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Home , Corn Pops, History of breakfast, James Caleb Jackson, Sylvester Graham

Breakfast Cultural History Dustin Goldberger May 18, 2010

A Spoonful of History: Health, Wealth, and The Rise of The American Cereal

Objectives

1. Provide a comprehensive history of the dominant players in the industry, from its 19 th century origins as a health alternative to its current status as a part of the mainstream American . 2. Identify and discuss how a discourse that paints breakfast cereal as a health food competes with corporate needs to drive profits. 3. Assess the breakfast cereal industry’s engagement with consumers. This includes notable citizen protest against Big Cereal and the industry’s response. Summary of Findings I. Family First: The 19 th Century Origins of America’s Breakfast Staple The discourse surrounding the nutritious value of breakfast cereal has a rich historical trajectory. While today’s consumers question the motives of cereal executives who claim to provide healthy products, those who first produced cereal products seem to have sincerely felt they were essential to household health. In the mid 1800’s, the American diet was in a state of disorder. As the frontier expanded, Americans needed cheap ways to preserve food over long journeys, and could not afford to keep around perishable and . For many, mornings in the West began with whiskey and men commonly came “to expect more than three sorts of ” during , which was a social affair that could last as long as seven hours. 1 Not surprisingly, such a rich diet put a chokehold on American health. Nineteenth century Americans came to recognize the “difficulty of digestion or fermentation in the stomach or guts” that came from such as “Dyspepsia”, an affliction that had spread across the nation. 2 Back east, America’s Second Great Awakening was taking the public by storm, with Christian ideas of wellness and spirituality underpinning the dangers of over eating. One particular religious zealot was determined to reform the American diet. ’s seminal A Treatise on and Bread-Making of 1837 , argued that civilization has always had an intimate relationship with baking cereal and other , and that there is an relationship between the “quality of the bread and the moral character of a family.” 3 Already, a discourse emerged linking cereal to a family’s nutritional and emotional well-being. The ability to provide bread for one’s family was fundamentally associated with nutrition and love. Indeed, Graham had very specific expectations for how bread should be prepared. He noted commercial bread makers removed bran from

1 Richard H. Shryock, “Sylvester Graham and The Popular Health Movement,” Organization of American Historians (Sep. 1931): 173. 2 Scott Bruce and Bill Crawford, Cerealizing America: The Unsweetened Story of American Breakfast Cereal (Boston: Faber and Faber, 1995), 4. 3 Sylvester Graham, A Treatise on American Bread, And Bread Making (Boston: Light & Learns, 1837), 105. the flour and the end product was “very rarely a wholesome diet.” 4 The “adulterated” produced in bakeries robbed food of its nutrients. Whole wheat bread was the only healthy proper option. Thus, bread making should go back to basics, and should exclusively be a domestic chore. Around the same time, Dr. of was also interested in tackling the Dyspepsia epidemic. In 1863, Jackson created a “Graham flour” concoction known as Granula. His whole-wheat bricks were so tough they needed to be soaked up with . 5 Dr. Jackson needed a way to make the idea of pairing Granula and milk palatable. One method he used was to articulate Granula’s health benefits in medical journals, such as The Training of Children, or, How to Have Them Healthy, Handsome and Happy in 1879. He suggested that mother’s pair milk with “bread, pudding and …ground into what I call an unbolted , or Graham flour.” 6 Like Graham, Dr. Jackson believed consuming cereal strengthened the family unit. Amy Vilesis’s Kitchen Literacy shows that a mother’s intimate knowledge of the food at her family’s breakfast table would quickly diminish. Vilesis argues a “covenant of ignorance” developed between the American public and those in the food industry. Americans no longer were as connected to their food as “fewer and fewer people with more machines delivered food products from farther and farther away…especially after the transcontinental railroad linked the coasts…” 7 While Sylvester Graham and Dr. Jackson felt cereal production should be done at the local level, industrialization brought change. Production methods would now be less transparent as commercial cereal manufacturing grew to accommodate a hungry nation.

II. Cereal City: 20 th Century Competition in Battle Creek, Michigan A few years after Dr. Jackson debuted his Granula recipe, breakfast cereal would come to dominate the interests of a small Midwestern town called Battle Creek, Michigan. Interestingly, religious values were also at the heart of public life here. In 1855, Battle Creek became home to the world headquarters of the Seventh Day Adventists; a community of Christian fundamentalists concerned that dietary unbalance hampered spiritual fulfillment. As historian Gerald Carson notes, the group’s “agitation over food provided an effective propaganda background for the commercial breakfast- food industry.” 8 The Adventists encouraged Americans to “Rely on graham bread, , and vegetables... only water. Trust in the healing power of God. 9 It is significant that “Graham flour” was recognized as a health food in Battle Creek by 1863. Cereal’s association with nutrition had now transcended its regional identity and became embedded in the national discourse on wellness. One Adventist particularly interested in whole-wheat flour was none other than Dr. , a physician and inventor. In 1866, Dr. J.H. Kellogg became the superintendent of the Western Health Reform Institute in Battle Creek (later the ). The center was

4 Graham, A Treatise on American Bread, And Bread Making, 90. 5 Bruce and Crawford, Cerealizing America , 8. 6 James Caleb Jackson, The Training of Children; or, How to Have Them Healthy, Handsome, and Happy (New York: Dansville Livingston, 1872), 34. 7 Ann Vileisis Kitchen Literacy: How We Lost Knowledge of Where Food Comes From and Why We Need to Get It Back (Washington: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2008), 8. 8 Gerald Carson Cornflake Crusade (New York: Rinehart, 1957), 11. 9 Bruce and Crawford, Cerealizing America , 11. known for its technologically advanced medical clinical, and its emphasis on a “low calorie, low-meat diet.” 10 A prolific writer, Kellogg’s work The Itinerary of a Breakfast details his concern for nutritious eating. He argued that “The artificial conditions of civilized life, sedentary habits, concentrated foodstuffs, false modesty, ignorance and neglect of bodily needs have produced a crippled stated of the colon as an almost universal condition among civilized men and women.” 11 Kellogg’s fame soon grew, and his sanitarium filled with patients from all over the globe. J.H. Kellogg wanted to help improve their diets, and in 1895 he and his brother Will created the first flaked wheat cereal. 12 As the Kellogg brothers distributed their new “granose” flakes, a man named Charles Post was experimenting with his wheat shredder across town. Charles Post was a master salesman and inventor with hopes of breaking into the health business. After his offer to help the Kellogg brothers market their products was rejected, in 1892 Post decided to a competing sanitarium in Battle Creek. Post’s first product was a substitute called “Postum”, and it launched the same year as the Kellogg wheat flakes. “Postum contained wheat, bran, and molasses. 13 Post’s approach to marketing “Postum” differed from the tradition of local cereal production. As we have seen, those that first developed cereal products were genuinely interested in creating a healthful product. Whether motivated by a religious conviction to preserve the family or simply improve digestion, each inventor hoped to contribute to American wellness. However, by the end of the 19 th Century, American culture had changed considerably. The nation had entered an age of mass consumption, and industrialization created national demand for consumer goods. Post’s aggressive advertising tactics located him among a growing number of business leaders experimenting to drive profits. As the Post website proudly proclaims, Post “used marketing techniques that are now considered industry standard, but which were innovative for their time. These include extensive advertising coupons, free samples, product demonstrations, plant tours and recipe booklets.” 14 As producers went from focusing on diet to focusing on the dollar, their commitment to health became less frequently acknowledged. After Post’s “Postum” and “Grape Nuts” became wildly successful, the breakfast cereal industry exploded with competition. With growing competition, the taste of cereal became an increasingly important selling point for the companies. William Keith Kellogg, Dr. Kellogg's brother, wanted to capture Post’s success. When he invented in 1902, he added sugar. Dr. Kellogg was furious, and the disagreement lead W.K to separate from his brother’s business. 15 In effect, nutritional concerns were no longer the company’s bottom line. Kellogg’s emphasis on materialism lead the leader of the town’s Adventist Church to declare, “the Lord is not very well pleased with Battle Creek.” 16

10 Carson, Cornflake Crusade , 92. 11 J.H. Kellogg The Itinerary of A Breakfast (Battle Creek, Modern Medicine Publishing Co, 1918), Preface. 12 Carson, Cornflake Crusade , 138. 13 Battle Creek/Calhoun County Convention and Visitors Bureau, History of the Breakfast Cereal Industry 14 Post , LLC , “Post Heritage”, http://www.postcereals.com/post_heritage/#/period/1/. 15 Bruce and Crawford, Cerealizing America , 5. 16 Bruce and Crawford, Cerealizing America , 53.

III. Shifting Priorities: Cereal at the Heart of Corporate America No longer a homemade health food, breakfast cereal was now a full-fledged consumer good intended to generate national sales. It is necessary to consider that among today’s Big Four American cereal companies (General Mills, Kellogg, General Foods, Quaker Oats), two of these companies (Quaker and General Mills) were founded after breakfast cereal had already transitioned from an alternative health food to a mainstream food. However, in order to stay competitive in the cereal industry, both Quaker and General Mills marketed their products as part of a tradition of wellness. Henry Parsons Crowell used the image of a pious Quaker on his box of oatmeal to project the image of health “on illuminated billboards, on streetcar cards, in grocery store windows, and on metal signs hung on rural fences. 17 In 1890, Quaker Oats was also the first breakfast cereal to introduce “trial-size” samples of their products, and the company claims to have introduced “premium” gifts inside cereal boxes. 18 After successfully marketing its “Gold Medal” flour, General Mills jumped into the breakfast cereal industry in the 1920’s. During this time, the American radio had become a social marvel. Starting in 1924, General Mills began a rich history of advertising their wheat flake cereal via their own radio station. In 1926, their commercial for Wheaties included the first ever radio jingle. 19 My classmate Orion Martin discusses the dynamics of breakfast cereal advertising in his report. Here, it is valuable to consider that the history of American advertising is deeply entrenched in the history of breakfast cereal. When televisions arrived in homes during the 1950’s, consumers were bombarded with colorful cartoon characters and catchphrases about cereal. Cereal companies gave little consideration to their product’s nutritional value, but placed a heavy emphasis on the taste and visual appeal of their products. In 1952, Kellogg launched Sugar Corn Pops, starting the trend of breakfast being presweetened at the factory level. Ironically, such a practice had been strongly criticized by J.H. Kellogg less than fifty years earlier.20 As nutritionist Marion Nestle notes, the profit driven food business has made modern breakfast cereal manufacturers lose sight of nutritional goals. She argues that because “humans do not innately know how to select a nutritious diet,” the food industry has taken advantage of public confusion. 21 Although cereal had been intended to provide health benefits, the pressure on the Big Four to meet sales goals caused them to emphasize convenience and taste over nutrition. These companies had been able to avoid scrutiny from consumers by pointing to cereal’s heritage as a health food. However, beginning in the 1970’s, consumers have begun to question the nutritional value of modern breakfast cereal.

IV. The Great Nutrition Debate: Citizen Protest and Big Cereal’s Response Robert B. Choate’s 1970 campaign against Big Cereal signaled a new point in the history of health and breakfast cereal. For the first time, the public was challenging the

17 Bruce and Crawford, Cerealizing America, 67. 18 Quaker Oats Company, “Quaker History: There’s A Whole Lot Of History in Our Whole Oat,” http://www.quakeroats.com/about-quaker-oats/content/quaker-history.aspx 19 Quaker, http://www.quakeroats.com/about-quaker-oats/content/quaker-history.aspx 20 Bruce and Crawford, Cerealizing America, 109 21 Marion Nestle, Food Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 16. advertising tactics of cereal manufacturers. Disappointed with breakfast cereals that were marketed to children, Choate wanted to prove corporate interests did not value children’s health. Testifying before a Senate subcommittee, Choate ran tests to prove that 40 out of 57 of America’s most popular cereals offered little nourishment and were essentially “empty calories.” 22 A “citizen lobbyist”, Robert B. Choate earned national media attention for his efforts in Time Magazine. 23 The cereal industry tried to counter the bad press by arguing Choate did not include the nutritional contribution from a serving of milk, but his work was already making waves. An industry report released in 1973 reveals the concerns of American cereal’s Big Four. Published by the Cereal Institute, a now defunct breakfast cereal trade organization, “Breakfast Cereals In the American Diet: Information and Perspective on Their Nutritional Role and Continuing Evolution to Meet Consumer Needs” speaks to criticism from activists like Choate. The study begins with several basic principles, noting that “Since more than 50 million people include cereals in their breakfast each morning, the nutritional contribution of cereals to the national diet is vital.” 24 The study contends that as of 1973, three years after Choate’s hearings, 85% of all ready-to-eat breakfast cereals had been fortified with vitamins during their processing. 25 Even more telling, cereal companies maintain the importance of marketing, claiming, “If cereals were not advertised, they would be more costly to produce and would require higher markups.” 26 Stressing the economic and nutritional value of their products, Big Cereal needed to legitimize their business practices in the face of public scrutiny. If consumers wanted value and a healthy product, consumers must trust Big Cereal to achieve a fair balance. Nevertheless, some consumers wanted more transparency with their cereal. After 47,000 Americans submitted public comments, Congress passed the Nutrition and Labeling Education Act of 1990, forcing Big Cereal to qualify terms like “healthy” and “light”. 27 Although the “covenant of ignorance” left the public knowing very little about their cereal, a zealous group of citizens was working to take their knowledge back.

VI. Conclusion Although commercial advertisements argue that cereal is “part of a complete breakfast”, people have considered breakfast cereal a nutritious food well before television appeared. The original creators of cereal products expressed concern for a family’s spiritual and physical health. However, Big Cereal’s desire to mass-produce commodities for national consumption raises questions about its commitment to nutrition. Cereal companies have recently responded to consumer pressure and are once again marketing their products as healthful. However, since Big Cereal has proven their priority is pleasing shareholders, it is clear the public must organize politically to ensure they greater knowledge about where their food comes from.

22 Adam Bernstein, “Robert Choate Jr.; helped changed eating habits in US,” The Boston Globe , May 11, 2009, 1. Adam Bernstein, “A Rare Do-Gooder With Political Savvy,” The Washington Post , May 10, 2009. 23 “Consumerism: Breakfast of Chumps?” Time Magazine , Aug 3, 1970, 1. 24 Cereal Institute, Inc, “Breakfast Cereals in the American Diet: Information and Perspective on Their Nutrition Role And Continuing Evolution to Meet Consumer Needs,” Cereal Institute, Chicago (1973): 3. 25 Cereal Institute, Inc, “Breakfast Cereals in the American Diet,” 4-5. 26 Cereal Institute, Inc, “Breakfast Cereals in the American Diet,” 14. 27 Bruce A. Silverglade, “The Nutrition Labeling Act and Education Act: Progress to Date and Challenges for the Future,” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing (Spring, 1996), 149. Sources

Battle Creek/Calhoun County Convention and Visitors Bureau, History of the Breakfast Cereal Industry

Bruce, Scott and Bill Crawford, Cerealizing America: The Unsweetened Story of American Breakfast Cereal. Boston: Faber and Faber, 1995.

Carson, Gerald. Cornflake Crusade . New York: Rinehart, 1957.

Cereal Institute, Inc, “Breakfast Cereals in the American Diet.” Chicago, Cereal Institute, 1973.

Graham, Sylvester. A Treatise on American Bread, And Bread Making . Boston: Light & Learns, 1837.

Jackson, James Caleb. The Training of Children; or, How to Have Them Healthy, Handsome, and Happy . New York: Dansville Livingston, 1872.

Kellogg, J.H. The Itinerary of A Breakfast. Battle Creek, Modern Medicine Publishing Co, 1918.

Nestle, Marion. Food Politics: How The Food Industry Influences Nutrition And Health . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

Post Foods, LLC, “Post Heritage”, http://www.postcereals.com/post_heritage/#/period/1/ .

Quaker Oats Company, “Quaker History: There’s A Whole Lot Of History in Our Oat,” http://www.quakeroats.com/about-quaker-oats/content/quaker-history.aspx

Shryock, Richard H. “Sylvester Graham and The Popular Health Movement,” Organization of American Historians (Sep. 1931): 173.

Silverglade, Bruce A. “The Nutrition Labeling Act and Education Act: Progress to Date and Challenges for the Future.” In Journal of Public Policy and Marketing (Spring, 1996): 148-150

The Boston Globe , May 11, 2009.

The Washington Post , May 10, 2009.

Time Magazine , Aug 3, 1970.

Vileisis, Amy. Kitchen Literacy: How We Lost Knowledge of Where Food Comes From and Why We Need to Get It Back Washington: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2008.