CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE OF SELECTED VEGETARIANS
A. thesis s.ubmi tted, in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Home Economics
by
Cheryl Smith Olson
January, 1982 The Thesis of Cheryl Smith Olson is approved:
Lillie M. Grossman, Dr.P.H.
Ann R. Stasch, Ph.D., Chairperson
California State University, Northridge
ii DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to my parents, who encouraged me to attain my educational goals, and also to my husband, Rans, whose emotional support and under standing have helped me to complete this work.
iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Ann R.
Stasch for her guidance and suggestions for this study.
I also want to thank Dr. Marjory L. Joseph and
Dr. Lillie M. Grossman for their contributions and assistance.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION • • • iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES . vii
ABSTRACT . • • . viii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Justification . . 1
Objectives 2
Assumptions . 3
Limitations • 3
Definitions of Special Terms 3
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5
Vegetarianism . 5
Food Faddism 8
Knowledge of Nutrition 11
III. METHODOLOGY • 15
Data Collection Device 15
Data Collection: Procedure . 15
Analysis of Data 16
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 18
v CHAPTER Page V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 28
Recommendations for Further Research 30
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . 31
APPENDIX . . . 34
vi LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Demographic Data on Subjects ...... 19
2. Selected Characteristics of Vegetarians 21
3. Vegetarian Practices . 22
4. Weight of Vegetarians 24
vii ABSTRACT
NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE OF SELECTED VEGETARIANS
by
Cheryl Smith Olson
Master of Science in Horne Economics
A sample of one hundred vegetarians was selected
from persons leaving three health food stores in the San
Fernando Valley. These vegetarians completed a question naire which requested demographic information and re
sponses to ten nutrition questions.
Based on a score of seven or more correct
responses out of ten possible correct answers as adequate nutrition knowledge, 17 percent had adequate knowledge;
41 percent had a score of five or six for minimal knowl edge; and 42 percent had a score of less than five for
inadequate nutrition knowledge.
Using the statistical "t" test, no significant difference was found in the nutrition knowledge of men versus women.
viii The education of each subject was ranked and compared to the nutrition score using Pearson's r. No significant correlation between education score and nutrition score was found.
ix CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A vegetarian is a person who abstains from animal flesh and who may or may not omit eggs and/or dairy pro- ducts from his/her diet. Vegetarianism is becoming more popular for seVeral reasons. Many people feel that their chosen dietary habits will promote better health. Some limit or omit animal flesh for religious reasons. Some ---._ ··----~~--- vegetarians do not believe in killing animals. Some adopt this way of life because they believe the ...._____cost of produc- ing meat is too high (Williams, 1975; Jenkins, 1975).
Nutritional knowledge has been reviewed and studied by several researchers (Dugdale, 1979; Fusillo,
1977; Lindamood, 1977). 'i.Vith the increased concern for better health, many people have become interested in nu- trition. Studies have shown that several groups believed they had adequate nutrition knowledge, but, in reality, their knowledge was limited.
Justification
Since more people are becoming vegetarians and since they need to know something about nutrition in order to plan their diets, it is important to find out what vegetarians now know about nutrition. Lindamood (1977)
1 2
studied food habits and knowledge of college students who were vegetarian and nonvegetarian. Results revealed a need to further educate both groups of students. The in formation in this study may also be useful to vegetarians and individuals contemplating a vegetarian way of life.
A study on vegetarians' nutrition knowledge may also be useful to dietitians and professional nutrition ists workin~ with these individuals. In a study done by
Anderson (1.979), nutrition as a subject in school was ranked by h~alth food users as "boring." Professional nutritionists oft~n do not have an interesting and effec tive method of teaching (Anderson, 1979). Also, false information is easily assimilated by enthusiastic health food faddists. The health food store was reported as the most frequently used source of nutrition information in this same study.
Objectives
The primary objective of this study was to measure the nutrition knowledge of vegetarians in the San
Fernando Valley. Other interests included the following:
1. Is there any difference in the nutrition
knowledge of vegetarian men and vegetarian women?
2. Does educational status have an influence on
vegetarians' nutrition knowledge?
3. What are their reasons for becoming vegetarian? .._ - -~------~~-- .._
3
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made:
1. That the questionnaire was a valid tool for
collecting data on the nutrition knowledge of
vegetarians.
2. That the responses of the vegetarians in this
sample were representative of the vegetarians in
the San Fernando Valley.
Limitations
The following limitations were recognized:
1. The geographic area of the study was limited t9
three health food stores in the San Fernando
Valley.
3. The sample size was limited to 100 people who
stated that they were vegetarian.
Definitions of Special Terms
Food faddism: a pattern of food behavior that is unusual or different. It is expressed by extolling the virtues of a particular food, by the elimination of some foods from the diet, or by stressing the use of "natural" foods (Schafer, 1975). Persons considered health food faddists usually have misinformation regarding their food beliefs. 4
Fruitarian: a person who does not eat any red meat, fish, poultry, eggs, or dairy products but will eat fruits and nuts.
Health food store: a place that sells special products such as organically grown foods and products that do not contain additives.
Lacto-ovo-vegetarian: a person who does not eat red meat, fish, or poultry, but will eat eggs and dairy products.
Lacto-vegetarian: a person who does not eat any red meat, fish, poultry, or eggs, but will eat dairy products.
Organically grown foods: foods that are grown without chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Semi-vegetarian: a person who does not eat red meat, but will eat poultry and/or fish.
Vegan: a person who does not eat any red meat, fish, poultry, eggs, or dairy products, but will eat all kinds of plant foods. Vegetarian: a person who abstains from eating animal flesh and may or may not omit eggs and/or dairy products from their diet. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Vegetarianism
The history of vegetarianism can be traced back to the Old Testament. It was stated that God gave man only plants to eat. After Eve defied God and ate the apple, it was recorded in the Bible that man killed ani- mals for food (Barkas, 1975).
More recently in England in ·1809, the members of the Bible Christian Church promised to abstain from all animal foods. Then the vegetarian diet was promoted by
Sylvester Graham (1794-1851), whose name is associated with graham crackers. An International Vegetarian Union was founded and, following that, the Vegan Society was formed in 1944 (Todhunter, 1973).
Vegetarianism has been included in many religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism for thousands of years. It
SeveD~h is also practiced today by some Catholicsa______,_·--··-····-· and by _____.,.--..,.- Day Adventists (Todhunter, 1973). However, it is not limited to religious groups. Others involved in this lifestyle are the "hippie" groups which were prevalent in the 1960's (McBean and Speckman, 1974).
5 ---~~-~-~' ---~-- ---
6
There are several advantages to a vegetarian diet.
As reported by Jenkins (1975), this type of diet is high_ in .,------fiber. Lack of bulk or fiber in the diet has been re-
lated to several health problems: ~, colonic
cancer, and gall bladder disease. Since many vegetarians
have been found to have lower body weights than nonvege-
tarians, this diet may be U§.~:t":ti.J.Jn VJ'~! other advantage of a meatless diet is a decreased intake of saturated fat and an increased intake of polyunsatu- rated fat. Along with the high fiber, the decreased sat- ______, urated fat has been reported to lower blood cholesterol i- " '. ·~-·-·---_. .•..•. ___ -- levels (Williams, 1975). Finally a great bonus to a diet without meat is economic. This is not only true for the individual but also for the world as a whole. Jenkins (1975) reported that "beef ... requires twenty-one ~-·---"' . '--- pounds of plant protein to produce o~~--_l??Und of animal ______. ·-·· ...... ··-·------~~~~-- pro~~~ ..• Thi.s!Ileans that eight:.~~n of the twenty tons of plant protein fed to animals is made inaccessible to ------·-·--- -~·" The vegetarian diet can be nutritionally sound and is not always considered to be a fad diet (Jenkins, 1975). This diet requires more nutrition knowledge of food composition to obtain the necessary nutrients. As more foods are restricted this becomes more difficult (\ (Williams, 1975). .. \ I v r""". I \ 7 An adequate· vegetarian diet should include four or more servings from the fruit and vegetable group, four or more servings from the bread and cereal group, two servings from the milk group and two or more servings from the protein-rich food group (Register and Sonnenberg, 1973). The protein-rich food group includes legumes, peas, beans, and nuts. Fortified soybean milk can be used if dairy products are restricted. This will supply an ( appropriate amount of vitamin B12 , which is difficult to obtain in a vegan die.t. Calcium is also hard to get, but #""...-----~- it can be supplied by including sesame seeds, greens, and almonds (Zolber, 1975). Complete protein may also be difficult to get in a vegan diet. With adequate planning, the proper amounts of essential amino acids can be obtained by combining plant proteins which complement each other. For example, whole wheat bread is high in methionine and low in lysine, and, therefore, would complement a dish of baked beans, which is low in methionine and high in lysine. The two together would give a complete protein source when served in the same meal. Vegetarians who are trying to maintain their weight and obtain all the essential nutrients should avoid "empty calorie foods" (Williams, 1975). These foods are defined as high in sugar and carbohydrates and 8 low in nutrients. Some examples of "empty calorie foods" are sodas, candy, and pastries. Food Faddism Schafer and Yetley (1975) define food faddism as a pattern of food behavior that is unusual or different. It is expressed by extolling the virtues of a particular food, by the elimination of some foods, or by stressing the use of natural foods. Food faddists may believe in health foods, organically grown foods, vegetarianism, and/or the Zen macrobiotic diet (NcBean and Speckmann, 19 7 4) . Food faddism is becoming increasingly popular as seen by an increase in the number of health food stores. Food chains have also begun selling health foods. Miller (1979) made the following observation: "It is an ironic comment on society's attitudes towards diet that we have special stores for 'health' food." Although it is easy to understand that certain nutrients and not specific foods are required by man, many still believe in food fads. There are many reasons for this belief in fads. Food behavior is defined as a combination of internal and external factors (Schafer and Yetley, 1975). Internal factors are attitudes, self con cepts, values, beliefs, and social and biological needs. External factors include friends, family, advertising, 9 and educational programs. These factors vary, and, therefore, each person has his own individual food behavior. Since these factors vary for each individual there are many reasons why food fads are followed. The "miracle seekers" believe that certain foods will help them attain longer life or better health. The anti-establishment group does the opposite from the main stream of society. Also there are persons anxious about the threats to life who distrust medicine in general. Some are fashion fol lowers, while others are convinced that this lifestyle is appropriate due to religious reasons (McBean and Speckmann, 1974). Because internal and external factors of these individuals are so important, professional nutritionists must attempt to convey correct information without up setting the person's inherent food behavior. Alternatives within the individual's diet may be suggested to increase variety and, therefore, increase the chance of obtaining the necessary nutrients. The dangers of food faddism are easy for the professional nutritionist to understand, but they may not be easily recognized by the general public. First, there is the false hope that food will cure or prevent a dis ease. This may keep a person from seeking needed medical attention (Todhunter, 1973; McBean and Speckmann, 1974). 10 Misinformation may lead a person to follow a diet lacking in many nutrients. An example of an incomplete fad diet, the Zen macrobiotic diet, was given by the Committee on Nutrition (1977). This diet is very dangerous, especially for young children. The regimen consists of several steps gradually eliminating all foods except cereals. Two in fants were reported by the same committee as being very underweight after consuming a Zen macrobiotic mixture from birth to seven and fourteen months, respectively. Long term adherence to the diet, which also includes restric tion of fluids, has been reported as causing renal failure, starvation, scurvy, and anemia (McBean and Speckmann, 19 7 4) . Another danger of food faddism is the following of popular nutrition writers such as Adele Davis. In many publications she made claims that could not be supported by scientific fact. Recently, her writing has been criti cized for promotion of megadoses of vitamins A and D (McBean and Speckmann, 1974). Large quantities of these fat soluble vitamins taken over a period of time can cause toxic effects, especially in children. The Committee on Nutrition (1977) has reported these effects in children on megadoses of vitamin A: anorexia, desquamation of the skin, increased pressure on the brain, and changes in the long bones. Ingestion of 20,000 IU/day for one to two months can cause these toxic effects. -·--~-!-~------ 11 Knowledge of Nutrition Nutrition knowledge has been studied by many researchers in many different groups. In a study done by Anderson and Standal (1975) nutrition knowledge of health food users was measured. The study, done in Oahu, Hawaii, used an open-ended questionnaire. Foods eaten regularly and considered to be health foods were ranked according to frequency of response. Reasons were stated for each re- sponse. These reasons were categorized as valid, ques- tionable, or invalid. The authors of the study were en- '- couraged by the many valid reasons they found. The invalid reasons were things like "brown rice (is) health- ful because it has no starch," "honey (is a) good source of protein," and "yogurt bacteria help to overcome chemi- cals in non-organic foods." These false beliefs and many more can be discounted only when nutritionists gain cred- ibility among groups that convey and believe these ideas. Lindamood and Gunning (1977) studied food habits and knowledge of college student nonvegetarians versus vegetarians. The population consisted of college students enrolled at San Diego State University. A questionnaire was distributed randomly to students. Of the total stu- dents responding, 69 percent could name the four food groups, but only nine percent knew the recommended number of servings from each food group. Both the vegetarian and nonvegetarian groups answered 41 percent of the questions ~----~ --~-~- --~-.!--~--- 12 correctly. Conclusions drawn by these authors indicated a need for further nutrition education for both vegetarian and nonvegetarian college students. In a study done by Fusillo and Beloian (1977) nutrition knowledge of consumers was compared to shopping behavior and food beliefs. Most shoppers did not know if thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin D, iron, and calcium were easy or hard to get in foods. Many did not know which nutrients were stored in the body. Some thought milk was a good source of vitamin C. Most knew that calcium was found in large amounts in milk. They also knew what foods could be substituted for bread. The results of this study by Fusillo and Beloian (1977) showed that less nutrition knowledge was associated with less than a high school education, older men, and a lower socio-economic status. It was also found that in creased knowledge made a person a more careful shopper. The conclusion was that nutrition education is needed for the lower income groups and the elderly. These persons have less money to spend on food and need to maximize their buying power using increased knowledge. In another study done by Dugdale (1979) subjects were given a nutrition questionnaire and their "correct knowledge" and "perceived knowledge" were measured. The questionnaire was completed by physicians, medical stu dents, student nurses, and theology students. More than 13 80 percent of all groups believed they had correct knowledge of nutrition, but accuracy was lower. The mean accuracy for each group was as follows: physicians-79 percent; medical students-67 percent; student nurses-52 percent; and theology students-35 percent. These statis tics are alarming when one realizes that these are the highly educated people who are respected in society and may unknowingly dispense false nutrition information. If these people are not expected to have accurate nutrition knowledge, the general public cannot be expected to know more. Yetley and Roderuck (1980) studied nutrition knowledge of young spouses. They found that spouses adopted or rejected nutrition information and practices due to a variety of internal and external factors. Knowl edge may be present but it may not be used in practice due to disapproval of the spouse or due to time limitations. Husbands ranked diet and health goals lower than did wives. Husbands that scored higher in nutrition knowledge ranked health and dietary goals lower in importance, while wives that scored higher in nutrition knowledge ranked health and dietary goals higher in importance. The authors concluded that nutrition knowledge may not be enough to convince people that good nutrition is impor tant. 14 Another study done with shoppers (Howat and Johnson, 1980) showed that over half of the shoppers be lieved that health foods would benefit their health, but their prime reason for purchasing food was whether they liked it or not. Nutrition ranked second as a reason for purchasing a food item. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Data Collection Device A questionnaire was developed to measure the nutrition knowledge of vegetarians. This questionnaire was pilot tested using a sample of thirty vegetarians selected by asking the clientele of a local health food store whether they were vegetarian and if so, whether they would like to participate in the study. Following the pilot study the questionnaire was revised for greater ease of comprehension. The final questionnaire for this study included twenty-three multiple choice questions. These were ar ranged in categories which included general information to define the type of vegetarian, how long they had been a vegetarian, and the reasons for becoming one. Questions measured their knowledge of nutrition and collected demo graphic information regarding sex, age, height, weight, education and income status. Data Collection: Procedure The population of this study consisted of people leaving three San Fernando Valley health food stores. The 15 16 three stores selected were Follow Your Heart in Canoga Park, Lindberg Nutrition in Canoga Park, and Mrs. Gooch's Natural Food Store in Northridge. The sample included one hundred selected vegetarians. The researcher first asked each person leaving the health food store "Are you a vegetarian?" In this way only vegetarians completed the questionnaire. These vegetarians were then asked if they would like to participate in a nutrition research study. The question naire was self-explanatory although the researcher was asked to clarify some questions in a few cases. Discus sion was kept to a minimum until the respondent finished the questionnaire. At this time, the correct answers were given verbally if the participant was interested. Analysis of Data One hundred questionnaires were completed, forty nine were male vegetarians and fifty-one were female vegetarians. Each questionnaire was given a number for identification and further analysis. Each subject was given a nutrition score related to the correct answers to the nutrition questions. A score of seven or more out of ten correct answers was considered adequate nutrition knowledge. A score of five to six out of ten was considered minimal knowledge and less than five was considered inadequate knowledge. 17 The mean score was calculated for both men and women as well as the total mean score. The percentages for adequate scores, minimal scores, and inadequate scores were calculated. Scores were analyzed for men and women using the "t" test. The educational levels were correlated with the nutrition scores and were statistically analyzed using Pearson's r. The level of significance used for both tests was .05. -~--___!.------~-- CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The objective of the study was to measure the nutrition knowledge of vegetarians in the San Fernando Valley. The results discussed below are based on the responses on one hundred completed questionnaires. Of the one hundred vegetarians who completed the questionnaire approximately one half were men and one half were women. Their ages ranged from under eighteen to over sixty-five years. Seventy percent of the sample were be tween the ages of 19 and 35 years, while 14 percent were between 36 and 45 years. Twelve percent were over the age of 45 years. (See Table 1.) Six percent of the sample did not graduate from high school. Twelve percent of the vegetarians in this sample were high school graduates. Of the eighty-two vegetarians who attended college or technical school thirty-one had graduated. Fifteen percent of the sample had received an advanced degree. (See Table 1.) Approximately half the respondents revealed incomes of less than $24,000.00 per year. Twenty-four percent stated that they made less than $8,000 per year as shown in Table 1. 18 19 Table 1 Demographic Data on Subjects Percent Sex Male 49 Female 51 Age range in years Under 18 4 19-25 35 26-35 35 36-45 14 46-55 10 56-65 1 Over 65 1 Education Attended grades 1-6 3 Attended grades 7-12 3 Graduated from high school 12 Attended some college or technical school 51 Graduated from college or technical school 16 Received advanced degree 15 Approximate gross income Under $8,000.00 per year 24 $ 8,001.00 - $16,000.00 per year 25 $16,001.00 - $24,000.00 per year 18 $24,001.00 - $32,000.00 per year 12 $32,001.00 - $50,000.00 per year 7 $50,U01.00 - $75,000.00 per year 6 Over $75,000.00 per year 7 No response 1 ------~ 20 It is shown in Table 2 that 47 percent were semi vegetarians, including fish and/or poultry in their diets. Thirty percent were lacto-ovo-vegetarians; 13 percent were lacto-vegetarians; 8 percent were vegan; and 2 per cent were fruitarian. Thirty percent of these vegetarians gained their nutrition knowledge from health food stores. Only 2 per cent stated that they had gained their knowledge from nutrition classes, although 82 percent had attended some college or technical school or had graduated from these institutions. More than two-thirds of these vegetarians reported taking vitamins and/or supplements (Table 2). Forty-seven percent declared that they took them on a daily basis. Forty-six percent stated that.they did not use any coffee, alcohol, cigarettes, or cola beverages. Alcohol and coffee were the most widely used of these items: 38 and 29 percent respectively. The researcher became interested in these habits after reading a study done by Dwyer (1973) who reported a decrease in use of coffee, tobacco, alcohol, and carbonated beverages among vegetarians. Vegetarian practices are displayed in Table 3. Forty percent of the vegetarians surveyed stated that they became a vegetarian to "stay healthy." Only 9 21 Table 2 Selected Characteristics of Vegetarians Characteristic Percent Type of Vegetarian Semi-vegetarian 47 Lacto-ovo-vegetarian 30 Lacto-vegetarian 13 Vegan 8 Fruitarian 2 Where vegetarians obtained nutrition information Books from health food stores 30 Nutrition classes 2 Friends 16 Professional nutritionists 8 Other books, newspapers, magazines 15 Other 21 More than one response 8 Frequency of taking vitamins/supplements Every day 47 Three times a week 14 Once a week 2 Less than once a week 9 Do not take vitamins or supplements 28 Use of the following Coffee 29 Alcoholic beverages 38 Cigarettes 9 Cola beverages 10 None of the above 46 22 Table 3 Vegetarian Practices Percent Reasons for becoming vegetarian Religion 9 To stay healthy 40 To l.i,_ve longer 4 Because animal products are unhealthy 4 Because my friends are vegetarian 0 Other 27 More than one response 16 Length of time as a vegetarian Less than one year 8 One to two years 12 Three to five years 37 Six to ten years 25 More than ten years 18 Place most frequently purchased food Food co-op 1 Home garden 1 Supermarket 28 Health food stores J 47 Restaurants 1 Other 2 More than one response 20 23 percent chose "religion" as a reason for following a vegetarian lifestyle. Twenty-seven percent chose the "other" category. This included some remarks such as "all of the above," "don't like to kill," "moral reasons," and "Karma." No one chose the response that stated "be cause my friends are vegetarians." Length of time practicing vegetarianism is also shown in Table 3. Combining the categories from "six to ten years" and "more than ten years," 43 percent fell into these groups. This is a relatively long period of time since the sample was so young in age. Seventy-four per cent were 35 years old or less as shown in Table 1. Eight percent had been vegetarian for less than one year, 12 percent from one to two years, and 37 percent from three to five years. Health food stores were selected by 47 percent as the place where they most frequently purchased their food. This may apply only to this sample which was taken from health food store shoppers. Twenty-eight percent shopped more often at supermarkets and 20 percent chose more than one response. Usually these responses were "health food stores" and "supermarkets" combined. Other questions dealt with the weight of vegetarians and the results are presented in Table 4. The correctness of weight estimates was evaluated by the person's response and also by visual assessment by the 24 Table 4 Weight of Vegetarians Analysis of Weight Percent Weight Correct weight 56 10 pounds underweight 17 20 pounds underweight 7 10-20 pounds overweight 15 More than 20 pounds overweight 4 No response 1 Have you ever been more than 20 pounds overweight? Yes, in the past 31 Yes, presently 3 No, not at any time 64 No response 2 If yes, did you lose or gain or stay the same weight after becoming a vegetarian? Lost weight 52.9 Gained weight 5.9 Stayed the same weight 8.8 No response 32.4 25 researcher. Some stated that they would like to lose weight when they already appeared to be underweight for their height and body size. Overall, 56 percent appeared to be at their correct weight. Almost one fourth were underweight by ten to twenty pounds according to their statement and" also as visually assessed by the researcher. Fifteen percent were between ten and twenty pounds over- weight, while only four percent were more than twenty pounds overweight. Of the persons who stated that they had been twenty pounds overweight at some time (34 percent of the sample) , about 52 percent had lost weight after becoming a vegetarian. As reported in the literature, \ many vegetarians have been found to have lower body weights than nonvegetarians and, therefore this style of eating may be useful in weight control (Bergan, 1980; ~' Williams, 1975). The nutrition knowledge of vegetarians was determined by the number of correct responses to the ten nutrition questions. An adequate score was defined as seven to ten correct responses, a minimal score as five or six correct responses, and an inadequate score as four or fewer correct responses. The mean score was 4.83 and was, therefore, judged to be minimal knowledge overall. Seventeen percent achieved an adequate score, 41 percent achieved a minimal score, and 42 percent achieved an inadequate score. Using the "t" test, there was no 26 significant difference between the nutrition knowledge of men and women at the .05 level. Categories of education were ranked in the following manner: Category of Education Rank A. Attended and/or completed grades 1-6 1 B. Attended grades 7-12 2 C. Graduated from high school 3 D. Attended some college or technical school 4 E. Graduated from college or technical school 5 F. Received advanced degree 6 At the .05 level no significant correlation was found between nutrition scores and education scores using the Pearson's r. Responses to each of the ten nutrition questions can be found in Appendix. The following is a discussion of these responses. Over half the participants knew that vitamin A could be harmful in large quantities. Fourteen percent checked the response "Don't know." Slightly more than one third stated that vitamin C would prevent the common cold and almost the same per- centage thought it would not prevent the common cold. Approximately 60 percent knew that peanut butter and whole wheat bread would provide a complete protein and also that brown eggs dig not have more nutrients than white eggs. Other questions dealt with the recommended servings for the protein group and for the grain and 27 cereal group. According to Register and Sonnenberg, 1973, the protein group was considered to be one or two ser vings for a semi-vegetarian and two or three servings for all other groups. The response for the grain and cereal group was considered correct if the respondent chose four or five or more as the appropriate number of servings. Only two persons gave a correct response. Over half the vegetarians knew that calcium and vitamin B12 may be missing in a vegan diet. Fifteen per cent stated they did not know. Approximately half the sample felt that food grown organically contains more nutrients, while the other half knew that both contain approximately the same amount of nutrients. Thirty-six percent knew that manufactured vitamins and natural vitamins had the same nutritional value, while 46 percent felt they did not and 12 percent didn't know. The question which asked what food was a good source of vitamin C had the most correct responses of all the nutrition questions. Seventy-nine vegetarians knew that tomatoes are a good source of vitamin C when com pared with milk and rye bread. - CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS , This researcher believes that information on the nutritional knowledge of vegetarians is necessary to cre ate new ways of distributing accurate nutrition concepts. Professionals must understand and respect an individual's lifestyle and attempt to suggest alternatives that fit into that framework (Schafer, 1975; McBean, 1974). The primary objective of the study was to measure the nutrition knowledge of selected vegetarians. The one hundred vegetarians who participated in the study were selected from health food store shoppers in three loca tions in the San Fernando Valley. Each subject was given a nutrition score based on the number of correct responses out of ten nutrition questions. The overall mean score was 4.83, which was classified as minimal nutritional knowledge. The student's "t" test was used to compare the nutrition scores of males versus females. The results showed no significant difference in the scores of men and women. Education was ranked and the education rank score was compared to the nutrition score using the Pearson's r 28 - 29 test of significance. No correlation was found between nutrition score and education score at the .05 level. Weight was also analyzed by the responses from the vegetarians and also by subjective evaluation. by the researcher. Over half were at their correct weight and one fourth were underweight. Of the thirty-four who had been more than twenty pounds overweight at some time, 52 percent of these persons had lost weight after becoming vegetarian. This has been shown by researchers in the past (Bergan, 1980; Williams, 1975). This study also revealed that 30 percent of the vegetarians had gained their nutrition knowledge from health food stores. Eighty-two percent had attended some college or graduated from college, but only two percent stated that they had gained most of their knowledge from nutrition classes. Professional educators and nutrition ists must compete with health food store publications and also improve interest in nutrition classes in order to increase the knowledge of nutrition of the general public. Almost half the sample described themselves as being semi-vegetarians. One half took vitamins every day and shopped mainly at health food stores. Seventy percent of the sample was between the ages of 19 and 35 years. Forty-three percent had been vegetarian for more than six years. - 30 Forty percent stated they became vegetarian "to stay healthy." Forty-six percent were consistent about this idea and stated that they refrained from the use of coffee, alcohol, cigarettes, and cola beverages. Recommendations for Further Research Some suggestions for further research include comparing the nutrition knowledge of vegetarians and non vegetarians. Another study might be done on the compari son of vegetarian's nutrition knowledge and their dietary habits. As concluded by Yetley and Roderuck (1980), nu trition knowledge does not always convince people to fol low an adequate dietary regimen. The same study might be repeated using regular supermarket shoppers as the popu lation for the sample. - BIBLIOGRAPHY -.! 31 - BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Mary A. and Standal, Bluebell R. 1975. "Nutritional Knowledge of Health Food Users in Oahu, Hawaii." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 67:2:116-121. Barakas, Janet. 1975. The Vegetable Passion. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, Inc. Bergan, James G. and Brown, Phyllis T. 1980. "Nutritional Status of the 'New' Vegetarians." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 76:2:151-155. Calkins, Alice. 1979. "Observations on Vegetarian Dietary Practice and Social Factors: The Need for Further Research." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 74:3:353-355. Committee on Nutrition. 1977. "Nutritional Aspects of Vegetarianism, Health Foods, and Fad Diets." Pediatrics. 59:3:460-464. Dugdale, A. E., Chandler, Dianne, and Baghurst, Katrine. 1979. "Knowledge and Belief in Nutrition." The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 32:2:441-445. Dwyer, Johanna T., Mayer, Laura D.V.H., Kandel, Randy Frances, Mayer, Jean. 1973. "The New Vegetarians." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 62:5: 503-509. Fusillo, Alice E. and Beloian, Arletta M. 1977. "Consumer Nutrition Knowledge and Self Reported Food Shopping Behavior." American Journal of Public Health. 67:9:846-850. Howat, Paula M. and Johnson, Freddie. 1980. "'Mini' Assessment of Nutritional Interest, Knowledge, and Food Habits." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 77:5:582-583. Jenkins, Robert R. 1975. "Health Implications of the Vegetarian Diet." Journal of the American College Health Association. 24:2:68-71. 32 33 Lindamood, Diane M. and Gunning, Barbara E. 1977. "College Nonvegetarian Vs. Vegetarians--Food Habits and Knowledge." Journal of Nutrition Education. 9:1:25. Lowell, Janet P. 1978. "Survey of Nutritional Knowledge and Interests of Students." The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 37:1:3A. McBean, Lois D. and Speckmann, Elwood W. 1974. "Food Faddism: A Challenge to Nutritionists and Dieti tians." The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 27:10:1071-1078. Miller, Christine Dearden. 1979. "A Dietary Study of Health Club Members." Unpublished Master's Thesis, California State University Northridge. Register, U. D. and Sonnenberg, L. M. 1973. "The Vegetarian Diet." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 72:3:253-261. Rhee, Ki Soon and Stubbs, Alice C. 1976. "Health Food Users in Two Texas Cities." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 68:6:542-545. Schafer, Robert and Yetley, Elizabeth A. 1975. "Social Psychology of Food Faddism. "- Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 66:2:129-133. Todhunter, K. Neige. 1973. "Food Habits, Food Faddism, and Nutrition." World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics. · 16:286-317. Williams, Eleanor R. 1975. "Making Vegetarian Diets Nutritious." American Journal of Nursing. 75:12: 2168-2173. Yetley, Elizabeth A. and Roderuck, Charlotte. 1980. "Nutritional Knowledge and Health Goals of Young Spouses." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 77:1:31-41. Young, Charlotte M., Berresford, Kathleen, and Waldner, Betty Greer. 1956. "What the Homemaker Knows About Nutrition." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 32:4:321-326. Zolber, K. 1975. "Producing Meals Without Meat." Hospitals. 49:12:81-82, 84-86. APPENDIX : ( 34 VEGETARIAN NUTRITION SURVEY Please write-in or check the most correct answer. Your name will not be asked. This information will be used for research. 1. There are five categories of vegetarians described below. Please check the category that best describes your food practices. 47 A. Semi-vegetarian: do not eat red meat, but will eat poultry and/or fish. 30 B. Lacto-ovo-vegetarian: do not eat any red meat, fish, or poultry, but will eat eggs and dairy products. 13 C. Lacto-vegetarian: do not eat any red meat, fish, poultry, or eggs, but will eat dairy products. 8 D. Vegan: do not eat any red meat, fish, ---- poultry, eggs, or dairy products, but will eat only plant foods. 2 E. Fruitarian: do not eat any red meat, fish, ---- poultry, eggs, or dairy products, but will eat fruits and nuts. 2. Where have you gained the most information on nutrition? Choose only ~ answer. 30 A. Books from health food stores. 2 B. Nutrition classes. 16 c. Friends. 8 D. Professional nutritionists. 15 E. Other books, newspapers, magazines. 21 F. Other. Please list 8 More than one response. 35 -· 36 3. Do you take vitamins or supplements on a regular basis? Check the most correct answer. 47 A. Every day. 14 B. ·Three times a week. ----2 C. Once a week. ----9 D. Less than once a week. 28 E. Do not take vitamins or supplements. 4. Do you use any of the following? Check all that apply. 29 A. Coffee. 38 B. Alcoholic beverages. ----9 C. Cigarettes. 10 D. Cola beverages. 46 E. None of the above. 5. Which reason most accurately describes why you became a vegetarian? ----9 A. Religion. 40 B. To stay healthy. 4 c. To live longer. ----4 D. Because animal products are unhealthy. ----0 E. Because my friends are vegetarians. 27 F. Other, please state 16 More than one response. 37 6. How long have you been a vegetarian? __8 :.____ A. Less than one year. 12 B. One to two years. 37 c. Three to five years. 25 D. Six to ten years. 18 E. More than ten years. 7. Where do you obtain most of your food? ----1 A. Food co-op ----1 B. Home garden. 28 C. Supermarket. 47 D. Health food stores. ----1 E. Restaurants. ----2 F. Other, please state 20 More than one response. 8. Which of the following could cause physical harm if consumed in larger quantities? ----1 A. Water. 58 B. Vitamin A. ----4 C. Vitamin C ----9 D. None of the above. 14 E. Don't know. 9 More than one response. 5 No response. 38 9. Does vitamin C prevent the common cold? 38 A. Yes. 37 B. No. 19 C. Don't know. 6 No response. 10. Which of the following would provide a complete protein when served together? -'-___:=---1 A. Herb tea and whole wheat bread. 59 B. Peanut butter and whole wheat bread. --=---5 C. Oatmeal and bananas. 22 D. None of the above. 12 E. Don't know. 1 No response. 11. Brown eggs have more nutrients than white eggs? 17 A. True. 61 B. False. 21 c. Don't know. 1 No response. 39 12. How many servings of peas, beans, and legumes do you think you should eat each day? 57 A. One. 15 B. Two. 8 c. Three. 0 D. Four. ---0 E. Five or more. 6 F. None. 13 G. Don't know. 1 No response. 13. How many servings of grains and cereal do you think you should eat each day? 54 A. One. 20 B. Two. 11 c. Three. 0 D. Four. 2 E. Five or more. 8 F. None. 4 G. Don't know. 1 No response. 40 14. If you do not eat meat, dairy products, or eggs, and you do not take vitamins and/ or supplements, which two nutrients would most likely be missing in your diet? 56 A. Calcium and vitamin B . 12 6 B. Folic acid and vitamin A. ----~- 1 C. Vitamin C and calcium. --~~- 15 D. None of the above. 15 E. Don't know. 2 More than one response. 5 No response. 15. Some people think that organically grown foods contain more nutrients than foods that are grown with chemical fertilizers, while others believe they do not. Which of the statements below do you support? • 0 A. Food grown with chemical fertilizers ------contains more nutrients. 50 B. Food that is organically grown contains more nutrients. 46 C. Both contain approximately the same amount of nutrients. 3 D. Don't know. --~~- 1 No response. 16. Do manufactured vitamins have the same nutritional value as natural vitamins? 36 A. Yes. 46 B. No. 12 C. Don't know. 6 No response. 41 17. Which one of these foods is a good source of vitamin C? 1 A. Milk. 0 B. Rye bread. 79 c. Tomatoes. 14 D. None of the above. 5 E. Don't know. 1 No response. 18. Are you 49 male or 51 female? Please check one. 19. What is your age? Please check one. 4 A. Under 18 years. 35 B. 19-25 years. 35 c. 26-35 years. 14 D. 36-45 years. 10 E. 46-55 years. 1 F. 56-65 years. 1 G. Over 65 years. 20. Please fill in the answer to the best of your knowledge. A. Height. B. Weight. c. Desired weight. 21. Have you ever been more than 20 pounds overweight? 31 A. Yes, in the past. 3 B. Yes, presently. 64 c. No, not at any time. 2 No response. 42 If yes, did you lose or gain weight or stay the same weight after becoming a vegetarian? 18 A. Lost weight after becoming a vegetarian. ----3 B. Gained weight after becoming a vegetarian. 3 C. Stayed the same weight after becoming a -~- vegetarian. 10 No response. 22. What is your educational background? Please check one. ---3 A. Attended and/or completed grades 1-6. ----3 B. Attended grades 7-12. 12 C. Graduated from high school. 51 D. Attended some college or technical school. 16 E. Graduated from college or technical school. 15 F. Received advanced degree. 23. What is your approximate gross income? 24 A. Under $8,000.00 per year. 25 B. $ 8,000.00 - $16,000.00 per year. 18 c. $16,001.00 - $24,000.00 per year. 12 D. $24,001.00 - $32,000.00 per year. 7 E. $32,001.00 - $50,000.00 per year. ---6 F. $50,001.00 - $75,000.00 per year. ---7 G. Over $75,000.00 per year. 1 No response. Thank you for completing this questionnaire.