysis, it had been proved that the future of Saudi Arabia would be sustainable regarding water resource management.

Also, the measures, based on priority function, include the phase-wise development of water resources infrastructure, plan-based initiatives, education and awareness, water conservation, and institutional and organizational development in Saudi Arabia.

Hypothesis 1:

H0 = Water resources are available abundantly throughout the territory

HA = Water resources are not available abundantly throughout the territory

Sub-Hypotheses:

H0 = There is abundance of conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

HA = There is deficiency of conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

H0 = There is abundance of non-conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

HA = There is deficiency of non-conventional water resource to satisfy water demand

The sub-hypothesis one of the study could be nullified as the groundwater is the conventional source of water supply and satisfying more than 65 percent water

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Conclusion and Summary

demand in Saudi Arabia. During the second sub-hypothesis also nullified because Saudi Arabia contributed huge amount on non-conventional water resources development. Therefore, enough amount of water supplied from these sources to meet the water demand.

Hypothesis 2:

H0 = The overall water consumption is increasing in all consuming sectors by year

HA = The overall water consumption is not increasing in all consuming sectors by year

Sub-Hypotheses 2:

H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in agriculture sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in agriculture sector by year

H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in domestic sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in domestic sector by year

H0 = The total water consumption is increasing in industrial sector by year

HA = The total water consumption is not increasing in industrial sector by year

Hypotheses 3:

H0 = There is a gap between water demand and supply

HA = There is no gap between water demand and supply

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Conclusion and Summary

Hypotheses 4:

H0 = Government has taken appropriate measures to deal with the WRM

HA = Government has not taken appropriate measures to deal with the WRM

Recommendations

A study conducted on the feasibility of fog water collection in some arid areas has shown good potential in the development of non-conventional water resources. The coastal region of Saudi Arabia has good potential in this regards, as the fog formation is a common phenomenon in many parts of the tropical, temperate and arid region of the world.

The shift of agriculture sector in surplus water region or foreign nation through bilateral ties could ensure water saving. However, it could increase the level of dependency to the others.

Water could be saved through less water consuming crops cultivation rather than investing in high water consuming crops, like wheat and rice. The proper balance between import and export of food-commodity can minimise the gap of water resources.

Weather modification, leakage prevention during water distribution, efficiency improvement, and several others such small measures could contribute in water saving in Saudi Arabia.

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Annexure-I

List of important publications as retrieved from Scopus Database 1. Mohorjy, A. M. (1988). Water Resources Management in Saudi Arabia and Water Reuse. Water International, 13(3), 161-171. 2. deJong, R. L., Al-Layla, R. I., & Selen, W. J. (1989). Alternative water management scenarios for Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 5(1), 56-62. 3. Abu-Rizaiza, O. S., & Allam, M. N. (1989). Water Requirements versus Water Availability in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 115(1), 64-74. 4. Al-Ibrahim, A. A. (1990). Water Use in Saudi Arabia: Problems and Policy Implications. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 116(3), 375-388. 5. Al-Ibrahim, A. A. (1991). Excessive Use of Groundwater Resources in Saudi Arabia: Impacts and Policy Options. Ambio, 20(1), 34-37. 6. Dabbagh, A. E., & Abderrahman, W. A. (1992). Technology Transfer and Development for the Management of Water Resources in Saudi Arabia: a Case Study. Water International, 17(4), 193-200. 7. Mohorjy, A. M., & Grigg, N. S. (1995). Water-Resources Management System for Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 121(2), 205-215. 8. Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 16(4), 465-473. 9. Abderrahman, W. A. (2005). Groundwater Management for Sustainable Development of Urban and Rural Areas in Extremely Arid Regions: A case Study. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 21(3), 403-412. 10. Hussain, G., Alquwaizany, A., & Al-Zarah, A. (2010). Guidelines for Irrigation Water Quality and Water Resource Management in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: An Overview. journal of Applied Sciences, 10(2), 79-96. 11. Zaharani, K. H., & Baig, M. B. (2011). Water in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Sustainable Management Options. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 21(3), 601-604. 12. Ouda, O. K. (2014). Water demand versus supply in Saudi Arabia: Current and future challanges. International Journal of Water Resource Development, 30(2), 335-344.

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Annexure-II

Prominent Dams along with specification in Saudi Arabia Dam Reservoir Name of Province Nearest city Constructed height capacity Dam (m) (MCM) Baysh Jizan Jizan 2009 106 192.0 King Fahd Asir Bishah 1998 103 325.0 Hali Makkah Makkah 2009 95 250.0 Rabigh Makkah Rabigh 2008 81 220.0 Al Lith Makkah Allith 80 88.5 Al Madiq Najran Najran 1980 73 86.0 Wadi najran Najran Najran 1980 73 86.0 Laya Makkah Tayif 1982 40 10.0 Wadi Lya Makkah Tayif 1982 40 10.0 Ashran Asir 1985 38 0.7 Araer Asir 1985 37 1.0 Wadi Jazan Jizan Jazan 1970 35 51.0 Wadi Abha Asir Abha 1974 33 213.0 Wadi Alaqiq Baha Al-baha 1988 31 22.5 Bdwah Asir 2002 30 2.0 Qrn Tayif Tayif 1988 27 1.5 Nawfla Tayif Tayif 1988 27 0.2 Sheyra Tayif Tayif 1988 26 3.3 Feth Asir 1985 25 2.5 Ghraba Asir 2005 25 1.5 Tandaha Asir 1984 25 4.2 Arda Tayif Tayif 1984 24 21.0 Beda Baha Al-baha 1985 24 3.0 Anam Asir 1985 24 2.0 Ittwid Asir 1982 22 6.4 Al- Asir 1980 22 1.5

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Mahzamah Tarabah Makkah Tayif 1981 21 20.0 Samnan Al-Qassim Azulfi 1980 21 1.5 Marzoq Baha Mndeq 1987 20 0.8 Al-Hifah Asir 1981 20 0.5 Assadir Baha Al-baha 1982 20 0.5 Al ata Tayif Tayif 1985 20 0.3 Wsateb Asir Tuhamat Asir 1987 20 0.2 Hajrat zaheer Asir Sarat abeyda 1984 18 0.4 Dhahran Farwan Asir janoub 1984 18 0.2 Asem Asir Abha 1984 18 0.1 Aayash Asir 2005 17 0.5 Murayfeg Tayif Tayif 1985 17 0.3 Shawahta Tayif Tayif 1985 17 0.2 Maslah Baha Mndeq 1984 17 0.1 Dhahran Sharaqb Asir janoub 1985 16 0.7 Marbaa Baha Bljershe 1984 16 0.1 Tarba Tayif Tayif 1984 15 21.8 Wadi Fatimah Makkah Makkah 1985 15 20.0 Wasta Hail Hail 1990 15 15.0 Hotat bani Helwah Riyadh tamim 2002 15 10.0 Rodha Hail Hail 1990 15 2.5 Bsl Tayif Tayif 1988 15 1.5 Ais Madinah Yanbu 1982 15 1.0 Saraba Asir 1985 15 1.0 Thama Asir Balquarn 1982 15 0.3 Dhuaian Baha Al-baha 2000 15 0.3 Raith Jizan Jazan 2000 15 0.3 Dhban Asir 1987 15 0.2 Radah Asir Tuhamat Asir 1987 15 0.2 Garef jadarah Tayif Tayif 1984 15 0.2 Baniqayis Asir 2005 15 0.1 Thrwah Baha Bljershe 1984 15 0.1 Hatheam Asir Besha 1984 15 0.1 Soda Asir Abha 1984 15 0.1 Lasad Riyadh Naam 1987 15 0.0 Motha Asir 1984 14 4.3

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Haeer Riyadh Riyadh 1976 14 3.8 Rawdah Riyadh Riyadh 1977 14 3.0 Fareah Madinah Yanbu 1982 14 20.0 Wadi Alfaraah Madinah Yanbu 1982 14 20.0 Wadi Al- Hareeq Riyadh Al-Hareeq 1989 13 6.0 Howtat Bani Al-Howtah Riyadh Tamim 1985 13 3.5 Alakool Madinah Al-Madinah 1979 11 7.0 Hareeq Riyadh Hareeq 1984 10 6.0 Aqda Asir 1986 10 3.0 Al-Alab Riyadh Riyadh 1974 10 3.0 Wadi Alalab Riyadh Dir'iyah 1974 10 3.0 Malal Madinah Al-Madinah 2003 9 3.0 Maslah Makkah Tayif 2004 8 3.0 Qaa hathutha Madinah Al-Madinah 2001 7 40.0 Hanabej Riyadh Afef 1979 7 3.5 Halefa Riyadh Washem 1983 5 3.0

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Annexure-III

Field Photographs of Dams

City Fire earthy dam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (Purpose replaced) Storage capacity: 600 Thousand cubic meters

Almterfih earthy dam, Dirriyah Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (Purpose replaced) Storage Capacity: 1340 Thousand cubic meters

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Garnet concrete dam, Opal city, Baha, Saudi Arabia (Drinking Purpose) Storage Capacity: 19126 thousand cubic meters

Bayer earthy dam, Qurayyat City, Saudi Arabia (Purpose flood control) Storage Capacity: 1250 thousand cubic meter

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Alaughqy earthy dam, Ara’r city, Northern Border, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Replaced) Storage Capacity: 3640 thousand cubic meter

Giant earthy dam, Asiyah city, Qassim Saudi Arabia, (Purpose Drinking) Storage Capacity: 31300 thousand cubic meters

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Abu Gacha floccus dam, Hanakia City, Medina Saudi Arabia (Purpose Replaced) Storage Capacity: 3160 thousand cubic meters

Piech concrete dam, Jazan, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Control) Storage Capacity: 196944 thousand cubic meters

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Bar concrete dam, Hail, Saudi Arabia (Purpose replaced) Storage Capacity: 3500 thousand cubic meters

Hopper concrete dam, Khamis Mushayt, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Drinking) Storage Capacity: 31064 thousand cubic meters

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Dahna concrete dam, Namas City, Asir, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Drinking) Storage Capacity: 31200 thousand cubic meters

Almaoan concrete dam, Abha City, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Drinking) Storage Capacity: 3400 thousand cubic meters

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Alloukirh earthy dam, Dhahran City, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Replaced) Storage Capacity: 3100 thousand cubic meters

Abha concrete dam, Abha City, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Drinking) Storage Capacity: 32130 thousand cubic meters

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Amartivq concrete dam, Taif, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Replaced) Storage Capacity: 3250 thousand cubic meters

Rabigh earthy dam, Rabigh city, Saudi Arabia (Purpose control), Storage Capacity: 34500 thousand cubic meters

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Ikrimah floccus dam, Taif, Oldest dam in Saudi Arabia (Purpose Replaced), Storage Capacity: 3500 thousand cubic meters

Najran concrete dam, Najran, Saudi Arabia (Purpose Control) Storage capacity: 386000 thousand cubic meters

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Key Map of Study Area